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THE 


AMERICAN    CYCLOPAEDIA 


VOL  XII. 
MOTT-PALES 


578 


THE 


AMERICAN  CYCLOPEDIA: 


OF 


GENERAL   KNOWLEDGE 


EDITED  BY 

GEORGE  RIPLEY  AND  CHARLES  A.  DANA. 


SECOND    EDITION,    REVISED, 


VOLUME  XII. 
MOTT-PALES. 


NEW    YORK: 
D.    APPLETON    AND    COMPANY, 

5W  AND  551  BROADWAY. 
LONDON:  16  LITTLE  BKITAIX. 

1879. 


ENTERED,  according  to  Act  of  Congress,  in  the  year  1861,  by  D.  APPLETON  AND  COMPANY,  in  the 
Clerk's  Office  of  the  District  Court  of  the  United  States  for  the  Southern  District  of  New  York. 

ENTERED,  according  to  Act  of  Congress,  in  the  year  1875,  by  D.  APPLETON  AND  COMPANY,  in  the 
Office  of  the  Librarian  of  Congress,  at  Washington. 


S 


Among  the  Contributors  to  the  Twelfth   Volume  of  the  Revised  Edition  are 

the  following : 


FKEDEEIO  ADAMS,  Newark,  N.  J. 

ORANGE,  N.  J. 

A.  AENOLD. 

MOWING  AND  EEAPING  MACHINES. 

PAUL  ABPIN,  late  Editor  of  the  Courrier  des 

fitats-  Unis. 

NECKER,  JACQUES. 

NECKER,  SUSANNE  CURCHOD  DE  NASSB. 

Prof.  B.  FOEDYCE  BAEKEB,  M.  D. 

OBSTETRICS. 

"WiLLABD  BAETLETT. 

NATAL. 

NIGER. 

NILE. 

NORTHWEST  PROVINCES. 

NUBIA. 

JULIUS  BING. 

MUNICH, 

NESSELRODE,  KARL  ROBERT  VON,  Count, 

ORLEANS,  DUCHY  AND  FAMILIES  OF, 

and  other  articles  in  biography,  geography,  and 

history. 

FEANCIS  0.  BOWMAN. 

Music  (History  of). 
NILSSON,  CHRISTINE. 
OFFENBACH,  JACQUES. 
ORGAN. 

Rev.  CHAELES  H.  BEIGHAM,  Ann  Arbor,  Mich. 

OWEN,  JOHN. 
EDWAED  L.  BUELINGAME,  Ph.  D. 

NEWSPAPERS  (Foreign), 

OVIEDO  Y  VALDES,  GONZALO  FERNANDEZ  DE, 

Oxus, 

and  other  articles  in  biography  and  history. 

JAMES  BUENS,  M.  D.,  New  Orleans,  La. 

NEW  ORLEANS. 

Rev.  CHAELES  P.  BUSH,  D.  D. 

NESTORIANS. 
NESTORIUS. 

ROBEET  OAETEE. 

NEO-PLATONISM. 
O'CONNELL,  DANIEL, 
ORANGEMEN, 
OSSIAN, 

and  other  articles  in  biography  and  history. 


JOHN  D.  CHAMPLIN,  Jr. 


MUMMY, 

MUSCAT, 

NICARAGUA, 

NORTHMEN, 

NORTH  SEA, 

NORWAY, 

OMAN, 

and  other  articles  in  biography,  geography,  and 

history. 

Prof.  E.  H.  CLAEKE,  M.  D.,  Harvard  'Univer- 
sity. 

NlCOTIA, 

OPIUM  (medical  part), 

and  other  articles  in  materia  medico. 

Hon.  T.  M.  OOOLET,  LL.  D.,  Michigan  Univer- 
sity, Ann  Arbor. 

NEGLIGENCE, 
NULLIFICATION, 

and  other  legal  articles. 


Prof.  J.  0.  D  ALTON,  M.  D. 

Mucus, 
MUSCLE, 
NERVE, 
NERVE  CELL, 
NOSE, 

and  other  medical  and  physiological  articles. 

Hon.  CHAELES  P.  DALY,  LL.  D.,  Chief  Justice 
of  the  Court  of  Common  Pleas,  New  York. 
NATURALIZATION. 

Prof.  W.  H.  DBAPEB,  M.  D. 

NERVOUS  SYSTEM. 

EATON  S.  DEONE. 

NEBRASKA, 
NEW  HAMPSHIRE, 
NEW  JERSEY, 
NEW  YORK  (State), 
NORTH  CAROLINA, 
OHIO, 

and  other  articles  in  American  geography. 

ROBEET  T.  EDES,  M.  D.,  Harvard  University. 

Articles  in  materia  medica. 

W.  M.  FEEEISS. 

MUEZZIN. 

MUFTI. 

OHM,  GEORG  SIMON. 

OHM,  MARTIN. 

OXFORD,  UNIVERSITY  OF. 

Prof.  WILLAED  FISKE,  Cornell  University,  Ith- 
aca, N.  Y. 

NORWAY,  LANGUAGE  AND  LITERATURE  OF. 

SAMUEL  W.  FEANCIS,  M.  D.,  Newport,  R.  I. 

MOTT,  VALENTINE. 

Gen.  W.  B.  FEANKLIN,  Superintendent  Colt's 
Patent  Firearms  Manufacturing  Company, 
Hartford,  Conn. 

MUSKET. 
NAVY. 

Prof.  W.  E.  GBIFFIS,  late  of  the  Imperial  Col- 
lege, Tokio,  Japan. 

NAGASAKI. 
NIKKO. 
NIPPON. 
NOBUNAGA. 

OZAKA. 

ALFEED  H.  GUEENSEY. 

NASHVILLE,  SIEGE  OF, 

and  other  articles  in  military  history  and  biogra- 

phy. 

Prof.  JAMES  HALL,  LL.  D.,  Curator  of  the  State 
Museum  of  Natural  History,  Albany,  N.  Y. 
PALAEONTOLOGY. 

J.  W.  HA  WES. 

NEVADA, 

NEW  BRUNSWICK, 

NEWFOUNDLAND, 

NEW  MEXICO, 

NEW  YORK  (City), 

NORTHWEST  TERRITORIES, 

NOVA  SCOTIA, 

ONTARIO, 

OREGON, 

and  other  articles  in  American  geography. 

THOMAS  HITCHCOCK. 

NEW  JERUSALEM. 


VI 


CONTRIBUTORS  TO  THE  TWELFTH  VOLUME 


CHABLES  L.  HOGEBOOM,  M.  D. 

NITEIO  ACID. 

NITROGEN. 

NUTRITION. 

OXYGEN. 

OZONE. 

Prof.  T.  STEKRY  HUNT,  LL.  D.,  Mass.  Inst.  of 
Technology,  Boston. 
MOUNTAIN. 

ROSSITEE  JOHNSON. 

NIGHTINGALE,  FLORENCE, 
OATES,  TITUS, 
ODD  FELLOWS, 
OLIPHANT,  CAROLINA, 
ORVIETO, 

and  other  articles  in  biography  and  geography. 

Prof.  0.  A.  JOY,  Ph.  D.,  Columbia  College, 
New  York. 

NAPHTHA, 
NAPHTHALINE, 
NICKEL, 
OXALIC  ACID, 

and  other  chemical  articles. 

Prof.    S.  KNEELAND,  M.  D.,  Mass.  Inst.  of 
Technology,  Boston. 

MYLODON, 

NAUTILUS, 

OCTOPUS, 

ORNITHOLOGY, 

OWL, 

Ox, 

OYSTER, 

and  other  articles  in  zoology. 

Prof.  JAMES  LAW,  Cornell  University,  Ithaca, 

MURRAIN. 

Rev.  SAMUEL  LOOKWOOD,  Ph.  D.,  Freehold,  N.  J. 

NEWCOMB,  SIMON. 

Prof.  THOMAS  R.  LOUNSBURY,  Yale  College. 

NELSON,  HORATIO. 
ORDEAL. 

Prof.  BENJAMIN  W.  MCCREADY,  M.  D.,  Belle- 
vue  Hospital  Medical  College,  New  York. 

OPHTHALMIA. 

Prof.  ALFRED  M.  MAYER,  Stevens  Inst.  of  Tech- 
nology, Hoboken,  N.  J. 

Music  (Theory  of). 

Rev.  FRANKLIN  NOBLE. 

NAMES, 

NINEVEH, 

NORMANBY,  MARQUIS  OP, 

and  other  articles  in  biography  and  history. 

Rev.  BERNARD  O'REILLY,  D.  D. 

NEWMAN,  JOHN  HENRY, 
NICHOLAS,  Popes, 
OBLATES, 
ORATORIANS, 
ORIGEN, 

and  other  articles  in  ecclesiastical  history. 

Count  L.  F.  DE  POURTALES,  Museum  of  Com- 
parative Zoology,  Cambridge,  Mass. 

PACIFIC  OCEAN. 
V.  PREOHT. 

MUSICAL  Box. 

RICHARD  A.  PROCTOR,  A.  M.,  London. 

NEBULA, 

NEBULAR  HYPOTHESIS, 

NEPTUNE, 

and  other  astronomical  articles. 


Prof.  A.  RAUSCHENBUSCH,   D.  D.,   Rochester 
Theological  Seminary,  Rochester,  N.  Y. 

MtiNZER,  THOMAS. 

Prof.  CHARLES  VALENTINE  RILEY,  State  Ento- 
mologist, St.  Louis,  Mo. 

OAK  APPLE. 

PHILIP  RIPLEY. 

NAST,  THOMAS, 
NEWSPAPERS  (American), 
NORDHOFF,  CHARLES, 

and  other  articles  in  biography. 

JOHN  SAVAGE,  Fordham,  N.  Y. 

O'BRIEN,  WILLIAM  SMITH. 
O'CURRY,  EUGENE. 

Prof.  PHILIP  SCHAFF,  D.  D.,  Union  Theological 
Seminary,  New  York. 

NEANDER,  JOHANN  AUGUST  WILHELM. 

Prof.  A.  J.  SCHEM. 
OLD  CATHOLICS, 

and  other  articles  in  biography  and  history. 

J.  G.  SHEA,  LL.  D. 

NARRAGANSETTS, 
NATCHEZ, 
NEZ  PERCES, 
ONONDAGAS, 

OSAGES, 

OTTAWAS, 

and  other  articles  on  American  Indians. 

Prof.  J.  A.  SPENCER,  D.  D.,  College  of  tho 
City  of  New  York. 

MUHLENBERG,  WlLLIAM  AUGUSTUS. 

NEALE,  JOHN  MASON. 
ONDERDONK,  HENRY  USTICK. 
ONDERDONK,  BENJAMIN  TREDWELL. 

Prof.  FRANK  H.  STOEER,  College  of  Agricultu- 
ral Chemistry,  Harvard  University. 
NOMENCLATURE,  CHEMICAL. 

Rev.  WILLIAM  L.  SYMONDS,  Portland,  Me. 

MYSTERIES. 

Prof.  GEORGE  THUEBER. 

MUSHROOM, 

MYRTLE, 

NASTURTIUM, 

OAK, 

OLIVE, 

ORANGE, 

ORCHIDS, 

and  other  botanical  articles. 

Prof.  G.  A.  F.  VAN  RHYN,  Ph.  D. 

MYTHOLOGY, 

NETHERLANDS,  LANGUAGE  AND  LITEEATUEK  OP 

OSIRIS, 

and  other  archaeological,  oriental  and  philological 

articles. 

I.  DE  VEITELLE. 

MURCIA, 

NUEVO  LEON, 

OAJACA, 

PAEZ,  JOSE  ANTONIO, 

and  other  geographical  articles, 

B.  E.  WELLS,  Oswego,  N.  Y. 

OSWEGO. 

C.  S.  WEYMAN. 

MURILLO,  BAKTOLOME  EBTEBAN. 
OVERBECK,  FRIEDRICH. 
OVERBECK,  JOHANNES  ADOLF. 
OVTD. 
PAINTING. 

H.  WILLEY,  New  Bedford,  Mass, 

NEW  BEDFORD. 


THE 


AMERICAN    CYCLOPAEDIA 


MOTT 


MOTT,  Lncrctia  (COFFIN),  an  American  min- 
ister of  the  society  of  Friends,  born  in 
Nantucket,  Jan.  3,  1793.  In  1804  her  parents 
removed  to  Boston,  where  she  went  to  school ; 
subsequently  she  attended  a  boarding  school 
in  Dutchess  co.,  N.  Y.,  in  which  when  15 
years  old  she  became  a  teacher.  In  1809  she 
rejoined  her  parents,  who  had  removed  to 
Philadelphia,  and  in  1811  married  James  Mott, 
who  went  into  partnership  with  her  father. 
In  1817  she  took  charge  of  a  school  in  Phila- 
delphia, and  in  1818  began  to  preach.  She 
travelled  through  New  England,  Pennsylvania, 
Maryland,  and  a  part  of  Virginia,  advocating 
the  tenets  of  the  Friends  and  speaking  against 
intemperance  and  slavery.  In  the  division  of 
the  society  in  1827  she  adhered  to  the  Hicks- 
ites.  She  took  an  active  part  in  the  organiza- 
tion of  the  American  anti-slavery  society  in 
Philadelphia  in  1833,  and  was  a  delegate  to  the 
world's  anti-slavery  convention  in  London  in 
1840,  but,  with  other  woman  delegates,  was  re- 
fused membership  on  account  of  her  sex.  She 
took  a  prominent  part  in  the  first  woman's 
rights  convention,  held  in  1848  at  Seneca  Falls, 
N.  Y.,  over  which  her  husband  presided ;  and 
since  then  she  has  been  conspicuous  in  such 
conventions  and  in  yearly  meetings  of  Friends. 
She  still  (1875)  resides  in  Philadelphia. 

MOTT,  Valentine,  an  American  surgeon,  born 
at  Glen  Cove,  Long  Island,  Aug.  20, 1785,  died 
in  New  York,  April,  26,  1865.  He  graduated 
as  M.D.  at  Columbia  college  in  1806,  and 
studied  in  London  and  Edinburgh.  In  1809  he 
was  called  to  the  chair  of  surgery  in  Columbia 
college,  which  he  held  till  the  medical  depart- 
ment of  that  institution  was  merged  in  the 
college  of  physicians  and  surgeons  in  1813. 
He  withdrew  from  that  school  in  1826,  and 
with  Dr.  Hosack,  Dr.  Francis,  Dr.  Mitchill, 
and  others,  founded  the  Rutgers  medical  col- 
lege, which,  owing  to  a  question  about  its 


charter,  existed  but  four  years.  Subsequently 
he  lectured  in  New  York  in  the  college  of  phy- 
sicians and  surgeons,  and  in  the  university 
medical  college,  as  professor  of  surgery  and 
regional  anatomy,  to  which  last  branch  he  de- 
voted special  attention.  His  professional  repu- 
tation is  mainly  due  to  his  original  operations 
as  a  surgeon.  As  early  as  1818  Dr.  Mott 
placed  a  ligature  around  the  brachio-cephalic 
trunk,  or  arteria  innominata,  only  two  inches 
from  the  heart,  for  aneurism  of  the  right  sub- 
clavian  artery,  for  the  first  time  in  the  histo- 
ry of  surgery.  Though  all  apparent  supply  of 
blood  vessels  was  cut  off  from  the  right  arm, 
pulsation  could  be  distinctly  felt  in  the  radial 
artery,  and  the  limb  presented  no  evidences  of 
sphacelation.  On  the  26th  day,  however,  sec- 
ondary haemorrhage  having  set  in,  the  life  of 
th'e  patient  was  speedily  terminated.  He  suc- 
cessfully removed  the  entire  right  clavicle  for 
malignant  disease  of  that  bone,  where  it  was 
necessary  to  apply  40  ligatures.  He  was  also 
the  first  to  tie  the  primitive  iliac  artery  for  aneu- 
rism. He  tied  the  common  carotid  46  times, 
cut  for  stone  165  times,  and  amputated  nearly 
1,000  limbs.  He  early  introduced  an  original 
operation  for  immobility  of  the  lower  jaw,  and 
succeeded  after  many  eminent  surgeons  had 
failed.  In  1821  he  performed  the  first  opera- 
tion for  osteo-sarcoma  of  the  lower  jaw.  He 
was  the  first  surgeon  who  removed  the  lower 
jaw  for  necrosis.  Up  to  an  advanced  period 
of  life  he  continued  to  lecture  and  practise, 
He  had  been  elected  a  member  of  the  princi- 
pal European  medical  societies,  and  made  a 
knight  of  the  fourth  order  of  the  Medjidieh  of 
Turkey.  Sir  Astley  Cooper  said  in  regard  to 
Dr.  Mott:  "He  has  performed  more  of  the 
great  operations  than  any  man  living,  or  that 
ever  did  live.1'  In  1835  he  visited  Europe  for 
his  health,  and  travelled  extensively  through 
England,  the  continent,  and  the  East.  His 


6 


MOTTE 


principal  works  are:  "Travels  m  Europe  and 
the  East"  (New  York,  1842);  translation  of 
Velpeau's  "Operative  Surgery"  (4  vols.); 
-  Anniversary  Discourse  before  the  Graduates 
of  the  University  of  New  York"  (I860); 
"Mott's  Cliniques,"  reported  by  Samuel  W. 
Francis  (1860);  and  several  separate  papers 
concerning  special  operations  and  cases,  in 
medical  periodicals  and  in  the  "  Transactions" 
of  the  New  York  academy  of  medicine. 
MOTTE  (or  Mothe)  CADILLAC.  See  CADILLAC. 
MOTTEVILLE,  Francoise  Bertaut  de,  a  French 
authoress,  born  about  1621,  died  Dec.  29, 1689 
She  was  brought  up  at  the  court  of  Anne  of 
Austria,  wife  of  Louis  XIII. ;  but  as  Richelieu 
objected  to  the  influence  of  her  mother,  who 
was  of  Spanish  origin,  she  went  with  her  pa- 
rents to  Normandy.  She  married  in  1639  the 
octogenarian  Langlois  de  Motteville,  after  whose 
death  she  rejoined  Anne,  now  queen  regent, 
in  1643,  in  whose  service  she  remained  until 
the  death  of  the  latter  in  1666.  Sainte-Beuve 
praises  her  tact  and  sagacity  and  her  spotless 
life  Her  Memoires  (5  vols.,  Amsterdam,  1723 ; 
new  ed.,  6  vols.,  1739;  11  vols.,  Paris,  1822-'3) 
are  regarded  as  the  best  authority  on  the  his- 
tory of  the  Fronde  and  the  minority  of  Louis 
XIV.,  and  are  classed  by  Marmontel  next  to 
those  of  Mme.  de  Lafayette  as  the  best  works 
written  by  a  woman. 

MOTTEZ,  Victor  Louis,  a  French  painter,  born 
in  Lille,  Feb.  13,  1809.    He  studied  under  In- 
gres and  Picot,  and  exhibited  many  fine  reli- 
gious paintings,  and  also  several  mythological 
pieces,  including  "Leda"  and   '<  Ulysses  and 
the  Sirens."    His  best  known  portraits  are 
those  of  Guizot  and  Mile.  Judith.     After  five 
years'  residence  in  London,  he  returned  to 
Paris  in  1856,  and  in  1864  completed  paintings 
for  the  churches  of  St.  Germain  1'Auxerrois, 
St.  Severin,  and  St.  Sulpice,  his  masterpieces. 
Among  his  later  works  are  "Medea"  (1865), 
"  The  Cursing  of  the  Serpent,"  and  "  The  Vir- 
gin bruising  the  Serpent's  Head"  (1869). 
MOUFFLON.    See  SHEEP. 
MOULD,  Jacob  Wrey,  an  American  architect, 
born  at  Chiselhurst,  England,  Aug.  7,  1825^ 
His  father  was  a  parliamentary  solicitor  in 
London.    He  graduated  at  King's  college,  Lon- 
don, in  1842,  and  studied  under  Owen  Jones 
and  Lewis  Vulliamy,  with  both  of  whom  he 
was  associated  in  some  of  their  most  importan 
works.    In  1852  he  removed  to  America,  anc 
after  executing  several  buildings  in  and  abou' 
New  York,  he  was  employed  in  the  architec 
tural  department  of  the  works  in  the  Centra 
park.    In  1870  he  was  appointed  architect-in 
chief  to  the  department  of  public  parks.    Hi 
designs  are  distinguished  for  picturesquenes 
of  outline  and  originality  of  detail.    His  prin 
cipal  works  are  the  church  of  the  Messiah, 
Presbyterian  church  in  42d  street,  the  churcl 
of  the  Holy  Trinity,  and  several  buildings  am 
structures  in  the  city  parks.    In  March,  1875 
he  was  appointed  architect-in-chief  of  the  pub 
-lie  works  in  Lima,  Peru. 


MOULTRIE 

MOULINS,    or   Mouta^ur-Allier,    a    town    of 
Vance,  capital  of  the  department  of  Allier, 
n  the  river  Allier,  162  m.  S.  S.  E.  of  Paris; 
OD  in  1866, 19,890.    It  is  the  seat  of  a  bishop, 
nd  has  many  educational  establishments  and 
earned  societies.    Among  the  principal  bmld- 
ngs  are  the  cathedral  of  Notre  Dame  (which 
ras  founded  in  1468  as  a  collegiate  church,  and 
ras  completed  in  1861),  the  college,  museum, 
dtel  de  ville,  public  library,   barracks,  ana 
ospital.    Hardware  and  cutlery,  silk  and  cot- 
on  hosiery,  woollen  and  cotton  goods,  articles 
n  ivory,  and  catgut  are  manufactured  ;  and  it 
tas  a  trade  in  iron,  wood,  leather,  charcoal, 
oal,  wine,  oil,  salt,  and  cattle.    Moulins  was 
ormerly  the  capital  of  Bourbonnais,  and  the 
ukes  of  Bourbon  kept  their  court  there  with 
Oreat  splendor.    But  a  single  tower  now  re- 
nains  of  their  once  famous  castle. 
MOULMEIN.     See  MAULMAIN. 
MOULTON,  Louise  Chandler,  an  American  au- 
horess,  born  in  Pomfret,  Conn.,  April  10, 1835. 
n  1855  she  was  married  to  William  U.  Moul- 
on  of  Boston,  where  she  now  lives  (1875),  but 
ms  a  summer  residence  at  Pomfret.     She  has 
)een  a  contributor  to  periodicals  from  her 
5th  year,  and  has  published  the  following 
books:  "This,  That,  and  the  Other"  (12mo, 
Boston,  1854) ;  "  Juno  Clifford,"  a  novel  (New 
York,  1855) ;  "  My  Third  Book,"  a  collection 
of  stories  (1859);  "*'  Bedtime  Stories"  (Bos- 
;on,  1873);   "Some  Women's  Hearts,"  a  col- 
ection  of  novelettes  (1874);  and  "More  Bed- 
time Stories"  (1874). 

MOULTRIE,  a  central  county  of  Illinois,  drain- 
ed by  the  Kaskaskia  river  and  its  branches; 
area,  320  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  10,385.  It  has 
a  level  or  undulating  surface  and  a  fertile  soil. 
The  Terre  Haute,  Paris,  and  Decatur,  the  Chi- 
cago and  Paducah,  and  the  Chicago  and  Illi- 
nois Southern  railroads  traverse  it.  The  chief 
productions  in  1870  were  213,564  bushels  of 
wheat,  1,753,141  of  Indian  corn,  263,992  of 
oats,  59,263  of  potatoes,  21,010  Ibs.  of  tobacco, 
56,679  of  wool,  247,264  of  butter,  and  9,214 
tons  of  hay.  There  were  6,274  horses,  3,254 
rnilch  cows,  6,695  other  cattle,  20,531  sheep, 
and  2,300  swine.  Capital,  Sullivan. 

MOULTRIE,  Fort,  a  fortification  on  Sullivan's 
island  at  the  mouth  of  Charleston  harbor,  where 
a  victory  was  gained,  June  28,  1776,  by  the 
South  Carolina  troops  under  Col.  William  Moul- 
trie  over  a  British  fleet  commanded  by  Sir 
Peter  Parker.  Early  in  that  month  the  fleet 
of  40  or  50  sail  arrived  off  Charleston  with  a 
view  of  investing  that  place.  A  fort  which 
Moultrie  was  then  building  was  ordered  to  be 
finished  at  once.  On  the  morning  of  the  at- 
tack it  consisted  of  a  square  with  a  bastion  at 
each  angle,  built  of  palmetto  logs  laid  in  par- 
allel rows  16  ft.  apart,  the  interspaces  being 
filled  with  sand.  It  mounted  26  guns,  and  had 
a  garrison  of  435  men.  Four  vessels  of  the 
British  fleet,  with  156  guns,  anchored  at  a  dis- 
tance of  350  yards  and  opened  fire;  but  the 
balls,  sinking  into  the  soft  wood,  produced  lit- 


MOULTKIE 


MOUNT 


tie  effect,  while  the  fire  from  the  fort  was  very 
destructive  to  the  vessels.  The  whole  num- 
ber of  guns  carried  by  the  attacking  fleet  was 
262,  on  eight  vessels.  The  action  lasted,  with 
some  intermissions,  from  about  noon  until 
after  9  o'clock  in  the  evening,  when  such  of 
the  vessels  as  were  not  disabled  drew  off.  Sev- 
eral auxiliary  attempts  were  made  in  the  mean 
while  by  other  parts  of  the  British  force,  but 
without  result.  The  loss  of  the  British  was 
205  killed  and  wounded ;  that  of  the  Ameri- 
cans 11  killed  and  26  wounded.  In  December, 
1860,  Fort  Moultrie  was  occupied  by  a  United 
States  force  under  Major  Kobert  Anderson, 
who  on  the  26th  withdrew  to  Fort  Sumter. 
(See  ANDERSON,  KOBEET.)  Fort  Moultrie  now 
exists  only  in  name.  Sullivan's  island,  upon 
which  it  stood,  after  being  almost  devastated 
during  the  civil  war,  has  since  come  to  be  a 
suburb  and  watering  place  of  Charleston. 

MOULTRIE,  William,  an  American  soldier,  born 
in  South  Carolina  in  1731,  died  in  Charleston, 
Sept.  27,  1805.  In  1761  he  was  appointed  a 
captain  of  foot  in  a  militia  regiment  raised 
against  the  Cherokees.  At  the  outbreak  of  the 
revolutionary  war  he  was  appointed  to  the 
command  of  the  second  colonial  regiment,  and 
he  also  represented  the  parish  of  St.  Helena  in 
the  provincial  congress  of  1775.  In  March, 
1776,  he  was  ordered  to  construct  a  fortress 
on  Sullivan's  island  at  the  mouth  of  Charleston 
harbor,  and  was  busy  at  the  work  when  the 
enemy  made  his  appearance.  (See  MOULTRIE, 
FORT.)  In  commemoration  of  Moultrie's  bra- 
very in  defending  the  fort,  it  was  subsequently 
called  after  his  name.  He  was  soon  after  put 
upon  the  continental  establishment,  was  made 
a  brigadier  general,  Sept.  16,  1776,  and  in 
February,  1779,  he  defeated  a  superior  British 
force  under  Col.  Gardner,  near  Beaufort.  In 
May  following,  with  about  1,200  militia,  he  op- 
posed the  advance  of  Gen.  Prevost  on  Charles- 
ton, and  held  the  city  until  the  approach  of 
Gen.  Lincoln  compelled  Prevost  to  retire  to 
Savannah.  In  the  spring  of  1780  Charleston 
was  attacked  for  the  third  time  by  a  strong 
land  and  sea  force,  and  Moultrie,  who  was 
second  in  command,  shared  in  the  capitulation 
of  the  American  troops.  While  a  prisoner  he 
was  approached  by  the  British  officers  with 
offers  of  pecuniary  compensation  and  the  com- 
mand of  a  British  regiment  stationed  in  Jamaica 
if  he  would  leave  the  American  service.  He 
replied:  "Not  the  fee  simple  of  all  Jamaica 
should  induce  me  to  part  with  my  integrity." 
After  remaining  nearly  two  years  a  prisoner, 
he  was  permitted  to  go  to  Philadelphia,  where 
in  February,  1782,  he  was  exchanged  for  Gen. 
Burgdyne.  He  was  made  a  major  general, 
Oct.  15,  1782.  In  1785  he  was  elected  gov- 
ernor of  South  Carolina,  and  again  in  1794. 
After  the  close  of  his  term  in  1796  he  devo- 
ted most  of  his  remaining  years  to  the  prepa- 
ration of  his  "Memoirs  of  the  Revolution"  (2 
vols.,  New  York,  1802). 

MOUND  BIRD.    See  BRUSH  TURKEY. 


MOUNDS.     See  AMERICAN  ANTIQUITIES. 

MOUNDSVILLE,  a  town  and  the  capital  of 
Marshall  co.,  West  Virginia,  12  m.  below 
Wheeling,  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Ohio,  be- 
tween two  streams  called  Big  and  Little  Grave 
creeks;  pop.  in  1870,  1,500.  The  post  office 
name  was  formerly  Grave  Creek.  It  derives 
its  present  name  from  a  mound  in  the  vicinity, 
one  of  the  largest  of  the  ancient  mounds  in  the 
United  States,  and  one  of  the  most  interesting 
of  American  antiquities.  It  is  connected  with 
a  series  of  earthworks  of  ancient  construction, 
and  is  820  ft.  in  circumference  at  the  base, 
about  70  ft.  high,  and  at  the  summit  63  ft.  in 
diameter.  In  1838  a  shaft  was  sunk  from  the 
apex  of  the  mound  to  its  base,  and  a  horizontal 
tunnel  made  from  the  exterior  of  the  base  to 
the  centre.  Two  sepulchral  chambers  were 
found,  one  at  the  base,  the  other  30  ft.  above 
it.  These  chambers  had  been  constructed  of 
logs  and  covered  with  stones,  but  had  sunk  in 
from  the  decay  of  the  woodwork.  One  skele- 
ton was  found  in  the  upper  chamber,  and  two 
in  the  lower.  There  were  also  found  in  these 
chambers  nearly  4,000  shell  beads,  several  or- 
naments made  of  mica,  copper  bracelets,  and 
articles  carved  in  stone.  Ten  other  skeletons 
in  an  advanced  stage  of  decay  were  found  in 
making  the  excavation.  It  is  asserted  that 
among  the  articles  dug  from  it  was  a  small 
stone  on  which  was  sculptured  an  alphabetical 
inscription.  This  tablet  is  of  dark,  compact, 
silicious  rock,  and  is  oval,  1£  in.  long  and  1^ 
in.  broad.  It  is  of  rude  workmanship,  but  the 
characters  are  all  distinct.  The  inscription 
consists  of  three  lines  and  of  22  characters, 
with  an  ideographic  sign.  Much  diversity  of 
opinion  exists  as  to  the  nature  and  origin  of 
this  inscription.  Dr.  Wills  De  Hass  of  Vir- 
ginia, in  a  paper  read  before  the  American 
ethnological  society  at  New  York,  adduced 
evidence  and  arguments  which  seem  to  estab- 
lish the  authenticity  of  the  tablet,  of  which 
strong  doubt  had  been  expressed.  He  main- 
tained that  similar  ones  have  been  found  in 
the  mounds  composing  the  Grave  Creek  group, 
among  others  a  small  globular  stone  having 
five  characters  enclosed  in  a  cartouche. 

MOUNT,  William  Sidney,  an  American  painter, 
born  in  Setauket,  L.  I.,  Nov.  26,  1807,  died 
there,  Nov.  19,  1868.  In  1826  he  entered  the 
school  of  the  national  academy  of  design,  in 
1828  painted  his  first  picture,  a  portrait  of 
himself,  and  produced  afterward  in  New 
York  "The  Daughter  of  Jairus,"  a  full-length 
portrait  of  Bishop  Onderdonk,  and  several 
clever  portraits  of  children,  which  gave  him 
reputation ;  but  he  soon  returned  to  Setauket, 
where  he  devoted  himself  wholly  to  genre 
art.  His  first  picture  of  this  class,  a  "  Eustic 
Dance,"  was  exhibited  in  New  York  in  1830, 
and  was  followed  in  succeeding  years  by  "Husk- 
ing Corn,"  "Walking  the  Crack,"  "Farmer's 
Nooning,"  "  Wringing  the  Pigs,"  "  Turning  the 
Grindstone,"  "  The  Raffle,"  "  The  Courtship," 
"Boys  Gambling  in  a  Barn,"  "Turn  of  the 


MOUNTAIN 


Haymakers,' 

of  which  are  in  private  galleries  m  JN  ew  i  orK, 
and  "Bargaining  for  a  Horse,"  in  the  New 
York  historical  society's  collection.  He  ex- 
celled especially  in  humorous  pictures  of  Amer- 
ican rustic  life,  and  in  delineations  of  negro 
life  and  physiognomy. 

MOUNTAIN,  a  considerable  elevation,  of  the 
earth's  surface,  either  isolated  or  arranged  in 
a  linear  manner.  Great  regions  of  the  earth 
are  much  elevated  above  the  sea,  forming  high 
plains,  called  table  lands  or  plateaus,  from 
which  mountains  often  rise.  Such  are  the 
great  plain  of  Thibet,  with  an  average  height 
of  16,000  ft. ;  that  of  western  Asia,  from  4,000 
to  8,000  ;  and  that  of  western  North  America, 
of  about  the  same  height,  from  which  rise  the 
Rocky  mountains  and  the  Sierra  Nevada.  The 
elevation  of  mountains  is  generally  calculated 
from  the  sea  level.  With  few  exceptions  the 
mountains  of  the  earth  are  arranged  in  con- 
tinuous lines  or  chains,  and  a  mountain  system 
consists  of  parallel  chains  with  intervening  val- 
leys. The  great  mountain  system  of  the  Ame- 
rican continent  is  that  which  has  been  called 
the  Pacific  highlands,  extending  from  Alaska 
to  Cape  Horn  along  the  W.  part  of  the  conti- 
nent. It  consists  in  the  United  States,  exclu- 
sive of  Alaska,  of  the  Rocky  mountains  to  the 
east  and  the  Sierra  Nevada  and  Cascade  moun- 
tains to  the  west,  rising  from  the  broad  table 
land  already  mentioned,  and  having  between 
them  the  great  central  basin  with  its  subordi- 
nate mountain  ranges.  The  highest  points  in 
both  of  these  chains  attain  about  15,000  ft. 
The  highest  mountains  in  Alaska  (Mt.  St.  Elias) 
and  Mexico  (Popocatepetl  and  Orizaba)  rise  to 
a  height  of  nearly  18,000  ft.  In  South  Amer- 
ica the  same  great  continental  system  consists 
of  two,  and  in  some  parts  of  its  course  of  three 
chains,  separated  by  narrow  elevated  valleys. 
The  general  breadth  of  the  whole  system  of  the 
Andes  is  between  100  and  300  m.,  and  the 
greatest  height  is  attained  in  the  plateau  of 
Bolivia  and  in  Chili,  where  there  are  peaks  of 
from  20,000  to  23,000  or,  according  to  some, 
25,000  ft.  In  eastern  North  America  are  the 
Atlantic  highlands  or  Appalachians,  extending 
from  the  gulf  of  St.  Lawrence  to  Alabama; 
these  attain  their  greatest  elevation  'in  the 
Black  mountains  of  western  North  Carolina, 
where  there  are  several  peaks  of  over  6,000  ft., 
one  reaching  6,700  ft.,  and  in  New  Hampshire, 
where  the  highest,  Mt.  Washington,  is  6,285  ft. 
In  the  intermediate  portions  the  heights  are 
less,  and  in  New  York  the  tidal  valley  of  the 
Hudson  traverses  the  range.  To  the  north 
and  west  of  the  Hudson  are  the  Adirondack, 
Helderberg,  and  Catskill  mountains,  which  in 
their  continuation  southward  form  the  Al- 
leghany  and  Cumberland  mountains.  Be- 
tween this  belt  and  the  eastern  one,  which, 
extending  from  the  Green  mountains  and 


White  mountains  of  New  England,  and  the 
Highlands  of  the  Hudson,  takes  the  name  of 
the  Blue  Ridge  S.  of  the  Potomac,  lies  what 
is  called  the  great  Appalachian  valley,  which 
itself  attains  a  considerable  elevation  in  S.  W. 
Virginia. — From  the  plateau  of  Brazil  rises 
along  its  E.  portion  a  chain  corresponding 
to  the  Appalachian;  and  in  Africa  there  are 
similar  highlands  on  the  two  sides  of  the  con- 
tinent, those  of  the  eastern  attaining  an  ele- 
vation of  20,000  ft.  A  like  arrangement  of 
highlands  is  seen  in  Australia,  where  however 
the  highest  elevation  is  about  7,000  ft.  In 
Europe  the  Scandinavian  and  the  Ural  moun- 
tains are  N.  and  S.  chains,  like  the  Appala- 
chians ;  but  the  great  mountain  systems  of  the 
eastern  hemisphere  have  a  general  E.  and  W. 
direction  from  the  Atlantic  to  the  Pacific.  The 
Pyrenees,  the  Alps,  the  Balkan,  the  Caucasus, 
the  Himalaya,  and  various  subordinate  ranges, 
mark  this  great  mountain  belt.  Of  these  the 
Pyrenees  have  a  crest  line  of  about  8,000  ft., 
but  attain  in  some  peaks  11,000;  the  Alps 
have  an  average  height  of  from  10,000  to 
12,000  ft.,  the  highest  peak  being  Mont  Blanc, 
15,732  (or  15,781)  ft.,  while  the  Himalayas  rise 
in  many  points  to  25,000  ft.,  and  attain  in  Mt. 
Everest  29,000  ft.,  and  the  Thian-shan  range, 
N.  of  these,  is  from  15,000  to  20,000  ft.  The 
chains  of  this  great  mountain  region  of  the 
eastern  hemisphere  are  not  always  parallel, 
but  are  often  considerably  divergent. — The 
slopes  of  mountains  are  generally  very  grad- 
ual. Thus  the  average  ascent  of  the  Andes 
from  the  E.  side  is  about  60  ft.  in  a  mile, 
and  on  the  bolder  W.  slope  from  100  to  150  ft. 
in  a  mile  ;  while  for  the  E.  slope  of  the  Rocky 
mountains  the  average  ascent  to  the  great  pla- 
teau is  not  more  than  10  ft.  in  a  mile.  A 
much  more  rapid  inclination  than  any  of  these 
is  seen  for  isolated  peaks,  of  which  a  very 
remarkable  sample  is  Mont  Blanc,  which  rises 
from  the  valleys  on  either  side  at  an  inclina- 
tion of  about  30°.  The  slope  of  the  volcanic 
cone  of  Jorullo  in  Mexico  is  about  the  same, 
while  those  of  Mt.  Etna  and  Mauna  Loa  in  the 
Hawaiian  islands  (reckoning  from  the  base) 
are  not  more  than  5°  or  6°.  The  relations  of 
mountains  to  climate  are  very  important,  but 
the  discussion  of  them  belongs  to  meteorology. 
— The  early  history  of  mountains,  or  orography, 
as  it  is  called,  presents  crude  notions.  By  the 
older  geologists  mountains  were  supposed  to 
be  thrust  up  by  some  force  from  within,  and 
were  compared  to  bubbles  on  the  earth's  crust. 
Some  geologists  of  the  present  century  have 
maintained  this  notion,  and  have  even  specu- 
lated upon  the  cataclysmal  effects  of  a  sudden 
upheaval  of  a  mountain  chain  like  the  Pyrenees 
from  beneath  the  ocean.  But  these  concep- 
tions have  given  place  to  more  rational  ideas. 
We  must  distinguish  two  classes  of  mountains, 
of  widely  different  origin:  those  which  are 
produced  by  the  accumulation  of  matters  eject- 
ed from  volcanic  vents,  and  those  which  have 
been  formed  by  erosion.  The  first  class,  of 


MOUNTAIN" 


9 


which  Etna  and  Vesuvius  may  be  taken  as 
types,  have  been  built  up  as  an  ant  hill  is 
raised  by  matters  brought  grain  by  grain  from 
below  the  surface.  Successive  overflows  of 
molten  rock  or  lava,  and  showers  of  dust  and 
scoriae,  the  solidified  scum  of  the  lava,  have 
heaped  up  these  volcanic  cones;  while  from 
time  to  time  fissures  or  ruptures  in  the  mass 
have  allowed  the  injection  of  dikes  of  molten 
matter,  which  in  cooling  have  given  solidity 
to  the  whole.  Yolcanic  cones  are  in  fact  gen- 
erated in  the  air  by  the  force  of  gravity.  Vol- 
canic vents  may  occur  alike  beneath  the  sea,  in 
low  plains,  or  on  elevated  plateaus,  and  some- 
times from  the  summits  of  mountains  not  them- 
selves volcanic.  (See  VOLCANO.)  But  the  moun- 
tains of  purely  volcanic  origin  are  insignifi- 
cant when  compared  with  the  great  systems 
of  mountains  which  are  not  volcanic,  or  in 
which  the  presence  of  volcanic  vents  is  but  a 
secondary  fact.  These  mountains,  whether 
composed  of  aqueous  or  of  igneous  rocks,  have 
had  a  very  different  origin  from  volcanic  cones. 
They  are  due  to  erosion,  and  are  the  remains 
of  great  plateaus,  the  larger  part  of  which  has 
been  removed.  They  are  but  fragments  of  the 
upper  crust  of  the  earth,  separated  from  each 
other  by  valleys  which  represent  the  absence 
or  the  removal  of  mountain  land.  The  popu- 
lar conception  is  that  mountain  chains  are  due 
to  the  folding  and  plication  of  strata ;  but  care- 
ful study  of  their  structure  shows  that  these 
are  but  accidents  of  structure,  in  no  way  es- 
sential to  the  formation  of  mountains,  and 
sometimes  absent.  To  De  Montlosier  and  to 
J.  P.  Lesley  we  owe  our  first  conceptions  of 
the  true  nature  and  origin  of  mountains  and 
valleys,  and  to  James  Hall  its  further  elucida- 
tion and  its  illustration  by  the  facts  of  North 
American  geology.  That  the  crust  of  the 
earth  is  not  rigid,  but  yielding,  and  subject  to 
movements  of  depression  and  elevation,  due  to 
a  disturbance  of  its  equilibrium,  which  have  in 
all  ages  been  operating,  is  evident  from  the 
distribution  of  sedimentary  deposits  in  past 
geological  periods.  In  addition  to  these  there 
are  other  movements  which  are  conceived  to  be 
due  to  the  contraction  of  the  earth's  nucleus, 
resulting  also  in  movements  of  depression  and 
elevation  of  the  surface,  and  in  corrugations 
of  portions  of  the  crust.  The  result  of  these 
is  seen  in  undulations  of  the  stratified  rocks, 
which  are  sometimes  very  slight  and  regular, 
but  at  other  times  both  marked  and  irregular, 
occasionally  giving  rise  to  great  overturns,  folds, 
or  inversions,  and  sometimes  enclosing  a  por- 
tion of  the  rocks  in  a  great  fold  until  there  is 
an  inversion  of  the  pinched-up  strata  on  both 
sides  of  the  axis  of  the  fold,  by  which  they 
come  to  present  a  fan-like  structure  when  seen 
in  transverse  section.  In  other  cases  occur 
breaks  or  slidings  of  the  strata  on  one  anoth- 
er, and  frequently  more  or  less  nearly  vertical 
displacements,  or  faults,  as  they  are  called,  by 
which  the  strata  on  one  side  of  a  line  of  frac- 
ture may  be  raised  several  thousand  feet  above 


the  same  strata  on  the  other  side.  These  va- 
rious disturbances  of  the  strata  influence  in 
many  ways  the  eroding  agencies  of  the  ele- 
ments, so  that  the  mountain  outlines  and  the 
distribution'  of  mountains  and  valleys  depend 
upon  these  accidents,  though  not  the  elevation 
of  the  mountain  plateau.  Thus  the  crest  of 
a  fold  from  which  the  strata  dip  in  opposite 
directions,  making  what  is  called  in  stratigra- 
phy an  anticlinal  axis,  will  generally  be  frac- 
tured by  the  strain  which  this  part  has  suffered, 
and  will  then  present  a  line  of  weakness  which 
becomes  a  line  of  erosion.  Valleys  are  thus 
cut  out,  and  the  strata  between  the  adjacent 
anticlinals,  escaping  the  eroding  action,  form 
a  synclinal  mountain  range,  the  beds  in  their 
natural  order  dipping  from  the  valleys  on  each 
side  toward  the  centre  of  the  mountain.  Such 
a  condition  of  things  is  seen  in  the  anthracite 
region  of  Pennsylvania,  in  the  Catskill  moun- 
tains of  New  York,  and  in  western  Vermont. 
From  irregularities  in  the  undulations,  from 
faults,  or  from  the  intervention  of  harder  and 
softer  beds,  it  often  happens  that  the  process 
of  erosion  is  less  regular  than  this.  Sometimes 
an  anticlinal  mountain  appears  ;  at  other  times 
an  anticlinal  mountain  is  divided,  presenting 
two  monoclinal  mountains,  or,  as  the  result  of 
a  great  fault  in  the  strata,  a  single  mountain  of 
this  kind  in  which  the  strata  dip  to  one  side. 
For  a  further  discussion  of  the  various  forms 
of  mountain  structure,  see  Lesley's  "Manual 
of  Coal  and  its  Topography." — The  structure 
of  mountains  is  best  studied  in  regions  of  un- 
crystalline  rocks,  where  the  strata  have  not 
been  too  much  disturbed,  and  where  stratifi- 
cation is  very  evident,  as  in  the  palaeozoic  rocks 
of  the  Appalachians.  In  the  crystalline  eozoic 
rocks  of  this  mountain  system,  where  the  strata 
are  greatly  disturbed  and  nearly  vertical,  the 
study  of  mountain  structure  is  much  more  diffi- 
cult. Mountains  do  not  owe  their  elevation 
to  any  folding,  or  crushing,  or  piling  up  of  the 
strata.  The  influence  of  folding  has  been  well 
pointed  out  by  Hall,  who  has  shown  the  rela- 
tions of  the  elevations  of  palaeozoic  rocks  in  the 
United  States  to  the  accumulation  of  sediments. 
In  the  upper  part  of  the  Mississippi  valley, 
where  the  palaeozoic  rocks  are  represented  by 
3,000  or  4,000  ft.  of  sediments,  we  find  hills 
made  up  of  horizontal  strata,  the  lower  Cam- 
brian rocks  which  form  the  base  of  the  hills 
being  everywhere  above  the  water  level,  while 
the  height  of  the  hills  is  equal  to  the  vertical 
thickness  of  the  strata  which  compose  them. 
In  Pennsylvania,  on  the  contrary,  where  the 
palaeozoic  strata  have  a  vertical  thickness  of 
about  40,000  ft.,  the  synclinal  mountains,  hav- 
ing in  their  summits  the  upper  beds  of  the 
series,  are  not  more  than  2,000  or  3,000  ft. 
high,  the  greater  part  of  the  strata  having  been 
removed  from  the  anticlinal  valleys  while  they 
are  sunk  far  beneath  the  mountains.  It  fol- 
lows from  what  has  been  said  that  in  horizon- 
tal and  synclinal  mountains  the  newer  rocks 
are  at  the  top  and  the  older  ones  at  the  base, 


10 


MOUNTAIN 


but  in  overturned  and  dislocated  strata  this 
is  of  course  no  longer  the  case.  In  regions 
where,  as  the  result  of  great  folds  and  over- 
turns the  fan-like  structure  already  described 
has  been  produced,  the  older  rocks  from  be- 
neath are  made  to  surmount  and  rest  upon  the 
newer  strata,  which  have  folded  and  doubled 
up  beneath  them.  The  erosion  of  such  a  re- 
gion gives  rise  to  a  mountain  like  Mont  Blanc ; 
in  this  the  ancient  crystalline  strata,  which 
elsewhere  form  the  floor  upon  which  repose 
the  newer  stratified  rocks,  rise  above  these, 
forming  the  summit  of  the  mountain,  while 
at  lower  levels  on  its  flanks  the  newer  strata 
seem  to  dip  toward  the  centre  of  the  moun- 
tain, but  are  really  bent  upon  themselves  and 
doubled  up,  as  is  seen  in  the  valley  of  Cha- 
mouni.  Mont  Blanc,  which  served  as  a  type 
to  the  early  students  of  geology,  is  thus  an 
exception.  The  crystalline  strata  which  form 
its  summit  were  looked  upon  as  an  upthrust  of 
granite  which  had  lifted  upon  its  sides  the  new- 
er stratified  rocks,  thus  giving  the  mountain,  as 
was  imagined,  an  anticlinal  structure.  In  the 
process  of  sculpturing  the  earth's  surface  by 
ocean  currents,  frost,  rain,  and  rivers,  the  un- 
equal erosion  exposes  the  harder  masses,  and 
thus  eruptive  rocks  lying  in  the  midst  of  softer 
strata  appear  in  the  form  of  hills,  as  is  seen  in 
the  trappean  ranges  of  New  Jersey  and  the 
Connecticut  valley.  Isolated  peaks  of  a  similar 
origin  are  found  in  the  vicinity  of  Montreal, 
and  are  denuded  masses  of  eruptive  rock  which 
were  once  included  in  the  soft  palaeozoic  strata 
of  the  region  long  since  removed  by  erosion. 
They  were  perhaps  the  stocks  or  underground 
portions  of  volcanoes  in  paleozoic  times. — 
The  question  of  the  geological  age  of  moun- 
tains is  twofold,  including,  first,  that  of  the 
deposition  of  the  rocks  of  which  they  are 
composed,  and  second,  that  of  their  uplifting 
and  erosion.  Elie  de  Beaumont,  considering 
only  the  latter  question,  supposed  all  mountain 
chains  having  the  same  direction  on  the  earth's 
surface  to  be  of  the  same  age ;  but  this  notion 
is  no  longer  tenable,  since  a  great  mountain 
chain,  such  as  the  Appalachians,  exhibits  con- 
siderable variations  in  different  parts  of  its 
course,  from  a  N.  and  S.  direction  in  parts  of 
New  England  to  one  nearly  E.  and  W.  in  other 
parts  of  its  extension.  As  regards  the  age  of 
the  rocks  of  this  great  chain,  while  the  Green 
and  White  mountains,  the  Adirondacks,  and  the 
Blue  Ridge  are  eozoic,  the  Oatskills,  the  Alle- 
ghanies,  the  Unaka,  and  the  Cumberland  ranges 
are  composed  of  paleozoic  sediments,  and  the 
whole  Appalachian  system  was  not  uplifted 
until  after  the  deposition  of  the  coal.  The 
study  of  the  Alps  shows  that  the  elevation  of 
this  great  mountain  system  was  still  later,  since 
even  tertiary  rocks  are  involved  in  the  folds 
and  inversions  of  the  strata. 

MOUNTAIN.  I.  Jacob,  a  Canadian  bishop,  born 
in  Norfolk,  England,  in  1750,  died  in  Quebec, 
June  16,  1825.  His  grandfather,  Jacob  de 
Montaigne,  a  great-grandson  of  Montaigne  the 


MOUNT  DESERT 

essayist  was  banished  from  France  by  the  re- 
vocation of  the  edict  of  Nantes.  He  graduated 
at  Caius  college,  Cambridge,  in  1774,  became  a 
fellow  in  1777,  and  in  1781  was  nominated  to 
the  living  of  St.  Andrew's,  Norwich,  holding 
besides  several  other  livings.  In  1793  he  was 
appointed  first  Protestant  bishop  of  Quebec. 
He  found  but  nine  clergymen  in  his  diocese, 
and  labored  for  30  years  to  build  churches 
and  schools  and  to  promote  the  spiritual  wel- 
fare of  his  flock.  II.  George  Jehoshaphat,  second 
son  of  the  preceding,  born  in  Norwich,  July 
27,  1789,  died  in  Quebec,  Jan.  8,  1863.  He 
graduated  at  Trinity  college,  Cambridge,  in 
1810,  was  ordained  priest  in  1813,  and  ap- 
pointed evening  lecturer  in  his  father's  cathe- 
dral. In  1814  he  was  nominated  rector  of 
Fredericton,  New  Brunswick,  and  in  1817 
rector  of  Quebec  and  bishop's  official.  In 
1821  he  became  archdeacon,  and  in  1825,  du- 
ring a  mission  to  England,  he  received  the 
degree  of  D.  D.  On  his  return  Bishop  Stuvard 
appointed  him  his  examining  chaplain,  and  in 
1835  he  was  sent  to  England  on  business  con- 
nected with  the  question  of  the  clergy  reserves. 
While  there  he  was  appointed  bishop  of  Mont- 
real, and  given  the  entire  charge  of  the  Epis- 
copal church  in  Lower  Canada.  He  continued 
to  administer  the  dioceses  of  Quebec  and  Mont- 
real till  1850,  when  he  assumed  the  title  of 
bishop  of  Quebec.  In  1844  he  visited  the  mis- 
sions on  Red  river,  composing  during  his  jour- 
neys "  Songs  of  the  Wilderness  "  (London, 
1846).  He  was  the  founder  of  Bishop's  college, 
Lennoxville,  and  of  the  church  society,  spend- 
ing most  of  his  income  for  these  institutions 
and  for  charitable  purposes.  Some  time  be- 
fore his  death  he  declined  the  dignity  of  met- 
ropolitan of  Canada.  He  published  sermons 
and  addresses,  and  a  "Journal  of  a  Northwest 
American  Mission  "  (London,  1843). 

MOUNTAINS  OF  THE  MOON,  a  mountain  range 
said  to  exist  in  central  Africa,  in  which  Ptole- 
my and  other  ancient  geographers  placed  the 
sources  of  the  Nile.  On  modern  maps,  until 
recently,  the  name  was  given  to  a  great  range 
which  was  supposed  to  cross  the  continent 
from  the  Indian  ocean  to  the  Atlantic.  It  is 
now  known  that  no  such  range  exists.  Capt. 
Speke  applied  the  name  in  1858  to  a  range 
N.  of  the  newly  discovered  lake  Tanganyika, 
though  incorrectly,  according  to  Capt.  Burton. 

MOUNT  AUBURN.     See  CAMBEIDGE  (Mass.). 

MOUNT  DESERT,  an  island  of  the  state  of 
Maine,  at  the  southern  extremity  of  Hancock 
co.,  in  Frenchman's  bay,  about  30  m.  S.  E.  of 
Bangor;  pop.  in  1870,  3,935.  The  island  is 
14  m.  long  and  8  m.  broad,  and  has  an  area  of 
about  1 00  sq.  m.  It  is  divided  into  three  towns, 
Eden,  Mount  Desert,  and  Tremont,  and  contains 
11  post  offices,  15  or  20  hotels,  35  school  houses, 
and  6  churches.  Ship  building  and  the  manufac- 
ture of  lumber  are  carried  on,  and  the  cod  and 
mackerel  fisheries  are  pursued.  A  narrow  bay 
or  sound  runs  from  the  ocean  at  the  S.  side  of 
the  island  into  the  interior  in  a  northerly  direc- 


MOUNT.  EVEREST 


MOUNT  VERNON 


11 


tion  to  the  distance  of  6  or  8  m.  The  scenery 
of  the  island  is  very  grand  and  beautiful.  The 
greater  part  of  its  surface  is  covered  by  seven 
ridges  of  mountains,  whose  highest  peak,  Mt. 
Adam  or  Mt.  Green,  rises  1,762  ft.  above  the 
sea.  High  up  among  the  mountains  are  many 
beautiful  lakes,  the  largest  of  which  is  several 
miles  long.  The  S.  E.  coast  is  lined  with  stu- 
pendous cliffs ;  the  most  remarkable  of  these 
are  Great  Head  and  Schooner  Head.  In  French- 
man's bay,  on  the  E,  side  of  Mount  Desert,  are 
five  high  rocky  islands  called  the  Porcupines, 
and  about  20  m.  to  the  southward  in  the  open 
ocean  is  Mount  Desert  rock,  the  site  of  a  noted 
lighthouse.  Mount  Desert  is  much  resorted  to 
in  summer  for  the  beauty  of  its  scenery. — The 
island  was  discovered  and  named  by  the  French 
about  the  beginning  of  the  17th  century.  M. 
de  La  Saussaye  and  Fathers  Quentin,  Lalemant, 
Biard,  and  Masse,  with  25  colonists  from  France, 
landed  here  in  May,  1613,  built  a  small  fort 
and  a  few  cabins,  and  called  the  place  St. 
Sauveur.  This  settlement  was  forcibly  broken 
up  in  a  few  weeks  by  Gov.  Argall  of  Virginia. 
The  first  permanent  settlement  was  made  by 
Abraham  Somes,  who  in  1T61  built  a  house  at 
the  head  of  the  sound." 

MOUNT  EVEREST.  See  HIMALAYA  MOUN- 
TAINS, vol.  viii.,  p.  732. 

MOUNTFORD,  William,  an  American  clergy- 
man, born  in  Kidderminster,  England,  May  31, 
1816.  He  was  educated  at  Manchester  New 
college,  and  was  minister  of  a  Unitarian  chapel 
in  Manchester  from  1838  to  1841,  when  he 
went  to  Lynn-Regis.  In  1850  he  removed  to 
the  United  States,  and  soon  after  became 
minister  of  the  first  Unitarian  church  in  Glou- 
cester, Mass.  He  was  in  France  and  Italy  from 
1856  to  1860,  when  he  returned,  and  has  since 
resided  in  Boston.  He  has  published  "Mar- 
tyria,  a  Legend  "  (London,  1845 ;  Boston,  1846) ; 


"  Christianity  the  Deliverance  of  the  Soul  and 
its  Life,"  sermons  (London,  1846) ;  "  Euthanasy, 
or  Happy  Talks  toward  the  End  of  Life  "  (Bos- 
ton, 1848 ;  with  additions,  1850 ;  new  ed.,  1874) ; 
"Thorpe,  a  quiet  English  Town,  and  Human 
Life  therein "  (1852) ;  and  "Miracles,  Past  and 
Present"  (1870). 

MOUNT  PLEASANT,  a  town  and  the  capital  of 
Henry  co.,  Iowa,  on  the  Burlington  and  Mis- 
souri River  railroad,  25  m.  W.  N.  "W.  of  Bur- 
lington, and  110  m.  E.  S.  E.  of  Des  Moines; 
pop.  in  1870,  4,245.  It  stands  on  an  elevated 
prairie,  surrounded  on  all  sides  but  the  east  by 
Big  creek,  an  affluent  of  Skunk  river.  The 
adjacent  country  is  highly  productive.  The 
town  is  the  seat  of  one  of  the  state  asylums 
for  the  insane,  and  of  Iowa  Wesleyan  uni- 
versity and  German  college,  both  under  the 
control  of  the  Methodists.  The  university  was 
established  in  1855,  admits  both  sexes,  and 
has  preparatory,  collegiate,  theological,  and  law 
departments,  and  a  school  of  pharmacy.  In 
1873-'4  it  had  14  instructors,  200  students,  and 
a  library  of  3,000  volumes.  German  college 
was  organized  in  1873,  and  in  1873-'4  had  4 
instructors  and  15  students.  Mount  Pleasant 
has  graded  public  schools,  a  high  school,  two 
national  banks,  two  weekly  newspapers,  two 
monthly  periodicals,  and  eleven  churches. 

MOUNTRAILLE,  a  N.  W.  county  of  Dakota, 
bordering  on  British  America,  and  bounded  S. 
W.  by  the  Missouri  river,  recently  formed,  and 
not  included  in  the  census  of  1870  ;  area,  about 
3,200  sq.  m.  It  is  drained  by  White  Earth  and 
Little  Knife  rivers,  affluents  of  the  Missouri, 
and  'by  a  fork  of  Mouse  river.  The  surface  is 
elevated,  being  occupied  by  the  Plateau  du 
Coteau  du  Missouri. 

MOUNT  SAINT  ELIAS.    See  ALASKA. 

MOUNT  VERNON,  the  home  and  burial  place 
of  George  Washington,  on  the  right  bank  of 


Mount  Vernon. 


the  Potomac  in  Fairfax  co.,  Va.,  9  m.  S.  by 
W.  of  Alexandria  and  15  m.  from  Washington 


city.    At  the  time  of  Washington's  decease  the 
estate  comprised  several  thousand  acres.    The 


12 


MOUNT  VERNON 


mansion  is  beautifully  situated  on  a  swelling 
height  crowned  with  trees  and  commanding  a 
fine  view  up  and  down  the  Potomac.  The 
house  is  of  wood,  two  stories  high  and  96  ft. 
long,  with  a  lofty  portico  extending  along  the 
whole  front.  On  the  ground  floor  are  six 
rooms,  none  large  except  the  dining  room. 
The  library  and  Washington's  bedroom  remain 
as  they  were  at  the  time  of  his  death,  and  con- 
tain many  articles  of  great  interest.  In  front 
of  the  house  sloping  to  the  river  is  a  lawn  of 
five  or  six  acres.  About  300  yards  S.  of  the 
mansion,  on  a  hillside  in  full  view  of  the 
river,  is  the  old  family  vault,  where  the  body 
of  Washington  was  first  laid  and  remained 
till  1830,  when  it  was  removed  to  a  new  vault 
at  no  great  distance  on  the  edge  of  a  deep 
wooded  dell.  Mount  Vernon  mansion  was 
built  by  George  Washington's  elder  brother 
Lawrence,  who  settled  there  in  1743,  and  named 
the  estate  in  honor  of  Admiral  Vernon,  under 
whom  he  had  served  in  the  West  Indies.  George 
Washington  added  wings  to  the  mansion,  and 
greatly  enlarged  and  embellished  the  estate, 
which  was  his  home  from  boyhood  till  his  death. 
He  bequeathed  it  to  Bushrod  Washington,  from 
whom  it  passed  to  his  nephew  John  A.  Wash- 
ington. By  him  the  mansion  and  200  acres  of 
land  were  sold  in  1858  for  $200,000  to  the 
"  Ladies1  Mount  Vernon  Association,"  who  de- 
sign to  hold  it  in  perpetuity  as  a  place  of  pub- 
lic resort  and  pilgrimage. 

MOUNT  VERNON.  I.  A  city  and  the  capital 
of  Knox  co.,  Ohio,  on  the  N.  bank  of  Ver- 
non river,  and  on  the  Cleveland,  Mt.  Vernon, 
and  Columbus  railroad,  and  the  Lake  Erie  di- 
vision of  the  Baltimore  and  Ohio  line,  40  m. 
N.  N.  E.  of  Columbus;  pop.  in  1870,  4,876. 
It  is  well  and  compactly  built  on  gently  as- 
cending ground,  is  lighted  with  gas,  and  has 
many  handsome  residences.  It  is  surrounded 
by  a  fertile  and  well  cultivated  country,  and  has 
considerable  trade.  The  river  affords  good  wa- 
ter power.  The  city  contains  two  iron  founde- 
ries,  a  woollen  factory,  two  flouring  mills,  two 
saw  mills,  two  national  banks,  graded  public 
schools,  including  a  high  school,  two  weekly 
newspapers,  and  eleven  churches.  It  was  laid 
out  in  1805.  II.  A  town  and  the  capital  of 
Posey  co.,  Indiana,  on  a  bend  of  the  Ohio 
river,  in  the  S.  W.  corner  of  the  state,  and 
on  the  St.  Louis  and  Southeastern  railroad, 
160  m.  S.  W.  of  Indianapolis;  pop.  in  1870, 
2,880.  It  stands  on  a  bluff  commanding  a 
view  of  the  river,  and  has  an  active  trade.  It 
contains  two  banks,  two  flouring  mills,  two 
saw  mills,  a  foundery,  a  planing  mill,  and  oth- 
er manufactories,  several  schools,  two  weekly 
newspapers,  and  seven  churches. 

MOURNING,  an  outward  manifestation  of  grief, 
particularly  on  occasions  of  death.  Every  na- 
tion has  some  conventional  form  of  mourn- 
ing. The  ancient  Hebrews  tore  their  gar- 
ments, dishevelled  their  hair,  threw  dust  or 
ashes  on  the  head,  and  abstained  from  wash- 
ing. During  the  time  of  mourning  they  sat  on 


MOURNING 

the  ground,  and  went  bareheaded  and  bare- 
'ooted.     The  usual  period  of  mourning  was 
seven  days,  but  for  Moses  and   Aaron  they 
mourned  a  month.     On  public  occasions  pro- 
iessional    mourning  women  were   employed. 
The  modern  Jews  preserve  to  some  extent  the 
customs  of  their  forefathers,  such  as  sitting 
on  the  ground,  and  making  an  incision  in  some 
Dart  of  their  clothing  to   symbolize  the  old 
;earing  of  garments.     In  Jerusalem  a  week- 
y  lamentation  and  wailing  is  still  observed 
near  the  site  of  the  temple.     The  rending  of 
clothes  was  observed  by  the  Egyptians,  who 
also  sprinkled  their  heads  with  dust  and  ashes, 
struck  their  breasts,  allowed  their  hair  to  grow 
and  their  dress  to  hang  neglected,  went  un- 
washed, and  abstained  from  wine  and  other 
delicacies.      The  women  ran  crying  through 
ihe  streets  with  disordered  hair  and  exposed 
bosoms.     The  Lycians  regarded  grief  as  un- 
manly, and  had  a  law  compelling  men  when 
they  went  into  mourning  to  put  on  female  gar- 
ments.    The  Syrians  wept  for  their  dead  seve- 
ral days  in  solitary  places.     The  Persians  rent 
their  garments  with  wailing,  and  cut  off  their 
hair.     The  last  was  customary  also  among  the 
Scythians. — The  Greeks  withdrew  into  retire- 
ment, cut  off  their  hair,  put  on  black,  or  in 
some  states,  as  Argos,  white  garments,  rolled 
themselves  in  the  dust  or  mire,  threw  ashes  on 
their  heads,  tore  their  clothes,  never  appeared 
in  public  without  a  veil,  lacerated -their  faces, 
and  frequently  uttered  the  exclamation  £,  I,  L 
When  a  popular  general  died,  the  whole  army 
cut  off  their  hair  and  the  manes  of  their  horses. 
In  Athens  the  duration  of  mourning  was  about 
30  days ;  in  Sparta  it  was  11  days.— The  Ro- 
man forms  of  mourning  did  not  differ  greatly 
from  the  Grecian.     In  the  time  of  the  republic 
the  color  of  the  mourning  dress  was  black  for 
both  sexes,  and  it  always  continued  so  for  men ; 
but  during  the  reign  of  Augustus  a  white  veil 
was  worn  by  women,  and  subsequently  a  com- 
plete costume  of  white  became  their  conven- 
tional token  of  sorrow.     Ornaments  for  the 
person  were  laid  aside,  and  the  men  let  their 
hair  and  beards  grow  long.    The  extreme  dura- 
tion of  mourning  by  men  was  ten  months,  by 
women  a  year,  but  this  period  was  abridged 
by  the  occurrence  of  any  auspicious  event, 
such  as  the  birth  of  a  child,  the  happening  of 
any  piece  of  good  fortune  to  the  family,  cer- 
tain religious  feasts,  or  the  consecration  of 
a  temple.     The  period  of  public  mourning  for 
the  death  of  a  great  person  or  for  a  public 
disaster  was  fixed  by  special  decree.     At  such 
times  the  forum,  baths,  shops,  temples,  schools 
of  exercise,   and  other  places  of    concourse 
were  closed,  the  senators  put  aside  the  lati- 
clave,  the  consuls  sat  on  a  lower  seat  than 
usual,  and  the  magistrates  appeared  without 
their  badges  of  office.     On  private  occasions 
the  mourning  was  done  almost  wholly  by  the 
women ;  the  men  wore  black  only  for  a  few 
days,  and  the  domestic  ceremonies  in  honor 
of  the  deceased  terminated  on  the  ninth  day 


MOURNING 


13 


after  the  funeral  with  a  sacrifice  called  noven- 
diale.  A  widow  who  married  again  during 
her  time  of  mourning  for  a  husband  (ten 
months  or  a  year)  was  accounted  infamous  and 
debarred  from  inheriting  of  her  late  spouse. 
Persons  in  mourning  kept  within  doors,  and 
the  custom  of  tearing  the  garments  was  some- 
times practised.  Hired  mourning  women  were 
employed  at  funerals  by  both  Romans  and 
Greeks.  In  the  old  tombs  which  have  been 
opened  in  Palestine,  Greece,  and  Italy  are  found 
lachrymatories  or  tear  bottles,  in  which  it  was 
customary  for  mourners  to  preserve  their 
tears. — Among  the  modern  Syrians  mourning 
women  play  a  very  important  part  at  fune- 
rals. It  is  not  unusual  for  families  in  moder- 
ate circumstances  to  be  ruined  by  the  expen- 
sive feasts  and  other  commemorations  which 
are  held  for  weeks  after  the  funeral. — In  Ara- 
bia the  men  wear  no  mourning,  and  are  si- 
lent in  grief,  but  the  women  scream,  tear 
their  hair,  and  throw  earth  on  their  heads. 
The  latter  also  stain  their  hands  and  feet  with 
indigo,  which  they  suffer  to  remain  for  eight 
days,  and  during  this  time  they  abstain  from 
milk  on  the  ground  that  its  white  color  ill  ac- 
cords with  the  gloom  of  their  minds.  The 
hired  mourning  women  of  Medina  dance  be- 
fore the  house  of  the  deceased,  tearing  their 
arms,  faces,  and  hair. — The  Chinese  mourn  in 
white,  and  on  the  death  of  a  near  relative 
every  article  of  dress  must  be  of  that  color. 
Less  intense  affliction  is  indicated  simply  by 
caps  and  girdles  of  white  linen,  and  a  very 
moderate  degree  of  grief  by  shoes  and  queue 
cords  of  blue.  Mourning  on  occasion  of  the 
death  of  a  parent  or  husband  is  enforced  by  the 
penalties  of  60  blows  and  a  year's  banishment. 
The  duration  of  mourning  is  fixed  by  law. 
For  a  father  or  mother  it  is  three  years,  but  in 
the  case  of  government  officers  it  has  been  re- 
duced to  27  months.  During  this  period  of 
mourning  a  Chinese  cannot  perform  the  duties 
of  any  public  office.  For  30  days  after  the 
demise  the  nearest  kindred  must  not  shave 
their  heads  nor  change  their  dress,  ^hen  the 
emperor  dies  all  his  subjects  let  their  hair 
grow  for  100  days.  At  funerals  the  relatives 
of  the  deceased  furnish  all  who  take  part  in 
the  procession  with  mourning  dresses,  just  as 
gloves  and  scarfs  are  given  at  the  present 
day  in  Europe  and  America.  They  employ 
mourning  women,  whose  faculty  of  shedding 
tears  is  extraordinary. — The  Japanese  mourn- 
ing color  is  also  white,  but  relatives  in  the 
ascending  line  and  seniors  neither  mourn  for 
their  junior  kindred  nor  go  to  their  funerals. 
Persons  in  mourning  stay  at  home  for  50  days, 
abstain  from  animal  food  and  from  the  intoxi- 
cating liquor  saki,  and  neither  shave  their  heads 
nor  pare  their  nails.  This  period  of  50  days, 
called  the  imi,  is  succeeded  by  the  bulcu,  or  13 
months  of  a  sort  of  "  second  mourning,"  during 
which  it  is  not  allowed  to  wear  bright  colors 
or  enter  a  Shinto  temple.  These  long  periods 
observed  only  on  the  death  of  parents ;  for 


other  relatives  the  imi  and  buku  vary  from  30 
days  and  13  months  for  a  husband  to  3  days 
and  7  days  for  cousins  and  their  children. — In 
the  Feejee  islands,  after  the  death  of  a  chief,  a 
general  fast  until  evening  is  observed  for  10  or 
20  days,  the  women  burn  their  bodies,  and  50 
or  100  fingers  are  amputated  to  be  hung  above 
the  dead  man's  tomb.  The  ceremonies  of 
domestic  mourning  consist  of  abstinence  from 
delicate  dishes,  and  from  the  use  of  oil  on  the 
person ;  the  mourners  sleep  on  the  bare  ground, 
and  use  only  leaves  for  dress.  These  customs 
are  optional;  among  those  exacted  by  fashion 
are  the  "jumping  of  maggots,"  or  a  meeting 
of  friends  on  the  fourth  day  after  the  funeral 
to  picture  to  themselves  the  corruption  of  the 
corpse,  and  the  "  causing  to  laugh  "  on  the 
next  night,  when  comic  games  are  held.  About 
the  tenth  day  the  women  scourge  all  the  men 
except  the  highest  chiefs.  Among  the  natives 
of  New  Caledonia  there  is  a  custom  for  women 
to  burn  parts  of  their  bodies  in  time  of  mourn- 
ing. The  Hawaiians  denote  grief  by  painting 
the  lower  part  of  their  faces  black  and  knock- 
ing out  their  fore  teeth.  The  North  American 
Indians  howl  and  wail,  make  speeches  to  the 
dead,  and  pierce  the  flesh  with  arrows  and 
sharp  stones. — Among  all  civilized  modern  na- 
tions there  is  a  great  similarity  in  mourning 
customs,  and  black  is  universally  considered 
the  proper  color  to  be  worn,  although  modern 
refinement  has  gone  so  far  as  to  symbolize  the 
gradual  change  from  the  depth  of  affliction 
to  a  state  of  cheerfulness  by  a  gradual  return 
from  black  to  gay  colors  through  the  inter- 
mediate hues  of  purple  and  violet,  which  are 
recognized  as  "  second  mourning."  The  ma- 
terial of  a  mourning  dress  is  also  prescribed 
by  fashion,  being  for  ladies  generally  crape. 
The  time  varies,  according  to  the  degree  of 
relationship  of  the  deceased,  from  a  week  to  a 
year,  the  latter  being  the  period  fixed  by  cus- 
tom for  a  widow.  Hired  mourners  are  retained 
by  the  English  as  attendants  at  funerals,  but 
their  oifice  is  one  of  mere  show,  and  they  are 
commonly  called  mutes.  In  some  parts  of 
Ireland,  however,  the  Tceeners  or  professional 
mourners,  generally  old  women,  are  famous 
for  their  extravagant  lamentations.  It  was  an- 
ciently the  custom  in  England  to  give  mourn- 
ing rings  and  suits  at  funerals.  In  Spain  and 
France,  of  old,  the  color  of  grief  was  white. 
Certain  forms  of  private  as  well  as  public 
mourning  were  prescribed  by  Napoleon  I.,  but 
went  out  of  use  at  the  restoration.  Court 
mourning  in  Europe  for  members  of  the  reign- 
ing family,  even  in  remote  degrees,  is  pre- 
scribed by  ceremonials  which  give  the  minutest 
directions  as  to  dress.  The  sovereign  wears 
violet,  except  in  England,  where  the  color  is 
black ;  but  violet  was  formerly  used  there  also. 
The  courtiers  appear  in  black.  Court  mourn- 
ing seldom  lasts  more  than  six  months.  Pub- 
lic mourning  is  not  yet  banished  from  the 
civilized  world.  It  was  witnessed  in  the  Uni- 
ted States  on  the  death  of  Franklin,  Washing- 


MOUSE 


ton,  Lafayette,  and  Lincoln.  Members  o: 
legislative,  civic,  military,  and  other  associa 
tions  usually  wear  a  piece  of  crape  on  the  lef 
arm  on  public  occasions  for  30  days  after  th< 
death  of  a  comrade. 

MOUSE,  the  common  name  of  the  smaller 
members  of   the  rodent  subfamily  murince, 
This    subfamily  is  characterized  by  incisors 
smooth  in  front  and  compressed  laterally ;  mo- 
lars f  if  or  fif ,  rooted,  the  anterior  the  largest ; 
the  ante-orbital  foramen  a  deep  narrow  slit, 
widening  above ;  palate  mostly  on  one  plane ; 
the  descending  branch  of  the  lower  jaw  has 
not  the  angles  above  the  plane  of  the  crowns 
of  the  molars ;  other  characters  in  the  palate 
and  lower  jaw  sufficiently  distinguish  them 
from  arvicolinm  or  meadow  mice ;  feet  usually 
naked  beneath ;  the  hind  legs  the  longest  and 
five-toed,  the  anterior  with  only  four  and  a 
kind  of  a  wart  for  a  thumb;  clavicles  com- 
plete ;  tail  scaly,  with  hairs  between  the  whorls 
of  the  scales.    They  hold  their  food  in  the  fore 
paws,  and  sit  on  their  haunches  to  eat  it ;  most 
of  them  burrow  and  swim  well.    ^Reserving 
the  larger  species  for  the  article  EAT,  this 
subfamily  may  be  subdivided  into  two  princi- 
pal groups :  mures,  confined  in  the  wild  state 
entirely  to  the  old  world;    and  sigmodontes, 
exclusively  American.     The  former  have  very 
large  and  broad  molars,  with  three  tubercles 
in  each  transverse  series  of  the  upper  jaw ;  the 
latter  have  narrower  molars,  with  two  tuber- 
cles in  each  similar  series.     A  third  group, 
merionides,  intermediate  to  the  above,  with 
plane  molars  and  transverse  complete  lamellae, 
is  found  in  Africa  and  central  Asia. — In  the 
murine  group  of  this  subfamily,    the  genus 
mus  (Linn.)  has  the  molars  of  opposite  sides 
parallel  to  each  other,  no  cheek  pouches,  the 
upper  lip  divided,  the  whiskers  in  five  series, 
the  nose  sharp  and  hairy  to  the  cleft,  and 
the  large,  prominent  ears  nearly  naked;  the 
nails  are  short,  pointed  and  curved;   palms 
naked,   with  five  small  balls,  those   of    the 
hind  feet  the  largest ;   the  hair  is  soft  and 
fine ;  the  mammae  are  ten,  three  pairs  on  the 


House  Mouse  (Mus  musculus). 

lower  abdomen  and  two  pairs  on  the  chest, 
ftore  than  50  species  are  described,  including 
tte  house  rats;  the  only  one  here  called  a 
mouse  is  the  common  little  creature  of  our 


houses  (M.  musculus,  Linn.).  This  varies 
much  in  color,  from  almost  black  to  pure 
white;  the  albino  or  white  mice  are  a  mere 
variety  of  the  common  animals,  but  have  the 
ability  of  propagating  their  race  inter  se. 
"  Singing  mice  "  do  not  differ  in  appearance 
from  ordinary  mice,  but  make,  especially  at 
night,  a  whistling  noise  somewhat  like  the 
feeble  chirp  of  a  canary  bird.  The  house 
mouse  was  originally  a  native  of  Europe  and 
central  Asia,  but  is  now  spread  over  most  in- 
habited regions  of  the  world ;  in  some  parts  of 
the  United  States,  and  particularly  in  newly 
settled  districts,  it  is  replaced  by  the  white- 
footed  mouse,  which  commits  about  as  much 
mischief  in  houses  and  out-buildings  as  the 
common  mouse.  Of  European  field  mice  may 
be  mentioned  the  M.  syhaticus  (Linn.),  or 
wood  mouse,  found  in  fields  and  gardens,  where 
it  makes  large  deposits  of  provisions  in  sub- 
terranean burrows,  laying  up  grain,  nuts, 
acorns,  &c.,  for  winter  use.  It  is  smaller  than 


Nest  and  Head  of  Harvest  Mouse. 

;he  house  mouse,  reddish  gray  above,  and 
white  below ;  the  hind  legs,are  so  long  that  it 
moves  by  jumps,  making  the  transition  to  me- 
riones  (111.).  The  harvest  mouse  (M.  minutus, 
Pall. ;  M.  messorius,  Shaw)  is  only  2£  in.  from 
end  of  nose  to  root  of  tail,  this  being  about 
J  in.  more.  These  tiny  mice  make  nests  of 
eaves  and  straws  among  standing  corn  and  in 
;histles,  and  are  often  carried  into  barns  with 
;he  harvest,  where  they  live  and  multiply; 
n  winter  they  retire  to  burrows  and  corn 
ricks ;  the  color  is  ruddy  above  and  white  be- 
ow.  The  lineated  mouse  (M.  pumilio,  Gmel.), 
!rom  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  weighs  less  than 
four  scruples  (80  grains).  Some  mice  of  the 
genus  dendromys  (Smith)  live  on  trees ;  the 
ipper  incisors  are  grooved,  the  fore  feet  three- 
;oed  with  a  thumb-like  wart,  and  the  long  tail 
s  thinly  haired  and  ringed ;  here  belongs  the 
M.  mesomelas  (Licht.).— Among  the  American 
or  sigmodont  mice  are  the  genera  reithrodon 
Waterh.)  and  hesperomys  (Waterh.).  Neoto- 


MOUSE 


MOWATT 


15 


ma  and  sigmodon  belong  properly  among  the 
rats  on  account  of  the  large  size  of  all  their  spe- 
cies. In  reithrodon  the  ears  and  tail  are  short 
and  hairy,  and  the  upper  incisors  are  grooved 
longitudinally  in  front;  three  species  of  rat- 
like  size  have  been  found  in  the  extreme  south- 
ern portion  of  South  America,  while  the  North 
American  ones  resemble  slender  house  mice; 
the  body  is  depressed,  limbs  short,  head  broad 
and  short,  tail  about  as  long  as  the  body,  thumb 
rudimentary  and  with  a  short  nail,  and  heel 
hairy  ;  the  North  American  species  are  found 
in  the  southern  states  on  the  Atlantic  border, 
and  from  St.  Louis  to  the  Pacific.  The  har- 
vest mouse  (B.  humilis,  Baird)  is  about  2J  in. 
long,  with  the  tail  a  trifle  less ;  in  color  and 
general  appearance  it  so  nearly  resembles  a 
small  house  mouse,  that  it  can  only  be  distin- 
guished at  the  first  glance  by  the  grooved  in- 
cisors ;  the  eyes  are  small ;  it  is  rarely  injuri- 
ous to  the  farmer,  preferring  grass  lands  to 
grain  fields  for  its  habitation.  In  hesperomys 
or  the  vesper  mice,  the  typical  species  have 
long  tails  scantily  haired,  large  ears,  the  quick 
motions  of  the  common  mouse,  and  generally 
white  feet  and  a  whitish  tail.  The  old  genus 
was  of  very  great  extent,  embracing  a  large 
portion  of  the  American  muridce;  the  South 
American  species,  most  of  them  too  large  to 
be  considered  mice,  have  been  arranged  by 
Burmeister  under  the  genera  calomys,  Jiabro- 
thrix,  and  oxymicterus,  established  by  Water- 
house,  the  first  resembling  the  common  mouse, 
the  second  the  meadow  mice  (armcolcB),  and 
the  third  the  lemmings.  Baird  divides  even 
the  North  American  species  into  three  groups, 
as  follows :  hesperomys  (Waterh.),  containing 
13  species;  onychomys  (Baird)  and  oryzomys 
(Baird),  each  with  a  single  species.  In  hespe- 
romys the  form  is  mouse-like,  tail  not  less  or 
even  longer  than  the  body  without  the  head, 
claws  weak,  hind  legs  and  feet  long,  and  soles 
naked  or  less  than  half  hairy.  The  white- 
footed  or  deer  mouse  (H.  leucopus,  Le  Conte) 
is  between  3  and  4  in.  long,  with  tail  about 
the  same ;  the  color  of  the  adult  is  yellowish 
brown  above,  darker  on  the  back,  the  lower 


Deer  Mouse  (Hesperomys  leucopus). 

parts  of  the  body  and  tail  and  the  upper  sur- 
face of  the  feet  white;  the  young  are  dark 
slaty ;  the  eyes  and  ears  are  large,  and  the  fur 
long  and  soft.  It  is  distributed  from  Nova 
579  VOL.  xii.— 2 


Scotia  to  Virginia,  and  as  far  west  as  the  Mis- 
sissippi, and  is  a  common  inhabitant  of  houses 
and  barns ;  it  is  nocturnal  in  its  habits,  as  ac- 
tive as  a  squirrel,  nesting  in  trees,  in  the  fields, 
in  barns  and  houses,  and  making  a  dwelling 
resembling  a  bird's  nest ;  it  feeds  principally 
on  grain,  seeds,  nuts,  and  acorns,  and  is  very 
fond  of  maize ;  it  produces  two  or  three  broods 
in  a  season,  according  to  latitude,  five  or  six  at 
a  birth  ;  it  is  not  very  injurious  to  the  farmer, 
most  of  the  mischief  commonly  attributed  to 
it  being  due  to  the  armcolce  or  meadow  mice  ; 
great  numbers  are  destroyed  by  the  smaller 
carnivorous  mammals  and  birds.  Allied  species 
are  found  in  Texas,  California,  the  southern 
states,  and  on  the  Pacific  coast.  The  cotton 
mouse  (H.  gossypinus,  Le  Conte)  makes  its 
nest  under  logs  and  in  trees,  often  robbing  the 
planter  of  more  than  a  pound  of  cotton  for  a 
single  nest.  The  hamster  mouse  (H.  my  aides, 
Gapper)  is  mentioned  under  HAMSTEE.  The 
prairie  mouse  (H.  Michiganensis,  "Wagner)  is 
3£  in.  long,  with  a  tail  of  1£  in.,  and  the  smallest 
of  the  genus ;  the  color  is  grayish  brown  above, 
whitish  beneath,  with  the  cheeks  yellow.  The 
Missouri  mouse  (H.  leucogaster,  Pr.  Max.),  the 
type  of  the  group  onychomys,  has  the  clumsy 
form  of  the  armcola,  tail  less  than  half  the  head 
and  body,  claws  large  and  fossorial,  the  poste- 
rior two  thirds  of  the  soles  densely  furred, 
and  the  skull  without  crest ;  the  body  is  4  in. 
long  and  the  tail  3|  in. ;  grayish  brown  above, 
passing  into  yellowish  red  and  fulvous  on  the 
sides  ;  feet  and  under  surface  of  body  and  tail 
white  ;  the  eyes  are  large,  the  ears  rather  short, 
and  the  whiskers  long ;  it  lives  on  the  seeds 
and  roots  of  wild  plants,  and  sometimes  on  corn. 
The  rice-field  mouse  {H.  palustris,  Wag.),  the 
type  of  oryzomys  of  Baird,  has  a  rat-like  form, 
ears  nearly  buried  in  the  fur,  coarse  hair,  tail 
longer  than  head  and  body,  hind  feet  long, 
soles  naked,  and  upper  margin  of  the  orbit 
raised  into  a  compressed  crest ;  it  is  more  than 
5  in.  long,  and  the  tail  about  the  same ;  the 
color  is  rusty  brown  above  and  whitish  below. 
It  is  found  in  the  rice  fields  of  Carolina  and 
Georgia,  burrowing  in  the  dams  just  above  the 
water  line ;  it  scratches  up  the  newly  planted 
rice,  eats  it  in  the  milky  state,  and  gleans  it 
from  the  fields  in  autumn  ;  it  is  a  good  swim- 
mer and  diver ;  it  eats  also  seeds  of  marsh 
grasses,  and  small  mollusks  and  crustaceans. 

MOUTON,  Georges.     See  LOBATT. 

MOVERS,  Franz  Karl,  a  German  orientalist, 
born  in  Koesfeld,  Westphalia,  July  17,  1806, 
died  in  Breslau,  Sept.  28,  1856.  He  studied  at 
Minister,  was  ordained  in  1829,  and  officiated 
in  the  pulpit  from  1830  to  1839,  when  he  was 
appointed  professor  of  Old  Testament  theol- 
ogy in  the  Catholic  faculty  of  Breslau,  which 
office  he  held  till  his  death.  His  principal 
work,  Die  Phonizier  (3  vols.,  Breslau  and  Ber- 
lin, 1840-'56),  presents  a  comprehensive  view 
of  Phoenician  history. 

MOWATT  (Ritchie),  Anna  Cora,  an  American 
authoress  and  actress,  born  in  Bordeaux^. 


16 


MOWER 


France  (where  her  father,  Samuel  0.  Ogden,  a 
merchant  of  New  York,  was  then  established 
in  business),  in  1819,  died  in  England,  July  28, 
1870.  She  was  the  10th  of  a  family  of  17  chil- 
dren. Her  early  childhood  was  passed  in  a 
chateau  in  the  neighborhood  of  Bordeaux,  in 
the  private  theatre  of  which  she  frequently  par- 
ticipated in  juvenile  dramatic  performances. 
When  she  was  about  six  years  of  age  the  family 
returned  to  New  York.  While  at  school  she 
attracted  the  attention  of  James  Mowatt,  a  law- 
yer of  New  York,  with  whom  she  made  a  run- 
away match  in  her  15th  year.  During  the  first 
two  years  of  her  married  life  she  published 
two  poems,  "  Pelayo,  or  the  Cavern  of  Cova- 
donga"  (1836),  an  epic  in  five  cantos,  and 
"The  Reviewers  Reviewed"  (1837),  a  satire 
against  the  critics  of  the  former  poem.  Her 
health  failing,  she  made  a  visit  of  a  year  and 
a  half  to  Europe,  during  which  she  wrote  for 
private  performance  a  play  entitled  "  Gulzara, 
or  the  Persian  Slave"  (1840).  After  her  re- 
turn she  gave  a  series  of  public  dramatic  read- 
ings in  Boston,  Providence,  New  York,  and 
other  cities.  Her  exertions  produced  a  serious 
illness,  and  for  two  years  she  was1  a  confirmed 
invalid,  during  which  time  she  contributed  to 
the  magazines  under  the  pseudonyme  of  Helen 
Berkley.  In  1842  she  published  ' '  The  Fortune 
Hunter,"  a  novel ;  in  1845  a  five-act  comedy 
entitled  "Fashion,"  which  was  played  at  the 
Park  theatre,  New  York,  with  considerable 
success ;  and  in  1847  another  drama  entitled 
"  Armand,  or  the  Peer  and  the  Peasant,"  which 
was  represented  at  the  Park  theatre  in  1848. 
On  June  13,  1845,  she  made  her  public  d6but 
at  this  theatre  as  Pauline  in  the  "Lady  of 
Lyons,"  and  thenceforth  for  many  years  was 
a  popular  actress.  In  1847  she  made  an  ex- 
tended professional  visit  to  England,  where  in 
1851  her  husband  died ;  and  in  1854  she  played 
a  series  of  farewell  engagements  in  the  United 
States  and  left  the  stage.  She  was  married  on 
June  7  of  that  year  to  W.  F.  Ritchie,  editor  of 
the  Richmond  "Enquirer."  Her  later  works 
are:  "The  Autobiography  of  an  Actress" 
(1854);  "Mimic  Life"  (1855);  "The  Twin 
Roses " (1857) ;  "Fairy Fingers "(1865);  "The 
Mute  Singer  "  (1866)  ;  and  "  The  Clergyman's 
Wife  and  other  Sketches"  (1867).  She  pub- 
lished also  several  compilations. 

MOWER,  a  S.  E.  county  of  Minnesota,  border- 
ing on  Iowa,  and  watered  by  several  streams ; 
area,  720  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  10,447.  It  has 
an  undulating  surface,  consisting  mostly  of 
prairies,  and  the  soil  is  fertile.  It  is  traversed 
by  the  Milwaukee  and  St.  Paul  and  the  South- 
ern Minnesota  railroads.  The  chief  produc- 
tions in  1870  were  673,017  bushels  of  wheat, 
118,771  of  Indian  corn,  463,085  of  oats,  39,975 
of  barley,  63,244  of  potatoes,  7,670  Ibs.  of  wool, 
295,896  of  butter,  44,470  of  flax,  and  18,151 
tons  of  hay.  There  were  2,821  horses,  3,073 
milch  cows,  4,543  other  cattle,  1,945  sheep, 
and  2,973  swine;  3  carriage  factories,  and  3 
flour  mills.  Capital,  Austin. 


MOWING  AND  REAPING  MACHINES 

MOWING  AND  REAPING  MACHINES,  mechan- 
ical devices  for  cutting  grain  or  grass  by  animal 
power.  Though  this  invention  was  suggested 
by  the  ancient  Romans,  the  first  experiments 
toward  practical  results  were  made  in  Europe 
in  the  latter  part  of  the  18th  and  early  part  of 
the  present  century.  The  first  machines,  how- 
ever, which  attained  to  much  efficiency  were 
made  in  the  United  States  between  1830  and 
1850.  The  first  reaping  machine  on  record 
was  described  about  A.  D.  60  by  Pliny,  who 
says  that  it  was  used  on  the  plains  of  Rhaetia. 
It  had  the  form  of  a  cart  with  a  comb-like  bar 
in  front,  which  stripped  off  the  ears  of  wheat 
and  delivered  them  into  a  box,  the  straw  being 
allowed  to  stand.  It  was  propelled  by  an  ox 
that  walked  behind  the  machine.  A  similar 
implement  is  now  in  use  for  gathering  clover 
seed,  called  a  header.  The  forerunner  of  the 
present  form  of  machines,  in  which  the  gather- 
ers or  cutters  were  given  increased  velocity, 
was  one  constructed  by  Pitt  in  1786,  in  which 
a  cylinder  armed  with  combs  plucked  off  the 
ears  and  discharged  them  into  a  box.  For 
some  time  after  this  the  cutters  were  made 
upon  the  rotary  principle,  the  motive  power 
being,  as  ever  since,  the  bearing  wheels.  In 
1822  a  reciprocating  or  to  and  fro  motion  was 
given  to  the  cutters.  Nearly  all  the  inventors 
attached  the  power  behind,  only  four  previous 
to  1823  placing  it  in  front.  In  1806  Gladstone 
of  England  patented  a  front-draft  side-cut  ma- 
chine having  a  revolving  knife.  A  bar  with 
fingers  gathered  the  standing  grain  and  held  it 
to  the  knife.  Ogle  in  1822  made  the  first  re- 
ciprocating knife,  which  was  also  attached  to 
a  forward-draft  machine.  He  used  'a  reel  to 
gather  the  grain  to  the  cutter,  and  also  a  plat- 
form which  was  tilted  to  drop  it  in  portions. 
Bell's  machine  (1826)  had  a  reel  and  a  travel- 
ling apron  which  carried  off  the  grain  to  one 
side.  The  names  of  Adams  of  New  York,  Ten 
Eyck  of  New  Jersey,  and  Lane  of  Maine  are 
among  the  earliest  connected  with  the  inven- 
tion of  harvesters  in  the  United  States.  In 
1833  Obed  Hussey,  then  of  Cincinnati,  0., 
patented  a  machine  to  which  he  applied  saw- 
toothed  cutters  and  guards.  This  machine  was 
at  once  put  into  practical  operation.  On  July 
12,  1837,  a  public  exhibition  of  its  operation, 
under  the  direction  of  the  board  of  trustees  of 
the  Maryland  agricultural  society  for  the  east- 
ern shore  of  Maryland,  gave  great  satisfaction. 
During  the  same  season  this  machine  cut  in  a 
satisfactory  manner  180  acres  of  oats  and  bar- 
ley on  a  farm  in  Maryland.  The  open-topped 
slotted  finger  was  patented  by  Hussey  in  1847. 
In  1834  Cyrus  McCormick  of  Virginia  patented 
a  reaper,  which,  having  been  improved  in  1845 
and  again  in  1847,  received  a  medal  at  the 
world's  fair  in  London  in  1851.  It  had  a 
sickle-edged  sectional  knife,  reciprocating  by 
crank  movement  with  the  bearing  and  drive 
wheels ;  there  was  a  reel,  and  a  divider  was 
used  on  each  end  of  the  platform.  The  reaper 
had  a  seat  behind  the  platform.  The  names 


MOWING  AND  KEAPING  MACHINES 


of  Haines,  Ketchum,  Manny,  and  Wood  are 
prominent  among  inventors  of  improvements 
in  mowers  and  harvesters.  The  practical  use 
of  self-rakers  in  this  country  dates  from  the 
invention  of  W.  H.  Seymour  of  New  York  in 
1851,  who  arranged  a  quadrant-shaped  plat- 
form directly  behind  the  cutters,  a  reel  to 
gather  the  grain,  and  a  rake  moving  over  the 
platform  in  the  arc  of  a  circle,  depositing  the 
sheaves  on  the  ground.  In  1856  Owen  Dorsey 
of  Maryland  combined  the  reel  and  rake,  and 
his  improvement  has  been  extensively  used  in 
this  country  and  Europe,  with  some  modifica- 
tions, one  of  which  was  by  Johnston  in  1865, 
who  arranged  it  so  that  the  size  of  the  sheaves, 
or  gavels  as  they  are  called,  could  be  regulated 
at  the  will  of  the  driver. — Owing  to  the  variety 
in  form  and  the  multiplicity  of  patented  modi- 
fications of  the  several  parts  of  the  modern 
machines,  and  the  impossibility  of  doing  jus- 
tice to  all  parties  in  an  attempt  to  describe  all 
the  inventions  within  the  limits  of  this  article, 
we  shall  give  a  general  description  only  of  their 
construction  and  operation.  These  machines 


FIG.  1.— Mower. 

consist  of  a  strong  framework,  so  constructed 
as  to  support  a  driver's  seat,  the  cutting  mecha- 
nism, and,  when  used  for  harvesting  grain,  a 
platform  on  which  the  grain  falls  when  cut, 
and  from  which  it  is  raked  as  often  as  a  suffi- 
cient quantity  for  a  bundle  has  accumulated. 
This  framework  is  somewhat  longer  than  the 
width  of  the  swath  to  be  cut,  which  is  usually 
5  ft.,  and  of  sufficient  width  for  the  platform, 
say  3  ft.,  except  when  used  for  cutting  grass, 
when  the  platform  is  dispensed  with,  as  the 
mown  grass  is  allowed  to  fall  over  the  cutters 
directly  upon  the  ground.  On  the  front  edge 
of  the  frame  is  the  cutting  apparatus,  consist- 
ing of  a  series  of  iron  guards  or  pointed  fingers, 
which  are  permanently  fastened  to  the  frame 
and  extend  about  7  in.  beyond  its  edge,  parallel 
to  each  other,  horizontal  and  pointing  forward. 
They  are  about  3J  in.  apart,  and  1%  in.  wide 
at  the  base,  lessening  toward  the  point.  Each 
guard  has  a  horizontal  mortise  through  it,  and 
being  on  a  line  with  each  other  they  all  form 
a  continuous  horizontal  mortise  or  slit  through 
the  whole  line  of  guards.  The  cutters  are 


formed  of  thin  triangular  plates  of  steel,  fast- 
ened to  a  straight  flat  rod  or  plate  of  metal. 
These  steel  plates  are  arranged  side  by  side, 
resembling  a  saw  with  teeth  3  in.  wide  at  their 
base  and  4  in.  long,  sharp  on  both  sides,  and 
terminating  in  a  point.  This  saw  or  cutting 
plate  is  passed  through  the  slits  in  the  guards 
with  the  teeth  pointing  forward  and  their 
points  coming  even  with  the  centres  of  the 
guards.  One  end  of  the  saw  is  connected  with 
a  crank,  which  receives  a  rapid  motion  through 
intermediate  cog  wheels,  from  the  tractive 
force  and  motion  of  the  main  or  driving 
wheel.  The  framework  with  all  its  mechan- 
ism is  supported  by  two  or  more  wheels,  the 
drive  wheels  being  much  larger  than  the  others, 
and  the  axles  so  constructed  as  to  admit  of  the 
platform,  cutters,  &c.,  being  horizontal  and 
suspended  within  a  few  inches  of  the  ground. 
The  pole  is  so  attached  to  the  framework  as 
to  allow  the  team  to  walk  before  the  machine 
on  the  stubble  of  the  last  swath,  while  the 
platform  with  the  cutters  on  its  front  edge 
extends  on  the  right  at  right  angles  with  the 
direction  of  the  horses,  so  that  the  guards  and 
cutters  are  presented  to  the  standing  grain  or 
grass.  A  large  reel,  in  front  of  and  parallel 
with  the  series  of  cutters,  is  sometimes  attached 
to  the  framework,  and,  being  connected  by  a 
band  or  otherwise  to  the  drive  wheel,  is  made 
to  revolve  with  it  in  the  right  direction  to 
bend  back  the  top  of  the  standing  grain  or 
grass,  past  the  cutters  and  over  the  platform, 
which  tends  to  assist  the  cutting  and  to  insure 
the  backward  fall  of  the  grass  upon  the  plat- 
form, or  the  ground  in  the  rear  of  the  machine. 
Some  of  the  later  machines,  like  the  one  shown 
in  fig.  2,  of  which  the  "  Champion  "  reaper  of 
Springfield,  O.,  is  an  example,  have  a  sweep 
rake  consisting  of  arms  which,  by  means  of  a 
circular  inclined  plane,  or  stationary  cam  over 
which  the  heels  of  the  arms  are  made  to  pass 
in  revolving,  become  elevated  when  passing 
over  the  inner  drive  wheel,  and  lowered  to  the 
proper  level  when  passing  over  the  platform, 
so  that  the  grain  is  gathered  into  parcels  of  a 


FIG.  2.— Eeaper. 

suitable  size  for  sheaves.  A  seat  for  the  driver 
is  usually  attached  directly  behind  the  team, 
above  and  over  the  outer  drive  wheel  in  the 
harvester,  but  in  the  mower  it  is  usually  be- 
tween the  two  drive  wheels.  Some  patents 
have  been  granted  for  machines  for  reaping 


18 


MOXA 


and  threshing  grain  at  the  same  operation, 
and  many  for  a  binding  apparatus  as  an  attacn- 
ment  to  the  reaper;  but  the  more  simple  ma- 
chines are  the  ones  in  general  use. 

MOXA,  a  counter-irritant  used  especially  m 
cases  of  gout,  rheumatism,  and  nervous  dis- 
orders. It  is  of  Japanese  invention,  having 
been  in  use  in  that  country  many  centuries. 
The  term  is  derived  from  the  Japanese  mogusa, 
"burning  herb  or  grass."  The  finer  woolly 
parts  of  the  young  leaves  of  wormwood,  a  spe- 
cies of  artemisia,  are  applied  to  the  skin  in  the 
form  of  small  cones,  and  set  on  fire  by  means 
of  a  magnifying  glass.  They  burn  very  slowly, 
and  leave  a  scar  or  blister,  which  afterward 
breaks  and  discharges.  The  operation  is  not 
severely  painful,  except  when  it  is  applied 
twice  in  the  same  place.  The  Japanese  have 
elaborate  treatises  on  the  art  of  moxa  burning, 
according  to  the  part  to  which  it  is  applied. 
Its  use  in  Japan  is  almost  universal,  and  near- 
ly every  person,  especially  among  the  lower 
classes,  is  scarred  with  moxa  spots,  burned  on 
the  back  to  relieve  pleurisy,  asthma,  and  indi- 
gestion; on  the  legs  for  rheumatism  and  to 
strengthen  the  feet;  on  the  arms  to  relieve 
sore  or  weak  eyes.  It  is  used  occasionally  in 
the  practice  of  western  physicians. 

MOXOS,  or  Mojos,  a  nation  of  Indians  in  South 
America,  occupying  a  large  tract  in  Bolivia, 
between  lat.  13°  and  16°  S.,  and  Ion.  64°  and  69° 
W.  They  believed  that  they  originated  on  the 
spot,  and  from  their  superstitious  reverence 
for  its  mountains,  lakes,  and  rivers,  each  band 
feared  to  emigrate.  They  are  lighter  in  color  and 
taller  than  the  neighboring  nations ;  are  indus- 
trious, cultivating  the  soil,  fishing  and  hunting. 
The  women  spin  and  weave.  Their  manners 
are  generally  mild,  though  they  have  some  cruel 
superstitions.  Missions  were  attempted  among 
them  at  a  very  early  period  by  the  Dominicans, 
and  a  great  mission  of  Jesuits  was  founded 
by  Cyprian  Baraza  in  1676.  They  stopped  the 
feuds  among  the  Moxos  bands,  increased  the 
planting  of  maize  and  bananas,  and  taught 
them  various  arts,  collecting  them  in  15  fine 
missions.  The  Moxos  Christians  suffered  great- 
ly from  the  attacks  of  the  Portuguese,  who 
carried  off  whole  villages  as  slaves,  but  the 
suppression  of  the  Jesuits  was  the  greatest 
blow.  They  left  30,000  converts,  but  in  less 
than  20  years  the  missions  were  reduced  to  11. 
They  have  declined  still  further  during  the 
revolutions  of  the  present  century.  In  1820 
Velasco,  the  governor  of  the  district,  killed 
the  cacique  of  San  Pedro,  and  the  Moxos  rose 
in  rebellion  and  put  Yelasco  and  his  soldiers 
to  death.  In  1831  the  Moxos  missions,  with 
those  of  the  kindred  Baures  and  Muchojeones, 
numbered  only  13,620  souls-  in  all,  of  whom 
1,000  were  in  a  wild  state.  They  have  a  few 
books  copied  from  generation  to  generation, 
and  still  play  the  old  church  music  from  notes. 
Even  in  their  wild  state  they  had  a  kind  of 
signs  which  they  used  in  writing.  A  history 
of  the  Moxos  was  written  by  F.  Francis  X. 


MOZAMBIQUE 

Iraizos.  Their  language  lacks  d,  f,  I,  is  harmo- 
nious and  abounds  in  frequentative  words. 
There  is  an  Arte  de  la  lengua  Moxa  con  su 
wcabulario,  by  Father  Marban  (Lima,  1V01). 

MOZAMBIQUE  (Port.  Mozambique).  I.  A  name 
applied  to  a  large  extent  of  the  seaboard  of 
E.  Africa,  belonging  to  Portugal ;  area,  about 
380,000  sq.  m. ;  pop.  about  300,000.  It  is 
bounded  E.  by  the  Mozambique  channel,  N.  by 
Cape  Delgado,  lat.  10°  41'  S.,  and  S.  by  Dela- 
goa  bay,  lat.  26°  S. ;  on  the  west  the  boundary 
is  indefinite.  The  coast  includes  the  two 
prominent  headlands  of  Cape  Corrientes  in 
the  south  and  Cape  Delgado  in  the  north, 
and  several  large  bays,  the  chief  of  which 
are  Delagoa  and  Pamba.  Between  Delagoa 
bay  and  Cape  Corrientes,  and  from  Mozam- 
bique city  to  Cape  Delgado,  the  shores  are 
high  and  precipitous ;  while  reefs  and  numer- 
ous islands  lie  off  the  land  nearly  throughout 
its  entire  length.  Many  large  streams  dis- 
charge themselves  here;  the  principal  is  the 
Zambesi,  the  largest  river  of  E.  Africa,  which 
debouches  by  several  mouths  at  the  middle 
point  of  the  Mozambique  coast.  The  climate 
is  hot  and  unhealthy.  Considerable  tracts  are 
cultivated  and  yield  abundant  crops  of  rice. 
The  forests  supply  wood  of  great  beauty  and 
value.  The  rivers  abound  with  hippopotami, 
which  yield  fine  ivory.  Gold  was  formerly 
obtained  by  washing  the  sands,  but  little  is 
now  produced ;  and  copper  ore  is  said  to  be 
found  in  several  places.  The  vast  plains  of 
the  interior  abound  in  elephants,  lions,  and 
other  wild  animals,  from  which  ivory  and 
valuable  skins  are  obtained.  But  the  Portu- 
guese have  so  neglected  their  possessions  that 
the  trade  and  government  are  now  very  feeble. 
The  native  chiefs  are  absolute  rulers  in  most 
parts  of  the  territory,  and  many  of  them  are 
inimical  to  the  Portuguese  authority,  which 
does  not  extend  ten  consecutive  miles  in  any 
direction.  Many  of  the  subordinate  officials 
and  the  entire  garrison  of  1,000  men  are  con- 
victs. The  coast  for  administrative  purposes 
is  divided  into  six  sub-districts,  of  which  Mo- 
zambique is  the  head.  A  governor  general 
and  secretary,  appointed  by  the  crown,  ad- 
minister the  government,  assisted  by  a  junta 
composed  of  a  president,  treasurer,  and  12 
members ;  and  it  is  represented  by  two  mem- 
bers in  the  Lisbon  cortes.  The  established  re- 
ligion is  Roman  Catholic,  and  is  superintended 
by  an  apostolical  prefect  and  a  few  priests. 
Education,  like  religion,  is  at  a  very  low  ebb, 
and  most  of  the  teachers  reside  in  the  capital. 
The  Portuguese  settlements,  beginning  from 
the  north,  are  Sao  Joao,  Mozambique,  Quili- 
mane,  Sena,  Tete,  Sofala,  Inhamban,  and  Lou- 
renco  Marques ;  all  of  which  have  declined. — 
This  coast  was  known  to  the  Arabs  centuries 
before  its  discovery  by  Europeans,  and  was  oc- 
cupied by  them  when  first  visited  by  the  Por- 
tuguese in  the  beginning  of  1498.  The  fame 
of  its  gold  and  the  convenience  of  its  ports 
for  the  Indian  trade  led  the  Portuguese  to  at- 


MOZAMBIQUE   CHANNEL 


MOZAET 


19 


tempt  the  expulsion  of  the  original  settlers. 
This  was  not  difficult,  and  in  1508  they  had 
obtained  a  footing  in  two  places,  and  built 
a  fort  upon  the  island  of  Mozambique.  They 
have  .made  some  unsuccessful  attempts  to 
penetrate  the  interior;  but  since  1860  a  con- 
siderable part  of  the  territory  immediately  ad- 
jacent to  the.  Zambesi,  and  its  tributary  the 
Shire,  to  Lake  Nyassa,  has  been  explored  by 
Dr.  Livingstone.  The  slave  trade  is  still  car- 
ried on,  but  not  so  actively  as  formerly,  and 
several  Portuguese  officials  have  been  removed 
for  permitting  it  or  participating  in  it.  In 
1873  Sir  Bartle  Frere  visited  Mozambique  and 
adjoining  countries,  and  negotiated  with  the 
sultan  of  Zanzibar  a  treaty  for  the  suppression 
of  the  slave  traffic  on  the  E.  coast  of  Africa. 
n.  A  city,  capital  of  the  territory,  on  a  coral 
island  near  the  mainland ;  pop.  about  7,000. 
The  centre  of  the  island  is  in  lat.  15°  3'  S.,  Ion. 
40°  48'  E.  It  is  about  1£  m.  long  and  ±  m. 
broad,  in  the  form  of  a  crescent,  with  the 
hollow  side  toward  the  sea;  and,  with  two 


other  islets,  it  is  near  the  mouth  of  a  bay  6  m. 
long  and  5  m.  broad,  which  furnishes  a  safe  and 
excellent  harbor.  The  ground  on  which  the 
town  stands  is  from  20  to  50  ft.  above  the 
water,  and  the  position  is  strongly  fortified. 
The  governor's  palace  is  an  extensive  stone 
building.  There  are  two  churches  and  three 
chapels,  a  custom  house,  a  hospital,  prisons, 
tanks,  and  storehouses.  The  streets  are  very 
narrow,  and  the  houses  being  all  whitewashed, 
the  glare  and  heat  are  very  great,  the  mercury 
rising  from  6°  to  10°  higher  in  the  town  than 
on  the  mainland.  The  inhabitants  are  a  mix- 
ture of  Indian,  Arabian,  and  European,  and 
their  costumes  are  as  various  as  their  races. 
With  the  exception  of  the  governor  and  his  staff, 
the  greater  part  of  the  European  settlers  are 
convicts.  Other  classes  are  descendants  of  the 
old  Arab  settlers,  most  of  whom  are  sailors, 
the  Banian  traders  from  Hindostan,  and  ne- 
groes. Mozambique  formerly  supplied  nearly 
all  the  markets  in  that  part  of  the  world  with 
slaves,  besides  sending  some  to  the  West  Indies. 


Mozambique. 


The  legitimate  traffic  of  the  place  is  principally 
carried  on  by  Arab  ships,  which  bring  piece 
goods  and  eastern  produce  from  India,  and 
take  back  ivory.  It  was  made  a  free  port  a 
few  years  ago,  but  the  rise  of  Zanzibar  and 
the  almost  total  suppression  of  the  slave  trade 
have  interfered  with  its  prosperity,  though  its 
export  of  ivory  is  still  important. 

MOZAMBIQUE  CHANNEL,  the  passage  between 
the  E.  coast  of  Africa  and  the  island  of  Mada- 
gascar, lat.  12°  to  25°  S.  At  its  S.  entrance  it 
is  550  m.  wide,  at  its  N.  nearly  600,  and  in  the 
middle  about  250.  Its  length  from  N.  E.  to  S. 
W.  is  about  1,050  m.  The  Comoro  islands  lie 
at  its  N.  entrance. 

MOZART.  I.  Johann  Georg  Leopold,  a  German 
musician,  born  in  Augsburg,  Nov.  14,  1719, 
died  May  28,  1787.  He  excelled  on  the  organ 
when  a  youth,  and  paid  his  way  while  study- 
ing law  by  teaching  music.  Having  gone  to 
Salzburg  to  perfect  his  studies,  he  accepted  the 
post  of  chamberlain  to  Count  Thurn,  a  preb- 
endary of  the  cathedral.  In  1743  Archbishop  j 


Sigismund  appointed  him  chamber  musician; 
a  few  years  later  he  became  court  composer 
and  leader  of  the  orchestra,  and  in  1762  vice 
chapelmaster.  In  1757  his  musical  works 
were  already  very  numerous.  His  "Violin 
School"  (1756),  which  laid  the  foundation  for 
modern  German  violin  playing,  is  remarkable 
as  the  first  of  its  kind,  and  as  teaching  that 
mere  execution  is  but  a  means  to  the  true  ar- 
tistic end.  He  married  in  1747  Anna  Maria 
Pertlin,  who  bore  him  seven  children,  all  of 
whom  died  in  infancy  excepting  a  daughter 
and  a  son.  The  daughter,  Maria  Anna  Wal- 
burga  Ignatia  (born  1751,  died  1829),  became 
known  as  a  pianist  and  afterward  as  a  teacher, 
and  married  Baron  Berchthold.  II.  Johannes 
Chrysostomns  Wolfgang  Amadens  (generally  called 
Wolfgang),  a  German  composer,  son  of  the 
preceding,  born  in  Salzburg,  Jan.  27,  1756, 
died  in  Vienna,  Dec.  5,  1791.  When  in  his 
third  year  he  attracted  his  father's  notice  by 
striking  chords  upon  the  harpsichord,  and  by 
readily  learning  passages  in  his  sister's  music 


20 


MOZART 


lessons.  In  his  fourth  year  his  father  began 
to  teach  him  short  pieces  for  the  harpsichord. 
In  his  fifth  year  he  composed  little  melodies 
with  simple  but  correct  harmonies,  which  his 
father  wrote  out.  Though  music  was  his  chief 
delight,  he  displayed  great  aptitude  for  lan- 
guages and  mathematics.  In  January,  1762, 
when  Wolfgang  was  six  years  old,  the  elder 
Mozart  took  his  two  children  to  Munich,  where 
they  played  before  the  elector  and  excited  the 
deepest  astonishment.  In  the  autumn  they  vis- 
ited Vienna,  and  were  at  once  summoned  to 
Schonbrunn.  In  October  the  boy  was  seized 
with  the  scarlet  fever,  which  interrupted  their 
performances,  and  after  a  visit  to  Presburg 
they  reached  home  in  January,  1763.  Mozart 
at  this  time  played  at  sight  the  second  violin 
part  in  six  trios,  which  one  of  his  father's  pu- 
pils had  written  during  his  absence.  Schacht- 
ner  relates  that  one  day  Wolfgang,  who  was 
playing  his  own  violin,  said  to  him:  "Your 
violin  is  tuned  half  a  quarter  of  a  note  lower 
than  mine  here,  if  you  have  left  it  as  it  was 
when  I  last  played  it."  Schachtner's  violin  was 
brought  and  found  to  be  as  Wolfgang  had  said. 
This  extraordinary  memory  for  pitch  after- 
ward became  conspicuous  in  Mozart's  perform- 
ances. In  the  summer  of  1763  another  tour 
was  undertaken,  extending  to  Paris  and  Lon- 
don. The  boy  most  astonished  old  musicians 
by  his  organ  playing,  and  in  Heidelberg  this 
was  commemorated  by  an  inscription  placed 
upon  the  organ.  After  performances  before 
various  German  princes  and  in  cities,  they  at 
length  reached  Frankfort.  The  following  is 
an  extract  from  the  advertisement  of  their 
concert  in  that  city,  on  Aug.  30:  "The  girl, 
now  in  her  12th,  and  the  boy,  in  his  8th  year, 
will  not  only  play  concertos  upon  the  harpsi- 
chord (the  girl  indeed  the  most  difficult  pieces 
of  the  greatest  masters),  but  the  boy  will  also 
perform  a  concerto  upon  a  violin,  accompany 
in  symphonies  upon  the  harpsichord,  cover  the 
keys  with  a  cloth  and  play  as  well  as  if  they 
were  in  sight,  and  also  designate  any  note  or 
chord  struck  at  a  distance,  whether  upon  -  a 
harpsichord  or  any  other  musical  instrument, 
or  upon  bells,  glasses,  musical  clocks,  &c. 
Finally,  he  will  extemporize,  not  only  upon 
the  harpsichord,  but  also  upon  the  organ,  so 
long  as  any  one  desires,  in  all,  even  the  most 
difficult  keys  that  can  be  proposed,  and  thus 
prove  that  he  understands  the  organ,  which  is 
totally  different  from  the  harpsichord  in  its 
treatment."  After  successful  performances  in 
Coblentz,  Aix-la-Ohapelle,  and  Brussels,  they 
reached  Paris  in  November.  Here  they  won 
additional  fame.  Mozart  accompanied  Italian 
and  French  airs  at  sight,  transposing  them  when 
required  to  do  so,  a  task  then  more  difficult 
than  now,  as  the  accompanist  had  to  read  the 
full  score  or  depend  upon  a  figured  base.  At 
this  time  his  first  work  was  published,  con- 
sisting of  four  sonatas  for  harpsichord  and 
violin.  In  April,  1764,  the  family  went  to 
London,  where  they  were  received  with  even 


greater  enthusiasm  than  in  Paris.  The  queen 
accepted  the  dedication  of  six  sonatas  for 
pianoforte  and  violin  from  his  pen,  and  the 
public  crowded  the  concerts,  in  which  he  ap- 
peared in  the  new  character  of  composer  of 
symphonies  for  the  orchestra.  They  returned 
through  Holland  up  the  Rhine,  and  through 
Switzerland  to  Salzburg,  where  they  arrived 
in  November,  1766.  The  elder  Mozart  now 
put  both  children  to  a  systematic  and  thorough 
study  of  both  instrumental  execution  and  the 
theory  of  music.  Wolfgang  studied  with  un- 
flagging zeal  Emanuel  Bach,  Hasse,  Handel,  and 
the  old  Italian  masters.  A  German  passion 
cantata  and  a  Latin  comcedia,  "  Apollo  and  Hy- 
acinth," attest  his  progress  in  contrapuntal 
study  and  composition  in  1767.  The  emperor 
Joseph  II.  suggested  the  composition  of  an 
opera  by  young  Mozart  on  the  occasion  of  the 
marriage  of  an  Austrian  princess  with  King 
Ferdinand  of  Naples.  An  Italian  opera  buffa, 
La  finta  semplice,  was  selected,  and  Wolfgang 
was  engaged  to  compose  it  on  the  usual  terms, 
100  ducats.  The  score  was  finished  soon  after 
Easter.  It  is  still  preserved,  and  is  fully  up  to 
the  standard  of  similar  works  of  that  period, 
but  owing  to  the  intrigues  of  jealous  musicians 
it  was  never  performed.  At  the  request  of 
Maria  Theresa,  he  composed  a  mass  and  con- 
ducted it  in  presence  of  the  empress,  Dec.  7, 
1768.  He  also  produced  an  operetta,  "  Bas- 
tien  and  Bastienne."  The  pecuniary  success 
of  this  visit  to  Vienna  was  limited,  but  Mo- 
zart's increased  fame  led  the  archbishop  Sigis- 
mund  to  appoint  him  concert  master.  The 
year  1769  was  devoted  to  severe  study.  Two 
masses  of  this  date  indicate  the  pains  taken  by 
the  father  that  his  son  should  become  a  con- 
trapuntist of  the  severest  school,  as  the  foun- 
dation for  the  future  practice  of  free  compo- 
sition. In  December  of  this  year  his  father 
took  him  to  Italy.  Concerts  were  given  in 
Verona,  Mantua,  and  other  places,  Wolfgang 
appearing  as  singer,  composer,  and  performer 
on  the  harpsichord,  organ,  and  violin.  His 
extemporaneous  compositions  had  the  great- 
est weight  with  musicians,  and  that  of  several 
arias  to  words  from  Metastasio  displayed  so 
much  talent  that  the  composition  of  an  opera 
for  the  next  winter  was  offered  him  under  very 
flattering  auspices.  In  Lodi  he  composed  his 
first  string  quartet;  and  in  Rome  he  repro- 
duced Allegri's  Miserere  from  hearing  it  in  the 
Sistine  chapel.  Several  weeks  were  next  spent 
in  Bologna,  where  Wolfgang  had  the  advan- 
tage of  much  intercourse  with  Padre  Martini, 
and  where  he  became  a  member  of  the  phil- 
harmonic society.  He  went  thence  to  Milan, 
where  he  wrote  his  opera  Mitridate,  re  di  Pon- 
to.  It  was  finished  and  rehearsed  in  less  than 
two  months,  and  on  Dec.  26, 1770,  successfully 
given,  Wolfgang  presiding  at  the  harpsichord. 
It  ran  20  nights,  and  when  he  left  Milan  the 
score  remained  behind,  to  fill  orders  for  five 
copies.  They  visited  Turin,  Padua  (where  an 
oratorio  was  ordered  from  Wolfgang,  prob- 


MOZART 


21 


ably  the  Betulia  liber  ata\  Vicenza,  and  Ve- 
rona, and  reached  home  in  March,  1771.  Maria 
Theresa  had  ordered  an  opera  by  Hasse  and  a 
serenata  by  Mozart  for"  the  occasion  of  the 
marriage  of  the  archduke  Ferdinand  with  a 
daughter  of  the  prince  of  Modena,  which  was 
to  be  celebrated  in  Milan  with  great  splendor. 
It  was  September  before  the  text  to  the  sere- 
nata, Ascanio  in  Alba,  in  two  acts  with  ballet, 
was  delivered,  and  scarcely  six  weeks  were  left 
for  the  composition  and  rehearsal  of  the  work ; 
but  it  was  ready  in  time,  and  wholly  eclipsed 
Basse's  opera.  Just  as  they  reached  Salzburg 
again,  Archbishop  Sigismund  died.  His  suc- 
cessor, Hieronymus,  Count  Colloredo,  did  all  in 
his  power  to  break  the  spirit,  crush  the  hopes, 
and  ruin  the  prospects  of  young  Mozart.  For 
the  festivities  of  his  installation  Mozart  was 
ordered  to  compose  Metastasio's  opera,  II  sogno 
di  Scipione.  It  was  a  hasty  composition,  and 
bears  more  marks  of  being  a  mere  occasional 
piece  than  any  other  of  his  works.  In  Novem- 
ber he  again  reached  Milan,  bringing  with  him 
a  part  of  the  recitative  of  an  opera  which  had 
been  ordered,  but  changes  in  the  text  forced 
him  to  rewrite  most  of  it.  The  singers  were 
not  yet  there  for  whom  he  was  to  adapt  the 
principal  parts.  It  was  already  December,  and 
only  the  recitative,  choruses,  and  overture  were 
finished.  Yet  on  the  26th  it  was  publicly 
given,  and,  in  spite  of  a  bad  performance,  was 
a  success.  It  was  repeated  more  than  20  times ; 
but  notwithstanding  its  success  it  was  Mozart's 
last  opera  written  for  the  stage  in  Italy,  be- 
cause Hieronymus  henceforth  refused  his  con- 
cert master,  save  in  a  single  instance,  leave 
of  absence.  In  the  autumn  of  1774  came  an 
order  for  a  comic  opera  for  Munich.  Hierony- 
mus stood  in  such  relations  to  the  elector,  that 
he  could  not  refuse  Mozart  the  necessary  leave 
of  absence.  The  fine  orchestra  and  excellent 
singers  were  a  new  spur  to  the  young  man, 
and  this  effort  surpassed  all  his  previous  ones. 
The  opera  was  Lafinta  giardiniera,  performed 
Jan.  13,  1775.  A  visit  of  Maria  Theresa's 
youngest  son,  Maximilian,  afterward  elector  of 
Cologne,  to  Salzburg,  was  the  occasion  of  Mo- 
zart's last  youthful  operatic  composition ;  it  was 
Metastasio's  11  repastore.  During  the  next  two 
years  he  filled  his  position  as  concert  master 
at  a  court  where  there  was  a  constant  demand 
upon  him  as  performer  and  composer.  He 
was  the  favorite  of  all  classes,  and  had  but 
one  enemy,  the  man  upon  whom  he  depended 
for  subsistence.  He  was  wretchedly  paid,  and 
the  family  avoided  debt  only  by  the  most 
rigid  economy.  Another  artistic  tour  was  a 
necessity,  and  as  a  preparation  for  this  Mo- 
zart went  again  through  a  course  of  study  in 
perfecting  himself  as  a  performer  upon  the  or- 
gan, harpsichord,  and  violin.  In  the  autumn 
of  1777  the  father  petitioned  for  leave  of  ab- 
sence for  himself  and  son.  The  request  was 
rudely  refused.  Wolfgang,  now  of  age,  im- 
mediately resigned  his  place  as  concert  mas- 
ter. He  was  the  first  pianist,  one  of  the  first 


organists,  and  in  the  highest  rank  of  violinists 
in  Europe ;  and  the  author  of  more  than  200 
works,  from  the  opera,  grand  mass,  and  sympho- 
ny, down  through  all  classes  of  compositions. 
He  first  went  to  Munich  with  his  mother,  but 
there  was  no  vacancy ;  and  he  turned  his  steps 
to  Mannheim,  where  he  could  not  obtain  em- 
ployment. He  stayed  till  March,  1778,  partly 
in  consequence  of  a  passion  for  a  beautiful 
young  singer,  Aloysia  Weber.  The  mother 
and  son  now  tried  Paris,  where  they  arrived 
March  23.  The  contest  between  the  Gluckists 
and  Piccinists  was  at  its  height,  and  they  with 
the  French  composers  filled  the  stage.  Baron 
Grimm  received  the  Mozarts  with  great  kind- 
ness ;  but  he  belonged  to  the  Italian  party. 
He  procured  Mozart  a  few  pupils,  who  were 
his  main  dependence  during  his  stay  in  Paris. 
Le  Gros,  the  conductor  of  the  concerts  spiritu- 
els,  and  others,  were  very  ready  to  use  the  young 
composer's  talents  for  their  own  benefit,  until 
he  was  forced  to  refuse  any  application  for 
new  music  not  accompanied  by  the  offer  of 
a  reasonable  compensation.  The  spring  passed 
away,  and  the  prospect  began  to  improve.  Le 
Gros  ordered  a  symphony,  which  was  given 
with  the  greatest  applause.  At  this  time  (July 
3)  Mme.  Mozart  died,  and  Mozart's  father 
ordered  his  return  to  Salzburg.  He  felt  it  to 
be  his  duty  to  obey,  although  fortune  was  evi- 
dently turning  in  his  favor  in  Paris.  The  time 
spent  there  had  been  of  great  value  to  him. 
He  had  made  himself  familiar  with  many  of 
the  principal  works  of  the  three  great  schools 
of  opera,  Gluck's,  the  Italian,  and  the  purely 
French.  The  coming  of  Christian  Bach  from 
London,  and  his  friendship  for  Mozart,  opened 
a  prospect  also  in  the  English  capital ;  the  place 
of  organist  at  Versailles,  almost  a  sinecure,  had 
been  proposed  for  him.  He  delayed  at  Munich, 
where  he  met  the  Weber  family  and  found  that 
Aloysia's  love  for  him  had  grown  cold ;  and 
he  did  not  reach  Salzburg  till  January,  1779. 
Mozart  was  now  "concert  master  and  court 
.and  cathedral  organist;"  the  salary  was  small, 
but,  together  with  that  of  the  father  and  what 
he  earned  by  teaching,  enabled  the  family  to 
live  in  comfort.  It  was  stipulated  in  the  new 
contract  with  the  archbishop  that  leave  of  ab- 
sence should  be  granted  at  reasonable  inter- 
vals, for  the  production  of  new  works  in  oth- 
er cities.  So  passed  nearly  two  years,  Mozart 
being  called  upon  continually  for  new  music 
for  church  and  chamber,  and  supplying  the 
demand  with  a  succession  of  works  of  increas- 
ing excellence.  Of  dramatic  music  during  this 
period  he  produced  only  the  choruses  and  entr'- 
actes to  the  play  of  "  Thames,  King  of  Egypt," 
and  an  unfinished  opera,  Zalde.  In  1780  he 
received  the  order  for  Idomeneo,  the  opera  seria 
for  the  ensuing  carnival,  which  was  produced 
Jan.  29,  1781.  Five  years  had  elapsed  since  his 
last  work  for  the  operatic  stage,  which  had 
been  in  the  formal  Italian  style.  Idomeneo 
from  the  character  of  the  text  was  of  the  same 
school,  but  bears  marks  of  the  composer's 


22 


MOZART 


studies  at  Paris,  and  exhibits  proofs  of  a  genius 
rapidly  becoming  independent  of  traditional 
trammels.  It  was  received  with  great  applause. 
Mozart  had  hopes  of  obtaining  a  permanent 
appointment  from  the  elector  Charles  Theo- 
dore, when  he  received  a  peremptory  order 
from  the  archbishop  to  meet  him  in  Vienna. 
Mozart  and  two  other  musicians  in  the  arch- 
bishop's train  dined  with  the  two  chamberlains 
and  the  three  head  cooks.  The  archbishop 
exhibited  his  concert  master  both  as  performer 
and  composer,  but  took  care  that  he  should 
have  no  opportunity  of  playing  where  he  could 
increase  his  income ;  and  it  was  only  through 
the  persistency  of  men  whose  request  Hierony- 
mus  dared  not  refuse  that  Mozart  was  permit- 
ted to  play  in  the  grand  annual  charitable  con- 
cert. The  impression  made  by  him  on  this 
occasion  was  remarkable  even  in  Vienna.  His 
success  is  the  only  known  reason  why  Mozart 
was  ordered  to  return  to  Salzburg  early  in  May. 
An  accident  caused  him  to  delay  a  few  days, 
and  when  he  called  on  his  master  to  excuse 
himself  and  take  leave,  he  was  received  with  a 
torrent  of  abuse.  Remembering  the  needy  cir- 
cumstances of  his  father,  he  had  borne  the  in- 
dignities to  which  he  was  subjected  for  six 
weeks,  but  he  could  endure  them  no  longer, 
and  tendered  his  resignation.  The  archbishop 
took  no  notice  of  it,  and  he  repeated  his  appli- 
cation on  June  8,  upon  which  Count  Arco, 
"master  of  the  kitchen,"  grossly  abused  him 
and  turned  him  out  of  the  room.  Nothing  but 
the  remonstrances  of  the  father  prevented  the 
son  from  publicly  calling  Arco  to  account.  No 
cause  has  ever  been  suggested  for  the  hatred 
of  the  archbishop,  except  that  the  Mozarts  dis- 
dained to  play  the  part  of  flatterers.  Mozart 
now  gave  lessons  and  concerts,  and  published 
music  by  subscription.  He  resided  for  some 
months  with  the  Weber  family  in  Vienna, 
where  Aloysia,  who  had  married  Lange  the 
actor,  was  engaged  as  a  singer.  The  emperor 
Joseph,  who  was  then  busy  with  his  project  of 
establishing  an  opera  devoted  to  German  works, 
and  who  was  friendly  to  Mozart,  ordered  a 
composition  from  him.  This  was  the  opera 
"Belmont  and  Constanza."  Mozart  received 
the  text  in  July,  1781,  and  the  music  was  soon 
ready ;  but  owing  to  the  opposition  of  the  sing- 
ers and  orchestra,  urged  on  by  the  Italian  fac- 
tion, the  opera  was  not  produced  till  July  12, 
1782,  and  then  only  by  express  command  of 
the  emperor.  In  the  mean  time  Mozart  had 
become  enamored  of  Constanza  Weber,  sister 
of  Aloysia,  and  his  father,  apparently  believ- 
ing the  groundless  stories  respecting  their  inti- 
macy, gave  an  unwilling  consent  to  their  mar- 
riage, which  took  place  Aug.  4,  1782.  They 
had  several  children,  of  whom  only  two  sur- 
vived infancy.  The  emperor  having  given  up 
his  idea  of  establishing  a  German  opera,  and 
the  Italian  school  continuing  to  thwart  his  pro- 
gress, Mozart  endeavored  in  1783  to  compete 
with  it  by  procuring  popular  texts,  but  was 
successful  only  after  his  acquaintance  with  Da 


Ponte,  who  furnished  him  with  the  libretto  of 
the  "Marriage  of  Figaro."  Beaumarchais's 
play  was  just  then  exciting  extraordinary  inter- 
est in  Paris.  Mozart  saw  the  capabilities  of 
the  subject,  and  proposed  to  Da  Ponte  to  make 
it  the  theme  of  an  Italian  opera  text.  It  was 
finished  in  six  weeks.  At  the  first  performance, 
May  1,  1786,  Mozart  was  obliged  to  go  to  the 
emperor's  box  after  the  first  act  to  inform  him 
that  several  of  the  singers  were  singing  false  pur- 
posely, to  prevent  his  success.  The  emperor 
put  an  end  to  these  intrigues,  and  none  of  Mo- 
zart's successes  was  more  triumphant.  His  op- 
ponents now  plotted  in  secret  to  prevent  its  rep- 
etition, and  it  was  given  but  nine  times,  when 
V.  Martini's  Cosa  rara,  with  its  light  pleas- 
ing music,  long  ago  forgotten,  met  with  such  a 
popular  reception  that  the  managers  withdrew 
Jfigaro  from  the  stage  for  the  next  two  years. 
But  in  Prague  it  was  received  with  so  much 
applause  that  Mozart  was  induced  to  visit  that 
city.  His  stay  there  was  one  of  the  happiest 
periods  of  his  life,  and  he  consented  to  prepare 
a  new  piece  for  the  manager  of  the  Prague 
opera,  for  which  Da  Ponte  wrote  his  libretto 
of  Don  Giovanni.  It  was  given  first  on  Oct. 
29,  1787,  the  overture  being  played  without 
rehearsal  from  parts  just  from  the  pens  of  the 
copyists,  Mozart  not  having  written  it  out  until 
the  night  before.  On  Nov.  3  it  was  sung  for 
the  fourth  time  and  for  the  benefit  of  the  com- 
poser. Just  as  Mozart  reached  Vienna  again, 
Gluck  died  of  apoplexy  (Nov.  15),  and  the  em- 
peror, aware  that  the  composer  was  only  await- 
ing adequate  proposals  to  go  to  London,  at 
once  appointed  him  one  of  his  chamber  musi- 
cians, a  sinecure  with  a  salary  of  800  florins, 
which,  though  small,  was  higher  than  that  of 
his  colleagues.  The  report  of  the  first  perform- 
ance of  Don  Giovanni  had  excited  a  desire  in 
Vienna  to  hear  it.  It  was  performed  May  7, 
1788,  but  was  coldly  received.  The  emperor 
said  to  Da  Ponte :  "  The  opera  is  divine !  per- 
haps finer  than  Figaro ;  but  it  is  no  food  for 
the  teeth  of  my  Viennese."  Da  Ponte  repeated 
this  to  Mozart.  "  Let  them  have  time  to  chew 
upon  it,"  said  he.  Da  Ponte  used  his  influence 
to  have  the  performances  of  it  follow  each 
other  as  rapidly  as  possible,  and  the  result 
was  an  astonishing  success,  as  the  audience 
gradually  recognized  the  transcendent  merits 
of  the  work.  A  new  sphere  of  activity  now 
opened  for  Mozart.  Starzer,  director  of  the 
great  oratorio,  died,  and  Mozart  was  engaged 
in  his  stead.  In  Handel's  time  the  deficien- 
cies of  the  orchestra  were  compensated  by  the 
organ;  but,  as  the  performances  in  Vienna 
took  place  in  halls  where  there  was  no  organ, 
it  was  necessary  to  supply  its  place  with  ad- 
ditional orchestral  parts.  Four  of  Handel's 
works  were  arranged  by  Mozart:  "Acis  and 
Galatea"  (1788),  "The  Messiah"  (1789),  and 
"The  Ode  for  St.  Cecilia's  Day"  and  "Alex- 
ander's Feast"  (1790).  Although  he  never 
worked  harder  than  at  this  time,  his  pecuniary 
condition  was  becoming  deplorable.  He  was 


MOZART 


plundered  of  his  labors  by  performers,  and  of 
his  money  by  delinquent  borrowers;  but  his 
fame  was  extending,  and  his  works,  notwith- 
standing their  striking  originality,  were  be- 
coming more  generally  appreciated.  In  the 
spring  of  1789  he  became  a  travelling  compan- 
ion of  Prince  Charles  Lichnowsky,  and  he  gave 
performances  in  Dresden,  Leipsic,  and  Berlin. 
The  king  of  Prussia,  Frederick  William  II., 
understood  Mozart's  music  very  well,  and  took 
such  a  liking  to  him  as  to  offer  him  the  place 
of  chapelmaster  with  3,000  thalers  salary.  Mo- 
zart refused  the  offer  out  of  regard  for  the  em- 
peror Joseph,  whereupon  the  king  told  him  it 
should  remain  good  for  a  year  and  a  day.  After 
an  absence  of  three  months  he  returned  to 
Vienna,  where  his  profits  were  soon  absorbed 
by  the  illness  of  his  wife.  He  now  wrote  a 
quartet  for  the  king  of  Prussia,  for  which  he 
received  a  gold  box  and  100  friedrichs  d'or. 
He  had  as  yet  said  nothing  of  Frederick  Wil- 
liam's offer  ;  but,  urged  by  his  friends,  he  sub- 
mitted to  the  emperor  his  needy  condition  and 
requested  his  dismissal.  Joseph  was  unpleas- 
antly surprised,  and  exclaimed  :  "  What !  you 
will  leave  me,  Mozart  ? "  Mozart  was  touched, 
and  replied :  "  Your  majesty,  I  throw  myself 
upon  your  mercy,  and  will  remain."  His  Cosi 
fan  tutte  was  produced  Jan.  26,  1790,  and 
was  running  successfully  when  the  emperor 
died,  before  he  had  increased  the  composer's 
salary.  The  new  emperor  Leopold  II.,  hostile 
to  his  predecessor's  favorites,  declined  his  ser- 
vices; and  he  carried  his  spitefulness  so  fap 
that  when  the  musicians  in  Vienna  played  be- 
fore the  king  of  Naples,  Mozart  was  not  invited 
to  take  part.  In  the  autumn  he  visited  Frank- 
fort, Mentz,  and  Mannheim,  on  occasion  of  Leo- 
pold's coronation.  In  Munich  he  was  invited 
to  play  before  the  king  of  Naples,  upon  which 
he  wrote  to  his  wife  :  "  Very  honorable  to  the 
court  at  Vienna  that  the  king  could  only  hear 
me  in  a  foreign  land !  "  He  was  still  pressed 
for  money,  but  fortune  was  turning.  Soon 
after  his  return,  John  Peter  Salomon  came  to 
Vienna  to  engage  Haydn,  and  after  him  Mozart, 
for  his  London  concerts.  Early  in  the  spring 
of  1791  an  old  acquaintance,  Schikaneder,  pro- 
prietor of  a  small  theatre  in  Vienna,  applied 
to  him  to  compose  music  for  a  fairy  play.  The 
subject  was  the  Zauberflote  ("Magic  Flute"). 
Constanza  Mozart  was  in  Baden  at  the  sulphur 
baths,  and  her  husband  while  engaged  upon 
this  opera  was  thrown  much  into  the  socie- 
ty of  Schikaneder,  who  led  a  dissipated  life. 
With  him  and  his  companions  the  disappointed 
and  harassed  composer  forgot  his  troubles,  and 
for  10  or  12  weeks,  the  first  and  only  time  in 
his  life,  was  induced  to  break  in  upon  his  ab- 
stemious habits.  With  the  exception  of  those 
which  relate  to  this  short  period,  the  stories 
unfavorable  to  his  reputation  which  are  current 
in  musical  literature  are  without  foundation. 
On  May  9  the  magistrates  of  Vienna  appointed 
Mozart  adjunct  and  successor  to  the  chapel- 
master  Hoffmann  of  St.  Stephen's  church,  the 


best  musical  position  in  Vienna,  except  the 
imperial  chapelmasterships.  In  July  a  mes- 
senger unknown  to  Mozart  (his  name  was  Leut- 
ger)  brought  him  an  anonymous  letter  in  which, 
after  speaking  warmly  of  the  composer's  ge- 
nius, his  terms  for  a  requiem  were  demanded. 
Mozart  gave  them,  and  soon  after  the  messen- 
ger returned  and  paid  him  50  ducats  (or  ac- 
cording to  some  authorities  100)  in  advance. 
At  this  time  he  was  so  assiduously  engaged  on 
the  "  Magic  Flute"  that  he  could  not  carry  out 
Da  Ponte's  suggestion  of  giving  performances 
in  London,  and  he  was  moreover  suddenly 
called  upon  in  August  to  compose  an  opera  for 
the  coronation  of  the  emperor  as  king  of  Bo- 
hemia at  Prague.  But  four  or  five  weeks  re- 
mained for  the  entire  labor  of  composition  and 
rehearsal  of  this,  the  Clemenza  di  Tito,  one  of 
Metastasio's  texts.  When  they  were  about  to 
leave  for  Prague,  some  one  pulled  Mme.  Mo- 
zart's dress  as  she  and  her  husband  were  en- 
tering the  carriage.  She  turned,  and  recognized 
the  man  who  had  ordered  the  requiem.  Mo- 
zart explained  the  necessity  of  the  journey,  and 
promised  to  complete  it  at  once  on  his  return. 
When  he  reached  Prague  but  18  days  were  left 
before  the  opera  was  to  be  given.  But  his 
pupil  Siissmaier  was  so  well  acquainted  with 
Mozart's  style  of  composition,  that  his  master 
could  give  the  score  into  his  hands  after  the 
vocal  parts  were  written  and  the  accompani- 
ment sketched,  to  be  filled  out.  In  this  manner 
the  work  was  completed  in  time ;  but  it  was 
not  received  as  his  others  had  been,  partly  on 
account  of  the  character  of  the  libretto,  and 
partly  because  the  subject  was  scarcely  fitted 
for  the  excitement  of  a  coronation.  The  opera 
afterward  became  popular.  In  September  Mo- 
zart returned  to  Vienna,  sick  and  disappointed, 
to  divide  his  time  between  the  "  Magic  Flute  " 
and  the  requiem.  The  opera  was  performed 
on  the  30th  of  that  month,  Mozart  directing. 
The  audience  remained  cold  to  the  end  of  the 
first  act,  but  warmed  up  before  the -close,  and 
the  composer  was  called  before  the  curtain. 
Its  popularity  increased  with  each  performance. 
It  was  given  24  times  in  October  alone.  There 
is  hardly  another  instance  in  the  annals  of  the 
lyric  stage  where  an  opera  possessed  of  so  little 
dramatic  action  has  become  so  universally  popu- 
lar. That  Goethe  wrote  a  second  part  to  it  is 
perhaps  the  greatest  compliment  that  could  be 
paid  it.  Mozart  now  applied  himself  to  the 
composition  of  the  requiem  with  all  the  force 
of  his  genius.  He  was  unable  to  discover  the 
name  (a  Count  Walsegg)  of  him  who  had  or- 
dered it,  and  he  began  to  fancy  that  there  was 
something  supernatural  about  it.  The  anxieties 
of  the  preceding  year,  possibly  the  change  in 
his  habits  while  under  the  influence  of  Schika- 
neder, and  his  labors  on  the  "Titus,"  had 
brought  his  nervous  system  into  a  condition 
which  required  a  long  period  of  rest.  But  he 
persisted  in  work,  although  he  fainted  repeat- 
edly while  engaged  on  the  "Magic  Flute;" 
and  the  restless  energy  with  which  he  lab'ored 


24: 


MOZART 


on  the  requiem  daily  enfeebled  him.     His  wife 
became  anxious,  called  a  physician,  and  took 
away  the  score.     He  then  imagined  that  some 
one   had   given   him  poison.      In  November 
he  was  so  much  better  as  to  write  a  cantata 
for  the  masonic  lodge  to  which  he  belonged, 
" Praise  of  Friendship;"   but  at  this  time  a 
rheumatic  inflammatory  fever  was  epidemic  in 
Vienna,  and  in  Mozart's  enfeebled  condition  it 
seized  upon  him.     Inflammation  of  the  lungs 
led  to  dropsy  of  the  chest,  and  after  two  weeks 
confinement  to  his  bed  he  died.     On  the  last 
day  of  his  life  he  busied  himself  with  the  re- 
quiem, which  he  fancied  he  was  composing  for 
his  own  obsequies,  but  left  it  unfinished.     The 
widow  could  not  return  the  money  which  had 
been  received  for  it,  and  she  determined  to 
have  it  completed  from  her  husband's  rough 
nptes.     Siissmaier,  Mozart's  pupil,  had  often 
conversed  with  him  about  the  plan  of  the  work, 
and  as  his  hand  had  a  remarkable  similarity  to 
that  of  his  master,  he  undertook  the  task.     He 
copied  all  that  Mozart  had  written,  and  added 
the  rest,  consisting  of  the  close  of  the  Lacri- 
mosa,  the  Sanctus,   the  Benedictm,  and  the 
Agnus  Dei,  save  that  to  the  words  Cum  sanctis 
he  repeated  the  fugue  of  the  Kyrie.    When 
the  messenger  came  for  the  requiem,  this  score 
was  given  him  ;  and  its  authenticity  as  a  manu- 
script from  Mozart's  hand  was  never  suspected 
by  Walsegg  until  it  began  to  be  discussed  by 
the  press.     While  Mozart  lay  sick,  the  Hun- 
garian nobility  secured  to  him  an  annual  pen- 
sion of  1,000  florins,  and  a  musical  association 
in  Amsterdam  a  still  higher  annuity,  for  which 
he  was  to  furnish  certain  compositions  an- 
nually.— Mozart  left  more  than  800  works  for 
the  pianoforte  in  all  forms,  variations  on  a 
simple  theme,  works  for  two  pianofortes,  and 
up  through  all  gradations  to  the  concerto,  with 
full  orchestra ;  for  orchestral  instruments  of 
every  kind,  from  solos  to  the  grand  symphony ; 
there  are  even  compositions  for  Franklin's  har- 
monica, and  a  piece  for  a  musical  clock.  Equally 
universal  is  he  in  vocal  music,  from  songs  and 
airs  for  every  kind  of  voice,  to  the  opera  and 
church  music  in  all  its  forms  as  employed  in 
the  Roman  Catholic  service.     But  it  is  not  so 
much  the  quantity  as  the  excellence  of  his  music 
which  excites  the  astonishment  of  the  musician. 
This  was  owing  not  more  to  the  greatness  of 
his  genius  than  to  his  profound  studies,  which 
from  infancy  to  the  close  of  his  life  never  ceased. 
During  the  rehearsals  of   Don    Giovanni  at 
Prague,  in  a  conversation  with  the  chapelmas- 
ter  Kucharz,  he  remarked,  in  reply  to  praises 
of  the  new  work  :   "  People  err  if  they  think 
my  art  has  cost  me  no  trouble ;  I  assure  you, 
my  dear  friend,  no  one  has  taken  such  pains 
with  the  study  of  composition  as  I.     There  is 
hardly  a  celebrated  master  in  music  whom  I 
have  not  carefully,  and  in  many  cases  several 
times,  studied  through."  Several  generations  of 
musicians  have  been  educated  upon  the  works 
of  Mozart.     His  ideas  have  become  common 
stock;   and  effects  which,  if  now  introduced 


MOZIER 

into  a  composition,  would  sound  hackneyed, 
were  in  his  works  the  joint  production  of  lofty 
genius  and  profound  contrapuntal  knowledge, 
niided  and  restrained  by  exquisite  taste.     As 
an  instrumental  composer  perhaps  one  only  has 
surpassed  him,  Beethoven ;  but  Beethoven  had 
perfected  his  genius  by  studying  Mozart.  Haydn 
tiad  developed  the  quartet  form  and  invented 
the  grand  symphony.    Mozart  gave  them  a  new 
spirit,  and  one  sees  his  influence  in  all  Haydn's 
later  works.     That  great  master  said  to  Mo- 
zart's father  in  1785  :  "  I  tell  you  before  God 
and  as  a  man  of  honor,  that  I  look  upon  your 
son  as  the  greatest  composer  of  whom  I  ever 
heard;   he  has  taste,  and  possesses  the  most 
thorough  knowledge  of  composition."     The 
symphony  in  0  with  the  fugue  is  alone  suffi- 
cient proof  of  the  correctness  of  Haydn's  opin- 
ion; it  is  the  greatest  work  of  the  kind  ever 
written  before  Beethoven.     But  it  was  as  an 
operatic  composer  that  Mozart  reached  a  height 
upon  which,  like  Handel  in  oratorio,  and  Bach 
in  his  own  contrapuntal  sphere,  and  Beetho- 
ven in  orchestral  music,  he  stands  superior  to 
all  his  predecessors.     Two  musical  institutions 
bear  his  name,  the  Mozarteum  at  Salzburg,  and 
the  Mozartstiftung  in  Frankfort,  and  a  monu- 
ment was  erected  to  him  in  the  former  city  in 
1852. — Among  German  works  relating  to  Mo- 
zart are  those  by  Niemetschek  (1798),  Roch- 
litz  (1801),  Arnold  (1803),  Nissen  (1828),  and 
Otto  Jahn  (4  vols.,  1856-'9  ;  new  ed.,  2  vols., 
1869),  the  last  of  which  is  considered  the  best. 
The  best  French  works  on  Mozart  are  by  Fetis 
and  Scudo.    Several  of  the  German  works  have 
been  translated  into  French,  and  a  publication 
in  French  by  the  Russian  Ulibisheff  (Moscow, 
1841)  has  been  translated  into  German  (new 
ed.  by  Prof.  Santler,  3  vols.,  1873).     In  Eng- 
lish, E.  Holmes  published  a  "Life  of  Mozart" 
(2  vols.,  London,  1865).   Mozart's  letters,  edited 
by  Nohl  (1865;   new  ed.,  1870),  have  been 
translated  into  English  by  Lady  Wallace  (2  vols., 
London,  1865).    The  earliest  notice  of  Mozart 
in  any  language  is  by  Daines  Barrington  in  the 
"Philosophical  Transactions"  (1770).    In  1874 
the  house  in  which  Mozart  composed  the  "Ma- 
gic Flute"  was  removed  to  the  Mirabellgarten 
in  Salzburg,  to  be  a  repository  of  portraits  and 
autographs  of  his  eminent  contemporaries  and 
of  musicians  and  poets  of  the  present  day. — 
KARL,  the  last  surviving  son  of  Mozart,  at- 
tended the  centennial  celebration  of  his  father's 
birth  at  Salzburg  in  1856,  and  died  in  Milan, 
Oct.  31,  1858,  leaving  a  large  fortune. 

MOZIER,  Joseph,  an  American  sculptor,  born 
in  Burlington,  Vt.,  Aug.  22,  1812,  died  in 
Switzerland  in  October,  1870.  He  removed 
to  New  York  in  1831,  and  was  engaged  in 
mercantile  pursuits  till  1845,  when  he  retired 
^from  business,  and  shortly  after  visited  Eu- 
*rope.  Having  devoted  several  years  to  the 
study  of  sculpture  in  Florence,  he  went  to 
Rome,  where  he  long  resided.  His  principal 
works  are  a  statue  of  Pocahontas,  the  "Wept 
of  the  Wish-ton- Wish,"  contributed  to  the  in- 


MOZLEY 


MUD  FISH 


25 


ternational  exhibition  at  London  in  1862,  stat- 
ues of  "Truth"  and  "Silence"  in  the  posses- 
sion of  the  New  York  mercantile  library  asso- 
ciation, "Rebecca  at  the  Well,"  "Esther," 
a  group  illustrating  the  parable  of  the  prodi- 
gal son,  an  "Indian  Girl  at  the  Grave  of 
her  Lover,"  and  "  Jephthah's  Daughter." 

MOZLEY,  James  Bowling,  an  English  clergyman, 
born  in  Lincolnshire  in  1813.  He  graduated 
at  Oriel  college,  Oxford,  in  1834,  was  elected 
fellow  of  Magdalen  college,  and  became  vicar 
of  Shoreham,  Sussex,  in  1856.  He  was  ap- 
pointed Bampton  lecturer  in  1865,  canon  of 
Worcester  in  1869,  and  regius  professor  of 
divinity  and  canon  of  Christ's  church,  Oxford, 
in  1871.  He  has  published  "A  Treatise  on 
the  Augustinian  Doctrine  of  Predestination" 
(1855);  "Primitive  Doctrine  of  Baptismal  Re- 
generation" (1856);  "Review  of  the  Baptis- 
mal Controversy"  (1862);  "On  Subscription 
to  the  Articles"  (1863);  and  "On  Miracles" 
(Bampton  lectures,  3d  ed.,  1872). 

MTZENSK,  or  Mzensk,  a  town  of  Russia,  in  the 
government  and  35  m.  N".  E.  of  the  city  of 
Orel,  on  the  Zusha;  pop.  .in  1872,  13,373.  It 
is  the  capital  of  a  circle,  contains  13  church- 
es and  two  convents,  and  has  a  considerable 
trade  in  agricultural  products. 

M1JCIUS  SCJ1VOLA.     See  SC^VOLA. 

MiJCRE,  Heinrich  Karl  Anton,  a  German  painter, 
born  in  Breslau,  April  9,  1806.  He  completed 
his  studies  in  Berlin  under  Schadow,  whom  he 
accompanied  to  Diisseldorf,  where  he  became 
in  1844  teacher  of  anatomy  at  the  academy. 
In  1849  he  was  appointed  professor  and  subse- 
quently member  of  the  academical  senate,  which 
offices  he  resigned  in  1867.  He  visited  Italy 
and  England,  and  was  employed  in  painting  in 
the  former  country,  and  on  designs  for  the  "  Art 
Journal "  in  the  latter.  Among  his  principal 
works  are  frescoes  in  the  palace  of  Heltorf, 
near  Dusseldorf,  illustrating  the  life  of  Fred- 
erick Barbarossa,  with  Lessing  and  other  ar- 
tists ;  and  a  large  fresco  in  St.  Andrew's  church 
at  Dusseldorf.  His  fine  frescoes  for  the  Elber- 
f  eld  town  hall  have  been  destroyed.  Among  his 
most  celebrated  oil  paintings  is  "  St.  Catharine 
carried  by  Angels  to  Mount  Sinai."  His  other 
works  include  "  The  Storming  of  Jerusalem 
by  Godfrey  of  Bouillon,"  "The  Crowning  of 
the  Virgin,"  "The  Resurrection,"  and  many 
etchings  and  designs  for  illustrated  works. 

MUOOUS  MEMBRANE.     See  MEMBKANE. 

MUCUS,  a  transparent,  colorless,  and  glairy  or 
viscid  fluid,  exuded  upon  the  free  surface  of 
the  mucous  membranes  of  the  living  body.  It 
is  the  secretion  of  the  numerous  glandulse  or 
follicles  with  which  these  membranes  are  pro- 
vided, and  varies  in  the  details  of  its  composi- 
tion and  the  degree  of  its  viscidity  with  the 
particular  region  in  which  it  is  produced  and 
the  special  function  which  it  is  destined  to  per- 
form. It  does  not  readily  mix  with  water,  but 
when  agitated  with  that  liquid  is  broken  up 
into  floating  shreds  or  flakes,  which  are  apt  to 
become  frothy  from  the  entanglement  of  bub- 


bles of  air.  It  consists  of  water  combined 
with  a  small  quantity  of  the  mineral  salts,  and 
a  peculiar  variety  of  animal  or  organic  matter 
termed  mucosine;  to  this  last  ingredient  the 
glairy  or  viscid  consistency  of  mucus  is  mainly 
due.  The  office  of  mucus  is  to  lubricate  the 
mucous  canals  and  thus  facilitate  the  passage 
of  their  contents,  as  in  the  mouth,  oesophagus, 
and  genito-urinary  passages;  to  protect  their 
surfaces  from  injury  by  desiccation,  as  in  the 
nares,  trachea,  and  bronchial  tubes ;  or  to  take 
part  in  the  chemical  changes  going  on  in  their 
cavities,  as  in  the  small  intestine.  In  the  cer- 
vix uteri,  during  gestation,  the  mucus  has  so 
great  a  degree  of  viscidity  as  to  be  semi-solid 
like  gum  or  strong  paste ;  its  office  is  to  block 
up  the  cavity  of  the  cervix  uteri  and  prevent 
the  escape  or  injury  of  the  foetus. 

MUD  EEL.    See  SIEEN. 

MUD  FISH  (amia,  Linn.),  a  genus  of  American 
ganoids,  found  in  the  fresh  waters  of  the  United 
States.  After  it  had  been  referred  by  ichthy- 
ologists to  cyprinoid,  salmonoid,  and  clupeoid 
fishes,  Vogt  discovered  it  to  be  a  ganoid,  hav- 
ing found  in  the  muscular  arterial  trunk  two 
oblique  rows  of  five  or  six  valves  each  and  a 
spiral  intestinal  valve.  Muller  considers  it  the 
living  representative  of  a  ganoid  family,  like 
the  fossil  megalurus,  leptolepis,  and  their  con- 
geners. The  body  is  long  and  flexible,  with  a 
bony  vertebral  column ;  there  are  no  spiny 
plates  on  the  anterior  border  of  the  fins  as  in 
the  gar  fish,  nor  a  series  of  separate  dorsal  fins 
as  in  polypterus;  the  mouth  is  trout-like,  ex- 
cept in  the  absence  of  lingual  teeth ;  there  are 
two  nasal  cirri ;  the  head  is  flat,  and  the  bones 
under  the  very  thin  skin  are  sculptured  plates; 
the  large  sublingual  bone  is  naked  and  fur- 
rowed, the  gill  openings  large,  and  the  bran- 
chiostegal  rays  broad  and  flat,  11  or  12;  tongue 
thick  and  fleshy ;  behind  the  conical  teeth  of 
the  jaws  are  flat  pavement-like  ones ;  the  scales 
are  horny  rather  than  osseous,  flexible  and 
rounded,  yet  presenting  bone  corpuscles  of  the 
same  form  and  character  as  lepidosteus  and 
other  ganoids;  the  ventral  fins  are  median, 
the  single  dorsal  long,  and  the  anal  short ;  the 


Western  Mud  Fish  (Amia  occidentalis). 

caudal  comes  further  forward  above  than 
below,  rounded,  giving  an  indication  of  the 
heterocercal  tail.  The  larger  air  bladder  is 
cellular  and  lung-like,  communicating  with  the 


26  MUD  HEN 

oesophagus ;  no  pancreatic  caeca ;  ova  dropping 
into  abdominal  cavity.  Of  about  ten  species, 
the  best  known  is  the  western  mud  fish  (A. 
occidentals,  De  Kay),  from  1£  to  3  ft.  long ; 
the  back  of  the  head  is  bluish  black,  the  sides 
often  obscurely  spotted  with  olive,  white  be- 
low, and  with  a  black  spot  at  the  upper  edge 
of  the  caudal.  It  is  found  in  the  great  north- 
ern lakes,  south  to  Carolina,  and  west  to  the 
Mississippi ;  it  is  the  bowfin  of  Lake  Ohamplain, 
the  dog  fish  of  Lake  Erie,  and  the  marsh  fish 
of  the  Canadians ;  it  feeds  on  crawfish  and 
other  crustaceans,  and  is  sometimes  eaten  by 
the  Indians.  This  may  include  several  species. 

MUD  HEN.    See  COOT. 

MUDIE,  Robert,  a  British  author,  born  in  For- 
farshire,  Scotland,  in  1777,  died  in  London  in 
1842.  He  was  self-educated,  and  in  1802  was 
appointed  professor  of  Gaelic  and  teacher  of 
drawing  in  the  Inverness  academy.  In  1820 
he  went  to  London,  and  was  employed  as  a 
reporter  on  the  "  Morning  Chronicle,"  but  his 
career  ended  unhappily.  He  published  a  great 
number  of  popular  works  on  natural  history, 
astronomy,  and  other  subjects,  including  "The 
British  Naturalist"  (2  vols.,  1835),  "Man, 
Social,  Intellectual,  Moral,  Physical,"  "  Hamp- 
shire," &c. 

MUEZZIN  (Arab,  mueddzin,  caller,  proclaim- 
er),  an  officer  of  a  mosque  who  calls  the  faith- 
ful to  prayer,  as  prescribed  in  the  Koran,  at 
dawn,  near  noon,  in  the  afternoon,  a  little  after 
sunset,  and  at  nightfall,  generally  about  an 
hour  and  a  quarter  after  sunset.  He  stands 
upon  the  balcony  of  a  minaret,  and  turning  suc- 
cessively toward  the  four  cardinal  points  chants 
in  a  loud  voice:  "God  is  great;  I  testify 
that  there  is  no  God  but  Allah ;  I  testify  that 
Mohammed  is  the  prophet  of  God.  Come  to 
prayer ;  come  to  the  temple  of  safety.  God  is 
great.  There  is  no  God  but  Allah."  For  the 
convenience  of  those  who  may  desire  to  per- 
form extra  devotions,  the  muezzin  chants  the 
same  words  during  the  night,  and  at  these 
times,  immediately  after  the  words  "  come  to 
the  temple  of  safety,"  he  adds :  "  Prayer  is  bet- 
ter than  sleep."  According  to  an  Arabic  tra- 
dition, the  office  was  instituted  by  Mohammed 
himself,  and  the  words  last  quoted  were  added 
to  the  regular  formula  by  the  first  muezzin  on 
an  occasion  when  the  prophet  overslept  him- 
self. Mohammed  approved  of  them,  and  they 
were  ever  afterward  retained  in  the  nightly 
call.  As  the  lofty  position  of  the  muezzin  ena- 
bles him  to  overlook  the  roofs  and  balconies  of 
the  neighboring  private  houses,  on  which  the 
women  often  pass  their  time,  it  has  long  been 
the  custom  to  confer  the  office  only  on  blind 
men ;  and  stories  abound  in  the  East  of  men 
feigning  blindness  in  order  to  secure  it.  Pu- 
rity of  morals,  acquaintance  with  the  Koran, 
and  a  strong  and  pleasant  voice  are  also  re- 
garded  as  indispensable  qualifications. 

MUFTI  (Arab.,  one  who  expounds  the  law),  a 
doctor  of  the  law  of  the  Koran  who  performs 
certain  religious  and  civil  functions.  There  is 


MUGGLETON 

one  in  every  large  town  of  the  Ottoman  em- 
pire. In  his  religious  capacity  he  manages  the 
property  of  the  church  and  watches  over  the 
due  observance  and  preservation  of  its  rites  and 
discipline.  In  his  civil  capacity  he  pronounces 
decisions  in  such  matters  of  dispute  as  may  be 
submitted  to  him.  He  has  no  power  to  en- 
force his  decision,  but  if  it  is  not  voluntarily 
conformed  to  by  the  parties,  it  has  great  weight 
before  any  other  tribunal  to  which  they  may 
appeal.  Matters  of  police,  disputes  between 
families,  and  generally  questions  involving  pri- 
vate interests  of  no  great  importance,  are  de- 
cided by  the  mufti  without  the  intervention 
of  advocates  or  any  legal  expense.  According 
to  tradition,  his  decisions  should  be  given  in 
the  fewest  words  without  assigning  any  rea- 
sons; if  possible,  it  should  be  simply  "Yea" 
or  "Nay."  The  mufti  of  Constantinople,  or 
grand  mufti,  called  also  sheikh  ul-Islam,  "chief 
of  Islam,"  is  the  highest  religious  authority  of 
the  empire.  He  is  appointed  by  the  sultan 
and  can  be  deposed  by  him,  but  the  sultan  can- 
not sentence  the  grand  mufti  to  death  nor  con- 
fiscate his  property.  The  grand  mufti  ranks 
next  to  the  grand  vizier ;  he  is  the  chief  inter- 
preter of  the  law,  and  his  authority  and  influ- 
ence, though  merely  advisory,  were  formerly 
very  great.  Of  late  years  the  practical  impor- 
tance of  the  office  has  greatly  declined. 

MUGGE,  Theodor,  a  German  author,  born  in 
Berlin,  Nov.  8,  1806,  died  there,  Feb.  18,  1861. 
He  abandoned  commercial  life  to  enlist  in  the 
army,  and  was  about  to  join  Bolivar  in  Peru 
when  the  news  of  the  expulsion  of  the  Span- 
iards reached  him  in  London.  He  then  stud- 
ied in  the  university  of  Berlin,  published  Bil- 
der  am  dem  Leben  (1829),  and  after  losing  by 
his  political  pamphlets  in  1830  all  chance  of 
receiving  a  public  office,  he  began  to  publish 
tales,  novels,  and  narratives  of  travel.  A  com- 
plete edition  of  his  works  appeared  in  33  vol- 
umes in  1862-'7.  The  most  notable  are :  Tom- 
saint  Louverture  (1840);  Die  Schweiz  (1847; 
English  translation  by  Mrs.  Percy  Sinnet,  Lon- 
don, 1848)  ;  and  his  novels  delineating  Scandi- 
navian life,  Afraja  (1854 ;  English  translation 
by  Edward  Joy  Morris,  Philadelphia,  1854; 
French,  Paris,  1857),  Erich  Randal  (1857),  and 
Leben  und  Lieben  in  Norwegen  (1858). 

MUGGLETON,  Ludowick,  an  English  fanatic, 
who  in  conjunction  with  John  Reeve  founded 
the  sect  of  the  Muggletonians,  born  in  1609, 
died  March  14,  1697.  He  was  a  tailor,  and  in 
1651  proclaimed  himself  and  Reeve  the  "  two 
last  witnesses  "  mentioned  in  the  Apocalypse, 
and  armed  with  power  to  prophesy  and  to 
punish  men.  Muggleton  professed  to  be  the 
"  mouth "  of  Reeve,  as  Aaron  was  of  Moses. 
They  began  their  mission  by  denouncing  all 
religious  sects,  especially  Ranters  and  Quakers. 
In  1656  appeared  an  exposition  of  their  doc- 
trines under  the  title  of  "  The  Divine  Looking 
Glass."  They  held  that  God  has  the  body  of  a 
man,  that  there  is  no  distinction  of  persons  in 
the  Trinity,  and  that  God,  descending  to  earth 


MUHLBACH 


MUHLHAUSEN 


and  suffering  on  the  cross,  left  Elias  as  his  vice- 
gerent in  heaven  during  his  absence.  They 
were  attacked  by  William  Penn  in  a  book 
called  "The  New  Witnesses  proved  Old  Here- 
tics." Muggleton  was  arraigned  at  the  Old 
Bailey  for  blasphemy  in  1676.  The  first  com- 
plete edition  of  his  works  was  published  in 
1756.  In  1832  another  edition  appeared  in  3 
vols.  4to,  including  his  rhapsodies  and  those 
of  Reeve,  with  several  tracts  by  others. 

MUHLBACH,  Lnise.     See  MUNDT,  KLARA. 

MLHLBERG,  a  town  of  Prussia,  in  the  prov- 
ince of  Saxony,  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Elbe, 
40  m.  S.  E.  of  Wittenberg;  pop.  about  3,500. 
It  is  memorable  for  the  victory  obtained  here, 
April  24, 1547,  by  the  emperor  Charles  V.  over 
the  elector  of  Saxony,  John  Frederick,  which 
terminated  the  war  of  the  Smalcald  league, 
the  elector  himself  being  taken  prisoner.  The 
Protestant  cause  in  Germany  was  completely 
prostrated,  but  the  fruits  of  his  victory  were 
lost  to  the  emperor  by  the  defection  in  1552 
of  Maurice,  the  new  elector  of  Saxony. 

Ml  HLDORF,  Battle  of.     See  AMPFING. 

MUHLENBERG.  L  Peter  John  Gabriel,  an  Amer- 
ican general,  son  of  Henry  Melchior  Muhlen- 
berg,  the  founder  of  the  German  Lutheran 
church  in  America,  born  at  Trappe,  Montgom- 
ery co.,  Pa.,  Oct.  1,  1746,  died  near  Philadel- 
phia, Oct.  1,  1807.  He  was  ordained  to  the 
ministry  in  England,  and  preached  at  Wood- 
stock, Va.  His  last  sermon  was  upon  the  du- 
ties men  owe  to  their  country;  and  saying, 
"There  is  a  time  for  all  things,  a  time  to 
preach  and  a  time  to  fight,  and  now  is  the 
time  to  fight,'1  he  stripped  off  his  gown  after 
the  service,  put  on  a  uniform,  read  his  commis- 
sion as  colonel,  and  formed  a  regiment  among 
his  parishioners.  He  was  made  brigadier  gen- 
eral in  1777,  and  major  general  at  the  close  of 
the  revolution.  After  the  war  he  removed  to 
Pennsylvania,  where  he  was  elected  a  member 
of  the  supreme  executive  council,  and  in  1785 
became  vice  president  of  the  commonwealth. 
He  was  a  member  of  congress  in  1789-'91, 
1793-'5,  and  1799-1801.  In  1801  he  was 
elected  United  States  senator,  but  resigned 
the  next  year,  and  was  appointed  supervisor 
of  the  revenue  for  the  district  of  Pennsyl- 
vania. From  1803  till  his  death  he  was  collec- 
tor of  the  port  of  Philadelphia.  His  life  has 
been  written  by  H.  A.  Muhlenberg  (Philadel- 
phia, 1849).  II.  Gotthilf  Henry  Ernst,  an  Amer- 
ican clergyman  and  botanist,  brother  of  the 
preceding,  born  in  New  Providence,  Mont- 
gomery co.,  Pa.,  Nov.  17,  1753,  died  in  Lan- 
caster, May  23, 1815.  At  the  age  of  10  he  was 
sent  to  the  university  of  Halle.  In  1770  he 
returned  to  America,  and  in  1774  became  as- 
sistant to  his  father,  then  pastor  of  the  Lu- 
theran congregation  in  Philadelphia.  In  1780 
he  became  pastor  of  the  church  at  Lancaster. 
He  was  a  member  of  the  American  philosophi- 
cal society,  of  the  Gesellschaft  naturforschen- 
der  Freunde  in  Berlin,  of  the  philosophical  and 
physical  societies  of  Gottingen,  and  of  various 


other  associations  in  Germany  and  Sweden. 
His  chief  works  are:  Catalogus  Plantarum 
Americce  Septentrionalis  (Lancaster,  1813), 
and  Descriptio  Vberior  Graminum,  &c.  (1817). 
III.  William  Augustus,  an  American  clergyman, 
great-grandson  of  Henry  Melchior  Muhlen- 
berg, born  in  Philadelphia,  Sept.  16,  1796. 
He  graduated  at  the  university  of  Pennsyl- 
vania in  1814,  was  ordained  for  the  ministry 
of  the  Protestant  Episcopal  church  in  1817, 
and  became  assistant  in  Christ's  church,  of 
which  Bishop  White  was  rector.  In  1821  he 
accepted  the  rectorship  of  St.  James's  church, 
Lancaster,  where  he  was  instrumental  in  es- 
tablishing the  first  public  school  in  the  state 
out  of  Philadelphia.  He  founded  in  1828  a 
school  at  Flushing,  L.  I.,  which  was  afterward 
known  as  St.  Paul's  college,  and  for  nearly  20 
years  was  its  principal.  In  1846  he  became 
rector  of  the  church  of  the  Holy  Communion, 
New  York,  which  was  erected  by  his  sister, 
and  was  the  earliest  free  Episcopal  church. 
Not  long  afterward  he  began  his  efforts  to  se- 
cure the  founding  of  St.  Luke's  hospital,  which 
was  erected  in  Fifth  aveuue  and  54th  street, 
and  opened  in  1858,  Dr.  Muhlenberg  becoming 
its  first  pastor  and  superintendent,  which  post 
he  still  holds  (1875).  In  1845  he  organized 
the  first  Protestant  sisterhood  in  the  United 
States,  and  the  ladies  of  this  association  are 
in  charge  of  St.  Luke's  hospital.  He  has  also, 
within  the  past  few  years,  made  an  effective 
beginning  toward  establishing  an  industrial 
Christian  settlement  at  St.  Johnland,  Long 
Island,  about  45  m.  from  New  York.  He  is 
the  author  of  the  well  known  hymn,  "  I  would 
not  live  alway,"  and  of  other  poems,  has  pub- 
lished "  Church  Poetry,  being  Portions  of  the 
Psalms  in  Verse  and  Hymns  suited  to  the 
Festivals  and  Fasts,  from  various  authors" 
(1823)  ;  in  conjunction  with  Bishop  Wain- 
wright,  "  Music  of  the  Church  "  (1852) ;  and 
"  The  People's  Psalter  "  (1858).  He  originated 
the  famous  memorial  movement  in  the  Epis- 
copal church,  and  has  written  much  on  evan- 
gelical catholic  union. 

MUHLEIiBURG,  a  W.  county  of  Kentucky, 
bounded  N.  E.  by  Green  river  and  W.  by  Pond 
river,  its  principal  branch ;  area,  430  sq.  m. ; 
pop.  in  1870,  12,638,  of  whom  1,633  were  col- 
ored. The  surface  is  hilly  and  the  soil  gen- 
erally fertile.  It  contains  coal  and  iron  mines 
near  Green  river.  The  Elizabethtown  and  Pa- 
ducah  railroad  passes  through  it.  The  chief 
productions  in  1870  were  36,544  bushels  of 
wheat,  364,513  of  Indian  corn,  86,880  of  oats, 
1,821,988  Ibs.  of  tobacco,  27,091  of  wool,  76,- 
389  of  butter,  and  2,615  tons  of  hay.  There 
were  2,985  horses,  1,290  mules  and  asses,  2,961 
milch  cows,  4,024  other  cattle,  13,959  sheep,- 
and  17,830  swine.  Capital,  Greenville. 

MUHLHAUSEN,  or  Mfflhausen  (Fr.  Mulhome),  a 
town  of  the  German  Reichsland  of  Alsace-Lor- 
raine, in  the  district  of  Upper  Alsace,  on  the 
111,  19  m.  N.  W.  of  Basel  and  62  m.  S.  S.  W.  of 
Strasburg;  pop.  in  1871,  52,825,  since  which  it 


28 


MtfHLHAUSEN 


has  considerably  increased  by  immigration  from 
Germany.  It  consists  of  an  old  and  a  new 
town,  the  former  on  an  island,  the  latter  on 
the  right  bank  of  the  111.  Since  the  beginning 
of  the  present  century  it  has  been  an  impor- 
tant seat  of  industry.  Cotton  printing  was 
introduced  here  about  the  middle  of  the  18th 
century,  and  is  largely  carried  on ;  and  re- 
cently the  manufacture  of  woollen  goods  has 
assumed  great  importance.  The  town  with  its 
territory  once  formed  part  of  the  Swiss  con- 
federation, but  was  united  to  France  in  1798. 
It  was  occupied  by  the  Germans  in  Septem- 
ber, 1870,  and  by  the  treaty  of  May,  1871,  was 
ceded  to  Germany. 

MUHLHAUSM,  a  town  of  Prussia,  in  the  prov- 
ince of  Saxony,  on  the  Unstrutt,  29  m.  N.  W. 
of  Erfurt;  pop.  in  1871,  19,516.  It  has  a 
gymnasium,  14  churches,  three  hospitals,  and 
an  orphan  asylum.  The  principal  manufac- 
tures are  linens,  woollens,  leather,  and  tobac- 
co. It  is  surrounded  by  walls,  and  was  for- 
merly a  free  city  of  the  empire.  It  is  mem- 
orable as  the  headquarters  of  Miinzer,  the 
leader  of  the  peasants'  war,  and  the  scene  of 
his  execution  in  1525. 

MUHLHEIM-ON-THE-RfflNE,  a  town  of  Rhe- 
nish Prussia,  on  the  Cologne  and  Minden  rail- 
way, 2  m.  N.  of  Cologne ;  pop.  in  1871, 13,511. 
It  has  a  Catholic  and  two  Protestant  church- 
es, a  synagogue  and  a  pro-gymnasium.  The 
industry  is  very  flourishing;  the  chief  manu- 
factures are  velvet,  silk,  and  leather.  There 
are  also  numerous  mills,  and  a  brisk  trade  by 
river  and  railway.  Its  prosperity  dates  from 
the  beginning  of  the  17th  century,  when  some 
Protestant  emigrants  from  Cologne  settled  here. 

MUHLHEIM-ON-THE-RUHR,  a  town  of  Rhenish 
Prussia,  35  m.  N.  of  Cologne;  pop.  in  1871, 
14,267.  It  has  a  Catholic  and  a  Protestant 
church,  a  Realschule,  and  a  school  of  weaving. 
There  are  important  manufactories  of  woollen 
and  linen  cloth,  of  paper,  tobacco,  soap,  and 
starch,  and  a  large  cotton  mill.  Many  vessels 
are  built  here  for  the  navigation  of  the  Rhine 
and  the  Ruhr,  which  here  becomes  navigable 
and  is  crossed  by  a  chain  bridge.  An  impor- 
tant trade  is  carried  on  in  coal,  large  quanti- 
ties of  which  are  shipped  to  Holland,  and  in 
building  materials. 

MUIR,  John,  a  British  orientalist,  born  in 
Glasgow  in  1810.  He  was  educated  in  the  uni- 
versity of  Glasgow  and  in  the  school  of  the 
East  India  company  at  Haileybury,  and  was 
employed  in  the  civil  service  in  British  India 
from  1828  to  1853.  He  gave  £5,000  to  the 
university  of  Edinburgh  for  the  endowment  of 
a  chair  of  Sanskrit  and  comparative  philolo- 
gy, and  has  greatly  promoted  the  diffusion  of 
Christianity  among  the  Hindoos.  His  principal 
work  is  "  Original  Sanskrit  Texts  on  the  Ori- 
gin and  History  of  the  People  of  India,  their 
Religion  and  Institutions"  (5  vols.,  London 
1858-'70).-^His  brother,  Sir  WILLIAM  MUIR 
(born  in  1819),  became  governor  of  the  North- 
western Provinces  of  India  in  1868. 


MULBERRY 

MULATTO.    See  NEGRO. 

MULBERRY,  a  name,  the  derivation  of  which 
is  obscurely  traced  to  morus,  the  Latin  name 
of  a  genus  of  trees  which  some  botanists  place 
in  a  division  of  the  nettle  family  (urticacew}, 
while  others  make  an  order  morem  for  this, 
the  fig,  the  breadfruit,  and  a  few  other  related 
genera.  The  mulberries  are  trees  with  round- 
ed leaves,  a  milky  juice,  and  monoecious  or 
dioecious  flowers  in  small  axillary  spikes ;  the 
flowers  are  apetalous,  the  sterile  consisting  of 
a  four-parted  calyx  and  four  stamens  ;  the 
fertile  with  a  similar  calyx  and  a  two-celled 
ovary  with  two  styles ;  in  ripening,  one  of  the 
cells  of  the  ovary  disappears,  and  the  fruit 
proper  is  one-seeded ;  it  is  surrounded  by  the 
calyx,  which  in  ripening  becomes  fleshy  and 
berry-like,  and  the  whole  fertile  spike,  crowd- 
ed with  the  ripened  calices,  becomes  edible. — 
The  red  mulberry  (M.  rubra)  is  found  from 
New  England  southward ;  it  is  usually  a  small 
tree  15  to  30  ft.  high,  but  in  some  localities  it 
reaches  60  or  70  ft.,  forming  a  handsome  head ; 
its  leaves  are  heart-ovate,  serrate,  rough  above, 
downy  beneath,  and  on  young  shoots  often 
lobed;  the  flowers  are  frequently  dioecious; 
the  fruit  is  about  an  inch  long,  dark  purple, 
and  pleasant  to  the  taste.  This  native  species 
has  been  singularly  neglected;  it  is  a  hand- 
some ornamental  tree,  and  produces  an  accept- 
able fruit,  which,  to  judge  from  what  has  been 
done  with  other  species,  may  be  greatly  im- 
proved ;  but  its  chief  value  is  in  the  excellent 
quality  of  its  timber,  which  is  of  a  yellowish 
color,  strong,  compact,  and  regarded  as  equal 
in  durability  to  that  of  the  locust ;  it  is  used 
in  ship  building  as  a  substitute  for  locust  in 
treenails,  and  for  the  light  timbers  of  vessels 
and  boats,  for  which  use  it  is  in  the  southern 


Black  Mulberry  (Morus  nigra). 

states  preferred  to  any  wood  except  the  red 
cedar. — The  black  mulberry  (M.  nigra),  prob- 
ably originally  from  Persia,  has  been  known 
from  very  early  times,  and  it  is  believed  that 


MULBEKRY 


29 


the  mulberry  mentioned  in  the  Scriptures  was 
this  species;  it  has  long  been  cultivated  in 
England,  as  it  is  mentioned  by  Tusser  in  1557 ; 
Shakespeare  had  a  favorite  tree  of  this  species 
in  his  garden  at  Stratford,  and  from  this  Gar- 
rick  raised  two  trees  which  were  standing  a 
few  years  ago.  There  are  several  -instances 
recorded  of  the  longevity  of  this  tree ;  those 
at  Syon  House,  the  residence  of  the  duke  of 
Northumberland,  can  be  traced  back  more  than 
three  centuries.  Not  only  is  the  tree  long- 
lived,  but  exceedingly  tenacious  of  life ;  it  is 
stated  in  the  Annales  des  sciences  naturelles 
that  a  root  sent  up  shoots  after  lying  dormant 
in  the  ground  for  24  years.  This  species  is 
not  hardy  in  a  climate  more  severe  than  that  of 
the  city  of  New  York.  It  seldom  grows  more 
than  30  ft.  high,  is  much  branched,  and  has 
heart-shaped,  rough  leaves ;  its  fruit  is  much 
larger  and  finer  than  that  of  our  native  species, 
being  an  inch  and  a  half  long  and  an  inch  thick ; 
when  ripe  the  fruit  falls  spontaneously,  and  it 
is  customary  to  plant  the  tree  in  grass  so  that 
the  fruit  may  be  kept  clean ;  the  seeds  of  cress 
or  other  fine-leaved  annuals  are  sown  around 
the  tree  when  it  stands  in  bare  ground,  to 
form  a  mat  to  receive  the  fruit.  In  England 
the  mulberry  is  a  popular  dessert  fruit,  and  it 
is  used  to  form  a  sweetmeat  and  a  sirup ;  its 
juice  is  mixed  with  that  of  apples  to  form  mul- 
berry cider.  The  wood  of  this  species  is  of  lit- 
tle value  except  for  fuel. — The  white  mulberry 
(M.  alba)  is  a  native  of  China,  and  has  become 
naturalized  in  the  older  portions  of  this  coun- 
try. It  is  readily  distinguished  by  its  obliquely 
heart-shaped,  somewhat  lobed  leaves,  which 
are  smooth  and  shining,  and  by  its  generally 
yellowish  white  fruit,  which  is  mawkishly 
sweet  and  without  flavor.  While  silkworms 
will  feed  upon  the  leaves  of  other  species,  none 
produce  silk  of  so  fine  quality  as  those  kept 
upon  the  leaves  of  the  white  mulberry.  This 
species  was  introduced  into  Europe  by  the 
way  of  the  Levant  in  1434.  The  variety  of 
this,  with  smaller  stems  and  more  abundant 
leaves,  called  M.  alba  multicaulis,  is  preferred 
in  the  silk-growing  countries  to  any  other. 
The  remarkable  excitement  caused  by  the 
introduction  of  this  variety  into  the  United 
States  30  or  40  years  ago  is  still  within  the 
recollection  of  many;  hundreds  of  people 
were  engaged  in  raising  mulberry  trees  for 
sale,  with  the  expectation  of  a  handsome  for- 
tune; but  as  unfortunately  there  were  no 
buyers,  the  speculation  subsided  as  suddenly 
as  it  arose.  A  seedling  of  the  multicaulis  is 
Downing's  ever-bearing  mulberry,  which  origi- 
nated with  Mr.  Charles  Downing  at  Newburgh, 
N.  Y. ;  the  tree  is  very  productive  and  remains 
in  bearing  a  long  time ;  the  fruit  is  nearly  as 
large  as  that  of  the  black  mulberry,  which  it 
resembles  in  flavor;  it  is  maroon-colored  or 
blue-black  at  maturity.  Although  the  fruit  of 
the  multicaulis  is  white,  it  has  produced  several 
dark-colored  seedlings  besides  this.  Hicks's 
ever-bearing  mulberry,  which  originated  in 


Kentucky,  produces  an  immense  quantity  of 
sweet  and  insipid  fruit  for  four  months;  in 
the  southern  states  it  is  planted  in  poultry 
yards  to  afford  the  fowls  both  shade  and  food. 


Paper  Mulberry  (Broussonetia  papyrifera). 

— The.  paper  mulberry  belongs  to  another  ge- 
nus of  the  same  family,  Broussonetia,  named 
in  honor  of  a  French  naturalist,  Broussonet; 
three  species  have  been  described,  but  they 
are  probably  all  forms  of  one,  B.  papyrifera, 
which  grows  wild  in  Japan,  China,  and  many 
of  the  islands  of  the  Pacific.  It  is  a  small 
quick-growing  tree,  20  or  30  ft.  high,  with 
leaves  very  variable  in  shape ;  upon  the  older 
branches  they  are  ovate  or  heart-shaped,  but 
those  upon  vigorous  shoots,  or  suckers  that 
spring  up  from  the  roots,  are  so  much  lobed 
and  cut  that  one  would  hardly  think  they 
could  belong  to  the  same  tree  with  the  oth- 
ers ;  they  are  all  rough  above  and  downy 
beneath.  This  species  is  truly  dioecious,  the 
staminate  trees  being  much  more  numerous 
than  the  fertile;  the  sterile  flowers  are  in 
cylindrical  catkins  much  like  those  of  the 
mulberry,  while  the  fertile  are  crowded  in  a 
round  head  about  the  size  of  a  marble ;  they 
consist  of  a  three-  or  four-lobed  calyx,  out  of 
which  the  ripened  ovary  protrudes  as  a  club- 
shaped,  pulpy  fruit,  which  is  scarlet,  sweetish, 
and  insipid.  This  has  long  been  cultivated  in 
New  York  and  southward  as  a  shade  tree,  but 
elsewhere  than  in  paved  streets  it  becomes  a 
nuisance  on  account  of  the  great  abundance  of 
suckers  it  produces.  It  is  fortunate  that  the 
fruit-bearing  trees  are  rare,  as  in  streets  the 
abundant  pulpy  fruits  fall  and  keep  the  walk 
in  an  unpleasant  condition.  The  Japanese  cul- 
tivate this  tree  to  furnish  material  for  their 
paper ;  the  tree  is  kept  cut  back  to  produce  an 
abundance  of  young  shoots;  these,  in  pieces 
of  convenient  size,  are  boiled  to  separate  the 
bark,  which  is  then  peeled  off  and  dried  for 
use.  The  bark  is  converted  into  paper  by 


30 


MULDER 


scraping  off  all  extraneous  matter,  and  boil- 
ing in  ley  until  its  fibres  separate ;  it  is  then 
beaten  with  wooden  sticks,  and  the  pulp  thus 
obtained  is  mixed  with  mucilage  and  spread 
upon  frames  of  rushes  to  dry.  The  so-called 
India  paper,  used  by  engravers  to  take  proofs 
of  their  work,  is  also  prepared  from  this  bark. 
In  the  South  sea  islands  the  bark  is  used  to 
make  tap  a,  which  serves  the  natives  as  a  sub- 
stitute for  cloth ;  the  bark  is  soaked  for  a  long 
time  and  then  beaten  to  the  requisite  thinness 
by  the  use  of  a  square  stick  of  hard  wood,  the 
sides  of  which  are  sharply  creased ;  the  cloth, 
which  is  made  into  garments,  is  used  plain  or 
stamped  with  rude  figures  in  various  colors. 
The  tree  is  propagated  from  cuttings  made  of 
the  root. — Mulberries  are  propagated  by  seeds, 
cuttings,  and  layers ;  they  grow  readily  from 
seeds  which  are  sown  in  early  spring.  The 
black  mulberry  is  grown  from  cuttings,  the 
multicaulis  variety  by  both  cuttings  and  lay- 
ers. Downing's  ever-bearing  is  propagated  by 
grafting  upon  roots  of  the  white  mulberry. 

MULDER,  Gerardus  Johannes,  a  Dutch  chemist, 
born  in  Utrecht,  Dec.  27,  1802.  He  studied 
at  the  university  of  Utrecht,  and  became  a 
physician  in  Amsterdam.  In  1827  he  was 
appointed  lecturer  on  botany  and  chemistry  in 
the  medical  school  of  Rotterdam,  resigned  in 
1830,  and  in  1840  became  professor  of  chem- 
istry at  Utrecht.  His  chief  work,  translated 
from  the  Dutch  into  German  by  Kolbe,  and 
into  English  by  Fromberg,  is  "Chemistry  of 
Vegetable  and  Animal  Physiology  "  (edited  by 
J.  F.  W.  Johnston,  Edinburgh,  1849).  In  this 
he  deduces  as  the  result  of  original  inquiries 
the  existence  in  animals  of  a  substance  which 
he  calls  "  proteine,"  which  they  derive  ready 
formed  from  plants.  This  discovery  involved 
Mulder  in  a  controversy  with  Liebig,  who 
from  the  difficulty  of  obtaining  it  doubted  the 
existence  of  proteine  as  an  independent  com- 
pound. Among  his  other  works  are  "  Chem- 
ical Researches"  (1847),  "The  Chemistry  of 
Wine"  (edited  by  H.  Bence  Jones,  London, 
1857),  "The  Chemistry  of  Beer"  (1856),  and 
"The  Chemistry  of  the  Vegetable  Mould"  (3 
vols.,  1861-'4),  all  of  which  have  been  trans- 
lated into  German. 

MULE.    See  Ass. 

MULE  DEER.     See  DEEE. 

MULGRAVE.  I.  Constantine  John  Phipps,  lord, 
a  British  navigator,  born  May  30,  1744,  died 
in  Liege,  Belgium,  Oct.  10,  1792.  His  father 
was  raised  to  the  Irish  peerage  as  Baron  Mul- 
grave  in  1767.  He  early  entered  the  navy, 
commanded  a  northeast  arctic  exploring  expe- 
dition in  1773,  and  returned  the  same  year 
having  reached  lat.  80°  48',  beyond  which  an 
impenetrable  field  of  ice  stretched  as  far  as 
could  be  seen.  He  was  afterward  commis- 
sioner of  the  admiralty,  and  in  1790  was 
created  Baron  Mulgrave  in  the  British  peer- 
age. He  published  a  "  Journal  of  a  Voyage 
toward  the  North  Pole"  (London,  1774). 
II.  Henry  Phipps,  first  earl  of  Mulgrave  and 


MULLEIN 

Viscount  Normanby,  brother  of  the  prece- 
ding, born  Feb.  14,  1755,  died  April  7,  1831. 
He  served  in  the  British  army  during  the 
American  war  of  independence.  On  his  broth- 
er's death  the  English  barony  became  extinct ; 
but  he  succeeded  to  the  Irish  title,  became  a 
member  of  Mr.  Pitt's  administration,  and  was 
noted  for  his  opposition  to  Roman  Catholic 
emancipation.  In  1807  he  was  made  first  lord 
of  the  admiralty,  and  in  1812  was  created 
earl  of  Mulgrave  and  Viscount  Normanby. 
(See  NOEMANBY.) 

MULGRAVE,  John  Sheffield,  earl  of.  See  BUCK- 
INGHAM, Or  BUCKINGHAMSHIRE,  DUKE  OF. 

MULGRAVE  (or  MOle)  ISLANDS,  a  group  in  the 
southern  part  of  the  Radack  chain,  which 
forms  the  eastern  part  of  the  Marshall  or  Mul- 
grave archipelago  in  the  N.  Pacific  ocean. 
Their  extent  is  not  very  well  determined,  but 
the  surrounding  reefs  have  been  examined  for 
about  40  m.,  and  only  one  pass  for  ships  and 
another  for  boats  could  be  found.  Some  of 
the  islands  are  mere  coral  rocks  submerged  at 
high  tide,  but  nearly  all  have  deep  water  close 
to"  the  reefs.  When  they  reach  the  level  of 
the  water  they  become,  like  the  islands  already 
formed,  covered  with  sand  and  vegetation. 
Some  of  them  are  of  considerable  size,  and 
have  clumps  of  cocoanut  and  breadfruit  trees. 

MULHOUSE.     See  MUHLHATTSEN. 

MULL,  an  island  of  the  Hebrides,  forming 
part  of  Argyleshire,  Scotland,  in  the  Atlantic 
ocean,  and  separated  from  the  mainland  by  a 
narrow  strait" called  the  sound  of  Mull;  area 
(including  that  of  the  surrounding  islets),  301 
sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1871,  5,947.  The  coast  is 
rocky,  and  deeply  indented.  The  surface  is 
mountainous,  Benmore,  its  highest  summit,  at- 
taining an  altitude  of  3,168  ft.  The  most  re- 
markable natural  objects  are  the  caverns  and 
basaltic  columns  and  arches  around  its  shores. 
The  soil  is  chiefly  devoted  to  pasturage.  Her- 
ring and  white  fish  are  caught  off  the  coasts. 
Mull  contains  several  villages.  Tobermory,  near 
the  1ST.  E.  extremity,  is  the  most  important. 

MULLEIN,  the  common  name  of  verbascum 
thapsus,  said  to  be  derived  from  the  Latin 
malandrium,  a  disease  like  leprosy,  applied  to 
this  plant  on  account  of  its  having  been  used 
for  this  and  similar  diseases  in  cattle.  It  is 
a  common  and  troublesome  plant  in  cultivated 
grounds  and  by  roadsides  in  the  older  parts  of 
the  United  States.  The  genus  includes  more 
than  80  species,  which  are  widely  distributed ; 
it  belongs  to  the  family  of  figworts  or  scrophu- 
lariacece,  and  differs  from  most  others  of  the 
family  in  having  an  open,  wheel-shaped  corolla. 
The  common  mullein  is  a  biennial  with  radical 
leaves  6  to  12  in.  long,  oblong- acute,  those  of 
the  stem  smaller  and  decurrent  at  the  base, 
forming  wings  upon  the  stem ;  the  leaves  and 
the  stem,  which  is  4-to  6  ft.  high,  are  clothed 
with  a  dense  woolly  pubescence,  which  gives 
the  plant  a  hoary  appearance ;  the  flowers  are 
collected  in  a  dense  spike,  a  foot  or  more  long, 
the  bright  yellow  corolla  nearly  equally  five- 


MULLEIN 

lobed;  stamens  five,  the  upper  three  with 
bearded  filaments;  the  fruit  a  thick,  ovoid, 
two-celled  capsule,  containing  numerous  small 
seeds.  The  plant  is  found  all  over  Europe  and 


MULLER 


31 


Common  Mullein  (Verbascum  thapsus). 

the  temperate  parts  of  Asia,  and  has  long  been 
naturalized  in  this  country.  Were  it  not  a 
weed,  the  mullein  would  be  valued  as  an  orna- 
mental plant,  as  a  single  well  grown  specimen 
is  a  stately  object ;  but  its  chief  importance  is 
as  a  weed,  and  its  presence  indicates  slovenly 
culture.  Although  it  so  abundantly  seeds  the 
ground,  it  is  not  difficult  to  eradicate  if  taken 
while  young.  The  leaves  have  a  mucilaginous 
and  bitter  taste,  and  slight  narcotic  properties, 
and  have  long  been  used  in  domestic  medicine 
to  allay  coughs  and  other  irritations,  and  ex- 
ternally as  an  emollient  application  to  tumors, 
piles,  &c. ;  on  account  of  its  use  in  diseases  of 
cattle,  one  of  its  common  names  in  England 
is  bullock's  lungwort.  The  down  upon  the 
leaves,  when  perfectly  dry,  makes  a  good 
tinder ;  the  same  substance  served  the  ancient 
Greeks  for  lamp  wicks,  and  the  Romans  dipped 
the  stalks  in  suet  to  make  funeral  torches. 
High  taper  and  hig  or  hag  taper  are  old  English 
names  for  the  plant,  and  refer  to  its  use  in  the 
incantations  of  witches. — Moth  mullein  ( V. 
blattaria)  is  less  common  than  the  other,  and 
more  abundant  in  the  eastern  states  than  else- 
where ;  it  is  from  2  to  4  ft.  high,  with  leaves 
and  stem  smooth  and  green ;  the  flowers  are 
in  a  leafy  raceme,  and  yellow,  or  white  with  a 
tinge  of  purple ;  the  filaments  of  the  stamens 
are  all  bearded  with  violet-colored  wool,  which 
gives  to  the  very  ephemeral  flowers  no  little 
beauty.  This  is  also  an  introduced  plant,  hav- 
ing abroad  an  equally  wide  range  with  the  pre- 
ceding, and  is  of  no  other  importance  than  as  a 
weed  for  the  farmer  to  get  rid  of. — The  white 
mullein  ( V.  lychnitis)  is  of  rare  occurrence  in 
Pennsylvania  and  New  York;  its  stem  and 
leaves  are  clothed  with  a  thin,  powdery  pubes- 
cence, and  its  yellow  flowers  (only  rarely  white) 
580  VOL.  xii. — 3 


are  in  a  pyramidal  panicle.  It  is  also  from 
Europe,  where  as  well  as  here  it  hybridizes 
with  the  common  mullein,  and  produces  some 
puzzling  intermediate  forms. — Some  species 
rank  as  ornamental  plants,  including  V.  Chaixii 
from  the  Pyrenees,  which,  unlike  the  others, 
is  perennial ;  its  abundant  flowers  are  yellow, 
with  a  violet  throat,  and  arranged  in  a  large 
pyramidal  panicle. 

MULLMHOFF,  Karl  Victor,  a  German  philolo- 
gist, born  at  Marne,  Holstein,  Sept.  8,  1818. 
He  studied  in  Berlin,  and  graduated  in  1837  at 
Kiel,  where  he  became  professor  of  the  Ger- 
man language  and  of  ancient  history.  In  1858 
he  was  transferred  to  the  university  of  Berlin. 
His  writings  relate  mainly  to  early  German  lit- 
erature and  philology,  and  include  Altdeutsche 
SpracJiproben ;  Denkmaler  deutscher  Poesie 
und  Prosa  aus  dem  8.  bis  12.  Jahrhundert, 
with  Scherer  (Berlin,  1864);  and  Deutsche 
Alterthumskunde  (1870). 

MILLER,  Charles  Louis,  popularly  known  as 
Miiller  de  Paris,  a  French  painter,  born  in 
Paris,  Dec.  22,  1815.  He  studied  under  Oo- 
gniet  and  Gros,  and  in  the  school  of  fine  arts, 
and  in  1837  exhibited  his  first  picture,  "  Christ- 
mas Morning."  From  1850  to  1853  he  was  di- 
rector of  the  manufacture  of  Gobelin  tapestry, 
and  in  1864  he  succeeded  Flandrin  in  the  acad- 
emy of  fine  arts.  Among  his  principal  works 
are  "  The  Martyrdom  of  St.  Bartholomew," 
"The  Massacre  of  the  Innocents,"  "Prima- 
vera,"  and  "The  Appeal  of  the  Victims  of  the 
Reign  of  Terror."  The  last,  his  masterpiece, 
contains  portraits  of  the  most  illustrious  vic- 
tims. In  1855  he  exhibited  a  large  painting, 
Vive  Vempereur,  illustrating  a  poem  by  Mery, 
representing  an  episode  in  the  battle  before 
Paris,  March  30,  1814,  which  gained  for  him  a 
medal  of  the  first  class.  Among  his  later 
works  are  "Desdemona"  (1868),  and  "Lan- 
juinais  at  the  Tribune  "  (1869). 

MULLER,  Friediich,  a  German  painter  and  poet, 
born  in  Oreuznach  in  1750,  died  in  Rome,  April 
23,  1825.  He  early  devoted  himself  to  paint- 
ing and  copperplate  engraving,  and  in  his  18th 
year  published  several  collections  of  etchings, 
which  attracted  much  attention  from  their 
originality.  In  1776  he  went  to  Rome,  and 
studied  the  works  of  Michel  Angelo ;  but  his 
taste  for  the  grotesque  constantly,  increased  and 
gave  a  fantastic  character  to  his  productions. 
He  was  chiefly  known  as  a  guide  in  Rome, 
where  he  was  called  Muller  the  painter.  He 
succeeded  better  as  an  author  than  as  an  artist, 
writing  idyls,  romances,  ballads,  and  dramas. 
His  best  drama  is  Niobe.  A  complete  edition 
of  his  works  has  been  published  (3  vols.,  Hei- 
delberg, 1811 ;  2d  ed.,  1825). 

MULLER,  Friedrich,  a  German  philologist,  born 
at  Jemnik,  Bohemia,  March  5,  1834.  He  com- 
pleted his  studies  in  Vienna  from  1853  to 
1857,  and  was  employed  as  a  librarian  there 
from  1858  to  1866,  when  he  became  extraordi- 
nary and  in  1869  ordinary  prof essor  of  com- 
parative philology  and  of  Sanskrit  at  the  uni- 


32 


MttLLER 


pprsitv    and  a  member   of  the  academy  of 
IcTences.    Benfey  regards  him  as  the  highest 
authority  on  comparative  philology  and  eti 
nology  Ynd  he  has  written  extensively  on  these 
subjects  for  periodicals.     His  principa JO*B 
are     Reise  der  ostirreichuchen  Fregatte  Ao 
lara-    Linguistischer    Theil  (Vienna,   1867), 
and  Ethnoggraphischer  Theil !  (1868);  and  All- 
gemeine  Ethnographic  (1873). 


TT^      ,  i         "      „:„„    ^™;ni    offontion   to   ban- 
Brockhaus 


first  work  a  translation  of  the  Hitopadeca, 
flection  of  Hindoo  fables.     After  Attending 
the  lectures  of  Bopp  and  Schellmg  in  Berlin, 
and  examining  the  collection  of  Sanskrit  man- 
uscripts then  purchased  by  the  government, 
he  went  to  Paris,  where  he  prepared  himself, 
at  Burnouf's  suggestion,  to  undertake  the  edit- 
ing of  the  Rig  Veda  with  the  Sayana  commen- 
tary    For  the  purpose  of  comparing  the  manu- 
scripts of  the  Louvre  with  those  in  the  pos- 
session of  the  East  India  company  and  those 
contained  in  the  Bodleian  library,  he  went  in 
1846  to  England,  where  Bunsen  and  Wilson 
induced  him  to  remain,  and  the  East  India 
company  assumed  the  expense  of  the  publica- 
tion of  his  edition  of  the  Rig  Veda.    The  first 
volume  of  this  stupendous  work  appeared  in 
1849,  and  the  sixth  and  last  at  the  end  of  1874. 
Each  volume  consists  of  more  than  1,200  pages. 
This  edition  has  a  special  value  from  the  mas- 
terly introductions  prefixed  to  the  volumes, 
which  form  important  additions  to  the  science 
of  Indian  antiquities  and  linguistics.    The  first 
volume  of  a  second  edition  of  the  Rig  Veda, 
without  the  Indian  commentary,  was  published 
at  Leipsic  in  1856.    He  has  published  in  Ger- 
man an  excellent  translation  of  Kalidasa's  Me- 
ghaduta  (Konigsberg,  1847),  a  charming  novel 
entitled  Deutsche  Liebe  (Leipsic,  1857 ;  English 
translation,  Chicago,  1875),  and  several  articles 
in  philological  journals ;  but  most  of  his  publi- 
cations are  in  English.    After  a  series  of  essays 
on  the  modern  dialects  of  India,  which  ap- 
peared in  the  "  Transactions  of  the  British  As- 
sociation" and  literary  journals  in  England,  he 
issued  in  1854,  on  the  occasion  of  the  Crimean 
war,  a  treatise  entitled  "  Suggestions  on  learn- 
ing the  Languages  of  the  Seat  of  the  War  in 
the  East."    After  the  publication  of  "  Proposals 
for  a  Missionary  Alphabet "  appeared  his  "His- 
tory of  ancient  Sanskrit  Literature"  (1859), 
which  has  passed  through  several   editions. 
The  greatest  success,  however,  has  attended  his 
"Lectures  on  the  Science  of  Language,"  de- 
livered at  the  royal  institution  of  Great  Britain 
in  1861  and  1863  (2  vols.,  London,  1861-'4), 
in  which  he  shows  in  a  popular  style  the  bear- 
ing of  the  science  of  language  on  some  im- 
portant problems  of  philosophy  and  religion. 
His  "  Handbooks  for  the  Study  of  Sanskrit," 


of  which  the  first  volume  was  published  m 
i865,  are  held  in  high  esteem.     They  comprise 
a  Sanskrit  grammar  and  dictionary,  and  an 
edition  of  the  text  of  the  Hitopadeca  with  a 
Latin  transcription,  an  interlinear  translation 
and  grammatical  notes.     In  the  years  1867-'70 
appeared  several  volumes  of  his  essays    first 
published  in  periodicals,   under  the  title    of 
"  Chips  from  a  German  Workshop,"  on  sub- 
jects pertaining  to    the  science  of  religion, 
mythology,  and  the  history  of  literature.     In 
1870  he  delivered  a  course  of  lectures  intro- 
ductory to  the  science  of  religion,  which  pro- 
duced considerable  discussion  in  Europe  and 
America.    When  they  were  published  he  added 
two  essays  on  "False  Analogy"  and  'The 
Philosophy  of  Mythology."    He  lectured  in 
1872  before  the  newly  inaugurated  university 
in  Strasburg,  and  in  1873  in  Westminster  ab- 
bey, which  led  to  remonstrances  on  the  part 
of  the  orthodox  clergy.      Having  settled  in 
1848  in  Oxford,  where  his  edition  of  the  K\g 
Veda,  was  to  be  printed,  he  was  invited  by  the 
university  to  give  courses  of  lectures  on  com- 
parative philology  as  deputy  Taylorian  pro- 
fessor.     Though  once  defeated  as  candidate 
for  a  professorship  of  Sanskrit,  a  new  profes- 
sorship of  comparative  philology  was  founded 
in  1868,  with  his  name  in  the  statute  as  the 
first  incumbent.    He  has  been  since  1865  di- 
rector of  the  oriental  department  of  the  Bod- 
leian library,  and  in  1874  he  presided  over  the 
Aryan  section  of  the  first  international  orien- 
tal congress. 

MIJLLER,  George,  an  English  philanthropist, 
born  at  Kroppenstadt,  Prussia,  Sept.  27,  1805. 
He  graduated  at  Halle,  went  to  England  in 
1829,  and  in  1830  was  settled  as  pastor  over  a 
small  Independent  chapel  at  Teignmouth.    Ill 
a  few  months  he  relinquished  his  salary,  be- 
lieving that  God  would  supply  his  wants  in 
direct  answer  to  prayer.     In  1832  he  became 
pastor  at  Bristol,  refusing  all  salary  except 
voluntary  offerings.     He  established  a    free 
breakfast  for  all  poor  persons  who  would^  listen 
to  religious  reading  while  eating;  but  this  was 
discontinued  because  the  neighbors  objected 
to  the  presence  of  so  many  beggars.     In  1833 
he  opened  two  day  schools,  and  before  the  end 
of  the  year  had  four  schools  in  operation.     In 
1836  he  determined  to  establish  an  orphanage, 
and  hired  a  house  for  that  purpose.     By  June, 
1837,  he  had  received  £1,000  for  his  orphans, 
and  considerable  sums  for  other  benevolent 
purposes.     In  1838  he  hired  three  houses,  and 
supported  86  orphans.     In  1842  he  had  ten 
schools  and  96  orphans.     In  1845  he  deter- 
mined to   erect  a  building  sufficient  for  all 
orphans  that  should  be  sent  to  him,  and  began 
to  pray  for  £10,000,  besides  current  expenses. 
In  December  a  donation  of  £1,000  was  sent 
to  him;  in  July,  1846,  he  received  a  donation 
of  £2,050;  and  up  to  January,  1847,  he  had 
received  £9,284  besides  current  expenses.     In 
1850  the  large  orphan  house  was  built  and 
furnished  at  a  cost  of  £15,000,  and  was  im- 


MULLEE 


33 


mediately  filled  with  300  orphans.  At  this 
time  his  annual  receipts  for  all  his  enterprises 
amounted  to  £8,000,  all  of  which  he  says  was 
received  in  direct  answer  to  prayer,  without 
application  to  a  single  person.  Praying  for 
still  more  funds,  he  received  in  January,  1851, 
a  gift  of  £3,000 ;  in  March,  1852,  one  of  £1,- 
000,  and  another  of  £500;  in  the  spring  of 
1853  one  of  £8,100,  and  in  the  autumn  one  of 
£5,200.  Believing  it  wrong  to  run  in  debt,  he 
laid  all  these  aside  until  he  should  have  enough 
to  finish  one  building.  In  May,  1856,  he  had 
accumulated  £29,297,  and  began  to  build;  and 
by  May,  1860,  he  had  received  £45,000  for 
his  building  fund  alone.  In  March,  1862,  two 
more  houses  had  been  built  and  furnished, 
and  were  occupied  by  TOO  orphans,  making 
1,000  supported  by  him,  besides  numerous 
schools  and  other  benevolent  undertakings.  His 
three  houses  being  full,  he  began  to  pray  for 
funds  to  build  two  more.  These  were  finished 
in  1870,  when  the  five  houses  contained  2,050 
children,  besides  teachers  and  attendants.  Du- 
ring the  year  ending  May  26,  1874,  he  received 
£37,855  15s.  6^.,  with  which  189  missionaries 
and  122  schools  were  supported  in  whole  or 
in  part,  2,261  orphans  maintained,  and  47,413 
Bibles  or  parts  of  the  Bible  and  3,775,971 
tracts  and  books  distributed.  Between  Octo- 
ber, 1830,  and  May,  1874,  he  had  received  in 
all  £617,000,  by  which  38,800  children  had 
been  taught  in  schools  in  Great  Britain,  Spain, 
Italy,  India,  and  British  Guiana;  467,000  Bi- 
bles and  Testaments  had  been  distributed, 
50,000,000  tracts  circulated,  190  missionaries 
supported  year  by  year,  and  4,408  orphans 
brought  up.  The  orphans,  after  being  edu- 
cated, are  put  out  to  service  or  apprenticed  to 
trades.  The  five  orphan  houses,  erected  at  a 
cost  of  £115,000,  are  vested  in  a  board  of 
trustees;  but  they  have  no  endowments,  as 
their  founder  believes  that  funds  will  be  provi- 
ded as  required.  He  is  also  pastor  of  a  church 
of  900  members,  built  up  by  his  own  labors. 

MILLER,  Gerhard  Friedrieh,  a  Eussian  historian, 
born  at  Herford,  Westphalia,  Oct.  18,  1705, 
died  in  Moscow  in  October,  1783.  He  studied 
at  Leipsic,  became  in  1725  a  teacher  in  St. 
Petersburg,  and  in  1730  was  appointed  pro- 
fessor of  history.  In  1733  he  accompanied 
Gmelin  and  De  Lisle  de  la  Croyere  to  Siberia, 
and  returned  in  February,  1743,  having  spent 
the  interval  in  studying  the  geography  and 
antiquities  of  that  country.  In  1747  he  was 
appointed  historiographer  of  the  Eussian  em- 
pire, in  1754  secretary  of  the  academy  of 
sciences,  in  1766  keeper  of  the  archives  at 
Moscow,  and  afterward  councillor  of  state. 
He  is  best  known  by  his  Sammlung  Russischer 
Geschichte  (9  vols.,  1732-'64).  His  other  wri- 
tings include  Histoire  des  voyages  et  decouvertes 
des  Russes  (2  vols.,  Amsterdam,  1766).  He 
has  been  called  the  father  of  Eussian  history, 
wrote  French,  Latin,  Eussian,  and  German 
with  equal  ease,  and  was  the  first  to  found  a 
literary  journal  in  the  Eussian  language. 


MULLER,  Johann.    See  EEGIOMONTANTTS. 

MILLER.  I.  Johann  Gotthard  von,  a  German 
engraver,  born  at  Bernhausen,  near  Stuttgart, 
May  4,  1747,  died  in  Stuttgart,  March  14, 1830. 
He  prepared  himself  for  the  church,  but  attend- 
ed at  the  same  time  the  academy  of  fine  arts. 
He  studied  engraving  in  Paris,  where  he  re- 
mained from  1770  to  1776,  when  he  was  ad- 
mitted to  the  French  academy  of  fine  arts,  and 
was  appointed  by  Duke  Charles  to  found  a 
school  of  art  at  Stuttgart,  which  under  his 
guidance  produced  many  excellent  artists. 
Among  his  best  prints  are  the  "Battle  of 
Bunker  Hill,"  after  Trumbull's  picture,  Ea- 
phael's  Madonna  della  Seggiola,  St.  Catharine 
after  Leonardo  da  Vinci,  and  a  portrait  of 
Louis  XVI.  II.  Johann  Friedrieh  Wilhelm,  son  of 
the  preceding,  born  in  Stuttgart  in  1782,  died 
near  Dresden,  May  3,  1816.  After  a  careful 
training  under  his  father  he  completed  his 
studies  in  Paris,  where  besides  other  works  he 
executed  engravings  of  "St.  John"  and  "St. 
Cecilia  "  after  Domenichino.  After  preparing 
in  Eome  for  the  engraving  of  Eaphael's  Ma- 
donna di  San  Sisto,  he  devoted  the  remainder 
of  his  life  to  that  masterpiece,  his  reproduc- 
tion of  which  is  one  of  the  finest  achievements 
of  the  art.  In  1814  he  was  appointed  pro- 
fessor in  the  academy  at  Dresden,  but  his 
health  being  impaired  by  overwork,  he  retired. 
He  engraved  in  all  only  18  plates. 

MULLER,  Johann  Heinrich  Jakob,  a  German 
physicist,  born  in  Cassel,  April  30,  1809.  He 
studied  in  Darmstadt,  Bonn,  and  Giessen,  and 
became  a  teacher  at  Darmstadt.  In  1844  he 
was  appointed  professor  of  physical  sciences 
at  Freiburg,  Baden.  His  principal  work, 
Lehrbuch  der  Physik  und  Meteorologie  (2  vols., 
Brunswick,  1842 ;  7th  ed.,  1868-'9),  was  ori- 
ginally a  version  of  Pouillet's  Elements  de  phy- 
sique; and  he  published  a  supplement  to  it, 
Lelirbuch  der  Tcosmischen  Physik  (1856 ;  3d  ed., 
1872).  Among  his  other  works  are :  Grund- 
riss  der  PJiysik  und  Meteorologie  (1846 ;  10th 
ed.,  1869-'70 ;  with  two  supplements) ;  Grund- 
zuge  der  Krystallographie  (1845 ;  2d  ed.,  1869) ; 
Lie  constructive  Zeichnungslehre  (2  vols.  1868) ; 
and  Anfangsgrunde  der  geometrischen  Disciplin 
fur ,Gymnasien,  &c.  (3d  ed.,  1869). 

MILLER,  Johannes,  a  German  physiologist, 
born  in  Coblentz,  July  14,  1801,  died  in  Ber- 
lin, April  28,  1858.  He  was  the  son  of  a  poor 
shoemaker,  and  was  about  to  be  apprenticed 
to  a  saddler  when  his  talents  attracted  the  at- 
tention of  his  teacher,  and  he  prepared  him- 
self for  the  Eoman  Catholic  priesthood.  After 
attending  in  1819  the  university  of  Bonn,  he 
took  the  degree  of  M.  D.  and  went  to  Berlin, 
where  under  the  influence  of  Hegel  and  Eu- 
dolphi  he  was  induced  to  reject  all  systems 
of  physiology  which  were  not  founded  upon 
a  severe  philosophical  observation  of  nature. 
Eeturning  to  Bonn  in  1824,  he  lectured  as  pri- 
vate professor  on  anatomy,  physiology,  em- 
bryology, and  related  subjects;  and  in  1826 
he  became  extraordinary  professor  of  physi- 


MtfLLER 


ology  and  anatomy.  In  1833  he  was  appointed 
to  the  chair  of  anatomy  in  the  university  pi 
Berlin,  then  considered  the  first  in  Europe  in 
that  department  of  science.  He  founded  the 
physico-chemical  school  of  physiology,  raising 
it  from  a  speculative  to  a  positive  science,  and 
reformed  the  study  of  medicine.  He  generally 
passed  his  vacations  on  the  shores  of  the  Med- 
iterranean, where  he  became  a  favorite  with 
the  Italians.  His  publications,  numbering  up- 
ward of  100,  embrace  nearly  every  subject  in 
comparative  anatomy  and  physiology,  not  one 
of  which  failed  to  receive  new  and  valuable 
illustrations  from  his  hand.  His  most  impor- 
tant work  is  the  Handbuch  der  Physiologie 
(Coblentz,  1833),  which  has  been  translated 
into  English  by  Dr.  W.  Baly  ("  Elements  of 
Physiology,"  2  vols.,  London,  1837-'42),  and 
into  several  other  languages.  Among  his  oth- 
er works  are :  De  Bespiratione  Fwtus  (Leipsic, 
1823),  a  prize  dissertation ;  Zur  vergleichenden 
Physiologie  des  Gesichtsinnes  des  Menschen  und 
der  Thiere  (1826;  English  translation  by  Baly, 
1848);  Grundriss  der  Vorlesungen  uber  die 
Physiologie  (Bonn,  1827);  Grundriss  der  Vor- 
lesungen  uber  allgemeine  Pathologie  (1829); 
and  Ueber  die  organischen  Nerven  der  erecti- 
len  mannlichen  Geschlechtsorgane,  &c.  (Ber- 
lin, 1835).  He  also  wrote  numerous  disser- 
tations on  subjects  not  altogether  physiologi- 
cal. Among  these  are:  EorcB  Ichthyologies 
(Berlin,  1849) ;  Ueber  die  phantastischen  Ge- 
tichtserscheimmgen  (Coblentz,  1826);  Der  Ta- 
lalc  in  geschichtlicher,  hotanischer,  chemischer 
und  medizinischer  Einsicht  (Berlin,  1832); 
Ueber  die  fossilen  Beste  der  Zeuglodonten, 
&c.  (1848);  and  Ueber  Synopta  digitata  und 
uber  die  Erzeugung  von  Schnecken  in  Eolothu- 
rien  (1852).  His  latest  investigations  were 
devoted  to  infusoria,  and  his  Terminologia 
Entomologica  was  published  at  Brilnn  in  1850. 
He  also  founded  several  influential  periodicals 
for  the  promotion  of  physiology,  anatomy,  and 
other  sciences. 

MILLER,  Johannes  von,  a  Swiss  historian,  born 
in  Schaffhausen,  Jan.  3,  1752,  died  in  Cassel, 
May  29,  1809.  He  completed  his  studies  at 
Gottingen,  where  Schlozer  diverted  his  atten- 
tion from  theology  to  history.  He  was  pro- 
fessor of  Greek  in  Schaffhausen  from  1772  to 
1774,  when  he  removed  to  Geneva,  where  for 
a  time  he  supported  himself  by  teaching.  In 
J781  he  accepted  a  professorship  in  Cassel, 
but  returned  to  Switzerland  in  1783  to  prose- 
cute historical  labors,  lecturing  occasionally, 
but  generally  depending  upon  friends  and  in- 
curring large  debts.  From  1786  to  1807  he 
was  in  the  service,  in  various  capacities,  of 
the  elector  of  Mentz,  the  emperor,  and  the 
king  of  Prussia,  and  received  several  titles  and 
patents  of  nobility.  After  the  occupation  of 
Berlin  by  the  French,  he  incurred  the  displea- 
sure of  his  German  friends  by  his  subserviency 
to  Napoleon,  and  by  holding  office  under  his 
brother,  King  Jerome  of  Westphalia.  This 
sentiment,  however,  subsequently  gave  way  to 


a  general  acknowledgment  both  of  his  extra- 
ordinary merits  as  a  writer  and  the  noble  traits 
of  his  character.  His  most  celebrated  work  is 
Die  Geschichte  der  schweizerischen  Eidgenos- 
senschaft  (4  vols.,  1780-1805),  extending  to 
1489,  and  continued  to  the  end  of  the  16th 
century  by  Glutz-Boltzheim  (vol.  v.,  1816) 
and  J.  J.  Hottinger  (vols.  vi.  and  vii.,  1825- 
'9).  A  French  translation  by  Monnard  and 
Vulliemin  extends  to  the  19th  century  (19 
vols.,  Paris,  1837-'51).  Among  his  other  wri- 
tings are  minor  political  essays ;  Essais  histo- 
riques,  published  in  French  under  the  auspi- 
ces of  Frederick  the  Great  (Berlin,  1780); 
Beisen  der  Papste  (new  ed.,  Aix-la-Chapelle, 
1831 ;  French  translation,  1859),  written  against 
the  anti-papal  reforms  of  Joseph  II.,  although 
he  was  a  Protestant;  and  Vierundzwanzig 
Bucher  allgemeiner  Geschichten,  lectures  deliv- 
ered in  Switzerland  (3  vols.,  Tubingen,  1811 ; 
often  republished).  His  complete  works  have 
been  published  in  27  vols.  (Stuttgart,  1810- 
'19),  and  40  vols.  (1831-'5).  Among  his  biog- 
raphers are  Heeren  (1809),  Wachler  (1809),  and 
Woltmann  (1810). 

MILLER.  I.  Karl  Otfried,  a  German  archaB- 
ologist,  born  in  Brieg,  Silesia,  Aug.  28,  1797, 
died  in  Athens,  Greece,  Aug.  1,  1840.  He  was 
educated  at  the  gymnasium  of  Brieg,  the  uni- 
versity of  Breslau,  and  that  'of  Berlin,  where 
he  graduated  in  1817,  and  published  in  the 
same  year  his  ^Egineticorum  Liber.  On  leav- 
ing Berlin  he  was  appointed  instructor  in 
ancient  languages  in  the  Magdalenum  of  Bres- 
lau, where  he  employed  much  time  in  mytho- 
logical studies  and  in  the  analysis  of  the  differ- 
ent mythical  cycles,  the  results  of  which  are 
embodied  in  his  Geschichte  hellenischer  Stam- 
me  und  Stiidte,  of  which  vol.  i.,  Orchomenos 
und  die  Hinyer,  appeared  at  Breslau  in  1820. 
At  the  recommendation  of  Bockh  he  was  ap- 
pointed in  1819  to  a  professorship  at  Gottin- 
gen, the  duties  of  which  included  a  series  of 
lectures  on  archaeology  and  ancient  art;  and 
to  prepare  himself  he  visited  France,  England, 
and  various  parts  of  Germany.  His  Die  Dorier 
(2  vols.  8vo.,  Breslan,  1824),  forming  vols.  ii. 
and  iii.  of  the  Geschichte  hellenischer  Stamme 
und  Stadte,  was  intended  to  show  the  connec- 
tion of  manners,  religion,  politics,  and  history 
in  one  of  the  Greek  races.  An  English  trans- 
lation by  H.  Tuffnell  and  Sir  George  Cornewall 
Lewis  was  published  at  Oxford  in  1830,  with 
additions  and  corrections  by  the  author,  and  a 
new  German  edition  of  the  whole  work  was 
published  at  Breslau  (3  vols.,  1844).  Of  his 
remaining  works,  the  most  important  are  the 
Prolegomena  zu  einer  wissenschaftlichen  My- 
thologie  (Gottingen,  1825  ;  English  translation 
by  J.  Leitch,  London,  1844)  ;  Ueber  die  Wohn- 
sitze,  die  Abstammung  und  diealtere  Geschichte 
des  makedonischen  VolJces  (Berlin,  1825) ;  Die 
Etruslcer  (Breslau,  1828)  ;  and  Eandbuch  der 
Archaologie  der  Kunst  (translated  by  Leitch, 
London,  1850).  He  also  undertook  for  the  so- 
ciety for  the  diffusion  of  useful  knowledge  a 


MtlLLER 


35 


history  of  Greek  literature,  the  first  volume  of 
which  was  translated  into  English  by  Lewis 
and  Donaldson  (1840),  previous  to  its  publica- 
tion in  Germany,  where  it  was  issued  after 
Miiller's  death  by  his  brother  Eduard  (Ge- 
schichte  der  griechischen  Literatur  ~bis  auf  das 
Zeitalter  Alexanders,  2  vols.,  Breslau,  1841 ;  2d 
ed.,  185T),  and  was  brought  down  by  Donald- 
son in  English  to  the  capture  of  Constantino- 
ple (3  vols.,  London,  1858).  He  published  also 
several  special  archaeological  treatises  and  arti- 
cles in  periodicals,  and  edited  Festus,  Varro's 
De  Lingua  Latina,  and  the  Eumenides  of  JEa- 
chylus.  In  1839  he  undertook  a  tour  of  explo- 
ration in  southern  Italy  and  Greece,  and  while 
superintending  excavations  at  Delphi  contract- 
ed a  fatal  fever.  He  was  removed  before  his 
death  to  Athens,  and  buried  on  an  eminence 
near  the  site  of  Plato's  academy.  A  collection 
of  his  Kleine  deutsche  Schriften  was  published 
posthumously  by  his  brother  Eduard  (3  vols., 
Breslau,  1847-'8). — See  Erinnerungen  an  Ot- 
fried  Midler,  by  Lucke  (Gottingen,  1841).  II. 
Julias,  a  German  theologian,  brother  of  the  pre- 
ceding, born  in  Brieg,  April  10,  1801.  He  aban- 
doned the  study  of  law  for  that  of  theology,  and 
was  settled  over  several  small  parishes  from 
1825  to  1831.  He  was  then  appointed  preach- 
er at  the  university  of  Gottingen,  and  in  1834 
professor  of  theology.  From  1835  to  1839  he 
filled  the  same  chair  at  Marburg,  and  afterward 
at  Halle.  He  has  published  various  theological 
works  and  essays,  and  his  Die  christliche  Lehre 
von  der  Sunde  (Breslau,  1839 ;  4th  revised  ed., 
2  vols.,  1858 ;  English  translation  by  W.  Puls- 
ford,  "  The  Christian  Doctrine  of  Sin,"  2  vols., 
Edinburgh,  1852-'3)  is  one  of  the  most  noted 
productions  of  contemporary  German  Protes- 
tant literature.  In  1850  he  was  associated  with 
Neander  and  Nitzsch  in  founding  the  Deutsche 
Zeitschrift  fur  christliche  Wissenschaft  und 
christliches  Leben.  Having  been  a  represen- 
tative of  evangelical  union  in  the  Berlin  synod 
of  1846,  he  published  in  1854  Die  evqngelische 
Union,  ihr  Wesen  und  gottliches  Pecht.  III. 
Eduard,  brother  of  the  preceding,  born  in  Brieg, 
Nov.  12,  1804.  Since  1853  he  has  been  direc- 
tor of  the  gymnasium  of  Liegnitz,  and  has 
published  Geschichte  der  Theorie  der  Kunst  ~bei 
den  Alien  (2  vols.,  Breslau,  1834-'7),  and  a 
tragedy,  Simson  und  Delilah  (1853). 

MULLER,  Otto,  a  German  novelist,  born  at 
Schotten,  Hesse-Darmstadt,  June  1,  1816.  He 
began  his  career  as  a  librarian  and  a  journal- 
ist, and  resided  in  various  places  till  1856, 
when  he  settled  in  Stuttgart.  He  early  pub- 
lished a  series  of  novels,  and  in  1845  appeared 
his  Burger,  ein  deutsches  Dichterleben,  which 
was  followed  by  Georg  Volker  and  other  polit- 
ical novels.  In  1854  appeared  his  admirable 
Charlotte  AcTcermann.  Among  his  subsequent 
novels  are  Der  Klosterhof  (1859),  Aus  Petr ar- 
ea's alten  Tagen  (1862),  Erzahlungen  und  Cha- 
raUerlilder  (1865),  Der  Wildpfarrer  (1866), 
Der  Professor  von  Heidelberg  (1870),  Der  Fall 
von  Konstanz  (1872),  and  Der  Majoratsherr 


(1873).  His  Ausgewahlte  Schriften  appeared 
in  Stuttgart  (12  vols.,  1874). 

MULLER,  Otto  Frederik,  a  Danish  naturalist, 
born  in  Copenhagen  in  March,  1730,  died  Dec. 
26,  1784.  He  was  educated  for  the  church, 
became  tutor  to  a  young  nobleman,  and  after 
several  years'  travel  with  him  settled  in  Copen- 
hagen in  1767,  and  married  a  lady  of  wealth. 
His  first  important  works,  Fauna  Insectorum 
Friedrichsdaliana  (Leipsic,  1764),  and  Flora 
Friedrichsdaliana  (Strasburg,  1767),  recom- 
mended him  to  Frederick  V.  of  Denmark,  by 
whom  he  was  employed  to  continue  the  Flora 
of  Denmark,  and  he  added  two  volumes  to  the 
three  published  by  Oeder  since  1761.  The 
study  of  zoology,  and  particularly  of  the  minute 
animals,  meanwhile  began  to  occupy  his  atten- 
tion almost  exclusively,  and  in  1771  he  pro- 
duced a  work  in  German  on  "  Certain  Worms 
inhabiting  Fresh  and  Salt  Water,"  which  de- 
scribed many  new  species  of  those  annulose 
animals  called  by  Linnaeus  aphrodita  and  nerei- 
des, and  gave  much  additional  information  re- 
specting their  habits.  In  his  Vermium  Terres- 
trium  et  Flumatilium,  seu  Animalium  Infuso- 
riorum,  Helminthecorum,  et  Testaceorum  non 
Marinorum,  succincta  Historia  (2  vols.  4to, 
Copenhagen  and  Leipsic,  l773-'4),  he  arranged 
the  infusoria  for  the  first  time  into  genera  and 
species.  His  Hydrachnm  in  Aquis  Danim  Pa- 
lustribus  detectce  et  descriptce  (Leipsic,  1781), 
and  Entomostraca  (1785),  describe  many  spe- 
cies of  minute  animals  previously  unknown. 
To  these  was  added  an  illustrated  work  on 
the  infusoria,  published  in  1786.  These  three 
works,  according  to  Cuvier,  give  the  author 
"  a  place  in  the  first  rank  of  those  naturalists 
who  have  enriched  science  with  original  ob- 
servations." His  Zoologica  Danica,  which  was 
intended  to  correspond  in  the  animal  kingdom 
with  the  Flora  Danica  in  the  vegetable,  was 
commenced  in  1779,  but  only  two  parts,  each 
containing  40  plates,  were  finished  by  him. 

MULLER,  Peder  Erasmus,  a  Danish  bishop,  born 
in  Copenhagen,  May  29,  1776,  died  Sept.  16, 
1834.  He  was  educated  at  the  university  of 
Copenhagen,  where,  after  visiting  France  and 
England,  he  was  appointed  professor  of  the- 
ology in  1801,  and  in  1830  bishop  of  Seeland. 
He  published  theological  treatises  and  works 
on  the  language,  literature,  and  history  of  Den- 
mark and  Iceland.  The  most  celebrated  is  his 
"Library  of  the  Sagas"  (1816-'20),  in  which 
he  gives  an  account  of  all  the  Icelandic  sagas 
or  tales.  From  1805  to  1832  he  was  editor  of 
the  "Danish  Literary  Gazette"  (Danslc  Lit- 
eratur Tidende). 

MULLER,  Sophie,  a  German  actress,  born  in 
Mannheim  in  1803,  died  at  Hietzing,  near 
Vienna,  June  20,  1830.  She  was  a  daughter 
of  the  actor  Karl  Muller  (1783-1837),  and  ap- 
peared on  the  Carlsruhe  stage  in  her  15th  year. 
In  1821  she  went  to  Munich,  and  in  1822  was 
engaged  at  the  court  theatre  of  Vienna,  ac- 
quiring the  reputation  of  one  of  the  most  dis- 
tinguished tragedians  of  her  day.  She  also 


36  MftLLER 

became  reader  to  the  empress  of  Austria.  Her 
biography,  by  Mailath,  was  published  at  Vi- 
enna in  1832. 

MILLER,  Wilhelm,  a  German  poet,  born  in 
Dessau,  Oct.  7,  1794,  died  there,  Oct.  1,  1827. 
He  studied  at  the  university  of  Berlin,  and  after 
serving  in  the  war  of  liberation  (18 13-'  14) 
he  returned  to  Berlin,  and  applied  himself 
especially  to  the  ancient  German  language  and 
literature.  From  1817  to  1819  he  travelled  in 
southern  Germany  and  Italy,  and  on  returning 
was  appointed  classical  instructor  in  the  new 
normal  school  of  Dessau.  His  works  include 
Blumenlese  am  den  Minnesdngern  (1816) ;  a 
translation  of  Marlowe's  "Faustus"  (1818); 
and  Lieder  der  Griechen  (1821-'4).  His  trans- 
lation of  patriotic  Greek  songs  for  Fauriel's 
collection  (2  vols.,  1825),  and  his  Lyrische 
Spaziergange  (1827),  are  his  best  productions. 
His  VermiscJite  Schriften  were  published  by 
S.  Schwab  with  a  biography  (5  vols.,  Leipsic, 
1830).  His  Gedichte  (2  vols.,  1837)  had  seve- 
ral editions,  and  his  AusgewdJilte  Gedichte  ap- 
peared in  1864.  He  was  the  father  of  Max 
Muller.  (See  MULLER,  FEIEDEICH  MAX.) 

MULLER,  William  John,  an  English  painter, 
born  in  Bristol  in  1812,  died  there,  Sept.  8, 
1845.  He  studied  with  J.  B.  Pyne,  the  land- 
scape painter,  and  in  1833-'4  made  a  tour 
through  Germany,  Switzerland,  and  Italy.  In 
1838-'9  he  made  a  tour  through  Greece  and 
Egypt,  among  the  results  of  which  were  two 
landscapes,  "  Athens  from  the  Road  to  Mara- 
thon," and  "Memnon,  or  Ruins  at  Gornou  in 
Egypt  at  Sunset."  In  1843  he  accompanied  Sir 
Charles  Fellows  on  his  expedition  in  quest  of 
the  Xanthian  marbles.  Five  pictures  of  Asi- 
atic scenery  in  the  exhibition  of  1845  were,  like 
previous  contributions,  treated  with  neglect, 
and  soon  after  he  was  seized  with  illness,  the 
result  of  mortification,  from  which  he  never  re- 
covered.. His  pictures  subsequently  command- 
ed high  prices,  and  a  collection  of  300  sketches 
was  sold  soon  after  his  death  for  £4,360. 

MULLER  VON  RONIGSWDTTER,  Wolfeang,  a  Ger- 
man poet,  born  at  Konigswinter,  near  Bonn, 
March  5,  1816.  He  studied  medicine  at  Bonn, 
graduated  at  Berlin  in  1840,  and  was  a  physi- 
cian in  Dusseldorf  from  1842  to  1853,  when  he 
removed  to  Cologne,  where  he  became  a  pop- 
ular poet,  novelist,  and  chronicler  of  the  Rhine 
region.  Among  his  works  are :  Junge  Lieder 
(1841);  Balladenundfiomanzen(I84:%);  EJiein- 
fahrt  (1846);  Gedichte  (2d  ed.,  1857);  Lorelei 
(2d  ed.,  1857) ;  Eine  Maikonigin  (1852) ;  Prinz 
Minnewin  (1854);  Der  Eattenf anger  von  St. 
Goar  (1857) ;  Mann  von  Werth  (1858)  ;  Er- 
zahlungen  eines  rheinischen  Chronisten  (1860) ; 
Vier  Bur  gen  (1862);  Zum  stillen  Vergnugen 
(1865);  Der  Pilger  in  Italien  (1868);  and 
Durch  Kampf  zum  Sieg  (1871). 

MULLET,  a  name  given  to  two  families  of 
acanthopterygian  fishes,  the  mugilidce  and  the 
mullidce,  though  the  latter,  to  avoid  confusion, 
are  better  styled  surmullets.  In  the  mugilidm 
the  body  is  more  or  less  cylindrical ;  head  and 


MULLET 

body  covered  with  large,  easily  detached  scales, 
in  reality  ctenoid,  but  so  slightly  denticulated 
as  to  appear  cycloid;  gill  covers  thin  and 
smooth;  head  flattened,  and  the  eyes  large  and 
far  apart;  the  mouth  small,  and  the  teeth, 
when  present,  exceedingly  fine;  a  kind  of  crest 
in  the  lower  jaw  received  into  a  groove  in  the 
upper ;  dorsals  two,  small  and  distinct,  the  first 
with  usually  four  spinous  rays,  the  second  with 
flexible  rays;  ventrals  behind  pectorals;  the 
pharyngeals  are  very  large,  the  stomach  rather 
fleshy,  and  the  intestine  with  a  few  pyloric 
cffica;  the  swimming  bladder  is  large.  More 
than  50  species  of  the  principal  genus  mugil 
(Linn.)  have  been  described,  from  Europe, 
America,  Africa,  and  the  East  Indies,  inhabit- 
ing salt  water,  in  preference  about  the  mouths 
of  rivers  which  they  can  ascend  or  descend 
with  the  tide.  The  gray  mullet  of  western 
Europe  (M.  capita,  Cuv.)  attains  a  length  of 
from  1  to  2  ft. ;  the  color  above  is  dusky  gray 
tinged  with  blue,  the  sides  and  belly  silvery 
with  longitudinal  parallel  dusky  lines ;  a  dark 
spot  at  the  base  of  the  pectoral  fin.  They  are 
highly  esteemed  as  food,  and  are  caught  in 
nets,  from  'which  they  attempt  to  escape  by 
jumping  over  the  edge.  This  species  is  com- 
mon on  the  English  coasts,  never  far  from 
land,  and  ventures  many  miles  inland  with 
the  tide  ;  it  is  one  of  the  species  which  thrive 
in  fresh  water;  the  food  consists  of  soft  or 
decaying  animal  or  vegetable  substances ;  the 
spawning  time  is  in  midsummer.  The  gray 
mullet  of  the  Mediterranean  (M.  cepJialus,  Cuv.) 
may  be  known  by  the  two  adipose  veils  which 
half  cover  the  eyes,  by  the  long  ridged  scale  at 
the  base  of  the  pectoral  fins,  and  by  the  entire 
concealment  of  the  maxillary  bone  when  the 
mouth  is  shut;  it  attains  a  weight  of  10  or  12 
Ibs.,  and  is  taken  in  nets  in  great  quantities  at 
the  mouths  of  rivers ;  the  flesh  is  tender,  deli- 
cate, and  fine-flavored,  and  has  been  esteemed 
from  ancient  times;  it  is  eaten  fresh,  salted, 
and  smoked.  Of  the  American  species  may 
be  mentioned  the  striped  mullet  (M.  linea- 
tus,  Mitch.),  6  or  8  in.  long,  purplish  brown 
above,  lighter  on  the  sides,  with  10  or  12  dark 
brown  longitudinal  stripes,  pupils  black  and 


Striped  Mullet  (Mugil  lineatus). 

irides  yellowish  white,  and  abdomen  pearl 
gray;  this  is  an  excellent  fish,  ranges  from 
New  York  southward,  and  appears  in  the 
markets  in  early  autumn ;  the  white  mullet 
(M.  albula,  Linn.),  of  a  general  whitish  color, 
about  9  in.  long,  plump  and  firm,  appearing  in 


MULLET 

July  and  August,  and  prized  by  epicures ;  and 
the  rock  mullet  (M.  petrosus,  Cuv.),  like  the 
last,  found  from  New  York  to  the  gulf  of  Mex- 
ico. The  African  and  Asiatic  species  are  gen- 
erally greenish  brown  above,  with  golden  and 
silvery  reflections,  and  white  below.  —  The 
other  family  of  mullets,  more  properly  called 
surmullets  (mullidUe),  have  some  affinities  with 
the  perch  family  in  the  position  of  the  fins, 
but  differ  from  them  in  the  unarmed  opercula 
and  the  slightly  ctenoid  character  of  the  scales ; 
the  branchiostegal  rays  are  four;  the  scales 
are  large  and  easily  detached ;  the  dorsals  are 
two,  widely  separated,  and  all  the  fins  are 
moderate;  body  oblong,  little  compressed; 
profile  nearly  vertical ;  mouth  small,  and  teeth 
feeble;  gill  opening  wide;  eyes  large  and  at 
top  of  the  head;  in  most  species  the  lower 
jaw  has  two  barbels  at  the  symphysis.  In  the 
genus  mullus  (Linn.)  there  are  no  teeth  in  the 
upper  jaw,  but  pavement-like  ones  on  the 
vomer  and  lower  jaw,  and  no  air  bladder. 
The  red  mullet  (M.  surmuletus,  Linn.)  is  bright 
red  above  and  on  the  sides,  with  three  golden 
yellow  longitudinal  lines  behind  the  pectorals, 
and  rosy  white  below ;  it  attains  a  length  of  12 
to  15  in.  It  is  found  from  the  English  coast 
southward,  being  more  common  to  the  south, 
and  very  abundant  in  the  Mediterranean,  where 
it  feeds  upon  crustaceans  and  mollusks;  it  is 
less  esteemed  as  food  than  the  next  species. 
The  bearded  mullet  (M.  barbatus,  Linn.)  has  a 
more  vertical  profile  and  a  deeper  and  more 


MULTNOMAH 


37 


Bearded  Mullet  (Mullus  barbatus). 

uniform  red  color;  comparatively  rare  north 
of  the  English  channel,  it  is  most  abundant  in 
the  Mediterranean;  this  is  the  rouget  of  the 
French.  Of  about  the  same  size  as  the  last,  it 
is  more  highly  esteemed  for  its  white,  firm, 
well  flavored,  and  easily  digested  flesh ;  the  old 
Eoman  epicures  paid  immense  prices  for  this 
fish ;  they  kept  them  alive  in  vivaria,  and  ex- 
hibited their  brilliant  colors,  rendered  more 
beautiful  in  the  agonies  of  death,  to  their 
guests.— In  America  fish  of  the  allied  genus 
upeneus  (Cuv.),  with  teeth  in  both  jaws,  are 
called  mullets ;  most  of  these  have  a  large  air 
bladder.  The  IT.  maculatus  (Bloch),  with 
others,  6  or  8  in.  long,  is  found  in  the  gulf  of 
Mexico,  the  West  Indies,  and  South  America ; 
the  color  is  red,  with  a  few  blackish  spots; 
the  flesh  is  not  much  prized. 


MTLLJVER,  Amadeus  Gottfried  Adolf,  a  German 
dramatist,  born  at  Langendorf,  near  Weissen- 
fels,  Oct.  18,  1774,  died  in  Weissenfels,  June 
11,  1829.  He  practised  for  some  time  as  a 
lawyer,  and  wrote  on  jurisprudence;  but  he 
is  best  known  by  his  dramas  Der  neunund- 
zwanzigste  Februar  and  Die  ScJiuld,  which 
were  among  the  most  popular  productions  of 
the  fatalistic  dramatic  school.  His  miscellane- 
ous writings  were  published  in  2  vols.  (Stutt- 
gart, 1824-'6),  and  his  dramatic  works  in  7 
vols.  (Brunswick,  1828).  The  hundredth  an- 
niversary of  his  birth  was  celebrated  at  Weis- 
senfels in  1874. 

Ml  LOCK,  Dinah  Maria.     See  CKAIK. 

MULREADY,  William,  a  British  painter,  born  in 
Ennis,  Ireland,  April  1,  1786,  died  at  Bays- 
water,  near  London,  July  7,  1863.  He  was 
admitted  a  student  of  the  royal  academy  at  14 
years  of  age.  His  "  Rattle  "  (1808),  "  Eoad- 
side  Inn"  (1811),  and  "Punch"  (1813)  showed 
careful  study  from  nature  and  a  good  idea  of 
color.  His  "Idle  Boys"  (1815)  procured  his 
election  as  an  associate  of  the  academy,  and 
in  1816  he  was  admitted  to  full  membership. 
His  subsequent  works,  including  "  The  Fight 
Interrupted  "  (1816),  "  Lending  a  Bite  "  (1819), 
"  The  Wolf  and  the  Lamb  "  (1820),  "  The  Con- 
valescent" (1822),  "  The  Origin  of  a  Painter" 
(1826),  "The  Last  In"  (1835),  "First  Love" 
(1840),  and  "  The  Ford "  (1842),  established 
his  reputation.  In  1840  he  prepared  20  designs 
to  illustrate  the  "Vicar  of  Wakefield,"  which 
suggested  his  subsequent  pictures,  "  The  Whis- 
tonian  Controversy"  (1844),  "Choosing  the 
Wedding  Gown"  (1846),  and  "  Burchell  and 
Sophia"  (1847).  Of  his  later  works  the  best 
known  are  "The  Butt"  (1848),  "Women 
Bathing"  (1849),  and  "Blackheath  Park" 
(1852).  Choice  specimens  of  his  style  are 
contained  in  the  royal  collection,  in  the  Yer- 
non  and  Sheepshanks  portions  of  the  national 
gallery,  and  in  the  Peel  collection. 

MIJLSO,  Hester.    See  CHAPONE. 

MULTNOMAH,  a  JST.  W.  county  of  Oregon,  bor- 
dering E.  on  the  Cascade  mountains,  bounded 
N.  by  the  Columbia  river,  and  intersected  in 
the  west  by  the  Willamette ;  area,  about  400 
sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  11,510,  of  whom  508 
were  Chinese.  The  soil  is  generally  fertile,  and 
agriculture  and  cattle  raising  are  the  chief  in- 
dustries. It  is  traversed  by  the  Oregon  and 
California  and  Oregon  Central  railroads.  The 
chief  productions  in  1870  were  5,003  bushels 
of  wheat,  1,473  of  Indian  corn,  11,882  of 
oats,  3,724  of  barley,  1,826  of  peas  and  beans, 
60,490  of  potatoes,  4,626  Ibs.  of  wool,  115,- 
549  of  butter,  11,260  of  cheese,  and  6,138  tons 
-of  hay.  There  were  838  horses,  1,966  milch 
cows,  2,213  other  cattle,  2,583  sheep,  and 
2,583  swine;  1  manufactory  of  awnings  and 
tents,  4  of  bread,  8  of  carriages  and  wagons, 
27  of  clothing,  3  of  confectionery,  6  of  coop- 
erage, 5  of  furniture,  4  of  iron  castings,  6  of 
engines  and  boilers,  5  of  saddlery  and  harness, 
3  of  sash,  doors,  and  blinds,  8  of  tin,  copper, 


38 


MUMMIUS 


and  sheet-iron  ware,  5  of  upholstery,  5  tan- 
neries, 4  breweries,  3  flour  mills,  1  planing 
mill,  7  saw  mills,  and  1  beef  and  1  pork  pack- 
ing establishment.  Capital,  Portland. 

MUMMIUS,  Lneins,  a  Roman  general  of  the  2d 
century  B.  0.  He  was  praetor  in  154  B.  C. 
His  province  was  Further  Spain,  where  he  met 
with  several  defeats,  but  finally  was  victorious 
over  the  Lusitanians  and  Blasto-Phoenicians. 
When  he  became  consul  in  146,  the  Achaean 
chiefs,  only  partially  humbled  by  the  victories 
of  Metellus,  his  predecessor,  had  assembled  an 
army  on  the  isthmus  of  Corinth.  Mummius 
took  command  in  person,  easily  defeated  the 
Achseans,  and  entered  Corinth.  The  city, 
almost  entirely  deserted  by  its  inhabitants, 
was  pillaged  and  burned.  Mummius  carried 
off  an  immense  quantity  of  spoils,  consisting 
largely  of  the  finest  paintings  and  statuary  in 
Greece.-  Many  of 
the  rarer  works 
he  sold  to  the 
king  of  Pergamus, 
and  the  remain- 
der he  sent  to 
Rome,  where  such 
of  them  as  had 
escaped  the  per- 
ils of  the  sea 
were  exhibited  in 
his  triumph.  For 
his  great  victory, 
which  completed 
the  conquest  of 
Greece,  Mummius 
received  the  sur- 
name Achaicus, 
being  the  first 
nomis  homo  thus 
honored  for  mili- 
tary service.  He 

remained  in  Greece  during  the  greater  part  of 
the  years  146  and  145,  having  in  the  latter  year 
the  title  of  proconsul.  He  governed  wisely, 
and  respected  the  religion  of  the  people.  He 
became  censor  in  142  with  Scipio  Africanus 
the  younger;  the  two  men  were  exact  oppo- 
sites  in  character  and  culture,  and  disagreed  in 
everything.  Mummius  was  rustic,  rigidly  hon- 
est, but  lenient  to  others,  and  died  poor. 

MUMMY  (Persian  and  Arabic,  mumiya,  from 
the  Persian  mum,  naphtha  or  liquid  asphal- 
tum),  a  dead  body  embalmed,  or  preserved 
from  decay  by  desiccation.  The  custom  of 
thus  preserving  the  bodies  of  the  dead  pre- 
vailed among  several  ancient  nations.  The 
Assyrians,  Persians,  and  Ethiopians  practised 
it  to  some  extent,  as  did  also  the  Hebrews, 
Greeks,  and  Romans,  and  in  America  the 
Mexicans  and  Peruvians  ;  but  it  was  most 
general  among  the  Egyptians,  who  embalmed 
all  their  dead.  For  the  methods  employed 
by  the  last,  see  EMBALMING.  After  the  em- 
balming process  was  finished,  the  Egyptians 
swathed  $  the  body  with  narrow  linen  bandages 
steeped  in  some  resinous  liquid,  probably  the 


MUMMY 

gum  of  the  mimosa  Nilotica.  These  were 
wound  around  with  great  nicety,  all  the  irreg- 
ularities being  padded  so  as  to  bring  the  body 
to  a  symmetrical  shape.  In  the  Greek  and 
Roman  period  the  limbs  were  bound  sepa- 
rately, but  the  Egyptians  enclosed  in  one  en- 
velope the  entire  body,  which  when  thus  pre- 
pared exhibited  only  the  general  outlines  of 
the  human  form,  even  the  face  being  covered. 
The  bandages,  which  differ  in  quality  from  fine 
muslin  to  coarse  canvas,  were  sometimes  more 
than  1,000  yards  in  length.  The  body  was 
next  enclosed  in  a  cartonage  or  case  made  of 
layers  of  cloth  cemented  together,  which  was 
probably  adjusted  to  it  when  damp  so  as  to 
take  its  exact  shape.  When  fitted  it  was  taken 
off,  dried,  and  then  put  on  again  and  sewed  up 
at  the  back  ;  after  which  it  was  richly  painted 
and  gilded,  the  face  being  colored  to  represent 


1.  Mummy  in  Bandages.    2.  Cartonage.    3.  Outer  Case.    4.  Sarcophagus. 


the  features  of  the  deceased,  or  overlaid  with 
thick  gold  leaf,  and  the  eyes  made  of  enamel. 
The  cartonage  was  covered  with  other  cases, 
sometimes  three  or  four,  made  of  cedar  ^ or 
sycamore,  similarly  painted.  The  cases  varied 
in  number,  beauty,  and  style,  in  proportion  to 
the  expense  incurred  by  the  friends  of  the  de- 
ceased, and  the  whole  was  sometimes  placed 
in  an  outer  sarcophagus  of  wood  or  stone,  or- 
namented with  paintings  or  sculptures.  Mum- 
mies thus  prepared  were  of  those  embalmed  by 
the  most  expensive  process,  generally  the  bodies 
of  priests  or  other  dignitaries.  The  bodies  of 
the  middle  classes  seldom  had  more  than  one 
covering,  and  those  of  the  lower  orders  were 
merely  wrapped  in  coarse  mats.  Within  the 
bandages  were  often  placed  papyri,  small  fig- 
ures of  Osiris  in  blue  porcelain,  scarabaei,  amu- 
lets, necklaces  of  glass  beads  or  agate,  ear 
rings,  finger  rings,  bracelets,  hair  pins,  and 
other  ornaments ;  and  many  of  these  are  now 
found  in  mummies  which  have  been  undis- 
turbed. Mummies  preserved  by  resinous  sub- 
stances are  of  an  olive  color,  and  the  skin  dry, 
flexible,  and  as  if  tanned.  The  features  appear 


MUMPS 


MUNCH 


39 


as  during  life ;  the  teeth,  hair,  and  eyebrows 
are  well  preserved.  Mummies  of  this  kind  are 
light,  dry,  and  easily  broken.  Those  filled  with 
bitumen  are  black  ;  the  skin  hard  and  shining, 
as  if  varnished ;  the  features  perfect ;  and  the 
whole  corpse  dry,  heavy,  and  difficult  to  break. 
Of  mummies  preserved  with  natron  and  filled 
with  asphaltum  and  resinous  substances,  the 
skin  is  hard  and  elastic,  resembling  parchment, 
and  does  not  adhere  to  the  bones ;  the  coun- 
tenance is  little  altered,  but  the  hair  falls  off 
on  being  touched.  The  bodies  Of  the  poor, 
which  were  salted  and  boiled  in  bitumen,  are 
black,  dry,  heavy,  and  very  hard  to  break,  and 
neither  the  hair  nor  the  eyebrows  are  pre- 
served. It  has  been  estimated  that  more  than 
400,000,000  human  mummies  were  made  in 
Egypt  from  the  beginning  of  the  art  of  em- 
balming until  its  discontinuance  in  the  7th  cen- 
tury. In  addition  to  these,  vast  numbers  of 
sacred  animals,  bulls,  apes,  cynocephali,  dogs, 
cats,  sheep,  vultures,  falcons,  ibises,  geese,  liz- 
ards, serpents,  crocodiles,  and  fi.sh  were  em- 
balmed. The  principal  places  where  mummies 
are  found  are  the  necropolis  in  the  plain  of 
Sakkarah,  opposite  the  site  of  Memphis,  and 
the  necropolis  of  Thebes.  Great  numbers  have 
been  removed,  and  mummies  of  the  best  class 
are  now  scarce.  Many  are  burned  for  fuel  by 
the  Arabs,  and  ship  loads  have  been  transported 
to  England  to  be  ground  up  for  manure. 

MUMPS  (cynanche  parotidea,  parotitis),  a 
specific  inflammation  of  the  parotid  and  sub- 
maxillary  glands.  This  curious  affection,  called 
by  the  Scotch  branks,  and  by  the  French  oreil- 
lons  or  ourles,  has  been  known  from  the  time 
of  Hippocrates.  It  commences  with  a  feeling 
of  pain  and  tension  beneath  the  ear,  swelling 
takes  place,  and  motion  of  the  jaw  is  painful. 
The  swelling  soon  involves  the  parotid  and 
submaxillary  glands ;  it  is  somewhat  pasty  to 
the  feel,  and  is  unattended  with  redness  of  the 
skin.  Sometimes  one  side  only  is  affected, 
sometimes  both  at  once,  more  commonly  one 
after  the  other.  The  disease  is  attended  with 
slight  fever,  but  the  pain  is  by  no  means  pro- 
portioned to  the  swelling  and  the  deformity. 
The  duration  of  the  complaint  is  from  eight 
to  ten  days,  it  taking  four  days  to  attain  its 
height,  and  four  days  being  occupied  by  its 
decline.  Occasionally  in  males  the  testes,  and 
in  females  the  breasts,  become  swollen  and 
hard  as  the  swelling  of  the  salivary  glands 
subsides;  and  very  rarely,  in  the  subsidence 
of  the  swelling,  either  of  the  parotid  or  of  the 
testes,  inflammation  of  the  brain  or  its  mem- 
branes has  occurred.  The  disease  is  often 
epidemic,  and  is  generally  believed  to  be  con- 
tagious. It  ordinarily  requires  little  treatment, 
the  administration  of  a  laxative  and  warm  and 
emollient  applications  to  the  affected  part  be- 
ing all  that  is  necessary.  "When  the  brain  is 
attacked,  it  must  be  treated  irrespective  of  the 
original  affection. 

MWTCH,  Ernst  Hermann  Joseph  voi,  a  German 
historian,  born  in  Rheinfelden,  Switzerland, 


Oct.  25,  1798,  died  there,  June  9,  1841.  He 
was  for  some  time  professor  at  Freiburg,  and 
filled  the  chair  of  ecclesiastical  history  and  law 
at  Liege.  He  was  also  royal  librarian  at  the 
Hague,  and  director  of  the  private  library  of  the 
king  of.  Wurtemberg.  Among  his  principal 
works  are  Allgemeine  GescMchte  der  neuesten 
Zeit  (6  vols.,  Leipsic,  1833-'5),  and  his  auto- 
biography, Erinnerungen  und  Studien  aus  den 
ersten  37  Jahren  ernes  deutschen  Gelehrten  (3 
vols>v  Carlsruhe,  1836-'8). 

MUNCH,  Friedrich,  a  German  author,  born  at 
Niedergemiinden,  Hesse-Darmstadt,  June  25, 
1799.  He  is  the  son  of  a  clergyman,  studied 
theology  at  Giessen,  and-  succeeded  his  father 
as  pastor  of  the  village  church.  He  founded 
in  1833,  with  Paul  Follen,  an  emigration  so- 
ciety at  Giessen,  and  came  with  a  number  of 
emigrants  to  the  United  States,  settling  as  a 
farmer  in  Missouri.  He  was  active  in  promo- 
ting German  immigration,  and  was  a  member 
of  the  Missouri  senate  from  1862  to  1866.  He 
has  published  Ueber  Religion  und  Christen- 
thum  (1847),  of  which  an  English  edition  ap- 
peared in  Boston ;  Der  Staat  Missouri  (New 
York,  1859;  2d  ed.,  abridged,  Bremen,  1866); 
Amerikanische  Weiribauschule  (3d  ed.,  St. 
Louis,  1867) ;  Die  sinnliche  und  die  geistige 
Lebensansiclit  (Philadelphia,  1871);  Geistes- 
lehre  fur  die  heranreifende  Jugend  (St.  Louis, 
1872) ;  and  Das  Lelen  'don  Karl  Follen  (Neu- 
stadt-on-the-Haardt,  1872). 

MOTCH.  I.  Peder  Andreas,  a  Norwegian  histo- 
rian, born  in  Christiania,  Dec.  15,  1810,  died  in 
Eome,  May  25,  1863.  He  graduated  in  1834 
at  the  university  of  Christiania  for  the  civil 
service,  but  devoted  himself  to  philology  and 
history,  and  became  lecturer  in  1837,  professor 
in  1841,  and  historiographer  of  the  king  and 
archivist  of  Norway  in  1861.  His  principal 
work  is  Det  norske  Folks  Historie  (9  vols., 
Christiania,  1852-'63),  for  the  preparation  of 
which  he  visited  England,  Scotland,  and  France. 
From  1858  to  1861  he  was  at  work  in  the 
archives  of  the  Vatican,  and  he  returned  to 
Rome  shortly  before  his  death.  He  also  pub- 
lished grammars  of  the  Runic,  Old  Norwegian, 
and  Old  Norse  languages,  and  prepared  several 
editions  of  Old  Norse  philological  works.  II. 
Andreas,  a  Norwegian  poet,  cousin  of  the  pre- 
ceding, born  Oct.  19,  1810.  He  was  the  son 
of  the  bishop  of  Christiansand,  and  studied 
jurisprudence  at  Christiania.  He  published  a 
volume  of  poems  in  1836  and  a  drama  in  1837. 
From  1841  to  1846  he  edited  a  journal,  and 
from  1850  to  1860  was  amanuensis  in  the  uni- 
versity library.  A  stipend  voted  to  him  by 
the  storthing  in  the  latter  year  enabled  him 
to  devote  himself  to  literature,  and  to  publish 
collections  of  his  poems.  His  Sorg  og  Tr&st 
(1852)  has  had  several  editions.  Among  his 
other  works  are  Billeder  fra  8yd  og  Nord,  an 
account  of  a  journey  to  Italy  (1848),  and  the 
dramas  Salomon  de  Caus  (1854),  En  A/ten  paa 
GisJce  (1855),  Lord  William  Eussel  (1857),  and 
Eertug  Skule  (1863). 


40        MtfNCH-BELLINGHAUSEN 

MUNCH-BELLINGHArSEN,  FJigins  Franz  Joseph 
von.  baron,  a  German  dramatist,  known  by  his 
pseudonyme  of  Friedrich  Halm,  born  in  Cra- 
cow, April  2,  1806,  died  in  Vienna,  May  21, 
1871.  His  first  drama,  Griseldw  (Vienna, 
1834),  was  well  received.  Of  the  succeeding 
ones,  the  most  celebrated  are  Der  Sohn  der  Wild- 
niss  (1842 ;  translated  into  English  by  Charles 
E.  Anthon,  New  York,  1848,  under  the  title 
of  "The  Son  of  the  Wilderness,"  but  fre- 
quently performed  on  the  American  stage 
under  that  of  "  Ingomar  the  Barbarian  "),  and 
Der  Fechter  von  Ravenna  (1854).  Among  his 
later  works  is  a  drama  entitled  Ipfiigenie  in 
Delphi,  in  imitation  of  Goethe's  Iphigenie, 
and  a  play  written  for  the  Schiller  festival  in 
1859  entitled  Vor  Tiundert  Jahren.  He  pub- 
lished a  volume  of  poetry  (1850),  a  work  on 
ancient  Spanish  plays  (1852),  and  an  edition  of 
his  works  (8  vols.,  1857-'64).  In  1861  he  was 
made  member  for  life  of  the  Austrian  house 
of  lords.  For  several  years  he  was  first  keeper 
of  the  imperial  library,  and  from  1867  to  1870 
director  of  the  court  theatre  in  Vienna. 

MUXCIIIIAl'SEX,  Hieronymns  Karl  Friedrich  von, 
baron,  a  German  soldier,  born  at  Bodenwerder, 
Hanover,  in  1720,  died  there  in  1797.  He 
served  in  his  youth  as  a  cavalry  officer  in  the 
Kussian  army,  and  passed  his  latter  days  in 
Hanover.  He  delighted  in  telling  wonderful 
stories  of  his  adventures  in  the  campaign 
against  the  Turks  in  173  7-'  9,  which  gained  for 
him  the  reputation  of  being  one  of  the  great- 
est liars  who  ever  lived.  The  stories  were  re- 
peated from  one  end  of  the  country  to  the 
other,  and  created  universal  merriment.  They 
are  said  to  have  been  first  compiled  by  Ru- 
dolf Erich  Raspe,  a  man  of  letters,  who,  being 
compelled  to  flee  from  Cassel  to  England  on 
account  of  a  charge  of  embezzlement,  was 
engaged  in  London  in  literary  pursuits,  and  is 
generally  believed  to  have  published  anony- 
mously an  English  edition  of  the  stories  under 
the  title  of  "  Baron  Munchausen's  Narrative  of 
his  Marvellous  Travels  and  Campaigns  in  Rus- 
sia" (London,  1785).  A  second  edition,  con-- 
siderably  enlarged  and  ornamented  with  views 
from  the  baron's  drawings,  was  published  at 
Oxford  in  1786,  under  the 'title  of  "  The  Singu- 
lar Travels,  Campaigns,  Voyages,  and  Sport- 
ing Adventures  of  Baron  Munnikhousen,  com- 
monly pronounced  Munchausen ;  as  he  relates 
them  over  a  bottle  when  surrounded  by  his 
friends."  A  third  edition  (London,  1786)  bore 
the  additional  title  of  "  Gulliver  Revived," 
and  was  soon  followed  by  others.  The  work 
was  first  issued  in  a  German  form  in  1787, 
under  the  auspices  of  the  poet  Burger.  A 
German  edition  of  this  famous  work,  entitled 
Des  Freiherrn  von  Munchhausen  wunderlare 
Reisen  und  Abenteuer  (Gottingen  and  Berlin, 
1849),  contains  an  introduction  by  Adolf  Ellis- 
sen  upon  the  life  and  writings  of  the  author, 
the  sources  and  originals  of  the  Miinchhausens, 
and  the  literature  of  fictitious  travels  in  gen- 
eral. But  a  large  proportion  of  the  hunting 


MUNDT 

stories  in  this  edition  are  derived  from  Hen- 
ry Bebel's  Facetice  (Strasburg,  1508),  while 
other  incidents  are  borrowed  from  Casti- 
glione's  Cortegiano  and  Bildermann's  Utopia, 
which  are  included  in  Lange's  Delicia  Acade- 
mics (Heilbronn,  1765).  A  free  German  ver- 
sion of  the  English  edition  appeared  in  Leip- 
sic  in  1846,  under  the  title  of  Munchhausens 
Lugenabenteuer.  The  work  still  maintains  its 
popularity  in  Germany  as  well  as  in  England 
and  the  United  States.  Imitations  of  Miinch- 
hausen's  stories  are  called  in  Germany  Munch- 
hausiaden.  The  success  of  the  work  gave  rise 
to  Immermann's  celebrated  novel  Munchhau- 
sen (4  vols.,  2d  ed.,  Dtisseldorf,  1841),  and  to 
Adolf  Schrodter's  picture  representing  the 
baron  surrounded  by  his  listeners. 

MUNDT.    I.  Theodor,  a  German  author,  born 
in  Potsdam,  Sept.  19,  1808,  died  in  Berlin, 
May  30,  1861.     He  was  educated  in  Berlin  and 
Leipsic,   and  became  prominent    among    the 
young  Germany  school  of  writers  and  poli- 
ticians.    His  liberalism  giving  umbrage  to  the 
government,  he  travelled  in  various  parts  of 
Europe,  and  was  permitted  to  teach  at  the 
university  of  Berlin  after  his  return  in  1839. 
In  1848  he  was  appointed  professor  of  general 
literature  and  history  at  Breslau,  and  in  1850 
he  became  director  of  the  library  of  the  Berlin 
university.     Among  his  earliest  writings  was 
Madonna,  oder  UnterJialtungen  mit  einer  Hei- 
ligen  (Leipsic,  1834) ;  its  morbid  though  poet- 
ical views  of  life  are  said  to  have  prompted 
Charlotte  Stieglitz  to  commit  suicide  from  de- 
votion to  her  husband,  whom  she  hoped  to  di- 
vert from  his  varied  troubles  by  the  greater 
sorrow  caused  by  her  death.     (See  STIEGLITZ, 
HEINEIOH.)    Mundt  edited  her  writings  under 
the  title  Charlotte  Stieglitz,  ein  DenTcmal  (Ber- 
lin, 1835).     Among  his  subsequent  works  are 
a  series  of  novels,  including  Thomas  Munzer 
(Altona,  1841),  and  Carmola,  oder  die  Wieder- 
taufe  (Hanover,  1844) ;  Mendoza,  oder  der  Vo- 
ter der  Schelme  (Berlin,  1847) ;  and  Die  Mata- 
dore  (Leipsic,  1850).     He  also  published  Spa- 
ziergange  und  Weltfahrten  (Altona,  1838-'40), 
Volkerschau  auf  Reisen  (Stuttgart,  1840),  and 
other  sketches  of  travels,  and  a  delineation  of 
the  character  of  Knebel  in  the  edition  of  that 
author's  posthumous  works  which  he  prepared 
in  concert  with  Varnhagen  von  Ense.     Among 
his  other  productions  are  Kunst  der  deutschen 
Prosa;  Allgemeine  Literaturgeschichte,  in  con- 
tinuation of  that  of  Schlegel;  Dramaturgic; 
Oeschichte  der  Literatur  der  Gegenwart,  &c. 
His  Oeschichte  der  Gesellschaft  (1844)  was  fol- 
lowed by  a  Geschichte  der  deutschen  Stande 
(1854) ;    and  he  published  in  1851  a  work  on 
Machiavelli.      In  1844  he  began  the  publica- 
tion of  an  edition  of  Luther's  political  works. 
His  last  work,  Rom  und  Neapel,  appeared  in 
1860.     H.  Rlara  (MULLER),  best  known  by  her 
pseudonyme  of  LUISE  MUHLBACH,  a  German 
novelist,  wife  of  the  preceding,  born  in  Neu- 
Brandenburg,   Jan.   2,   1814,  died  in  Berlin, 
Sept.  27,  1873.     She  was  married  in  1839,  and 


MUNICH 


in  the  same  year  published  her  first  novel.  The 
long  series  of  romances  which  followed  gained 
great  popularity,  and  brought  her  a  large  for- 
tune, enabling  her  to  support  her  husband  du- 
ring the  long  illness  which  preceded  his  death, 
and  to  build  a  handsome  residence  in  Berlin, 
where  she  was  a  prominent  figure  in  literary 
society.  Mme.  Mundt  was  an  advocate  of  fe- 
male suffrage  and  of  great  changes  in  the  social 
position  of  women,  an  extreme  liberal  in  her 
political  views,  and  a  frequent  participant  in 
reform  movements  in  these  and  similar  direc- 
tions. She  wrote  many  essays  on  social  ques- 
tions. Her  historical  romances  have  been 
translated  into  English,  and  are  as  well  known 
in  Great  Britain  and  America  as  in  Germany. 
The  facts  of  history  are  very  freely  treated  in 
them,  and  the  imagination  of  the  writer  is  al- 
lowed full  liberty ;  but  the  narratives  are  spir- 
ited, and  the  social  features  of  the  periods 
of  which  they  treat  are  often  fairly  repre- 
sented. The  best  known  of  these  works  are 
"Frederick  the  Great  and  his  Court,"  "Joseph 
II.  and  his  Court,"  "  The  Merchant  of  Berlin," 
"  Frederick  the  Great  and  his  Family,"  "  Ber- 
lin and  Sans-Souci,"  "  Henry  VIII.  and  Catha- 
rine Parr,"  "Louisa  of  Prussia  and  her  Times," 
"  Marie  Antoinette  and  her  Son,"  "  The 
Daughter  of  an  Empress,"  "  Napoleon  and  the 
Queen  of  Prussia,"  "The  Empress  Josephine," 
"Napoleon  and  Bliicher,"  "  Queen  Hortense," 
"Goethe  and  Schiller,"  "Andreas  Hofer," 
"Prince  Eugene  and  his  Times,"  and  "Mo- 
hammed Ali  and  his  House."  Among  her  la- 
test works  were  "The  Thirty  Years'  War," 
" Emperor  William,"  and  "From  Koniggratz 
to  Chiselhurst,"  all  published  in  1873.  She 
wrote  in  all  more  than  50  separate  novels, 
comprising  nearly  100  volumes. 

MUNICH  (Ger.  MuncJien),  the  capital  of  Ba- 
varia'and  of  the  district  of  Upper  Bavaria,  on 
the  Isar,  in  the  midst  of  an  extensive  plain, 
1,700  ft.  above  the  level  of  the  sea,  in  lat.  48° 
9'  N.,  Ion.  11°  35'  E.,  33  m.  S.  E.  of  Augsburg, 
290  m.  S.  S.  W.  of  Berlin,  and  220  m.  W.  of  Vi- 
enna; pop.  in  1871,  169,478  (in  1812,  40,000). 
It  is  celebrated  for  its  architectural  splendor, 
for  its  admirable  institutions  and  works  of  art, 
and  for  its  university.  The  city  is  composed 
of  the  old  and  the  new  town  and  of  five  sub- 
urbs on  the  left  bank  and  three  on  the  right 
bank  of  the  Isar.  The  river  is  spanned  by  four 
bridges,  the  Isar  bridge  being  the  largest  and 
the  Maximilian  the  finest  and  most  recent.  The 
number  of  streets  is  about  275,  and  new  streets 
are  springing  up  in  every  direction,  particularly 
near  the  new  railway  stations  in  Haidhausen 
and  other  suburbs,  and  in  the  S.  part  of  the  city. 
The  streets  in  the  old  town  are  irregular,  but 
spacious  and  bustling.  The  most  celebrated 
in  the  modern  city  are  the  Ludwig  and  Maxi- 
milian streets,  which  respectively  contain  the 
most  remarkable  public  and  private  buildings. 
There  are  nearly  20  squares,  of  which  the  Max- 
Joseph  is  the  largest;  and  others  conspicu- 
ous for  attractiveness  are  the  Odeon,  Wittels- 


bach,  Maximilian,  Karl,  and  Promenade  squares, 
the  Carolinenplatz,  and  the  Konigsplatz.  Fa- 
vorite promenades  are  the  Hofgarten  and  the 
English  garden,  the  latter  remarkable  for  a 
Greek  temple  and  other  embellishments.  The 
S.  continuation  of  it,  known  as  the  Hirschau, 
abounds  with  deer,  stags,  and  pheasants ;  and  N. 
of  the  park  is  the  new  zoological  garden.  Not 
far  from  Munich  is  the  park  adjoining  the  palace 
of  Nymphenburg,  and  the  picturesque  scenery 
of  the  upper  banks  of  the  Isar  makes  many  of 
the  neighboring  villages  favorite  resorts,  while 
the  immediate  vicinity  of  the  city  teems  with 
public  gardens. — Munich  contains  upward  of 
20  Koman  Catholic  churches  and  chapels.  St. 
Peter's,  the  oldest,  dates  from  the  13th  century. 
The  Gothic  cathedral  (FrauenMrche),  com- 
pleted at  the  end  of  the  15th,  has  two  lofty 
dome-capped  towers.  St.  Michael's  is  remark- 
able for  the  beauty  of  the  interior  and  for  the 
width  of  its  roof  unsupported  by  pillars;  it 
contains  Thorwaldsen's  monument  of  Eugene 
de  Beaurharnais.  St.  Cajetan's  contains  the 
tombs  of  the  royal  family.  The  modern  edi- 
fices are  however  the  most  interesting.  All 
Saints'  chapel  (Allerheiligen-Kapelle  or  Hof- 
Tcapelle)  has  columns  of  red  Tyrolese  marble 
with  white  bases  and  gilded  capitals.  The 
upper  part  of  the  aisles  is  incrusted  with  col- 
ored marbles ;  all  the  rest  is  covered  with 
frescoes  upon  a  golden  ground.  The  Lud- 
wigskirche,  in  the  round  arch  style,  is  also  fa- 
mous for  the  beauty  of  its  execution  and  its 
designs,  and  for  the  wealth  of  its  decorations, 
which  comprise  colossal  statues  of  St.  Peter 
and  St.  Paul  and  other  works  by  Schwan- 
thaler,  and  Cornelius's  "Last  Judgment,"  up- 
ward of  60  ft.  high.  The  parish  church  of 
Maria-Hilf,  in  the  Au  suburb,  and  in  the  Ger- 
man pointed  style  of  the  14th  century,  with 
high  lancet  windows,  contains  19  painted  win- 
dows illustrative  of  incidents  in  the  life  of  the 
Virgin.  The  church  or  basilica  of  St.  Boni- 
face, finished  in  1850,  in  the  Byzantine  style, 
is  the  largest  and  most  splendid  of  them  all. 
The  front  has  a  portico  of  eight  Corinthian 
columns  with  three  bronze  doors.  The  side 
facades  have  a  double  row  of  round-headed 
windows.  The  interior,  divided  into  a  nave 
75  ft.  high  and  50  ft.  wide,  and  a  number  of 
aisles,  is  supported  by  64  monolithic  columns 
of  marble  disposed  in  four  rows.  The  pave- 
ment is  of  marble  mosaic,  and  the  roof  of 
open  timber  work,  the  beams  of  which  are 
carved  and  richly  decorated,  and  the  ceiling 
between  them  azure  with  golden  stars.  The 
frescoes  on  the  walls  represent  saints  and 
martyrs  and  incidents  in  the  life  of  St.  Boni- 
face.— The  majority  of  the  population  are  Ko- 
man Catholics,  and  an  archbishop  resides  here. 
Munich  has  also  recently  become  the  great 
centre  of  the  Old  Catholic  movement.  There 
are  about  16,000  Protestants,  who  have  several 
places  of  worship.  There  is  only  one  syna- 
gogue, Jews  being  less  numerous  here  than 
in  most  other  parts  of  Germany,  numbering 


42 


MUNICH 


barely  2,000.  Charitable  institutions  are  nu- 
merous; the  most  prominent  are  those  for 
the  blind  and  deaf  and  dumb,  and  the  new 
lunatic  asylum  in  the  Au  suburb.  The  peni- 
tentiary, or  great  prison,  in  the  same  locality, 
is  one  of  the  most  remarkable  establishments 
of  the  kind  in  Germany,  resembling  a  manu- 
factory in  which  every  handicraft  is  carried  on, 
the  prisoners,  male  and  female,  being  obliged 
to  work  at  their  respective  trades.  Among 
the  finest  official  buildings  are  the  war  and 
post  offices,  the  mint,  the  office  of  the  mining 
and  salt  works,  and  the  renovated  city  hall 
(Rathhaus). — The  Ludwig-Maximilian  univer- 
sity, founded  in  Ingolstadt  in  1472,  and  in 
1800  transferred  to  Landshut,  was  removed 
to  Munich  in  1826,  and  has  since  attained 
world-wide  celebrity,  particularly  under  the 
reign  of  Maximilian  II.  (1848-' 64).  The  400th 
anniversary  of  its  foundation  was  celebrated  in 
1872.  In  the  winter  term  of  1874-'5  it  was 
attended  by  1,145  stu- 
dents, including  80  in 
Koman  Catholic  theol- 
ogy, 223  in  jurispru- 
dence, &c.,  307  in  medi- 
cine and  pharmacy,  and 
432  in  philosophy.  Con- 
nected with  it  were  113 
professors,  one  of  whom 
is  Dr.  Dollinger.  At- 
tached to  the  univer- 
sity, which  occupies  a 
new  and  imposing  edi- 
fice, are  the  Georgianum 
or  theological  school, 
a  philological  seminary, 
anatomical  and  clini- 
cal institutions,  and  the 
general  hospital.  The 
royal  polytechnic  school, 
founded  within  the  last 
generation,  has  rapidly 
risen  to  great  impor- 
tance, and  was  attended  in  1875  by  upward  of 
1,300  students.  A  fine  building  was  appropria- 
ted in  1863  for  an  athenamm  for  training  young 

^  °[r>the,civil  Sen7ice'  and  contains  Kaul- 
bach's  "Battle  of  Salamis,"  one  of  100  paintings 
illustrating  universal  history.  There  are  many 
other  educational  institutions  in  Munich,  ex- 
tending over  every  specialty  of  military  and 
civil  instruction,  and  including  a  Catholic  nor- 
mal seminary.  The  libraries  of  Munich  are  ex- 
tensive and  numerous.  The  most  celebrated  is 

^7-r°/rK01'  P^liG  HbraiT  (H°f-  und  Staats- 
bibliothelc),  a  splendid  building  in  the  Ludwig 
street,  resembling  an  Italian  medieval  palace 
d  containing  a  reading  room,  900,000  vol- 
umes, and  22,000  manuscripts,  the  books  from 
suppressed  monasteries  greatly  contributing  to 
swell  the  number.  Next  in  extent  is  the  uni- 
versity library,  with  230,000  volumes  and  2  000 
manuscripts.  The  academy  of  sciences  is  rich 
in  scientific  co  lections,  and  has  jurisdiction 
over  the  cabinet  of  antiquities  in  the  old  royal 


palace,  the  chemical  laboratory  established  by 
Liebig,  the  botanic  garden  and  the  new  palm 
house,  and  the  observatory  and  meteorological 
bureau,  near  the  neighboring  village  of  Bogen- 
hausen. — The  academy  of  fine  arts,  including 
the  Schwanthaler  and  other  museums,  is  de- 
voted to  architecture,  .sculpture,  drawing,  and 
engraving.  Piloty  succeeded  Kaulbach  as  pres- 
ident in  1874.  A  plot  of  ground  near  the  Sie- 
gesthor  was  in  1874  purchased  by  the  govern- 
ment for  the  erection  of  a  new  building  for  the 
academy.  The  Glyptothek  or  sculpture  gallery 
is  surrounded  by  pleasure  grounds,  and  con- 
sists of  12  halls  named  after  the  statues  which 
they  contain.  The  1st  is  filled  with  Egyp- 
tian sculptures,  and  the  2d  with  the  earliest 
Greek  and  Etruscan;  the  3d  with  JEginetan 
antiquities,  which  are  especially  celebrated  for 
the  marbles  discovered  in  1811  and  restored 
by  Thorwaldsen ;  the  4th  (the  hall  of  Apollo) 
is  devoted  to  the  works  of  Phidias;  the  5th 


The  Glyptothek. 

(hall  of  Bacchus)  contains  the  sleeping  or  Bar- 
berini  faun,  and  other  famous  works;  the  6th 
(hall  of  the  sons  of  Niobe)  is  remarkable  for 
a  kneeling  figure  of  Ilioneus,  the  youngest 
son  of  Niobe ;  the  7th  (hall  of  the  gods)  is  de- 
voted to  heathen  mythology,  and  the  8th  (Tro- 
jan hall)  to  the  heroes  of  Homer ;  in  the  9th 
(hall  of  heroes),  are  statues  of  Alexander  the 
Great  and  Nero  ;  the  10th  (Roman  hall)  is  re- 
markable for  its  decoration,  and  contains  busts 
which  exhibit  the  decline  of  Pvoman  art ;  the 
llth  is  the  hall  of  colored  sculpture;  and  the 
12th  is  that  of  modern  statuary,  containing 
Ihorwaldsen's  Adonis  and  bust  of  King  Louis 
1.  Ihe  Pmakothek  or  picture  gallery,  a  more 
extensive  building  than  the  Glyptothek,  like 
the  latter  designed  by  Klenze,  was  completed  in 
1880.  It  contains  about  1,300  paintings,  con- 
sisting of  the  best  works  of  the  royal  collec- 
tions, arranged  according  to  schools  in  9  halls 
and  23  compartments,  the  large  works  of  each 
school  being  placed  in  the  central  hall,  which 


MUNICH 


43 


communicates  on  one  side  with  the  collections 
of  the  smaller  paintings,  and  on  the  other  with 
an  extensive  corridor,  divided  into_25  loggie, 
adorned  with  frescoes  by  Cornelius  illustrative 
of  the  history  of  the  fine  arts  during  the  mid- 
dle ages.  Cimabue,  Giotto,  Leonardo  da  Vin- 
ci, Correggio,  Titian,  Michel  Angelo,  Albert 
Diirer,  Rembrandt,  and  Vandyke  are  here  rep- 
resented, some  of  them  by  numerous  works. 
An  entire  compartment  is  filled  with  those  of 
Raphael,  and  95  works  of  Rubens  take  up  the 
entire  space  of  the  central  and  largest  hall  of 
the  gallery.  Murillo,  Poussin,  and  other  Span- 
ish and  French  painters  are  also  represented. 
The  lower  story  contains  collections  of  9,000 
drawings  by  the  old  masters,  including  some 
of  Raphael,  the  drawings  of  Cornelius  for  the 
loggie,  and  3,000  drawings  of  South  American 
scenery  by  Rugendas.  The  cabinet  of  engra- 
vings comprises  about  300,000  works.  On 
the  ground  floor  of  the  W.  wing  is  a  collection 
of  Etruscan  and  other 
vases.  On  the  north  is 
the  new  Pinakothek, 
completed  in  1853,  des- 
tined for  the  works  of 
contemporary  artists, 
and  comprising  52 
rooms  in  two  stories. 
The  upper  floor,  which 
contains  them,  is  divi- 
ded into  5  large  central 
halls,  5  rooms  on  the 
south  and  14  small  cab- 
inets on  the  north,  be- 
sides a  room  at  the 
west  with  Rottmann's 
encaustic  illustrations 
of  Grecian  history  and 
sites.  In  the  central  hall 
are  Kaulbach's  "  De- 
struction of  Jerusalem  " 
and  Schorn's  "  Del- 
uge." It  contains  also 

Wilkie's  "Reading  of  the  Will."  On  the 
ground  floor  are  paintings  on  porcelain,  with 
copies  of  the  most  celebrated  works  of  the 
picture  gallery.  In  the  old  picture  gallery 
on  the  "N.  side  of  the  royal  park  is  a  collec- 
tion of  antiquities  and  curiosities  from  dif- 
ferent parts  of  the  world.  The  Leuchten- 
berg  gallery  of  paintings  was  removed  to  St. 
Petersburg  in  1853.  The  new  royal  palace 
(der  neue  Konigsbau)  is  a  magnificent  and 
stupendous  extension  of  the  old  palace.  The 
interior  is  embellished  after  the  model  of  the 
loggie  of  the  Vatican.  The  ground  floor  con- 
sists of  state  rooms  decorated  with  Schnorr's 
Nibelungen.  The  kings'  and  queens'  apart- 
ments are  adorned  with  paintings  respectively 
from  Greek  and  German  poets.  Other  apart- 
ments are  devoted  to  Klopstock,  Wieland, 
Goethe,  Schiller,  and  Tieck.  The  most  inter- 
esting part  of  the  palace  is  the  Festsaalbau, 
containing  on  the  E.  side  of  the  ball  room  two 
rooms  for  card  playing  called  halls  of  the 


beauties,  with  portraits  of  beautiful  women  of 
modern  times,  including  Lola  Montez.  The 
banquet  hall  and  the  halls  of  Charlemagne, 
Barbar.ossa,  and  Rudolph  of  Hapsburg  are 
full  of  fine  decorations,  the  throne  room  being 
the  most  gorgeous  of  all.  Among  other  royal 
residences  are  the  Wittelsbach  palace  and  the 
palaces  of  Prince  Max  and  Prince  Luitpold, 
the  latter  formerly  known  as  the  Leuchten- 
berg  palace,  situated  on  the  Odeon  square,  op- 
posite to  the  fine  bazaar  celebrated  for  its  ar- 
cades ;  and  there  are  several  private  mansions 
of  remarkable  architecture.  The  Bavarian 
national  museum,  completed  in  1866,  about 
500  ft.  long  and  95  ft.  high,  contains  varied 
and  interesting  collections  relating  to  Bava- 
rian antiquity,  history,  and  manufactures,  and 
the  walls  are  decorated  with  many  frescoes 
of  stupendous  size.  There  are  various  other 
buildings  used  as  museums  and  for  exhibitions 
of  ancient  and  modern  art,  of  which  latter 


The  Kuhmeshalle. 

Munich  contains  a  greater  number  than  any 
other  place  of  its  size,  the  so-called  crystal 
palace  in  the  old  botanic  garden  being  the 
most  extensive.  Some  of  the  city  gates,  as  the 
Siegesthor  (the  triumphal  arch),  after  the  model 
of  the  arch  of  Constantine,  and  the  Isarthor, 
are  exceedingly  interesting,  as  well  as  the  Pro- 
pyla3um,  a  triumphal  arch  in  the  old  Doric 
style,  with  bass  reliefs,  commemorating  the 
modern  Greek  war  of  independence  and  King 
Otho.  The  Ruhmeshalle  (hall  of  fame)  is  the 
most  conspicuous  monument  of  Munich.  It  is 
situated  on  high  ground  in  the  Theresienwiese, 
and  consists  of  a  large  Doric  portico  of  Ba- 
varian marble,  forming  three  sides  of  a  quad- 
rangle and  an  open  side,  in  the  centre  of  which 
rises  Schwanthaler's  colossal  bronze  statue  of 
Bavaria,  about  100  ft.  high,  including  the  pedes- 
tal. There  are  48  columns  with  busts  of  emi- 
nent Bavarians.  In  the  tympana  are  female 
statues  representing  Bavaria,  the  Palatinate, 
Swabia,  and  Franconia ;  and  in  the  frieze  are 


44  MUNICH 

upward  of  90  metopes,  adorned  with  figures 
of  Victory  and  with  reliefs  symbolical  of  the 
arts  and  occupations  of  civilized  society.  The 
principal  squares  and  streets  are  adorned  with 
monuments  of  Bavarian  monarchs,  some  of 
them  of  colossal  size,  especially  the  equestrian 
statute  of  Louis  I.  on  the  Odeon  square,  and 
that  of  Maximilian  II.,  erected  in  1874.  Goethe, 
Schiller,  Gluck,  and  other  eminent  men  are 
likewise  honored  here  by  monuments;  and 
among  the  most  recent  are  those  of  Liebig 
and  Kaulbach.  In  the  southern  cemetery  and 
the  adjoining  new  cemetery  are  also  interest- 
ing monuments ;  the  former  contains  a  house 
(Leichenhaus)  for  funeral  exposition  of  the 
dead,  and  the  latter  has  a  fine  campo  santo, 
in  the  mediaeval  Lombard  style,  consisting  of 
a  large  square  enclosure,  surrounded  by  an 
elegant  structure  of  brick.  The  opera  house 
of  Munich,  the  concerts  in  the  Odeon  and 
other  places,  and  the  conservatory  of  music 
are  among  the  best  in  Germany;  the  royal 
school  of  music  was  attended  in  1874-'5  by 
59  female  and  45  male  pupils.  There  are  sev- 
eral theatres  for  dramatic  performances,  the 
most  recent  being  the  Volkstheater  for  popu- 
lar plays  and  also  for  operettas. — There  were 
seven  railway  stations  in  1874.  The  lines  to 
Paris  and  Vienna  and  to  Italy  form  here  a 
main  junction,  making  Munich  a  great  centre  of 
travel,  especially  in  summer,  and  of  increasing 
trade  and  industry.  In  1874  there  were  near- 
ly 200  manufactories  of  various  articles.  The 
most  celebrated  establishments  are  the  brewer- 
ies ;  the  royal  bronze  f  ounderies,  where  Craw- 
ford's statues  of  Beethoven  and  Washington, 
and  the  doors  of  the  capitol  at  Washington, 
were  cast ;  the  royal  glass  and  porcelain  works, 
Maffei's  manufactory  of  machinery,  Mann- 
hardt's  of  steeple  clocks,  and  Ertl's  of  techno- 
logical instruments  (which  was  founded  by 
Keichenbach)  ;  Fraunhofer's  and  Utzschn  ei- 
der's optical  works,  continued  by  Marz  and 
sons  ;  and  photographic  and  xylographic  estab- 
lishments. The  staple  article  of  trade  is  grain, 
and  there  are  two  great  annual  fairs  (Dulten). 
Granaries,  a  cattle  market,  and  an  abattoir  have 
been  built  near  the  railway  stations,  where  new 
establishments  spring  up  in  increasing  numbers. 
— Munich  was  originally  a  settlement  of  monks 
(Monche\  whence  the  name,  which  was  first 
mentioned  early  in  the  12th  century ;  and  Henry 
the  Lion  raised  the  Villa  Municha  to  some  im- 
portance (1158).  It  became  the  residence  of 
the  dukes  of  the  house  of  Wittelsbach,  and  was 
much  enlarged  after  its  destruction  by  fire  in 
1327,  and  endowed  with  many  public  buildings 
by  Duke  William  the  Pious  (1579-1596)  and 
the  duke  and  elector  Maximilian  I.  (1596-1651). 
On  May  17,  1632,  it  was  taken  by  Gustavus 
Adolphus  of  Sweden,  and  held  for  some  time. 
Under  Charles  Theodore  (1777-'99)  Munich 
was  greatly  improved  and  enlarged.  It  was 
entered  by  a  division  of  the  French  army 
under  Moreau  in  June,  1800,  and  in  October, 
1805,  by  Napoleon,  who  again  visited  the  city 


MUNK 

in  January,  1806,  on  occasion  of  the  marriage 
of  Eugene  de  Beauharnais.  Munich  from  an 
inferior  town  has  risen  under  the  fostering 
care  of  King  Maximilian  I.  (died  in  1825),  and 
particularly  under  that  of  his  son  Louis  I.,  to 
the  rank  of  an  important  capital.  While  still 
crown  prince  Louis  ordered  the  building  of 
the  Glyptothek  and  of  other  public  works, 
and  he  contributed  most  powerfully  to  invest 
Munich  with  its  present  splendor,  and  con- 
tinued his  exertions  for  the  embellishment 
of  the  capital  even  after  his  abdication  in 
1848.  Under  his  son  Maximilian  II.  arose 
the  magnificent  street  and  bridge  which  bear 
his  name,  and  many  remarkable  institutions 
and  works  of  art.  His  influence  on  science 
was  great,  and  he  gave  to  the  university  the 
benefit  of  the  services  of  Liebig  and  other 
eminent  men,  and  encouraged  poets  and  liter- 
ary men  generally.  The  present  king,  Louis 
II.,  is  chiefly  interested  in  music,  but  proposed 
in  1874  to  endow  Munich  with  a  palace  and 
museum  after  the  model  of  Versailles. 

MCNJEET,  the  commercial  name  for  the  root 
of  an  East  India  plant,  rubia  munjista,  or  ac- 
cording to  some  of  R.  cordifolia,  used  for  the 
same  purposes  as  madder.  The  roots  are  of 
similar  appearance  to  those  of  madder,  but  are 
thinner  and  much  longer,  and  are  found  in 
commerce  in  bundles  2  or  3  ft.  long,  and  as 
thick  as  one's  wrist.  The  coloring  principle 
appears  to  be  alizarine,  and,  as  in  madder,  this 
is  convertible  into  garancine,  for  which  pur- 
pose the  roots  are  used  in  Europe.  Munjeet 
dyes  a  very  bright  scarlet. 

MUNK,  Salomon,  a  French  orientalist,  born  of 
Jewish  parents  in  Glogau,  Prussian  Silesia, 
May  14,  1805,  died  in  Paris,  Feb.  6,  1867.  He 
was  educated  in  Berlin  and  Bonn,  and  after- 
ward studied  the  oriental  languages  in  Paris. 
In  1835  he  visited  the  university  of  Oxford, 
with  a  view  of  collecting  materials  for  an  edi- 
tion in  the  original  Arabic  text  in  Hebrew  let- 
ters of  the  celebrated  work  of  Maimonides, 
Moreh  nebu&him  ("  Guide  of  the  Perplexed  "), 
which  he  published  with  a  French  translation 
and  notes  under  the  title  of  Le  guide  des  egares 
(3  vols.,  1856-'66).  In  1840  he  was  appointed 
deputy  custodian  of  the  oriental  manuscripts  in 
the  royal  library  of  Paris.  In  the  same  year 
he  accompanied  Sir  Moses  Montefiore  and  Cr6- 
mieux  to  Egypt,  where  he  secured  many  in- 
teresting Arabic  manuscripts.  In  1852  failing 
eyesight  compelled  him  to  relinquish  his  office 
in  the  library,  but,  with  the  assistance  of  friends, 
he  still  pursued  his  studies.  In  1865,  though 
entirely  blind,  he  was  appointed  professor  of 
the  Hebrew,  Chaldaic,  and  Syriac  languages  in 
the  college  de  France.  He  wrote  Palestine, 


description  geographique,  historique  et  archeo* 
logique  (Paris,  1845,  included  in  Didot's  DniverS 
pittoresque).  A  portion  of  his  contributions 
to  the  Dictionnaire  des  sciences  ptiilosopliiques, 
on  Arabic  and  Hebrew  philosophy,  has  been 
translated  into  German  under  the  title  of  PUlo- 
sopMe  und  philosopJiiscJie  ScJiriften  der  Juden 


MUNKACS 


MUNSELL 


(Leipsic,  1852).  He  also  published  Reflexions 
BUT  le  culte  des  anciens  Hebreux  dans  ses  rap- 
ports avec  les  autres  cultes  de  Vantiquite  (1833), 
and  other  works,  and  prepared  a  Cours  de  langue 
hebra'ique,  chalda'ique  et  syriaque  (1865). 

MUN&ACS,  a  town  of  N.  E.  Hungary,  in  the 
county  of  Bereg,  on  the  Latorcza,  67  m.  E.  S. 
E.  of  Kaschau ;  pop.  in  1870,  8,602.  E.  of  it, 
on  a  high  rock,  is  the  fortress  of  the  same 
name,  remarkable  for  numerous  sieges,  and 
formerly  used  by  the  Austrians  as  a  state 
prison.  Among  the  prominent  prisoners  con- 
fined there  was  Alexander  Ypsilanti.  During 
the  war  of  1848-'9  the  town  and  fortress  were 
in  the  hands  of  the  Hungarians.  It  has  large 
iron  and  saltpetre  works. 

MUMICH,  Bnrkhard  Christoph,  count,  a  Rus- 
sian  soldier,  born  in  the  then  Danish  duchy  of 
Oldenburg,  May  20,  1683,  died  in  St.  Peters- 
burg, Oct.  27,  1767.  He  was  the  son  of  a 
peasant  ennobled  by  Frederick  III.  of  Den- 
mark, and  early  distinguished  himself.  He  was 
made  a  prisoner  in  the  battle  of  Denain,  and 
sent  to  Cambrai,  where  he  was  very  kindly 
treated  by  Fenelon.  In  1720  he  was  received 
with  distinction  by  Peter  the  Great,  who  con- 
fided to  him  the  execution  of  the  great  Ladoga 
canal.  In  the  reign  of  Anna  he  became  field 
marshal  and  president  of  the  council  of  state. 
He  reduced  Dantzic  in  1734.  In  1735  he  was 
called  to  the  chief  command  of  the  army  against 
the  Turks,  and  gained  distinction  by  his  victo- 
ries. He  desolated  the  Crimea  (1736),  took 
Otchakov  (1737),  defeated  the  Turks  near  Sta- 
vutchay  (1739),  seized  the  fortress  of  Khotin, 
and  occupied  Moldavia.  The  treaty  of  Belgrade 
(Sept.  18, 1739)  put  an  end  to  the  war.  Previous 
to  the  death  of  the  empress  he  prevailed  upon 
her  to  appoint  the  duke  Ernest  Biron  of  Cour- 
land  as  regent  during  the  minority  of  her  suc- 
cessor. But  his  hope  of  securing  in  this  man- 
ner his  own  influence  was  disappointed  by  the 
duke  taking  the  power  into  his  own  hands,  upon 
which  Munnich  caused  him  to  be  arrested,  and 
transferred  the  regency  nominally  to  Princess 
Anna,  the  mother  of  Ivan,  the  young  presump- 
tive heir  to  the  crown,  while  he  assumed  the 
reins  of  government  as  prime  minister  of  the 
empire,  endeavoring  to  consolidate  his  power 
by  an  alliance  with  Prussia.  The  regent  Anna 
lavished  upon  him  her  bounties,  but  entered 
into  negotiation  with  Austria  and  Saxony  in 
order  to  neutralize  Mtinnich's  coalition  with 
Prussia,  in  consequence  of  which  he  relinquish- 
ed his  office  (May,  1741).  He  was  on  the  point 
of  removing  to  Konigsberg,  when  on  the  ac- 
cession of  Elizabeth  (December)  he  was  ar- 
rested by  her  order  and  sentenced  to  death. 
The  sentence  was  commuted  to  exile  to  Siberia, 
but  his  estates  were  confiscated.  In  1762  he 
was  recalled  by  Peter  III.,  who  restored  his 
property  and  position.  Catharine  II.  appointed 
him  in  the  same  year  director  general  of  the 
Baltic  ports.  His  EbaucJie  pour  donner  une 
idee  de  la  forme  du  gouvernement  de  P  empire  de 
fiussie  was  published  at  Copenhagen  in  1774. 


Fernando,  duke  of  Rianzares,  husband 
of  Maria  Christina,  ex-queen  dowager  of  Spain, 
born  at  Tarancon,  province  of  Cuenca,  about 
1808,  died  near  Havre,  Sept.  13, 1873.  He  was 
of  low  birth,  and  while  a  private  in  the  royal 
guards  attracted  by  his  personal  beauty  the 
admiration  of  Maria  Christina,  to  whom  he 
was  secretly  married,  Dec.  28,  1833,  three 
months  after  the  death  of  her  husband,  King 
Ferdinand  VII.  The  marriage  was  publicly 
solemnized,  Oct.  13, 1844,  and  Mufioz  was  made 
duke  of  Rianzares,  a  Spanish  grandee  of  the  first 
class,  and  a  knight  of  the  golden  fleece.  On 
the  marriage  of  the  duke  de  Montpensier  to 
the  sister  of  Queen  Isabella  II.,  Louis  Philippe 
bestowed  upon  Mufioz  the  French  title  of  duke 
of  Montmorot.  On  the  expulsion  of  Maria 
Christina  from  Spain  in  1854  he  went  with  her 
to  France,  and  subsequently  resided  with  her 
at  Malmaison  and  in  Paris. 

MUNRO,  Alexander,  an  English  sculptor,  died 
young  in  Cannes,  France,  Jan.  1,  1871.  He 
executed  the  colossal  statue  of  James  Watt  at 
Birmingham,  the  statue  of  Queen  Mary  now 
in  Westminster  hall,  London,  a  fountain  nymph 
in  Berkeley  square,  and  statues  of  Hippocrates, 
Galileo,  Davy,  and  Watt  in  the  Oxford  museum. 
He  excelled  in  medallion  portraits  in  high  and 
low  relief,  and  also  in  the  busts  of  females  and 
children.  His  works  are  generally  remarkable 
for  gracefulness,  delicacy,  and  picturesqueness. 

MUNSEES,  Monseys,  or  Minsis,  a  tribe  of  Ameri- 
can Indians  formerly  residing  on  the  upper 
Delaware  and  the  Minisink.  In  1663  they 
aided  the  Esopus  Indians  in  attacking  the 
Dutch  post,  and  were  chastised  by  Kregier. 
They  claimed  all  the  land  from  the  Minisink 
to  the  Hudson,  the  head  waters  of  the  Dela- 
ware and  Susquehanna,  and  south  to  the  Lehigh 
and  Conewago.  Settlers  began  to  encroach 
on  them  early  in  the  18th  century,  and  they 
fell  back  to  the  Susquehanna.  The  Moravians 
drew  some  to  their  missions,  but  the  main  body 
were  discontented ;  moving  westward  through 
the  Iroquois  country,  they  joined  the  French 
at  Niagara,  and  were  with  difficulty  gained 
over  by  Sir  William  Johnson.  After  the  fall 
of  the  French,  some  listened  to  the  Moravians, 
but  in  the  revolution  most  of  the  .tribe,  under 
Capt.  Pipe,  retired  to  Sandusky  and  joined  the 
English,  and  even  after  the  war  remained  hos- 
tile, rejecting  terms  in  1793,  and  not  making 
peace  till  1805.  In  1808  a  part  settled  on 
Miami  land  at  White  river.  Some  years  later 
they  joined  the  Stockbridge  Indians  near  Green 
bay.  Most  of  the  Munsees,  under  a  treaty  in 
1839,  removed  to  Kansas.  They  are  now  near- 
ly extinct,  being  represented  in  Wisconsin  by 
a  single  family  of  half  a  dozen  souls,  and  in 
Kansas  by  part  of  a  band  of  56  Chippewas 
and  Munsees.  Their  language  was  an  Algon- 
quin dialect  closely  allied  to  the  Delaware. 

MUNSELL,  Joel,  an  American  printer,  born  in 
Northfield,  Mass.,  April  14,  1808.  He  went 
to  Albany  in  1827,  edited  and  published  the 
"  Albany  Minerva  "  in  1828,  and  was  publisher 


46 


MUNSTEE 


and  editor  of  the  "  New  York  State  Mechanic" 
from  1841  to  1843.  He  has  compiled  "An- 
nals of  Albany"  (10  vols.,  Albany,  1850-'58); 
"The  Typographical  Miscellany"  (1850); 
"Chronology  of  Paper  and  Paper  Making" 
(1857) ;  and  "  Every-Day  Book  of  History  and 
Chronology  "  (New  York,  1858).  He  has  also 
published  "Historical  Series"  (10  vols.),  in 
great  part  edited  and  annotated  by  himself; 
"  Woodworth's  Eeminiscences  of  the  City  of 
Troy"  and  "Collections  on  the  History  of 
Albany "  (4  vols.,  1865-71),  and  numerous 
other  works.  He  has  at  various  times  been 
the  publisher  of  papers  and  periodicals,. among 
which  are  the  following  dailies:  the  "Union- 
ist," "Albany  Daily  State  Register,"  "Albany 
Morning  Express,"  and  "  Statesman.]'  He  has 
made  the  art  of  printing,  in  its  history  and 
application,  a  special  study,  and  his  collection 
of  works  on  the  subject,  the  largest  ever  made 
in  America,  has  been  in  part  purchased  by  the 
state  for  the  New  York  state  library.  In  1872 
he  published  a  catalogue  with  full  titles  of  all 
the  books  and  pamphlets  he  had  printed  down 
to  that  date,  in  191  closely  printed  brevier 
pages,  8vo. 

MCNSTER  (anc.  Mumhari),  the  largest  and 
southernmost  of  the  four  provinces  of  Ireland, 
bounded  N.  by  Connaught,  N.  E.  by  Leinster, 
and  on  other  sides  by  the  Atlantic,  and  com- 
prised between  lat.  51°  26'  and  53°  12'  N.,  and 
Ion.  6°  56'  and  10°  26'  W. ;  area,  9,272  sq.  m. ; 
pop.  in  1871,  1,390,402.  In  the  west  are  the 
highest  mountains  in  Ireland,  and  the  south 
is  crossed  by  long  chains  of  hills.  Three 
fourths  of  the  surface  is  arable,  and  one  fourth 
under  tillage.  The  principal  rivers  are  the  Suir, 
Blackwater,  Lee,  Bandon,  Cashen,  Maigue,  and 
Fergus,  with  the  estuary  of  the  Shannon,  all 
of  which  are  navigable.  The  principal  lakes 
are  those  of  Killarney.  Except  in  the  rugged 
uplands  of  Kerry,  Clare,  and  western  Cork,  the 
limestone  soil  of  Munster  is  excellent.  The 
climate  is  the  most  genial  in  Ireland.  Geo- 
logically, the  province  is  peculiar  in  Ireland 
for  the  rare  appearance  of  igneous  protrusions 
and  the  absence  of  bituminous  coal,  though 
possessing  perhaps  the  most  extensive  anthra- 
cite deposit  in  the  British  isles.  Clay  slate 
is  found,  and  copper  abounds  all  along  the  S. 
coast.  Lead,  silver,  iron,  alum,  black  and  mot- 
tled marbles,  plastic  clays,  and  fine  ochres  are 
found.  The  province  comprises  the  counties 
of  Clare,  Cork,  Kerry,  Limerick,  Tipperary, 
and  Waterford. — As  a  kingdom  of  the  Irish 
pentarchy,  Mumhan  was  perhaps  the  most  for- 
midable of  the  five  states ;  it  early  subjected 
Leinster  to  the  payment  of  an  annual  tribute; 
its  princes  successfully  opposed  and  ultimately 
expelled  the  Danes,  and  more  than  once  usurp- 
ed the  ^  sceptre  of  Tara  as  sovereigns  of  the 
entire  island.  It  was  then  divided  into  three 
principalities,  Thomond,  Desmond,  and  Ormond 
(i.  e.,  North,  South,  and  East  Munster),  and 
Cashel  was  the  civil,  as  it  is  still  the  ecclesias- 
tical, metropolis.  During  the  rebellions  in  the 


MUNTEE 

time  of  Queen  Elizabeth  Munster  was  governed 
through  a  local  president  and  council. 

MUNSTER,  a  city  of  Germany,  capital  of  the 
Prussian  province  of  Westphalia  and  of  a  dis- 
trict of  its  own  name,  on  the  small  river  Aa, 
connected  by  railway  with  Dtisseldorf ,  and  with 
the  river  Ems  by  a  canal,  76  m.  N.  N.  E.  of 
Cologne;  pop.  in  1871,  24,815.  It  has  fine 
Gothic  buildings,  the  ground  floor  of  the  houses 
of  the  main  street  being  provided  with  arcades 
to  support  the  upper  stories.  Among  the  re- 
markable public  buildings  are  the  cathedral, 
of  the  13th  century,  and  St.  Lambert's  church. 
The  house  of  John  of  Leyden,  a  fine  specimen 
of  the  Gothic,  still  exists  in  the  market  place. 
The  treaty  of  Westphalia,  which  ended  the 
thirty  years'  war,  was  signed  here  in  1648. 
The  town  house  was  renovated  in  1860,  and  a 
grand  Gothic  hall  was  added.  The  churches 
of  St.  Maurice  and  St.  Leger  have  also  recent- 
ly been  renovated.  The  Catholic  university, 
which  was  supplanted  in  1818  by  the  state 
university  of  Bonn,  has  been  since  reduced 
to  an  academy  consisting  of  a  theological  and 
a  philosophical  faculty,  which  in  1873  had  28 
professors  and  387  students.  There  are  also  a 
gymnasium,  a  library  of  50,000  volumes,  a 
number  of  minor  Eoman  Catholic  churches 
and  convents,  a  Protestant  church,  and  a  syna- 
gogue. The  city  is  the  seat  of  a  bishop,  and  con- 
tains several  learned  societies.  The  manufac- 
tures consist  of  leather,  woollen  goods,  cloth, 
linen,  sugar,  &c. — Munster  was  known  in  the 
time  of  Charlemagne  under  the  name  of  Mimi- 
gardevord.  In  the  13th  century  it  joined  the 
league  of  the  Hanse  towns.  The  reformation 
was  introduced  in  1532,  and  in  1533-'5  it  wit- 
nessed the  agitations  of  the  Anabaptists.  (See 
ANABAPTISTS.)  The  former  bishopric  of  Mun- 
ster was  raised  in  the  12th  century  to  the  rank 
of  an  imperial  principality.  Among  the  prince- 
bishops  was  the  warlike  Galen.  (See  GALEN.) 
In  1719  the  archbishop  of  Cologne  was  invest- 
ed with  the  see  of  Munster.  After  the  peace 
of  Luneville  (1801)  the  bishopric  was  secular- 
ized, and  a  part  of  it  ceded  to  Prussia,  which 
constituted  it  a  principality.  This  was  ceded 
to  France  by  the  treaty  of  Tilsit  in  1807,  but 
restored  to  Prussia  in  1815,  with  the  exception 
of  a^small  district  allotted  to  Oldenburg. 

MUNTER.  I.  Balthasar,  a  German  clergyman, 
born  in  Liibeck,  March  24,  1735,  died  in  Co- 
penhagen, Oct.  5,  1793.  He  studied  theology 
at  Jena,  was  for  a  time  a  preacher  at  Gotha, 
and  became  celebrated  as  a  pulpit  orator  in 
the  German  church  of  Copenhagen,  and  as  the 
author  of  the  BelcelirungsgescJiichte  des  Grafen 
von  Struensee  (Copenhagen,  1772 ;  English 
translation,  "  A  Faithful  Narrative  of  the  Con- 
version and  Death  of  Count  Struensee,"  &c., 
by  the  Eev.  Mr.  Wendeborn,  2d  ed.,  London, 
1774).  He  wrote  a  series  of  hymns  (1773  and 
1774).  He  was  the  father  of  Friederike  Brun. 
II.  Friedrich,  a  German-Danish  theologian  and 
archaeologist,  son  of  the  preceding,  born  in 
Gotha,  Oct.  14,  1761,  died  in  Copenhagen, 


MUNTJAC 


MtNZER 


April  9,  1830.  He  was  professor  of  theology 
at  Copenhagen,  and  from  1808  till  his  death 
bishop  of  Seeland.  He  wrote  several  books  on 
the  history  of  Christianity  and  of  the  reforma- 
tion in  Denmark  and  Norway,  and  critical 
works  on  the  cuneiform  inscriptions  of  Per- 
sepolis  (1800),  on  similar  inscriptions  in  Sicily 
(1802),  on  the  religion  of  the  Carthaginians 
(1816),  and  various  other  topics  of  ancient  and 
mediaeval  history. 

MUNTJAC  (cervulus,  De  Blainv.,  or  stylocerus, 
H.  Smith),  the  name  of  several  small  East  In- 
dian deer,  which  seem  to  make  the  transition 
from  the  typical  cervida  to  the  musk  deer. 
The  horns  are  small,  with  only  one  anterior 
snag,  elevated  on  pedicels  supported  by  longi- 
tudinal ridges  on  the  face;  there  are  large 
canines  in  the  upper  jaw,  and  large  and  deep 
suborbital  pits ;  there  are  no  metatarsal  glands 
nor  tufts ;  the  hoofs  are  triangular,  partly  uni- 
ted in  front  by  a  web,  and  the  false  hoofs 
small  and  transverse ;  the  hair  is  thin,  shining, 


Muntjac  (Cervulus  vaginalis). 

and  generally  unspotted,  and  the  tail  is  tufted; 
;he  form  is  light  and  elegant.  The  few  species 
nhabit  the  forests  and  jungles  of  elevated  re- 
gions in  India  and  its  archipelago,  where  they 
are  hunted  for  their  excellent  venison.  The 
common  muntjac  or  kijang  (C.  vaginalis,  Gray) 
is  dark  reddish  brown,  with  the  lower  parts 
lighter,  and  a  narrow  white  streak  on  the  front 
edge  of  the  thigh;  it  is  about  2£  ft.  high  at 
the  shoulders;  in  the  living  animal  there  are 
two  folds  of  skin  along  the  sides  of  the  ridges 
which  support  the  horns,  uniting  below  like  a 
V,  but  drying  after  death  in  three  ribbed  lines, 
which  suggested  to  Pennant  the  name  of  rib- 
faced  deer.  The  principal  horns  are  4  or  5  in. 
long,  at  first  straight,  but  curving  inward  and 
backward  at  the  top,  the  anterior  antler  being 
about  1£  in. ;  the  pedicels  upon  which  they  rest 
are  3  in.  high,  covered  with  skin  and  hair,  so 
that  when  the  antlers  are  shed  they  appear  to 
have  straight  horns.  The  food  consists  chiefly 
of  a  kind  of  sugar  cane,  and  malvaceous  and 
succulent  plants.  Its  speed  and  agility  are 
581  VOL.  xii. — 4 


great,  the  flight  being  generally  in  a  circle; 
when  brought  to  bay,  it  is  capable  of  inflicting 
severe  wounds  upon  the  dogs  with  its  canines ; 
it  is  sometimes  taken  in  snares,  and  falls  a  fre- 
quent victim  to  beasts  of  prey.  It  is  found  in 
Sumatra  and  Java.  The  Nepaul  muntjac  (C. 
moschatus,  De  Blainv.)  is  bright  reddish  yellow, 
the  thigh  streaked  and  under  the  tail  white, 
and  the  chin  and  throat  whitish.  The  Chinese 
muntjac  (C.  JReevesii,  Gray)  is  grayish  brown, 
with  the  hair  short,  with  paler  rings ;  it  has  a 
larger  head  and  tail  than  the  common  species, 
with  less  red  and  more  bluish  tinge,  and  no 
white  over  the  hoofs.  According  to  Gray,  the 
earl  of  Derby  had  these  three  species  at  the 
Knowsley  menagerie;  but  they  so  bred  to- 
gether that  it  became  "  impossible  to  discrimi- 
nate.the  mules  from  the  original  species." 

MIJNZER,  Thomas,  a  German  mystic,  born  at 
Stolberg  in  the  Hartz  mountains  about  1490, 
beheaded  at  Muhlhausen,  Thuringia,  in  May, 
1525.  After  preaching  at  various  places,  in  1520 
he  became  pastor  of  the  principal  church  in 
Zwickau,  Saxony.  Here  he  associated  himself 
with  Nikolaus  Storch,  a  weaver,  who  professed 
to  receive  divine  revelations.  They  formed  a 
society  among  the  weavers  separate  from  the 
church,  whose  members  believed  in  dreams, 
visions,  and  divine  inspirations.  They  soon 
gained  such  an  influence  that  Munzer's  co-pas- 
tor Egranus,  who  opposed  him,  was  obliged  to 
leave  the  city.  The  city  council,  who  for  a 
time  had  favored  Mtinzer,  finally  considered 
his  revolutionary  views  dangerous  to  the  pub- 
lic peace,  and  imprisoned  many  of  his  adhe- 
rents. Others,  among  whom  was  Storch,  fled 
to  Wittenberg,  where  they  still  professed  to  re- 
ceive inspirations,  and  rejected  infant  baptism. 
Miinzer  went  to  Bohemia,  where  he  spent  six 
months  endeavoring  to  stir  up  reformatory 
movements.  Meeting  with  little  success,  he 
went  to  Thuringia,  married,  and  in  1523  be- 
came curate  at  Allstadt.  He  was  the  first  to 
substitute  the  German  language  for  the  Latin 
in  the  public  prayers  and  singing.  He  com- 
posed a  directory  for  worship,  which  was  in 
harmony  with  his  ideas  of  the  reformation. 
Infant  baptism  was  to  be  administered  in  the 
presence  of  the  church,  instead  of  privately  as 
before,  the  baptismal  liturgy  to  be  in  German. 
Besides  his  public  ministrations,  he  organized 
those  whom  he  considered  truly  regenerated 
into  a  separate  society,  whose  members  held 
community  of  goods  and  aimed  at  the  over- 
throw of  hierarchy  and  despotism.  Their  fa- 
naticism soon  led  them  to  destroy  the  images 
and  burn  the  chapel  in  a  neighboring  place  of 
pilgrimages.  The  Saxon  princes  opposed  these 
proceedings ;  Luther  also  wrote  against  them  ; 
and  Mtinzer  was  obliged  to  leave  Allstadt  in 
the  summer  of  1524.  He  went  to  Nuremberg, 
where  he  wrote  a  violent  pamphlet  against  Lu- 
ther ;  then  to  Basel,  where  he  conferred  with 
(Ecolampadius ;  then  to  Waldshut,  where  he 
exerted  considerable  influence  on  the  men  who 
soon  afterward  began  the  peasants'  war.  Ke- 


48  MUNZINGER 

turning  to  Thuringia,  he  was  settled  early  in 
1525  as  curate  at  Muhlhausen.  The  city  coun- 
cil, who  had  opposed  his  settlement  there,  were 
deposed,  and  a  new  council  installed,  who  were 
entirely  under  the  control  of  Munzer  and  his 
disciple  Pfeiffer.  At  the  outbreak  of  the  peas- 
ants' war  in  southern  Germany,  Munzer  sum- 
moned the  people  to  rise  and  secure  their  lib- 
erty, threatening  vengeance  on  all  who  resisted 
them.  His  pamphlets  and  letters  were  signed 
"Thomas  Munzer,  a  servant  of  God  against 
the  ungodly,"  or  "  Thomas  Munzer,  with  the 
sword  of  Gideon."  Still  he  himself  hesitated 
to  take  up  arms,  until  Pfeiffer  forced  him  to 
do  so  by  alleged  inspiration.  Led  by  him,  the 
peasantry  of  N.  W.  Thuringia  destroyed  clois- 
ters, chapels,  and  the  castles  of  such  nobles 
as  refused  to  engage  in  the  insurrection.  For 
some  time  they  encountered  little  resistance, 
until  in  May  the  elector  John  the  Constant 
and  Duke  George,  both  of  Saxony,  the  land- 
grave Philip  of  Hesse,  and  other  princes  rallied 
their  forces  against  them.  The  peasants,  in 
their  fortified  encampment  near  Frankenhau- 
sen,  were  assured  by  Munzer  that  God  would 
give  them  the  victory ;  but  they  were  quickly 
routed  in  the  battle  of  May  15,  and  about  5,000 
of  them  were  killed.  Munzer  fled  in  disguise 
to  Frankenhausen,  but  was  captured,  tortured, 
and  removed  to  the  castle  of  Heldrungen.  From 
that  place  he  addressed  a  letter  to  the  people 
of  Muhlhausen,  recommending  his  wife  and 
child  to  their  care.  After  the  capitulation  of 
that  city  the  leaders  were  sentenced  to  death, 
including  Munzer  and  Pfeiffer.  Munzer  was 
beheaded  in  the  market  place.  His  numerous 
writings,  all  of  which  are  still  extant,  indicate 
a  more  than  ordinary  power  of  mind  and  will, 
but  a  strange  lack  of  clear  and  sound  judg- 
ment. His  language  is  often  forcibly  eloquent, 
but  full  of  coarseness  and  vulgarity.  As  he 
was  associated  with  persons  opposed  to  infant 
baptism,  Munzer  has  often  been  considered  an 
Anabaptist,  which  he  never  was. — See  Me- 
lanchthon,  Die  Historic  wn  Thome  Muntzer 
(1525);  Strobel,  Leben,  Schriften  und  Lehren 
Thoma  Muntzers  (Nuremberg,  1795) ;  Seide- 
mann,  Thomas  Munzer  (Dresden  and  Leipsic, 
1842) ;  and  Heinrich  Leo's  essay  on  him  in  the 
Evangelische  Kirchenzeitung  (Berlin,  1856). 
Theodor  Mundt  published  a  historical  novel, 
Thomas  Munzer  (3  vols.,  Altona,  1841). 

MIXZINGER,  Werner,  a  Swiss  traveller,  born 
at  Olten  in  1832.  He  studied  at  Bern,  Munich, 
and  Paris,  and  in  1852  established  himself  as  a 
merchant  in  Egypt,  in  1854-'5  resided  at  Mas- 
sowah, and  for  nearly  six  years  explored  the 
land  of  the  Bogos  and  adjoining  territories. 
He  joined  Heuglin's  expedition  in  July,  1861 ; 
left  it  in  November,  in  northern  Abyssinia, 
and  travelled  with  Kinzelbach  over  an  unex- 
plored region,  ascertaining  the  course  of  the 
river  Gash,  and  returning  to  Khartoom  March 
1, 1862.  Shortly  after  he  succeeded  Heuglin  as 
chief  of  the  German-African  expedition.  He 
penetrated  to  Kordofan,  but  was  unable  to 


MURAT 

reach  Darf  oor  and  Waday,  and  went  to  Europe. 
In  1864  he  returned  to  Massowah,  where  he 
Became  British  consul,  and  rendered  valuable 
services  as  a  guide  to  the  English  army  during 
the  Abyssinian  war.  In  1868,  after  the  de- 
parture of  the  English  troops,  he  continued  to 
i-eside  at  Massowah  as  French  consul.  In  the 
following  year,  while  he  was  exploring  the  N. 
boundary  of  Abyssinia,  an  attempt  was  made 
upon  his  life  by  an  assassin,  and  he  was  se- 
verely wounded.  In  1870  he  was  named 
governor  of  Massowah,  and  visited  with  Oapt. 
Miles  the  S.  E.  coast  of  Arabia.  In  1871 
he  explored  new  territories  N.  of  the  land  of 
the  Bogos.  His  principal  works  are:  Bitten 
und  Becht  tier  Bogos  (Winterthur,  1859) ;  Ost- 
afrilcanische  Studien  (Schaffhausen,  1864); 
Die  deutsche  Expedition  in  Ostafrilca  (Gotha, 
1865);  Vocalulaire  de  la  langue  Tigre  ;  and 
contributions  to  the  journal  of  the  London 
geographical  society  (187l-'2),  and  to  Peter- 
mann's  Mittheilungen  (1872  et  seq.\ 

Ml  RAD.     See  AMUEATH. 

MURJENA.     See  EEL,  vol.  vi.,  p.  447. 

MURAT,  Joachim,  a  French  soldier,  and  king 
of  Naples,  born  at  La  Bastide-Fortuniere,  near 
Oahors,  March  25,  1771,  executed  in  Calabria, 
in  the  night  of  Oct.  13-14,  1815.  He  was 
the  son  of  an  innkeeper,  was  educated  for  the 
church  at  the  college  of  Cahors,  and  afterward 
at  Toulouse,  and  was  ordained  sub-deacon ;  but 
being  dismissed  from  the  seminary  on  account 
of  some  youthful  follies,  he  enlisted  in  a  regi- 
ment of  chasseurs.  Cashiered  for  an  outbreak 
of  temper  after  he  had  risen  through  some  of 
the  lower  grades,  he  became  a  waiter  at  a  cafe 
in  Paris.  He  soon  entered  the  constitutional 
guard  of  Louis  XVI.,  and  on  its  dissolution  re- 
ceived a  sub-lieutenancy  in  a  cavalry  regiment. 
He  was  cashiered  after  Robespierre's  over- 
throw, but  was  restored,  served  as  .aide-de- 
camp to  Bonaparte,  and  accompanied  him  to 
Italy.  After  Beaulieu's  defeat  he  was  sent  to 
Paris  with  the  21  standards  taken  from  the 
Austrians,  and  returned  to  his  post  to  share  in 
the  following  Italian  campaigns,  in  which  he 
rose  to  the  rank  of  brigadier  general.  In  1798 
he  went  with  Bonaparte  to  Egypt.  He  was 
wounded  at  the  taking  of  Alexandria  and  in 
the  battle  of  the  pyramids,  and  was  conspicu- 
ous in  the  Syrian  campaign,  contributing  to 
the  victory  of  Mount  Tabor,  April  16,  1799, 
and  leading  the  assault  at  Acre.  In  the  battle 
of  Aboukir,  July  25,  he  was  again  wounded, 
and  was  rewarded  with  the  rank  of  general  of 
division.  He  left  Africa  with  Bonaparte,  who 
had  conceived  a  strong  liking  for  him,  and  in 
the  coup  d'etat  of  the  18th  Brumaire  was  at 
the  head  of  the  grenadiers  who  expelled  the 
council  of  500  from  their  hall  at  St.  Cloud. 
The  chief  command  of  the  consular  guard  and 
the  hand  of  Caroline  Bonaparte  were  his  rec- 
ompense. At  Marengo  he  was  at  the  head 
of  the  cavalry,  and  in  1801  he  commanded  the 
army  which  invaded  the  kingdom  of  Naples 
and  took  possession  of  Elba.  He  was  then 


MUKAT 


made  governor  of  the  Cisalpine  republic,  and 
in  1804  of  Paris  and  member  of  the  legislative 
body ;  and  on  the  establishment  of  the  empire 
he  received  the  baton  of  a  marshal  and  the  ti- 
tle of  prince.  He  had  a  large  share  in  the  suc- 
cess of  the  campaign  of  1805  in  Germany,  and 
led  the  cavalry  at  Austerlitz.  In  1806  he  was 
made  grand  duke  of  Berg  and  Cleves.  His 
abilities  were  strikingly  displayed  in  the  bat- 
tles of  Jena,  Eylau,  and  Friedland,  and  still 
more  in  following  up  the  results  of  these 
victories.  In  1808  he  commanded  the  army 
which  invaded  Spain.  After  the  elevation  of 
Joseph  Bonaparte  to  the  Spanish  throne  he 
went  to  Italy,  where,  on  Aug.  1,  1808,  he  was 
proclaimed  king  of  the  Two  Sicilies,  under  the 
name  of  Joachim  Napoleon.  He  attempted  to 
ameliorate  the  condition  of  his  new  subjects, 
encouraged  agriculture  and  industry,  improved 
the  public  finances,  increased  the  navy,  and 
organized  an  army  70,000  strong.  To  vindi- 
cate the  independence  of  Naples,  he  ordered 
that  all  foreigners  in  his  service  should  re- 
nounce allegiance  to  their  native  country. 
This  edict,  aimed  especially  at  the  French, 
called  forth  an  imperial  decree  declaring  that, 
the  kingdom  of  Naples  being  part  of  the 
French  empire,  every  Frenchman  should  be  of 
right  a  citizen  of  the  Two  Sicilies.  The  king 
then  listened  to  overtures  from  various  Euro- 
pean powers,  particularly  Austria.  He  durst 
not,  however,  disregard  Napoleon's  summons 
to  take  part  in  the  campaign  against  Eussia, 
and  was  intrusted  with  the  supreme  command 
of  the  cavalry.  At  Borodino  he  withstood  the 
Eussian  fire  during  the  whole  day.  But  his 
energy  seemed  to  falter  when  the  retreat  from 
Moscow  commenced,  especially  after  he  had 
been  worsted  at  Vinkovo,  Oct.  18,  1812.  He 
however  received  the  chief  command  of  the 
army  when,  after  the  disastrous  crossing  of 
the  Beresina,  Napoleon  left  it  in  haste  for 
Paris.  But  Murat  proved  unequal  to  his  ardu- 
ous task ;  he  was  anxious  to  return  to  Italy, 
and  on  Jan.  16,  1813,  suddenly  took  his  de- 
parture. He  resumed  his  secret  negotiations 
with  the  enemies  of  Napoleon,  but  joined  his 
brother-in-law  in  the  campaign  of  1813,  and 
displayed  his  wonted  intrepidity  again  at  Dres- 
den, Wachau,  and  Leipsic.  On  his  return  to 
Italy  he  signed,  Jan.  11,  1814,  a  treaty  with 
Austria,  by  which  his  kingdom  was  guaranteed 
to  him,  on  condition  that  he  should  act  in 
concert  with  the  allies  at  the  head  of  an  army 
of  30,000  men.  He  accordingly  marched  against 
Prince  Eugene,  viceroy  of  Italy,  and  forced 
him  to  retreat  toward  the  Adige.  But  his  new 
allies,  having  used  him,  were  ready  to  abandon 
him,  while  the  Bourbons  were  insisting  on  his 
overthrow  at  the  congress  of  Vienna.  On 
hearing  of  this,  he  sought  the  support  of  the 

t Italian  patriots,  was  secretly  reconciled  with 
Napoleon,  and  on  the  news  of  the  latter's  re- 
burn  from  Elba  marched  against  the  Austrians. 
He  advanced  through  the  Papal  States  to  the 
banks  of  thePo;  but  being  worsted  at  Fer- 


rara,  he  was  forced  to  beat  a  hasty  retreat; 
fought  bravely,  but  ineffectually,  May  2  and 
3,  at  Tolentino ;  was  driven  in  disorder  along 
the  sea  and  across  the  Apennines,  made  an 
ineffectual  stand  at  San  Germano  and  Mi- 
gnano,  and  finally  saw  his  army  wasted  away 
by  battle  and  desertion.  He  now  attempted 
negotiation  ;  but,  deserted  by  even  his  own 
emissaries,  and  the  populace  of  Naples  rising 
in  insurrection,  he  was  obliged  to  fly  to  Ischia, 
while  his  queen  took  refuge  on  board  an  Eng- 
lish frigate.  From  Ischia  he  went  to  the 
shores  of  Provence,  where  he  arrived  on  May 
25  at  night.  After  the  battle  of  Waterloo,  in 
which  he  was  not  allowed  to  share,  he  went  to 
Piacenza,  where  he  remained  for  two  months, 
and  then  to  Bastia,  where  he  landed  Aug.  25. 
Here  he  prepared  an  expedition,  and  on  Sept. 
28,  at  the  head  of  250  men,  with  seven  small 
transports,  he  set  sail  for  Naples ;  his  squadron 
was  scattered  by  foul  weather,  while  he  him- 
self with  a  few  companions  was  driven  to  the 
gulf  of  Santa  Eufemia.  He  landed  on  Oct.  8 
near  Pizzo,  attempted  in  vain  to  rouse  the  in- 
habitants of  this  village  in  his  behalf,  was  pur- 
sued to  the  mountains  by  the  peasants  of  the 
neighborhood,  and  fought  to  the  last,  but  final- 
ly fell  into  the  hands  of  his  pursuers  and  was 
taken  to  the  castle  of  Pizzo,  where  he  was  con- 
demned by  a  court  martial,  and  shot  in  one  of 
the  rooms  of  the  castle.  Being  offered  a  chair 
and  a  handkerchief  to  bandage  his  eyes,  he  re- 
plied :  "I  have  braved  death  long  and  often 
enough  to  face  it  with  my  eyes  open  and  stand- 
ing." Leonard  Gallois  published  a  Eistoire 
de  Joachim  Murat  (Paris,  1828) ;  and  the  later 
events  of  his  career  have  been  chronicled  by 
Coletta,  Les  six  derniers  mois  de  la  me  de  Murat 
(1821),  and  by  Franceschetti,  Memoir 'es  sur  les 
tenements  qui  ont  precede  la  mort  de  Joachim 
I.  (1826). — By  his  wife  Caroline  (see  BONA- 
PAETE,  vol.  iii.,  p.  26),  Murat  left  two  sons  and 
two  daughters.  Both  the  latter  married  Italian 
noblemen,  Ljetitia  Josephine  becoming  Countess 
Pepoli,  and  Louise  Julie  Caroline,  Countess  Eas- 
poni.  The  elder  son,  NAPOLEON  ACHILLE,  born 
Jan.  21, 1801,  after  his  father's  death  went  with 
his  mother  to  Haimburg,  Austria,  came  in  1821 
to  the  United  States,  settled  in  Florida,  married 
a  grandniece  of  Washington,  devoted  himself 
to  scientific  pursuits,  and  wrote  some  essays 
on  the  institutions  of  America.  He  died  April 
15,  1847,  on  his  estate  near  Tallahassee.  The 
younger,  NAPOLEON  LUCIEN  CHAELES  JOSEPH 
FBANgois,  born  in  Milan,  May  16,  1803,  after 
living  near  his  mother  till  1825,  went  to  Spain, 
where  he  was  arrested  on  suspicion.  After  his 
liberation  he  came  to  the  United  States,  and 
married  a  Miss  Fraser,  his  wife  earning  a  sup- 
port by  teaching.  After  repeated  short  stays 
in  France,  he  returned  thither  in  1848,  and 
was  elected  to  the  constituent  and  legislative 
assemblies.  He  was  envoy  extraordinary  and 
minister  plenipotentiary  to  Turin  in  1849,  be- 
came senator  Jan.  25, 1852,  and  received  the  title 
of  prince  of  the  imperial  family  in  1853.  In 


50 


MURATORI 


1860,  when  the  Bourbons  were  expelled  from 
Naples,  Murat  put  forth  his  claims  to  the  throne 
of  the  Two  Sicilies;  but  at  the  instance  of 
Napoleon  III.  he  soon  publicly  disclaimed  his 
pretensions.  In  1870  he  was  with  Bazaine  in 
Metz,  and  when  the  city  capitulated  was  made 
prisoner.  His  eldest  son,  JOSEPH  JOACHIM  NA- 
poiJoN,  born  in  Paris,  July  21, 1834,  has  been 
since  1866  a  colonel  in  the  French  army,  and 
in  April,  1872,  obtained  leave  to  serve  four 
years  in  the  Swedish  army. 

MURATORI,  Ludovieo  Antonio,  an  Italian  scho- 
lar, born  at  Vignola,  in  the  duchy  of  Modena, 
Oct.  21,  1672,  died  in  Modena,  Jan.  23,  1750. 
He  was  educated  at  the  university  of  Modena, 
was  ordained  priest,  and  in  1694  was  appoint- 
ed keeper  of  the  Ambrosian  library  at  Milan, 
where  he  discovered  several  inedited  Latin 
and  Greek  manuscripts,  selections  from  which, 
with  notes  and  commentaries,  he  published 
under  the  titles  of  Anecdota  Latino,  and  Anec- 
dota  Grceca.  In  1700  he  became  conservator 
of  the  public  archives  and  principal  librarian 
of  Modena.  His  three  great  works  are  Rerum 
Italicarum  Scriptores  (25  vols.  fol.,  Milan, 
1723-'51),  Antiquitates  Italics  Medii  JEm 
(6  vols.  fol.,  1738-'42),  and  Annali  d'ltalia 
(12  vols.,  1744-'9).  To  publish  this  vast  col- 
lection several  princes  and  nobles  of  Italy  sub- 
scribed $4,000  each.  The  best  uniform  edition 
of  his  works  is  that  published  at  Venice  (48 
vols.  8vo,  1790-1810). 

MURAVIEFF,  an  ancient  Russian  family,  ori- 
ginally settled  in  the  former  grand  duchy  of 
Moscow,  and  since  the  latter  part  of  the  15th 
century  in  various  other  parts  of  the  country. 
I.  Mikhail,  born  in  Smolensk  in  October,  1757, 
died  in  St.  Petersburg  in  July,  1807.  He  was 
tutor  of  the  grand  dukes  Alexander  and  Con- 
stantine,  for  whom  he'  prepared  a  series  of  es- 
says on  history,  ethics,  and  literature.  Paul  I. 
appointed  him  privy  councillor,  and  Alexander 
I.  deputy  minister  of  popular  instruction.  An 
edition  of  his  writings  was  published  in  3  vols. 
(Moscow,  1810;  supplement,  St.  Petersburg, 
1815).  II.  Nikolai,  born  in  Riga  in  1768,  died 
in  Moscow  in  1840.  After  many  years  of  active 
service  in  the  Russian  army  and  navy,  he  es- 
tablished near  Moscow  a  private  military  acad- 
emy. He  took  part  in  the  campaign  of  1812- 
'13,  concluded  the  capitulation  of  Dresden  with 
Gen.  Dumas,  and  was  present  at  the  siege  of 
Hamburg.  After  the  peace  he  resumed  his 
duties  at  his  academy,  which  in  1816  was 
raised  to  the  rank  of  an  imperial  institution. 
He  conducted  it  till  1823,  from  which  time 
till  his  death  he  devoted  himself  to  agriculture. 
He  was  one  of  the  founders  of  the  Moscow 
agricultural  society.  III.  Nikolai,  second  son  of 
the  preceding,  born  about  1794,  died  in  Novem- 
ber, 1866.  He  entered  the  army  in  1811,  was 
employed  in  the  military  service  in  the  Cauca- 
sus, and  published  in  1822  an  account  of  his 
travels  in  Khiva,  whither  he  had  been  sent 
on  a  political  mission  by  Gen.  Yermoloff.  In 
1828  he  took  part  in  the  Persian  war,  and 


MURAVIEFF 

in  1831  in  the  Polish  campaign.  He  was  made 
lieutenant  general,  commanded  during  the 
siege  of  Warsaw  in  September  the  right  wing 
of  the  Russian  army,  and  stormed  the  forti- 
fications of  Rakowiec.  He  commanded  the 
Russian  corps  which  landed  in  Asia  Minor, 
and  arrested  the  advance  of  Ibrahim  Pasha 
toward  Constantinople  after  his  victory  at  Ko- 
nieh,  and  then  visited  Mehemet  Ali  in  Cairo. 
He  superintended  the  construction  of  the  for- 
tifications of  Sevastopol,  but  fell  into  disgrace 
in  1838,  for  having  in  a  sham  fight  made  pris- 
oners the  emperor  Nicholas  and  his  staff,  and 
lived  in  retirement  in  Moscow  till  1848,  when  he 
became  a  member  of  the  board  of  war,  and 
afterward  commander  of  the  corps  of  grenadiers 
in  the  imperial  guard.  In  1855  he  was  in  com- 
mand of  the  army  of  the  Caucasus  as  general 
of  infantry  and  governor  of  Transcaucasia,  and 
conducted  the  siege  of  Kars  with  great  ener- 
gy and  ability  from  the  beginning  of  June  till 
Nov.  27,  1855,  when  the  fortress  was  com- 
pelled to  capitulate.  Muravieff  was  rewarded 
with  the  title  of  prince,  but,  being  unpopular 
with  his  fellow  officers  and  the  court,  spent 
his  last  years  in  retirement.  IV.  Mikhail,  brother 
of  the  preceding,  born  in  1796,  died  in  1866. 
At  the  age  of  15  he  was  a  teacher  in  the  military 
school  established  by  his  father.  In  1813  he 
took  part  in  the  campaign  against  the  French, 
and  on  his  return  continued  his  military 
studies,  and  about  this  time  translated  Gar- 
nier's  Geometric  analytique  into  Russian.  In 
1823  he  became  colonel  in  the  army;  in  1831 
military  governor  of  Grodno  and  subsequent- 
ly of  Kursk;  in  1842  chief  director  of  the  to- 
pographical corps  and  major  general;  and  in 
1850  a  member  of  the  council  of  the  empire. 
He  was  soon  after  chosen  president  of  the  geo- 
graphical society,  and  sent  an  important  sci- 
entific expedition  to  Siberia.  In  1857  he  be- 
came president  of  the  department  of  apanages, 
in  which  office  he  did  much  to  promote  the 
advancement  of  agriculture.  In  1863  he  was 
appointed  governor  general  of  Wilna,  and  his 
rigorous  rule  during  the  Polish  insurrection 
was  not  wholly  approved  by  Alexander.  In 
1866  he  was  president  of  the  commission  to 
discover  the  accomplices  of  Karakozoff  in  the 
attempted  assassination  of  the  emperor.  V. 
Nikolai,  born  in  1810,  served  a  long  time  in  the 
Caucasus,  and  in  1847  was  made  lieutenant 
general  and  governor  general  of  eastern  Sibe- 
ria. He  concluded  the  treaty  of  May,  1858, 
by  which  China  ceded  to  Russia  the  Amoor 
territory,  for  which  service  he  was  created 
Count  Amurski.  In  1859  he  concluded  at 
Yedo  a  treaty  with  Japan  favorable  to  Russia, 
and  in  1861  was  made  a  member  of  the  coun- 
cil of  the  empire.  VI.  Alexander,  son  of  the 
first  mentioned  Nikolai,  born  in  1792,  died  in 
1864.  He  was  implicated  in  the  revolutionary 
movement  of  1825,  and  was  exiled  to  Siberia. 
In  1853  he  was  restored  to  the  army,  and 
during  the  Crimean  war  he  was  made  major 
general.  In  1855  he  was  governor  of  Nizhni 


MURCHISON 


MURCIA 


51 


Novgorod,  and  he  took  an  active  part  in  the 
emancipation  of  the  serfs.  At  the  time  of  his 
death  he  was  a  lieutenant  general  and  a  mem- 
ber of  the  senate. — A  branch  of  the  family 
has  adopted  the  name  of  MUEAVIEFF-APOSTOL, 
from  the  marriage  of  one  of  them  in  the  18th 
century  with  a  daughter  of  a  Cossack  hetman 
named  Apostol.  Noticeable  among  this  branch 
is  IVAN  (born,  in  1769,  died  in  1851),  who  trans- 
lated Sheridan's  "School  for  Scandal,"  Hor- 
ace's "  Satires,"  and  Aristophanes's  "  Clouds  " 
into  Russian,  and  published  in  1822  an  ac- 
count of  his  archaeological  explorations  in 
Taurida.  He  officiated  as  ambassador  at  seve- 
ral European  courts,  and  was  eventually  made 
a  privy  councillor  and  senator.  His  son  SEB- 
GEI  was  a  conspicuous  leader  of  the  con- 
spiracy of  1825,  and  after  the  unsuccessful 
attempt  in  St.  Petersburg  he  proclaimed  the 
grand  duke  Constantine  as  emperor  and  took 
possession  of  the  town  of  Vasilkov.  He  was 
defeated  and  severely  wounded  near  Ustinovka, 
Jan.  15,  1826,  removed  to  St.  Petersburg,  and 
executed  July  25.  His  brother  Ippolit  was 
killed,  and  another  was  banished  to  Siberia. 

Ml  1UIIISO>,  Sir  Roderick  Impey,  a  British 
geologist,  born  at  Tarradale,  Ross-shire,  Scot- 
land, Feb.  19,  1792,  died  in  London,  Oct.  22, 
1871.  He  obtained  a  commission  in  the  army 
in  1807,  served  during  a  portion  of  the  penin- 
sular war,  and  was  employed  on  the  staff  of  his 
uncle  Sir  A.  Mackenzie  in  Sicily.  He  retired 
with  the  rank  of  captain  of  dragoons  in  1815, 
married  a  daughter  of  Gen.  Hugonin,  and 
through  her  influence  and  the  advice  of  Hum- 
phry Davy  devoted  himself  to  natural  science. 
In  1825  he  read  a  paper  before  the  geological 
society  "On  the  Geological  Formation  of  the 
Northwest  Extremity  of  Sussex,  and  the  adjoin- 
ing parts  of  Hampshire  and  Surrey."  In  1827  he 
explored  the  highlands  of  Scotland,  and  in  1828 
accompanied  Lyell  in  a  tour  through  France, 
studying  the  volcanic  regions  of  Auvergne  and 
the  formation  of  valleys.  He  next  undertook, 
with  Prof.  Adam  Sedgwick,  a  systematic  ex- 
amination of  the  lower  fossiliferous  rocks  of 
England  and  Wales.  He  partially  remodelled 
the  classification  of  the  palaeozoic  strata,  and 
in  1832  first  applied  the  term  Silurian  to  a 
series  of  rocks  intermediate  between  the  Cam- 
brian and  Devonian  formations.  Murchison 
recognized  two  main  divisions  as  constituting 
the  Silurian  system,  an  upper  and  a  lower,  the 
latter  of  which  he  believed  to  lie  imposed  upon 
the  upper  Cambrian  of  Sedgwick.  Subsequent 
researches  have  shown  that  the  geological  sec- 
tions of  Murchison,  upon  which  his  system  was 
based,  were  in  great  part  erroneous,  and  that 
his  lower  Silurian  was  identical  with  the  upper 
Cambrian.  This  discovery  gave  rise  to  a  long 
and  acrimonious  controversy  between  Sedgwick 
and  Murchison  and  his  partisans ;  but  later  re- 
searches, by  comparing  the  justice  of  Sedg- 
wick's  views  and  the  correctness  of  his  deter- 
minations, are  again  bringing  his  nomencla- 
ture into  use.  (See  GEOLOGY,  and  SEDGWICK, 


ADAM.)  In  1839  appeared  "The  Silurian  Sys- 
tem," a  revised  edition  of  which  was  published 
in  1854  under  the  name  of  "  Siluria."  By  invita- 
tion of  the  emperor  Nicholas,  Murchison,  accom- 
panied by  De  Verneuil  and  Keyserling,  under- 
took a  geological  survey  of  Russia ;  and  between 
1840  and  1844  he  explored  the  southern  prov- 
inces of  the  empire,  and  a  large  portion  of  the 
Ural  mountains,  besides  sections  of  Germany, 
Poland,  Sweden,  and  Norway.  He  now  con- 
ceived the  idea  of  uniting  the  upper  series  of  the 
paleozoic  rocks,  consisting  mainly  of  the  lower 
new  red  sandstones  and  the  subjacent  magne- 
sian  limestones,  into  a  single  group,  for  which 
he  proposed  the  name  Permian,  from  the  preva- 
lence of  this  formation  in  the  ancient  district  of 
Perm.  The  results  of  the  Russian  expedition 
were  published  in  a  treatise  "  On  the  Geologi- 
cal Structure  of  the  Northern  and  Central  Re- 
gions of  Russia  in  Europe  "  (London,  1841),  and 
in  "  Geology  of  Russia  in  Europe  and  the  Ural 
Mountains"  (1845).  In  1856  he  published  a 
geological  map  of  Europe,  and  in  1861,  conjoint- 
ly with  Geikie,  one  of  Scotland.  He  was  cre- 
ated grand  cross  of  the  Russian  order  of  St. 
Stanislas  in  1845,  knighted  in  1846,  and  made 
a  baronet  in  1866.  In  1846  he  was  president 
of  the  British  association.  On  the  death  of 
Sir  Henry  T.  De  la  Beche  in  1855,  he  became 
director  of  the  British  geological  survey,  a  post 
which  he  resigned  shortly  before  his  death. 
Murchison  was  one  of  the  founders  of  the  roy- 
al geographical  society  in  1830,  was  elected  its 
president  in  1843,  was  several  times  reflected, 
and  held  the  office  from  1862  until  his  death. 
It  was  chiefly  through  his  influence  that  Dr. 
Livingstone  was  enabled  to  prosecute  his  re- 
searches in  South  Africa.  He  received  the 
degrees  of  D.  C.  L.  and  LL.  D.  from  the  uni- 
versities of  England,  and  was  an  associate  of 
nearly  all  scientific  institutions.  He  opposed 
the  evolution  theory  of  Darwin,  stanchly  ad- 
hering to  the  doctrine  of  immutability. — See 
"Memoirs  of  Sir  Roderick  I.  Murchison,"  by 
Archibald  Geikie  (2  vols.,  London,  1874). 

Ml'RCIA.  L  An  ancient  kingdom  of  Spain, 
bounded  N.  W.  and  N.  by  New  Castile,  N.  E. 
and  E.  by  the  province  of  Valencia  and  the 
Mediterranean,  S.  E.  and  S.  by  the 'Mediterra- 
nean and  Granada,  and  W.  by  Jaen ;  area,  10,- 
450  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  660,040.  The  coast 
from  the  confines  of  Granada  to  Cartagena  is 
rocky  and  precipitous,  but  eastward  from  that 
port  it  is  in  general  low  and  sandy.  The  sur- 
face is  mostly  mountainous.  The  principal 
ranges  are  the  Sierra  de  Sagra,  the  Sierra  de 
Alcaraz,  and  the  Sierra  de  Segura.  The  chief 
rivers  are  the  Segura,  Mundo,  and  Sangonera. 
Where  it  can  be  irrigated  the  soil  is  often  of 
exuberant  fertility.  The  productions  are  wheat, 
barley,  maize,  rye,  rice,  flax,  vegetables,  and 
superior  fruit,  particularly  pomegranates,  mel- 
ons, oranges,  and  lemons.  Lead,  silver,  sul- 
phur, and  nitre  are  found.  The  climate  is  mild, 
and  snow  and  ice  are  almost  unknown.  Murcia 
was  conquered  by  the  Moors  in  712,  and  made 


52 


MURCIA 


a  dependency  of  the  caliphate  of  Cordova.  In 
1239  Mohammed  Ali  or  Hudiel  made  it  an  in- 
dependent kingdom,  but  within  a  few  years 
it  was  .united  to  Castile.  It  was  divided  in 
1833  into  the  provinces  of  Murcia  and  Albacete. 
The  chief  port  is  Cartagena.  H.  The  mod- 
ern Murcia  comprises  the  southern  part  ot  the 
ancient  province,  bounded  S.  E.  by  the  Medi- 
terranean and  drained  by  the  Segura  and  its 
tributaries;  area,  4,478  sq.  m.;  pop.  in  1870, 
439  067.  The  S.  and  K  W.  portions  are  moun- 
tainous, and  much  of  the  soil  is  sterile,  but  near 
the  rivers  are  some  rich  tracts  whose  prolinc 
vegetation  has  acquired  for  them  the  name  of 
huertas  or  gardens.  In  the  southeast  are  mines 
of  lead  and  silver.  III.  A  city,  capital  of  the 
ancient  and  modern  province,  on  the  N.  bank 
of  the  Segura,  220  m.  S.  E.  of  Madrid ;  pop., 

T  i _v j_     -|  1  A   AAA  T-f     id    ViAQT* 


MURDER 

MURDER,  a  crime  defined  by  Blackstone  as 
the  unlawful  killing  of  u  any  reasonable  crea- 
ture in  being,  and  under  the  king's  peace,  with 
malice  aforethought,  either  express  or  implied," 
by  a  person  of  sound  memory  and  discretion. 
The  element  of  "malice  aforethought"  is  of 
the  essence  of  murder.  The  greatest  difficulty 
in  determining  whether  a  homicide  be  murder 
is  generally  connected  with  the  question  of 
malice.  It  is  quite  certain  that  the  malice  need 
not  be  malice  against  the  individual  killed ;  for 
if  one  maliciously  shoots  at  a  person  with  in- 
tent to  kill  him,  and  missing  him  kills  another, 
it  is  quite  as  much  murder  as  If  he  had  exe- 
cuted his  intention.  Nor  indeed  need  it  be  di- 
rected against  any  person  in  particular.  If  one 
shoots  into  a  crowd  without  knowing  a  person 
and  kills  one  of  them,  it  is  murder ;  for 


Murcia. 

de  Murcia,  and  was  formerly  fortified.    It  is 
the  residence  of  the  bishop  of  Cartagena,  and 
has  11  parish  churches,  a  theological  seminary, 
a  college,  several  other  learned  institutions, 
an  academy  of  music,  a  public  library,  and  a 
botanic  garden.     The  cathedral  tower  is  very 
imposing,   consisting    of    three  quadrangular 
stages,  each    diminishing    perimetrically  and 
crowned  with  a  dome.    It  is  ascended  to  the 
top  of  the  first  stage  by  an  inclined  plane  320 
paces  long  and  of  gradually  increasing  steep- 
ness.   From  the  first  stage  a  narrow  stairway 
of  210  steps  leads  to  the  summit  of  the  tow- 
er.   The  chief  manufactures  are  earthenware, 
leather,   coarse  linen,   silk  thread,   silks  and 
baskets,  mats,  cordage,  and  sandals.    Murcia 
was  founded  by  the  Moors,  and  during  their 
supremacy  was  one  of  the  seven  metropolitan 
cities  of  Spain.    It  submitted  to  the  Spaniards 
in  1243.     In  1810  it  was  plundered  by  the 
French  under  Sebastiani. 


mani  generis.  Still  there 
must    be   malice ;    for 
probably  no  kind  or  de- 
gree of  mere  careless- 
ness or  negligence  would 
make  a  case  of  homicide 
one  of  murder.     So  if 
the  death  were  caused  by 
mere  mistake,  whether 
of  law,  of  fact,  or  of  the 
person,  it  would  not  be 
murder,  unless  it  would 
have  been  murder  if  the 
law  or  fact  or  person 
had  been  what  they  were 
supposed  to   be.     The 
principal    exception   to 
the  necessity  of  proof 
of  actual  malice  would 
seem  to  be  where  the 
death  was  caused  with- 
out intention,  but  by  the 
commission  of  or  in  at- 
tempting a  felony.   This 
distinction  is  so  nice,  that  while,  if  one  shooting 
at  his  neighbor's  fowls  with  intent  to  destroy 
them  shoots  him  by  accident,  this  would  not  be 
murder,  yet  shooting  them  with  intent  to  steal, 
and  with  the  same  result,  would,  it  is  said,  be 
murder.    Drunkenness  has  been  considered  in 
reference  to  manslaughter,  and  a  somewhat 
similar  rule  is  held  as  to  murder;   that  is, 
intoxication,  if  it  negatives  the  supposition  of 
malice,  would  prevent  the  crime  from  being 
murder,  unless  it  was  a  state  of  temporary  in- 
sanity, purposely  brought  on  that  under  it  mur- 
der might  be  committed  safely,  in  which  case 
it  would  not  be  regarded  as  any  excuse  what- 
ever.— Cases  of  compulsion  have  been  some- 
what considered ;   and  it  has  been  generally 
held  that  strict  and  actual  compulsion  was  an 
excuse,  but  nothing  less.     If  a  captive  on  board 
a  pirate  were  compelled  to  act  with  the  crew 
in  committing  murder  by  threats  of  immediate 
death,,  this  compulsion  would  undoubtedly  be 


MURDER 

a  sufficient  excuse ;  but  nothing  less  than  a 
compulsion  of  this  character  would  have  this 
effect ;  as  no  command  from  a  master,  and  no 
threat  of  a  whipping,  would  be  any  excuse  at 
all  for  a  servant.  But  a  jury,  who  can  now 
judge  of  the  law  as  well  as  the  fact  in  crimi- 
nal cases,  if  they  were  satisfied,  from  the  evi- 
dence of  command  or  threat,  of  the  absence  of 
all  malice,  either  general  or  individual,  would 
seldom  render  a  verdict  of  murder.  So  if  a 
crime  be  committed  by  a  wife  in  presence  of 
her  husband,  it  is  presumed  by  the  law  that  she 
did  the  act  under  his  coercion,  and  she  is  not 
herself  guilty.  But  murder  and  treason  are 
exceptions  to  this  rule ;  and  here  it  is  said  that 
no  proof  of  actual  constraint  by  the  husband 
operates  as  an  excuse. — It  seems  quite  well 
settled,  as  a  general  rule,  that  if  many  are  con- 
federate in  any  unlawful  act,  and  some  one  of 
them,  in  doing  the  act,  commit  a  murder,  all 
are  guilty ;  as  if  several  conspire  to  seize  a  ves- 
sel forcibly  and  run  away  with  her,  and  one 
opposing  them  is  killed  in  the  conflict,  all  are 
guilty  of  murder,  in  law,  who  are  present,  aid- 
ing and  abetting  in  the  unlawful  act.  No  con- 
sent or  even  request  of  the  party  killed  is  any 
excuse  whatever.  At  common  law,  counselling 
of  suicide,  if  it  causes  the  suicide,  is  murder. 
So  if  two  persons  agree  to  commit  suicide  to- 
gether, and  use  means  which  take  effect  only 
on  one,  it  is  murder  in  the  survivor,  provided 
he  was  present  when  the  act  was  committed, 
as  otherwise  he  is  only  an  accessory  before  the 
fact.  In  such  a  case,  however,  the  jury  would 
be  very  likely  to  treat  the  case  as  manslaughter. 
If  one,  by  working  on  the  fears  of  another,  or 
by  mere  unkind  usage,  put  one  into  "  a  passion 
of  grief  or  fear  "  whereof  he  or  she,  being  per- 
haps at  the  time  in  feeble  health,  dies,  this,  says 
Hale,  though  murder  or  manslaughter  in  the 
sight  of  God,  is  not  so  at  common  law.  Most 
later  writers  have  adopted  this  view,  which  is 
said  to  be  in  accordance  with  the  codes  of 
France  and  of  Scotland ;  while  in  some  coun- 
tries the  law  is  held  to  be,  as  an  English  judge 
in  a  recent  case  declared  it  to  be  in  England, 
that  one  is  guilty  if  he  cause  death  by  force 
"  applied  either  to  the  body  or  the  mind."  We 
consider  Sale's  view  as  being  that  of  the  com- 
mon law,  and  of  the  prevailing  law  of  the 
United  States.  It  was  a  rule  of  the  common 
law,  that  it  was  murder  to  procure  the  con- 
viction and  execution  of  an  innocent  person 
charged  with  a  capital  crime  by  perjury.  Now, 
however,  we  are  satisfied  that  both  in  England 
and  in  the  United  States  such  a  crime  would 
be  punished  only  as  an  aggravated  case  of  per- 
jury.— The  question  has  arisen,  whether  one 
can  be  indicted  in  a  state  or  country  for  mur- 
der, if  the  criminal  did  actually  in  that  state 
give  the  fatal  blow,  or  fire  the  fatal  shot,  but 
the  injured  party  went  into  another  state  or 
country  and  died  there.  The  weight  of  au- 
thority, and  we  think  of  reason,  is  that  no  such 
indictment  can  be  maintained.  No  country  can 
punish  a  crime  committed  abroad,  or  partially 


MURDOCH 


53 


abroad,  unless  by  its  own  municipal  provisions, 
applied  to  its  own  citizens.  In  accordance 
with  this  view,  the  statute  of  the  United  States 
against  "murder  on  the  high  seas"  has  been 
held  inapplicable  to  a  case  where  a  fatal  blow 
was  given  with  malice  on  the  high  seas,  but  the 
wounded  person  reached  the  shore  and  died  on 
land. — An  important  question  has  exercised  the 
courts,  both  of  England  and  the  United  States, 
in  respect  to  the  evidence  of  murder  and  the 
burden  of  proof.  Some  courts  have  held  that 
if  the  government  proved  the  death  alleged, 
and  that  this  death  was  caused  by  the  prisoner, 
the  burden  of  proof  then  shifted,  and  it  lay  on 
the  prisoner  to  prove  want  of  malice,  or  acci- 
dent, or  self-defence,  or  any  other  justification. 
Other  courts  hold  the  contrary,  and  we  are 
satisfied  that  in  cases  of  murder,  the  actual  and 
practical  rule  whereby  the  fate  of  the  prisoner 
is  determined  should  be  and  is  that  the  bur- 
den of  proof  remains  on  the  government  until 
they  have  proved  their  whole  case,  which  in- 
cludes the  killing  and  the  intent,  or  "  the  malice 
aforethought,"  without  which  there  can  be  no 
murder.  This  evidence  may  undoubtedly  be 
indirect  or  circumstantial,  and  must  be  so  gen- 
erally, because  malice  is  a  condition  of  mind 
and  purpose.  But  it  would  not  be  enough  in 
modern  times  to  charge  A  with  the  murder  of 
B,  and  rest  the  charge  upon  the  mere  proof 
that  A  killed  B,  unless  there  were  something 
in  the  time,  place,  or  circumstances  of  the  kill- 
ing, or  of  the  conduct  of  the  prisoner  in  refer- 
ence to  it,  which  brought  home  to  a  jury  a 
belief  that  he  was  moved  by  malice  afore- 
thought.— In  some  of  the  states,  although  not 
generally,  the  crime  of  murder  has  been  divided 
into  degrees ;  and  where  capital  punishment  is 
retained,  only  murder  in  the  first  degree  is 
punishable  with  death. — It  should  be  added, 
that  whenever  a  person  is  indicted  and  tried 
for  murder,  it  is  competent  for  the  jury  to 
bring  in  a  verdict  of  manslaughter. 

MURDOCH,  James  Edward,  an  American  actor, 
born  in  Philadelphia,  Jan.  25,  1811.  He  first 
appeared  on  the  stage  in  the  Arch  street  thea- 
tre, subsequently  played  in  various  southern 
cities,  and  in  June,  1838,  appeared  in  the  Park 
theatre,  New  York,  in  leading  characters,  in 
support  of  Ellen  Tree.  He  withdrew  from  the 
stage  in  1842  to  devote  himself  to  the  teaching 
of  elocution,  and  also  gave  a  series  of  lectures 
on  Shakespeare's  characters  in  Boston,  Phila- 
delphia, and  New  York.  On  Oct.  20,  1845,  he 
appeared  as  Hamlet  in  the  Park  theatre,  New 
York,  and  subsequently  made  professional  tours 
in  Canada,  California,  and  England,  appearing 
in  the  Haymarket  theatre,  London,  in  1856. 
In  1858  he  retired  to  a  farm  in  Lebanon,  Ohio. 
During  the  civil  war  he  gave  elocutionary  en- 
tertainments throughout  the  north  in  aid  of 
the  sanitary  commission,  devoted  himself  to 
the  care  of  sick  and  wounded  soldiers,  and 
served  for  a  while  on  the  staff  of  Gen.  Rous- 
seau. Since  then  he  has  resided  in  Philadel- 
phia as  a  professional  elocutionist.  In  con- 


54  MURDOCK 

junction  with  William  Russell  he  published 
"  Orthophony,  or  Culture  of  the  Voice  "  (12mo, 
Boston,  1845). 

MURDOCH.,  James,  an  American  clergyman, 
born  in  Westbrook,  Conn.,  Feb.  16,  1776,  died 
in  Columbus,  Miss,,  Aug.  10,  1856.  He  gradu- 
ated at  Yale  college  in  1797,  was  ordained  as 
a  Congregational  minister  in  1801,  and  in  Feb- 
ruary, 1802,  was  settled  in  Princeton,  Mass.  In 
1815  he  became  professor  of  ancient  ^languages 
in  the  university  of  Vermont,  and  in  1819  of 
sacred  rhetoric  and  ecclesiastical  history  in  the 
theological  seminary  at  Andover,  Mass.  In  1828 
he  removed  to  New  Haven,  where  he  devoted 
himself  to  the  study  of  ecclesiastical  history, 
the  oriental  languages,  and  philosophy.  His 
principal  works  are:  a  translation  from  the 
German  of  Mtinscher's  "Elements  of  Dogmatic 
History"  (New  Haven,  1830) ;  a  translation  of 
Mosheim's  "Institutes  of  Ecclesiastical  His- 
tory," with  copious  notes  (3  vols.,  New  Haven, 
1832;  revised  ed.,  New  York,  1839);  an  edi- 
tion of  Milman's  "History  of  Christianity," 
with  a  preface  and  notes  (New  York,  1841) ; 
"Sketches  of  Modern  Philosophy,  especially 
among  the  Germans  "  (Hartford,  1842)  ;  a  "Lit- 
eral Translation  of  the  whole  New  Testament 
from  the  Ancient  Syriac  Version,"  with  a  pre- 
face and  marginal  notes  (New  York,  1851) ; 
and  a  translation  from  the  Latin  of  Mosheim's 
"  Commentaries  on  the  Affairs  of  the  Chris- 
tians before  the  time  of  Constantine  the  Great " 
(2  vols.,  New  York,  1852).  He  also  published 
several  sermons,  one  of  which,  on  the  atone- 
ment (1823),  attracted  great  attention.  He 
was  a  member  of  many  learned  societies,  and 
in  1819  received  the  degree  of  D.  D.  from  Har- 
vard university. 

MURE,  William,  a  Scottish  author,  born  at 
Caldwell,  Ayrshire,  July  9,  1799,  died  in  Lon- 
don, April  1, 1860.  He  was  educated  at  West- 
minster school  and  the  university  of  Edinburgh, 
and  completed  his  studies  in  Germany.  He 
published  "Remarks  on  the  Chronology  of  the 
Egyptian  Dynasties"  (1829),  "A  Dissertation 
on  the  Calendar  of  the  Zodiac  of  Ancient 
Egypt"  (1832),  "  Journal  of  a  Tour  in  Greece  " 
(1838),  and  "  Critical  History  of  the  Language 
and  Literature  of  Ancient  Greece"  (5  vols., 
1850-'57),  which  was  left  unfinished.  He  rep- 
resented Renfrewshire  in  parliament  from  1846 
to  1855,  and  in  1847-'8  was  lord  rector  of  the 
university  of  Glasgow. 

MURET,  Theodore  Cesar,  a  French  author,  born 
in  Geneva,  Jan.  24,  1808,  died  at  Soisy,  near 
Paris,  in  July,  1866.  He  was  descended  from 
French  Protestant  refugees,  studied  at  Geneva 
and  Rouen,  took  his  degree  of  advocate  at  Paris 
in  1829,  and  devoted  himself  to  journalism  in 
the  legitimist  interest,  and  to  dramatic  and  gen- 
eral literature.  The  best  known  of  his  vaude- 
villes, in  which  he  had  collaborators,  are  Le 
medecin  de  campagne  (1838)  and  Le  docteur 
Saint-Brice  (1840).  He  published  novels  and 
many  pamphlets,  some  of  which,  especially  La 
Verite  aux  ouwiers,  aux  paysans,  aux  soldats 


MURFREESBORO 

(1849).  had  an  enormous  circulation.  His  other 
works  comprise  Histoire  de  Paris  (1837;  2d 
ed.,  1851);  Souvenirs  de  Vouest  (1838);  Les 
grands  Jiommes  de  la  France  (2  vols.,  1838); 
Histoire  de  Varmee  de  Conde  (2  vols.,  1844); 
Histoire  des  guerres  de  Vouest  (5  vols.,  1848) ; 
and  L* Histoire  par  le  theatre  (3  vols.,  1864-15). 
MUREX,  a  genus  of  gasteropod  mollusks, 
found  in  almost  all  temperate  and  tropical 
seas  at  depths  varying  from  25  to  60  fathoms. 
About  200  living  species  are  known,  and  160 
fossil,  chiefly  belonging  to  the  eocene  forma- 
tion. Some  of  the  species  are  remarkable  for 
their  very  long  and  slender  beak,  along  which 
the  canal  is  partly  closed.  The  shells  are  orna- 
mented with  three  or  more  longitudinal  ridges, 
from  which  sometimes  proceed  rows  of  long 
pointed  spines,  which  are  removed  by  the  ani- 
mal when  they  interfere  with  its  growth.  The 
murices  are  particularly  interesting  from  their 
having  been  the  source  of  the  famous  Tyrian 
dye.  It  is  said  that  heaps  of  broken  shells  of 
the  M.  trunculus,  and  caldron-shaped  holes  in 
the  rocks,  may  still  be  seen  on  the  Phoenician 
shore ;  and  on  the  coast  of  the  Morea  there  is 
evidence  that  the  M.  firandaris  was  anciently 
used  for  the  same  purpose  of  collecting  the 
purple  secretion  of  which  the  dye  was  com- 
posed. The  ancients  bruised  the  smaller  shells 
in  mortars,  but  took  out  the  animal  from  the 
larger  ones.  Several  species  of  purpura  also 
produce  a  fluid  which  gives  a  dull  crimson 
dye.  An  imitation  of  the  purple  dye  prepared 
from  uric  acid,  treated  by  nitric  acid  and  com- 
bined with  ammonia,  was  discovered  by  Prout 
in  1818,  and  afterward  named  by  Liebig  and 
Wohler  murexide.  It  is  now  produced  from 
guano,  and  is  used  for  the  dyeing  of  foulard 
silks.  The  coloring  fluid  is  secreted  by  a  special 
gland  situated  on  the  mantle;  in  murex  and 
purpura  it  is  colorless  when  secreted,  but  on 
exposure  to  the  sun  becomes  first  yellowish, 
and  finally  violet,  passing  through  the  tints 
formed  by  the  mixture  of  yellow,  blue,  and 
red.  The  M.  tenuispina  of  the  Moluccas  is 


Murex  (Murex  tenuispina). 

one  of  the  handsomest  species,  5  to  6  in.  long. 
A  handsome  species  is  abundant  on  the  Cen- 
tral American  coasts. 

MURFREESBORO,  a  city  and  the  capital  of 
Rutherford  co.,  Tennessee,  situated  near  the 
centre  of  the  state,  on  an  elevated  and  healthy 
plain  bounded  E.  by  the  Cumberland  mountains, 
on  the  Nashville  and  Chattanooga  railroad,  32 
m.  S.  E.  of  Nashville ;  pop.  in  1870,  3,502,  of 


MURFREESBORO 


MURILLO 


55 


whom  1,805  were  colored.  It  is  regularly  laid 
out,  lighted  with  gas,  and  well  built,  princi- 
pally of  brick.  The  court  house  is  large  and 
handsome,  and  stands  in  the  centre  of  the  pub- 
lic square.  Being  surrounded  by  a  fertile  and 
thickly  settled  country,  the  city  has  an  impor- 
tant trade,  especially  in  cotton  and  grain.  It 
contains  two  national  banks,  a  manufactory 
of  cedar  ware,  an  extensive  saw  mill,  a  cotton 
gin  manufactory,  a  pork-packing  establish- 
ment, several  cotton  gins  and  grist  mills,  car- 
riage factories,  &c.  There  are  four  public 
school  departments,  two  for  white  and  two  for 
colored  children,  a  private  school,  a  female  in- 
stitute, the  Soule  female  college  under  the  pat- 
ronage of  the  Methodists,  two  weekly  news- 
papers, and  ten  churches  (four  colored).  Mur- 
freesboro was  the  seat  of  Union  university, 
founded  by  the  Baptist  educational  society  in 
1848,  but  now  suspended.  In  the  immediate 
vicinity  of  the  city  are  the  Tennessee  central 
fair  grounds,  occupying  20  acres  handsomely 
improved.  Near  by  are  a  large  national 
cemetery,  beautifully  laid  out  and  decorated, 
containing  a  monument  to  those  who  fell  in 
the  battle  of  Murfreesboro,  and  a  confeder- 
ate cemetery. — The  town  was  established  in 
1811,  and  incorporated  in  1817.  The  state  le- 
gislature met  here  from  1819  to  1825.  Early 
in  the  summer  of  1862  it  was  occupied  by  a 
small  Union  force.  On  July  13  it  was  cap- 
tured by  the  confederates  under  Forrest,  a 
Michigan  regiment  being  made  prisoners.  Soon 
after  Gen.  Bragg  made  it  the  centre  of  his 
operations  in  Tennessee,  having  about  50,000 
men,  of  whom  nearly  a  third  were  caval- 
ry. Late  in  November  Gen.  Rosecrans  moved 
from  Nashville  with  about  40,000  infantry 
and  3,000  cavalry,  and  took  up  a  strong  posi- 
tion near  Murfreesboro.  For  nearly  a  month 
the  two  armies  lay  watching  each  other.  At 
length  Bragg  sent  the  greater  part  of  his  cav- 
alry to  operate  against  the  lines  of  commu- 
nication of  Rosecrans,  who  thereupon  took 
the  offensive.  Skirmishing  began  on  Dec. 
26,  but  the  main  engagements  took  place 
Dec.  31,  1862,  and  Jan.  2,  1863.  The  action 
of  Dec.  31  was  severe  but  indecisive.  On 
Jan.  2  the  confederate  'forces  made  one  more 
vigorous  attack.  Bragg  was  finally  repelled, 
and  on  the  4th  he  abandoned  Murfreesboro, 
of  which  Rosecrans  took  possession  next  day. 
He  fortified  the  place,  and  made  it  his  depot 
of  supplies,  remaining  there  for  six  months, 
after  which  he  advanced  toward  Chattanooga, 
whither  Bragg  had  fallen  back.  The  battle  of 
Murfreesboro,  commonly  called  that  of  Stone 
River,  was,  in  proportion  to  the  numbers  en- 
gaged, one  of  the  most  bloody  of  the  war. 
Bragg  says  he  had  35,000  men  engaged,  and 
that  the  Union  force  was  about  70,000.  Rose- 
crans puts  his  force  at  43,000,  estimating  that 
of  the  confederates  at  62,000.  The  Union 
loss  was  1,553  killed,  about  7,000  wounded, 
and  3,000  prisoners.  Bragg  puts  his  entire 
loss  at  about  10,000. 


MURGER,  Henry,  a  French  author,  born  in 
Paris  in  1822,  died  there,  Jan.  28,  1861.  He 
had  only  limited  opportunities  of  education, 
and  became  a  lawyer's  clerk,  and  afterward 
secretary  of  Count  Tolstoi,  a  Russian  resident 
of  Paris.  He  wrote  in  prose  and  verse,  and 
led  a  precarious  life  as  a  journalist  and  Iitt6- 
rateur  till  1848,  when  his  Scenes  de  la  vie 
de  Boheme,  describing  his  own  experiences, 
made  him  famous.  He  dramatized  it  in  1851, 
with  Theodore  Barriere,  with  considerable  suc- 
cess. Among  his  subsequent  works  are  poems, 
plays,  novels,  and  new  series  of  his  sketches  of 
"Bohemian"  life  in  Paris,  including  Le  pays 
latin,  scenes  de  la  vie  d'etudiant  (1852). 

MURIATIC  ACID,     See  HYDEOCHLORIO  ACID. 

MURILLO,  Bartolome  Esteban,  a  Spanish  painter, 
born  in  Seville,  where  he  was  baptized  Jan.  1, 
1618,  died  there,  April  3,  1682.  At  an  early 
age  he  entered  the  studio  of  his  uncle  Juan  de 
Castillo,  and  soon  began  to  sketch  the  ragged, 
sunburnt  children  of  the  street,  and  to  paint 
pictures  of  Spanish  low  life.  The  removal  of 
his  master  in  1640  to  Cadiz  threw  Murillo  upon 
his  own  resources,  and  he  painted  several  coarse 
and  hurried  pictures  to  sell  in  the  public  fairs 
of  Seville.  To  procure  means  to  enable  him 
to  study  in  Madrid,  he  executed  pictures  for 
the  colonial  market,  which  were  distributed 
throughout  the  Spanish  American  possessions, 
comprising  the  greater  part  if  not  the  whole 
of  his  paintings  in  churches  and  monasteries  of 
the  new  world,  and  the  number  and  value  of 
which  have  been  greatly  exaggerated.  With 
the  money  thus  acquired  he  went  in  1643  to 
Madrid,  and  was  kindly  received  by  Velasquez, 
who  admitted  him  to  his  academy  and  intro- 
duced him  to  the  royal  galleries  of  the  capital 
and  the  Escurial,  where  during  the  next  two 
years  he  copied  the  works  of  Titian,  Rubens, 
Vandyke,  Ribera,  and  Velasquez.  After  his 
return  to  Seville,  his  first  important  commis- 
sion was  from  the  friars  of  the  convent  of  San 
Francisco,  for  the  cloisters  of  which  he  paint- 
ed 11  large  pictures  in  the  frio,  described  as 
dark,  with  a  decided  outline,  which  was  the 
first  of  the  three  styles  usually  distinguished 
in  his  works.  The  cloisters  were  burned  in 
1810,  and  the  greater  part  of  the  pictures  car-* 
ried  off  by  Marshal  Soult.  Commissions  flowed 
in  upon  him,  and  in  1648  he  married  an  Andalu- 
sian  lady  of  wealth  and  rank.  Soon  afterward 
he  adopted  his  cdlido  or  second  style,  warm, 
and  with  improved  coloring,  some  of  the  earli- 
est examples  of  which  are  "  Our  Lady  of  the 
Conception,"  the  "San  Leandro"  and  "San 
Isidro,"  the  "Nativity  of  the  Virgin,"  and  the 
"  St.  Anthony  of  Padua."  From  the  last,  in 
the  cathedral  of  Seville,  the  figure  of  the  saint 
was  cut  out  and  stolen  in  1874,  but  recovered 
in  New  York  in  January,  1875.  In  1660  Mu- 
rillo, in 'con  junction  with  Valdes  Leal  and  the 
younger  Herrera,  founded  an  academy  of  art 
in  Seville,  of  which  he  was  president  till  his 
death.  To  this  period  may  be  ascribed  his 
four  large  semicircular  pictures,  executed  for 


56 


MURILLO 


the  church  of  Santa  Maria  la  Blanca  in  Seville. 
Two  of  these,  representing  the  legend  of  the 
dream  of  the  Eoman  patrician  which  led  to  the 
building  of  Santa  Maria  Maggiore  in  Borne  un- 
der Pope  Liberius,  now  hang  in  the  academy  of 
San  Fernando  in  Madrid.     They  are  in  the  va~ 
poroso  style,  described  as  misty,  vaporous,  and 
blending,  and  are  magnificent  specimens  of  the 
artist's  powers.    Between  1660  and  1674  was 
executed,  for  an  almshouse  outside  the  walls  oi 
Seville,  a  celebrated  series  of  pictures.    Five 
of  these,  "Abraham  receiving  the  three  An- 
gels "  "  The  Return  of  the  Prodigal  Son,"  "  The 
Healing  of  the  Cripple,"  "St.  Peter  released 
from  Prison  by  the  Angel,"  and  "  St.  Elizabeth 
of  Hungary,"  were  carried  off  by  Soult.     I  he 
first  two  were  sold  to  the  duke  of  Sutherland; 
the  third  was  bought  by  Mr.  Tomline,  an  Eng- 
lish collector,  for  160,000  francs;  the  fourth  is 
in  the  Hermitage  in  St.  Petersburg ;  and  the 
fifth,  with  the  two  pictures  from  Santa  Maria 
la  Blanca,  is  in  the  academy  of  Seville.    Of  the 
original  series  still  remaining  in  the  almshouse 
the  chief  are  "  Moses  striking  the  Rock,"  "  The 
Charity  of  San  Juan  de  Dios,"  and  "  The  Mira- 
cle of  the  Loaves  and  Fishes,"  works  conceived 
with  all  the  artist's  strength  in  the  maturity 
of  his  powers.     Subsequent  to  1675  he  paint- 
ed  a  series    of   about  20   pictures    for  the 
convent  of  the  Capuchins  in  Seville,  of  which 
17    are    now    in  the  museum    of    the    city. 
One  of  the  best  of  these,  "  The  Charity  of  St. 
Thomas  of  Villanueva,"  presents  many  striking 
studies  of  street  nature,  and  was  called  by  the 
artist  su  liemo,  "  his  own  picture."    Another 
celebrated  picture  formerly  in  the  chapel  of  the 
monastery,  representing  the  Virgin  and  child, 
is  said  to  have  been  painted  on  a  sermlleta, 
whence  it  was  called  the  "Virgin  of  the  Nap- 
kin."   He  subsequently  executed  fine  series  of 
pictures  for  the  hospital  de  los  venerdbles  and 
the  Augustinian  convent  of  Seville,  and  a  mul- 
titude of  miscellaneous  works,  generally  of  a 
religious  character.    Preeminent  among  them 
were  those  devoted  to  the  illustration  of  the 
immaculate  conception  of  the  Virgin ;  and  from 
the  frequency  and  fondness  with  which  he 
represented  the  subject,  he  was  called  "the 
''painter  of  the  conceptions."     A  memorable 
example  of  this  style  of  picture  is  the  "  Im- 
maculate Conception,"  purchased  at  the  sale 
of  Marshal  Soult's  collection  in  1852  by  the 
French  government  for  635,000  francs,  and 
now  in  the  Louvre,  in  which  the  Virgin  ap- 
pears in  a  state  of  ecstatic  beatitude,  borne 
aloft  in  a  golden  ether  to  heaven  by  a  multi- 
tude of  cherubs,  who  are  painted  with  inimi- 
table sweetness.    A  few  similar  works,  attrib- 
uted to  him,  are  owned  in  the  United  States. 
His  remaining  works  are  distributed  among 
the  royal  and  private  galleries  of  Europe.    The 
Louvre  contains  a  considerable  number;   the 
Pinakothek  in  Munich  has  two  or  three  admi- 
rable specimens  of  his  beggar  boys ;  Dulwich 


gallery  has  six  pictures,  including  the  celebra- 
ted "Flower  Girl;"  and  the  national  gallery 


MURNER 

of  London  has  his  "Holy  Family"  and  "In- 
!ant  St.  John  and  the  Lamb."  The  Hermitage 
n  St.  Petersburg  has  18  of  his  pictures.  His 
'  Little  Shepherd  "  (El  pastorcico),  presented 
by  Queen  Isabella  to  Guizot,  was  sold  by  him 
at  auction  in  May,  1874,  for  120,000  francs. 
Such,  however,  has  been  the  mania  of  late 
years  for  his  works,  that  his  name  has  been 
applied  indiscriminately  to  productions  utterly 
unworthy  of  his  pencil,  and  many  of  the  pic- 
tures of  peasants  and  beggars  attributed  to 
aim  are  supposed  to  be  by  his  followers  or 
pupils.  A  short  time  before  his  death  Murillo 
went  to  Cadiz  to  paint  the  "  Espousals  of  St. 
Catharine  "  over  the  high  altar  in  the  Capuchin 
church  of  that  city,  and  while  engaged  upon 
the  work  stumbled  and  fell  from  the  scaffold- 
ing, receiving  an  injury  which  proved  fatal. 
He  was  buried  in  the  church  of  Santa  Cruz  in 
Seville,  before  a  picture  of  the  "  Descent  from 
the  Cross  "  by  Pedro  Campana,  which  he  had 
greatly  admired  in  his  life.  The  French  in 
1810  levelled  the  church  to  the  ground,  and 
"  cast  out  the  ashes  of  Murillo  to  the  winds." 
Murillo  was  essentially  a  painter  of  religious 
subjects,  and  excelled  as  a  colorist.  As  a  land- 
scape painter  his  scenery  is  often  conventional 
and  merely  accessory.  He  also  painted  a  few 

Eortraits.— See  Ford's  "  Handbook  of  Spain," 
tirling's  "Annals  of  the  Artists  of  Spain," 
Head's  "Handbook  of  the  Spanish  School," 
and  Cunningham's  "  Life  of  Wilkie." 

BURNER,  Thomas,  a  German  satirist,  born  in 
Strasburg,  Dec.  24,  1475,  died  probably  in 
Heidelberg  about  1536.  He  studied  at  the 
principal  universities  of  Europe,  lost  a  place 
in  the  conventual  Latin  school  of  Strasburg  by 
his  invective  against  Wimpfeling,  and  led  af- 
terward an  unsteady  life,  preaching  for  some 
time  at  Frankfort  and  other  places,  but  gener- 
ally incurring  the  displeasure  of  his  congrega- 
tion by  his  coarse  personalities.  He  was  suc- 
cessively expelled  from  Freiburg,  Treves,  and 
Venice.  He  resumed  his  functions  in  the  con- 
ventual school  of  Strasburg  in  1519,  and  be- 
came one  of  the  most  virulent  opponents  of 
the  reformation.  In  1523  he  went  to  England, 
invited  by  Henry  VIII.,  but  troubles  in  his 
convent  compelled  him  to  return.  Some  of 
his  writings  against  the  reformation  had  al- 
ready been  burned  by  order  of  the  Strasburg 
magistracy ;  and  to  elude  the  vigilance  of  the 
authorities  he  established  a  press  of  his  own, 
which  was  destroyed  by  a  mob,  together  with 
his  house,  and  he  was  compelled  to  flee  to 
Switzerland,  whence  he  was  afterward  ex- 
pelled. In  1506  he  had  been  crowned  as  poet 
laureate  by  the  emperor  Maximilian,  and  he  had 
justified  the  distinction  by  his  Narrenbeschwo- 
rung  and  Der  Schelmen  Zunft  (1512).  He  wrote 
Chartiludium  logice,  &c.  (Cracow,  1507),  and 
other  Latin  works;  prepared  a  German  ver- 
sion of  Virgil  and  other  translations ;  and  was 
also  regarded  as  .the  editor  of  Eulenspiegel. 
But  he  is  chiefly  remembered  by  his  writings 
against  Luther  and  the  reformation.  His  most 


MURPHY 


MURRAIN 


57 


celebrated  satirical  work  is  entitled  Von  dem 
grossen  lutheriscken  Narren  (Strasburg,  1522). 

MURPHY,  Arthur,  a  British  dramatist,  born  at 
Clooniquin,  county  Roscommon,  Ireland,  Dec. 
27,  1727,  died  in  London,  June  18,  1805.  He 
was  educated  at  the  Roman  Catholic  college  of 
St.  Omer,  spent  some  years  in  a  banking  house 
in  London,  and  in  1756  was  admitted  to  Lin- 
coln's Inn.  He  conducted  for  two  years  a 
weekly  paper,  the  "  Gray's  Inn  Journal."  In 
1758  appeared  his  first  dramatic  production, 
"  The  Upholsterer,"  a  farce,  followed  by  "  The 
Orphan  of  China,"  "The  Way  to  Keep  Him," 
u  All  in  the  Wrong,"  "  The  Citizen,"  "  The  Old 
Maid,"  &c.  In  1762  he  was  called  to  the  bar, 
but  at  the  end  of  15  years  quitted  his  profes- 
sion, and  devoted  the  remainder  of  his  life  to 
literary  pursuits.  In  1786  appeared  an  edition 
of  his  works  in  7  vols.  8vo,  containing,  in  ad- 
dition to  the  dramatic  pieces  above  mentioned, 
his  "  Three  Weeks  after  Marriage,"  "  Zenobia," 
"  The  Grecian  Daughter,"  &c.  Some  of  his 
plays  long  kept  possession  of  the  stage.  In 
1792  he  published  an  essay  on  the  life  and  ge- 
nius of  Dr.  Johnson,  in  1793  a  translation  of 
Tacitus  in  4  vols.  4to,  and  in  1801  a  life  of 
Garrick.  His  translation  of  Sallust,  completed 
by  Thomas  Moore,  appeared  in  1807.  At  va- 
rious times  in  his  life  he  engaged  in  political 
controversies,  and  edited  journals  opposing 
Mr.  Fox,  the  first  Lord  Holland,  and  Wilkes's 
"  North  Briton."  In  his  old  age  he  was  made 
a  commissioner  of  bankrupts,  and  for  the  last 
three  years  of  his  life  he  received  a  pension  of 
£200.  A  life  of  Murphy  by  Jesse  Foot  was 
published  in  1811. 

MIHRALV  (Span,  morrifia,  from  Lat.  mori, 
to  die ;  or  Gr.  papaivsiv,  to  waste,  to  destroy),  a 
term  applied  to  various  fatal  contagious  epizoo- 
tics, and  therefore  an  equivalent  to  some  extent 
of  the  Greek  Ao^of,  Latin  pestis,  and  English 
pest  and  plague.  The  diseases  most  commonly 
included  under  this  term  are  Russian  cattle 
plague,  aphthous  fever,  lung  fever,  and  malig- 
nant anthrax.  The  first  three  are  true  plagues, 
spreading  widely  by  contagion  and  irrespective 
of  the  influences  of  season,  climate,  &c. ;  the 
fourth  appears  to  arise  from  unhealthy  local  con- 
ditions, but  in  hot,  damp,  insalubrious  years  will 
assume  an  unusual  virulence  and  spread  far  be- 
yond its  native  limits.  From  the  earliest  ages 
these  affections  have  spread  widely  and  dis- 
astrously in  the  track  of  belligerent  armies, 
being  propagated  in  their  herds  of  supply; 
and  thus  on  the  occasion  of  any  great  European 
war  the  ravages  of  pestilence  and  famine  have 
been  superadded  to  the  horrors  of  fire  and 
sword.  The  yearly  losses  of  individual  coun- 
tries in  such  cases  were  to  be  counted  by  hun- 
dreds of  thousands  of  stock,  while  the  losses 
to  the  continent  by  a  single  epizootic  are  com- 
puted at  hundreds  of  millions. — 1.  Russian  Cat- 
tle Plague,  or  Steppe  Murrain  (Ger.  Binder- 
pest,  Fr.  la,  peste  bovine,  &c.),  is  a  contagious 
fever  of  cattle  and  other  ruminants,  supposed 
to  arise  spontaneously  in  the  Kirghiz  steppes 


and  the  government  of  Kherson  in  southern 
Russia,  characterized  by  congestion,  excessive 
growth  and  degeneration  of  epithelium,  slough- 
ing, and  ulceration  of  all  the  mucous  mem- 
branes, but  especially  of  those  of  the  alimentary 
canal.  It  has  spread  over  western  Europe  in 
connection  with  every  great  general  war,  from 
the  irruption  of  the  Huns,  about  A.  D.  375,  to 
the  recent  Franco-German  contest,  after  which 
both  belligerent  countries  suffered  severely. 
After  the  taking  of  Paris  the  plague  anticipated 
the  famished  inhabitants  in  destroying  the  cattle 
set  apart  for  their  relief,  and  out  of  10,000  to 
12,000  reserved  for  the  troops  800  died  in  one 
night.  From  1711  to  1769  it  destroyed  over 
200,000,000  head  of  cattle  in  Europe;  from 
1793  to  1796,  3,000,000  to  4,000,000  in  Italy; 
in  1842  it  killed  300,000  head  of  cattle  in 
Egypt,  and  died  out  two  years  later  for  want 
of  more  animals  to  destroy;  and  in  1865-'6 
it  proved  fatal  to  about  500,000  head  in  Great 
Britain  within  18  months.  Excepting  in  its 
supposed  birthplace  on  the  steppes,  this  malady 
is  propagated  only  by  contagion,  and  in  ordi- 
nary cases  passes  over  exclusively  breeding  dis- 
tricts into  which  no  strange  cattle  nor  their 
products  are  brought.  Thus  Belgium  almost 
entirely  escaped  in  the  recent  French  outbreak. 
Austria  and  Prussia  habitually  protect  them- 
selves by  a  supervision  and  quarantine  on  their 
frontiers,  and  only  suffer  when  such  barriers 
are  broken  down  under  the  exigencies  of  war. 
— The  poison,  which  exists  in  all  parts  of  the 
body,  and  is  given  off  in  the  secretions  and 
exhalations,  does  not  spread  far  on  the  atmos- 
phere, but  may  remain  in  a  frozen  or  dried 
condition  for  many  months,  without  losing  its 
virulence.  When  this  poison  has  been  intro- 
duced into  the  system  by  inoculation,  it  re- 
mains latent  for  over  36  hours.  At  the  end 
of  the  second  day  there  is  a  marked  elevation 
of  the  bodily  temperature  (2°  to  3°),  and  the 
following  day  the  mucous  membranes  of  the 
mouth,  nose,  and  vulva  are  suffused  by  a  deep 
livid  blush.  At  this  time,  or  even  earlier, 
there  appear  on  the  gums  or  lips  whitish  aph- 
thous-like  elevations,  formed  of  epithelium, 
which  are  granular  or  even  approaeh  the 
characters  of  pus  cells  in  their  deeper  layers. 
On  the  fourth  day  there  is  dulness,  appetite 
and  rumination  are  impaired,  and  the  secre- 
tions generally  are  lessened.  On  the  fifth  day 
illness  is  recognized  by  any  one,  in  the  great 
depression,  half-closed  watery  eyes,  retracted 
ears,  the  dry,  hard,  and  scanty  dung  coated 
with  mucus,  the  want  of  appetite,  irregular 
breathing,  and  small,  weak,  and  often  accel- 
erated pulse.  Next  day  all  the  symptoms  are 
exaggerated ;  the  bowels  are  relaxed  and  dysen- 
teric, the  faeces  passed  with  much  straining, 
and  the  everted  gut  of  a  deep  red ;  the  back 
is  arched,  the  abdomen  tense  and  tender,  the 
mouth  covered  with  raw  sores  from  the  sepa- 
ration of  the  white  crusts,  the  muzzle  dry, 
cracked,  and  raw,  the  pulse  weak  and  rapid, 
and  the  breathing  checked  with  a  clucking 


58 


MURRAIN 


sound  and  a  concussion  of  the  whole  body  at 
the  commencement  of  expiration.  This  check 
to  expiration  causes  emphysema  of  the  lungs, 
and  later  of  the  walls  of  the  chest,  where  it 
appears  in  puffy  irregular  swellings  crackling 
under  pressure.  These  symptoms  are  steadily 
aggravated,  emaciation  becomes  extreme,  weak- 
ness compels  the  animal  to  lie  down  constantly, 
the  fetid  stools  pass  involuntarily,  and  the  tem- 
perature rapidly  falls  as  a  precursor  of  death, 
which  usually  happens  on  the  seventh  or  eighth 
day.  In  many  mild  cases  an  eruption  appears 
on  the  skin,  consisting  of  modified  epidermic 
cells.  Buffaloes  suffer  from  this  affection,  and 
to  a  less  extent  sheep,  goats,  deer,  the  yak, 
the  aurochs,  and  even  the  peccary.  The  patho- 
logical lesions  consist  largely  in  stagnation  of 
blood  in  the  capillaries  of  the  various  mucous 
membranes,  which,  often  in  the  interpulmonary 
air  passages,  but  above  all  in  the  third  and 
fourth  stomachs,  the  small  intestines,  and  the 
rectum,  assume  a  dark  claret  color,  and  are 
covered  besides  with  black  spots  of  extravasa- 
tion that  may  terminate  in  sloughing  and  even 
perforation.  The  mucous  membranes  of  the 
urinary  and  generative  organs  are  often  simi- 
larly congested  and  ecchymosed.  The  blood 
and  diseased  textures  contain  an  excess  of 
granules  in  an  active  state  of  vitality,  which 
are  believed  to  be  connected  with  the  increase 
of  the  poison.  Treatment  of  this  disease  is 
inadmissible.  The  extinction  of  the  poison 
by  the  slaughter  of  the  diseased  animals,  as 
advised  by  Lancisi  in  1713  and  first  practised 
in  England  in  1714,  has  been  proved  by  the 
experience  of  a  century  and  a  half  to  be  the 
one  satisfactory  and  economical  mode  of  con- 
tending with  it.  Wherever  the  disease  has 
been  treated,  as  it  was  generally  in  former 
times,  and  in  Egypt,  England,  and  Holland 
more  recently,  the  losses  have  been  enormous ; 
whereas  in  countries  where  the  infected  were 
promptly  slaughtered,  and  all  that  had  been  in 
contact  with  them  thoroughly  disinfected,  it 
has  been  invariably  extinguished  at  a  trifling 
cost. — 2.  Aphthous  Fever  (Gr.  atyda,  from  aKreiv, 
to  set  on  fire),  Vesicular  Murrain,  Eczema 
Epizodtica,  or  Foot  and  Mouth  Disease,  is  a 
contagious  fever  of  ruminants  and  omnivora, 
communicable  to  other  mammals  and  to  fowls 
by  inoculation  or  the  use  of  the  warm  milk. 
It  is  characterized  by  the  eruption  of  blisters 
on  the  mouth,  udder,  teats,  and  feet.  It  is 
first  distinctly  described  as  prevailing  among 
Silesian  cattle  in  1686,  and  has  since  spread 
on  the  occasion  of  every  great  European  war. 
England  was  long  protected  by  its  insular 
position,  but  imported  the  disease  in  1839, 
and  has  steadily  maintained  it  by  her  con- 
tinental cattle  trade.  In  1870  it  was  carried 
from  England  to  Canada,  and  later  to  Buenos 
Ayres.  From  Canada  it  spread  to  New  York, 
Connecticut,  and  Massachusetts  ;  but  in  the 
absence  of  large  markets  for  store  cattle,  it 
died  out  here  under  moderate  restrictions  as  to 
movement  of  stock.  Some  cases  reappeared 


in  Rensselaer  county,  K  Y.,  in  the  spring  of 
1871,  and  inDutchess  county  in  January,  1872, 
doubtless  from  virus  preserved  in  the  buildings. 
It  is  only  known  as  propagated  by  contagion, 
and  the  absence  of  spontaneous  development  in 
England  and  America  is  demonstrated  by  their 
immunity  for  centuries,  until  the  disease  was 
conveyed  in  imported  cattle,  by  its  prompt 
disappearance  from  our  states  when  the  prop- 
agation of  the  poison  was  interfered  with, 
and  by  the  continued  exemption  of  some  ex- 
clusively breeding  and  secluded  districts  even 
in  England.— Almoat  all  ruminants  and  swine 
are  susceptible,  but  as  the  poison  does  not 
spread  through  the  atmosphere,  but  mainly  or 
alone  on  solid  bodies,  it  is  easily  controlled. 
After  an  incubation  of  about  a  day,  the  patient 
appears  chilly,  stiff,  rough-coated,  with  warm 
tender  mouth,  teats,  and  feet,  and  an  elevation 
of  bodily  heat  by  2°  F.  The  second  or  third 
day  blisters  appear  on  the  mouth,  teats,  and 
feet  ;  the  patient  slavers,  smacks  her  lips, 
stretches  the  legs  out  backward  and  shakes  the 
feet,  and  flinches  on  milking.  Soon  the  blisters 
break,  leaving  raw  sores,  which  speedily  heal 
up  in  the  mouth,  but  are  often  maintained 
and  extended  by  milking  or  by  filth  in  the 
case  of  the  teats  and  feet.  Thus  it  is  that  the 
udder  often  inflames,  suppurates,  or  sloughs, 
the  womb  sympathizes,  causing  abortion,  or 
the  cow  becomes  an  inveterate  kicker,  or 
sheds  her  hoofs  and  contracts  periostitis,  ca- 
ries, or  necrosis  of  the  bones  of  the  foot.  If 
however  the  parts  are  kept  clean,  recovery 
is  usually  complete  in  8  to  16  days.  Sheep 
and  swine  suffer  most  seriously  in  the  feet. 
Other  animals  have  blisters  in  the  mouth,  and 
near  the  hoofs,  nails,  or  claws.  Infants  and 
other  sucking  animals  sometimes  contract  fa- 
tal inflammation  of  the  stomach  and  bowels. 
Though  rarely  fatal,  this  disease  causes  great 
losses  by  drying  up  the  milk,  or  rendering  it 
unfit  for  consumption,  by  disease  of  the  udder 
and  feet,  by  abortion,  and  other  complications. 
It  demands  little  treatment  beyond  cool  soft 
food  and  cleanliness,  yet  advantage  may  be 
derived  from  a  laxative  when  the  bowels  are 
costive,  and  astringent  cooling  lotions  to  the 
affected  parts.  The  feet  may  require  poulticing 
when  much  inflamed,  or  strong  caustics  when 
ulcerated.  But,  like  other  contagious  diseases, 
this  is  best  prevented  by  a  careful  professional 
supervision  over  importation,  and  by  the  com- 
plete seclusion  and  disinfection  of  diseased 
stock,  and  of  all  places  and  objects  with  which 
they  have  been  in  contact. — 3.  Lung  Fever, 
Pulmonary  Murrain,  JZpizootic  or  Contagious 
Pleuro-pneumonia,  Lung  Plague,  &c.,  is  a  con- 
tagious fever  of  cattle,  characterized  by  exten- 
sive exudations  into  the  respiratory  organs,  and 
the  phenomena  of  a  low  typhous  inflammation 
of  the  lungs,  pleurae,  and  bronchia.  This  dis- 
ease has  usually  spread  in  company  with  rin- 
derpest and  aphthous  fever,  but  attracted  less 
attention  because  of  its  long  incubation,  its  in- 
sidious onset,  and  slow  progress,  which  allowed 


MUKRAIN 


59 


the  public  mind  to  be  preoccupied  with  its 
more  prompt  and  fatal  congeners.    Pulmonary 
epizootics  are  mentioned  by  Tacitus  and  Co- 
lumella,  and  in  1693  Valentin  described  one 
which,   being  confined  to  cattle,  was  proba- 
bly that  of  our  own  day.    Since  then  it  has 
usually  spread  in  the  track  of  armies  and  co- 
existed with  the  rinderpest.     Though  existing 
continuously  in  the  greater  part  of   western 
Europe  during  the  whole  of  the  present  cen- 
tury, yet  it  has  respected  certain  countries  for 
a  length  of  time  or  entirely.    Thus  England  was 
protected  by  the  narrow  strait  of  Dover  till 
1839,  when  the  disease  was  introduced  by  the 
same  series  of  importations  which  carried  aph- 
thous  fever.    Denmark  imported  it  repeatedly 
from  England  and  Holland,  but  as  often  stamped 
it  out  by  the  destruction  of  the  infected  ani- 
mals and  a  thorough  attendant  disinfection, 
and  kept  clear  until  the  recent  war  with  Ger- 
many.   In  1860  it  was  imported  from  Scot- 
land into  Norway,   but  was  at  once  extin- 
guished by  a  close  quarantine  and  careful  dis- 
infection.   In  1858  it  reached  Oldenburg  from 
Scotland,  but  was  immediately  annihilated  by 
the  destruction  of  the  infected  stock.     Switz- 
erland, long  slandered  as  the  native  home  of 
the  plague,  has  cleared  her  farms,  and  now 
keeps  them  sound    by  inexorable  slaughter. 
Mecklenburg  has  met  with  an  equal  success. 
In  1858  the  disease  reached  Australia  by  an 
imported  English  cow,   and  was  allowed  to 
spread  on  the  open  plains  until  many  of  them 
were  almost  depopulated.     In  1843  and  1850  it 
was  brought  to  Brooklyn,  N.  Y.,  and  in  1847 
to  New  Jersey,  by  English  cattle,  and  finally 
in  1859  into  Massachusetts  by  Dutch  cattle. 
The  New  Jersey  outbreak  was  extinguished 
by  the  destruction  of  all  the  cattle  on  the 
farm.    In  Massachusetts  a  government  com- 
mission was  appointed  with  power  to  isolate 
exposed   herds  under  strict  supervision  and 
to  kill  all  diseased  animals,  remunerating  the 
owners  out  of  state  funds;   and  they  finally 
extinguished  the  disease  after  six  years'  effort 
and  the  slaughter  of  1,164  cattle,  besides  those 
which  died  of  the  plague.    In  New  York  no 
sufficient  effort  was  made,  and  the  plague  has 
since  been  known  in  the  city  as  the  swill-milk 
disease,  and  has  spread  in  Kings  and  Queens 
counties,  into  New  Jersey,  Pennsylvania,  Dela- 
ware, Maryland,  the  District  of  Columbia,  and 
Virginia.    Its  progress  is  greatly  retarded  by 
the  absence  of  any  cattle  traffic  westward ;  but 
should  it  ever  reach  the  great  stock-raising 
regions  of  the  west,  it  can  scarcely  fail  to  rap- 
idly overrun  the  entire  country. — The  disease 
is  undoubtedly  propagated  by  contagion  alone 
in  western  Europe  and  America.    The  poison, 
which  pervades  the  entire  body,  is  concen- 
trated in  the  pulmonary  exudation,  and  being 
exhaled  in  the  breath  spreads  much  further 
on  the  atmosphere  than  those  of  rinderpest 
and  aphthous  fever.     It  is  conveyed  long  dis- 
tances in  the  clothes  of  human  beings,  and 
hence  butchers  and  jobbers  are  continually 


spreading  the  disease  in  infected  countries. 
Markets,  cars,  boats,  loading  banks,  roads, 
pastures,  yards,  buildings,  clothing,  utensils, 
fodder,  &c.,  are  also  fruitful  means  of  its  dif- 
fusion. The  bovine  race  are  alone  suscepti- 
ble. After  an  incubation  of  four  to  six  weeks, 
the  temperature  rises  to  103°  or  104°  F.,  and 
an  infrequent  short  dry  cough  appears,  which 
increases  in  frequency,  depth,  and  hoarseness. 
Soon  a  staring  coat,  stiff  gait,  cold  horns  and 
legs,  tender  spine,  intercostals,  and  breast 
bone,  accelerated  pulse  and  breathing,  partial- 
ly suppressed  secretions,  impaired  appetite  and 
rumination,  and  occasional  dryness  of  the  muz- 
zle, mark  further  progress.  The  physical  signs 
of  effusion  into  the  lungs  and  pleurae  are  pres- 
ent from  the  first,  and  the  progress  of  the  dis- 
ease, as  well  as  of  recovery,  may  be  followed 
from  day  to  day  by  auscultation  and  percus- 
sion. At  first  the  patient  may  lie  on  the  side 
most  affected,  but  as  the  disease  advances  he 
stands  obstinately  with  legs  apart,  nose  pro- 
truded, and  each  expiration  accompanied  by  a 
deep  groan.  The  nose  discharges  a  muco- 
purulent  fluid,  with  solid  masses  of  mucus  and 
even  blood,  and  a  fetid  watery  diarrhoea  sets 
in  and  rapidly  wears  out  the  animal.  Emacia- 
tion becomes  extreme,  and  death  ensues  in 
four  to  six  weeks,  if  the  patient  has  escaped 
the  earlier  risks  of  suffocation.  The  mor- 
tality is  usually  from  50  to  60  per  cent,  in 
a  newly  invaded  locality.  The  lesions  are 
mainly  confined  to  the  chest.  The  lungs  are 
infiltrated  with  serosity,  or  later  are  firmly 
hepatized,  and  show  the  yellow  lines  or  mar- 
bling common  to  all  bovine  pneumonia;  the 
pleurae  are  more  or  less  filled  with  serum  and 
covered  by  false  membranes,  the  bronchia  con- 
gested and  covered  with  a  muco-purulent  dis- 
charge ;  softening,  abscess,  gangrene,  &c.,  are 
not  uncommon,  and  in  the  worst  cases  the  ex- 
udations are  often  blood-stained.  This  disease 
is  more  amenable  to  treatment  than  rinder- 
pest, but,  unless  where  a  land  is  already  in- 
fected throughout,  it  is  rarely  advisable  to  treat 
it.  Treatment  consists  in  such  measures  as  will 
moderate  the  fever,  sustain  the  depressed  vital 
functions,  favor  the  elimination  of  the  poison, 
and  check  its  reproduction.  Laxatives  with 
cooling  diuretics  and  arterial  sedatives  are 
often  serviceable,  especially  in  the  early  stages, 
while  in  the  very  prostrate  states  diffusible 
stimulants  may  be  freely  used.  Counter-irri- 
tants may  be  applied  to  the  affected  parts  of 
the  chest  whenever  there  is  evidence  of  ac- 
tive inflammation,  while  disinfectants  (carbolic 
acid,  bisulphate  of  soda,  and  the  sulpho-carbo- 
lates)  may  be  given  by  the  mouth  as  well  as 
employed  to  disinfect  the  building  and  dis- 
charges. The  hydropathic  treatment  by  thor- 
ough wet-sheet  packing  has  been  employed 
successfully,  being  repeated  as  often  as  the 
fever  rises  anew.  But  prevention  is  the  most 
economical  course,  and  when  few  animals  in  a 
country  are  infected  this  is  best  secured  by 
their  prompt  destruction,  followed  by  a  thor- 


60 


MURRAIN 


ough  disinfection.  If  a  country  is  generally 
infected,  sound  cattle  may  be  protected  by  the 
free  use  of  sulphate  of  iron,  or  sulpho-carbo- 
lates,  by  seclusion,  treatment,  and  thorough 
disinfection  of  infected  herds ;  or  still  better, 
by  inoculation,  the  animals  operated  on  being 
shut  up  in  secluded  and  disinfected  stables 
and  treated  in  every  respect  like  diseased 
stock.  The  inoculation  is  made  on  the  tip  of 
the  tail  with  lymph  from  a  recently  infiltrated 
lung  and  a  mild  case  of  the  disease.  Store 
markets  should  be  closed  and  no  stock  moved 
except  under  a  written  official  warrant,  and 
only  from  herds  in  which  no  disease  has  ex- 
isted for  over  two  months  (better  one  year), 
and  where  disinfection  has  been  thorough.  A 
special  supervision  should  be  kept  up  at  all 
landing  ports,  a  clean  bill  of  health  demand- 
ed, and  a  sufficient  quarantine  enjoined,  since 
the  long  incubation  of  this  fever  affords  every 
facility  for  its  introduction  unobserved. — 4. 
Malignant  Anthrax,  Malignant  Carbuncle, 
Carluncular  Fever,  Bloody  Murrain,  Black 
Murrain,  Hmmatosepsis,  Typhamia,  Pelcemia^ 
Blood-striMng  (G-er.  Brand,  Fr.  charbori),  &c. 
These  names  are  applied  to  a  class  of  specific, 
contagious  diseases,  enzootic,  but  sometimes 
epizootic,  originating  in  herbivora,  swine,  and 
birds,  and  communicable  to  other  animals,  in- 
cluding man.  It  is  characterized  by  profound 
changes  in  the  chemical  and  vital  properties  of 
the  blood,  disintegration  of  its  globules,  im- 
paired or  suspended  haBmatosis,  and  exudations 
and  extravasations  in  the  most  varied  parts, 
with  a  tendency  to  gangrene.  In  the  earlier 
ages  this  class  of  diseases  was  very  prevalent 
and  disastrous,  often  extending  like  a  plague ; 
and  though  improved  cultivation  has  greatly 
limited  their  ravages,  they  are  still  far  too  fre- 
quent and  deadly.  Fleming  quotes  from  Irish 
records  a  notice  of  an  epidemic  and  epizootic 
in  2048  B.  0.,  supposed  to  have  been  of  this 
nature.  The  murrain  in  Egypt  spoken  of  in 
connection  with  the  exodus,  which  attacked 
all  domestic  animals  (Ex.  ix.),  and  the  plague 
of  boils  and  blains  upon  man  and  beast,  are 
referable  to  different  forms  of  these  affections. 
The  decimation  of  the  Grecian  army  and  their 
beasts  at  the  siege  of  Troy  (Iliad,  lib.  i.),  and  the 
combined  epidemics  and  epizootics  in  the  Ro- 
man territories  mentioned  by  Plutarch,  Livy, 
and  Virgil,  point  in  the  same  direction.  The 
records  of  the  middle  ages  abound  in  accounts 
of  pestilences  on  man  and  beast,  many  of  them 
unquestionably  of  this  kind.  More  recently  we 
find  the  outbreak  in  Santo  Domingo  in  which, 
from  eating  the  dead  and  dying  beasts,  15,000 
people  perished  from  malignant  pustule  in  six 
weeks ;  also  the  yearly  devastations  in  the  Rus- 
sian provinces,  where  besides  the  live  stock 
as  many  as  a  fourth  of  the  human  population 
are  cut  off  in  the  worst  anthrax  years.  In  the 
United  States,  epidemics  occurred  near  Phila- 
delphia in  1834-'6,  in  Louisiana  in  1837-'9,  and 
in  northern  New  York  ("malignant  erysip- 
elas"), after  a  "fatal  epizootic  of  slavers" 


(glossanthrax)  among  horses,  in  1825.  The 
records  of  the  bureau  of  agriculture  show  its 
prevalence  in  the  malarious  regions  of  the 
south,  and  isolated  outbreaks  and  even  human 
victims  are  still  quite  common  in  the  northern 
states. — Contagion  is  probably  the  sole  occa- 
sion of  this  affection  in  man,  and  a  common 
cause  in  the  lower  animals  also.  In  bad  cases 
all  parts  of  the  body  are  poisonous,  and  the 
virus  may  be  dried  up  and  kept  for  an  in- 
definite period  without  losing  its  potency ;  it 
survives  a  temperature  of  145°  F.,  so  that 
cooked  meat  is  often  fatal ;  and  its  simple  con- 
tact with  unbroken  skin  has  sufficed  to  convey 
the  disease.  Spherical  and  staff -like  bacteria, 
always  found  in  the  blood  and  morbid  fluids  in 
fatal  cases,  have  been  fixed  upon  as  the  cause 
of  the  malady;  but  it  remains  to  be  proved 
that  they  are  more  than  the  effect.  That  in- 
sects serve  to  propagate  it  is  probable,  since 
nearly  all  cases  in  man  commence  on  the  face, 
hands,  or  other  exposed  part  of  the  body.  It 
prevails  above  all  on  marshy  soils  when  dry- 
ing, in  basins  with  no  drainage,  on  rich  river 
bottoms  and  deltas,  on  stiff  clays,  hard  pan, 
and  other  impervious  subsoils,  in  rich  valleys 
sheltered  from  winds  by  surrounding  hills 
whose  rocky  sides  radiate  the  heat  and  hasten 
evaporation,  and  even  on  over-manured  soils, 
saturated  with  organic  matter  and  rich  in  ni- 
trites, though  the  drainage  may  be  moderately 
good.  Yet  many  marshes  prolific  of  fatal  ma- 
larious fevers  in  man  are  not  remarkable  for 
causing  malignant  anthrax.  They  seem  to  be 
the  best  fields  for  the  permanent  preservation 
of  the  poison,  but  are  perhaps  not  always 
capable  of  developing  it  de  now.  Plethora, 
youth,  alternations  of  heat  and  cold,  starva- 
tion, overwork,  or  anything  indeed  which  low- 
ers the  vitality  or  loads  the  blood  with  effete 
organic  products,  lays  the  system  open  to  re- 
ceive the  poison. — These  diseases  are  primarily 
divisible  into  two  great  classes:  1,  those  in 
which  the  changes  are  confined  to  the  blood 
and  internal  organs,  especially  the  spleen ;  and 
2,  those  which,  in  addition  to  the  blood  changes, 
present  local  swellings  from  blood  extravasa- 
tions and  sero-albuminous  exudations.  Of  the 
first  class  a  certain  proportion  die  after  a  few 
minutes'  illness.  This,  the  apoplectic  form, 
occurs  in  swine,  horses,  sheep,  and  cattle,  in 
about  the  order  named.  From  apparent  health 
the  victim  suddenly  falls,  struggles,  perhaps 
expels  blood  by  some  natural  opening  (nose, 
anus),  and  dies.  In  these  there  is  little  change 
even  in  the  blood.  More  protracted  are  sple- 
nic apoplexy  of  horse  and  ox,  blood-striking; 
braxy  or  sang-de-rate  of  sheep,  and  the  car- 
buncular  fever  of  swine  and  fowls.  In  these 
there  are  profound  nervous  prostration,  pen- 
dent head,  excited  pulse  and  breathing,  some- 
times abdominal  pain,  spots  of  blood-staining 
on  the  visible  mucous  membranes,  or  a  deep 
yellow  or  brownish  hue  of  these  parts,  and  the 
passage  of  the  elements  of  blood  by  some  of 
the  natural  openings  (nose,  anus,  urinary  or- 


MURRAIN 


MURRAY 


61 


gans).  The  temperature,  rarely  elevated,  may 
be  even  lowered.  Death  ensues  in  from  six 
hours  to  several  days.  The  blood  globules  are 
largely  disintegrated,  the  fibrine  replaced  by  a 
comparatively  incoagulable  less  oxidized  ele- 
ment ;  if  a  clot  forms,  it  fails  to  contract  and 
squeeze  out  the  serum ;  the  blood  reddens  but 
little  on  exposure,  its  liquid  part  is  stained  by 
dissolved  hsematine,  and  it  contains  spherical 
and  elongated  bacteria.  Rigor  mortis  is  rare, 
decomposition  setting  in  at  once  with  intoler- 
able f  cetor.  The  spleen  is  enlarged,  sometimes 
ruptured,  and  other  internal  organs  are  often 
the  seats  of  extravasation  or  exudation. — The 
localized  forms  of  the  disease  are  as  varied  as 
the  seat  and  extent  of  the  swellings.  All  such 
swellings  however  have  characters  in  common. 
They  appear  suddenly,  after  some  general  fever 
and  lassitude,  and  increase  rapidly.  The  skin 
covering  them  tends  to  gangrene,  and  dries 
and  hardens  in  part  or  in  whole,  becoming 
cold,  and  crackling  on  pressure  from  the  ex- 
trication of  gas  beneath.  Blisters  with  red  or 
purple  contents  may  form,  or  a  yellow  or  pur- 
ple liquid  may  ooze  from  the  surface.  Exten- 
sive sloughing  often  succeeds.  Active  inflam- 
mation and  suppuration  are  favorable  signs. 
The  smaller  swellings  will  sometimes  shift  from 
place  to  place.  These  external  forms  of  the  af- 
fection are  less  fatal  than  the  internal.  Among 
them  may  be  mentioned  many  cases  of  so-called 
purpura  hcemorrhagica  in  the  horse,  in  which 
the  head,  limbs,  and  other  parts  are  engorged  ; 
the  glossanthrax  or  black  tongue;  the  black- 
quarter  of  cattle,  in  which  extravasation  takes 
place  in  one  limb  or  a  part  of  the  trunk ;  the 
carbuncular  erysipelas  of  sheep  and  swine ;  the 
anthrax  of  the  mouth  and  carbuncular  sore 
throat  of  hogs ;  the  boil  plague  of  eastern  Eu- 
rope and  Asia ;  and  finally  the  malignant  pus- 
tule of  man.  (See  PUSTULE.)  The  treatment 
in  the  local  forms  of  the  disease  is  to  destroy 
the  diseased  structures  with  caustic  before 
the  general  system  has  been  poisoned.  For 
more  extended  swellings,  attended  by  constitu- 
tional disturbance,  antiseptics  may  be  applied 
locally  or,  better,  injected  into  the  enlarge- 
ments. Carbolic,  sulphuric,  and  chromic  acids 
and  iodine  may  be  mentioned,  the  last  having 
destroyed  the  virulence  of  anthrax  fluids  when 
dissolved  in  12,000  times  its  weight  of  water. 
When  sores  have  formed,  the  extravasations  and 
exudations  may  be  cauterized  throughout,  and 
the  sound  tissues  beneath  stimulated  to  a  healthy 
action.  But  no  sores  should  be  made,  save 
with  the  fine  nozzle  of  the  injecting  syringe, 
where  they  do  not  already  exist.  In  both  in- 
ternal and  external  forms  of  the  affection,  the 
system  must  be  supported  by  tonics  and  stimu- 
lants; gentle  laxatives  and  diuretics  may  be 
used  to  eliminate  waste  and  pernicious  matters 
from  the  blood,  and  antiseptics  administered 
to  check  the  prolification  of  the  poison  as  far 
as  possible.  Carbolic  acid,  chromic  acid,  the 
mineral  acids,  and  iodine  are  especially  to  be 
recommended.  By  way  of  prevention  noth- 


ing succeeds  better  than  thorough  drainage, 
removal  of  animals  from  dangerous  enclosed 
valleys,  rich  river  bottoms,  &c.,  during  the 
hot  and  dry  season,  keeping  stock  indoors  un- 
til the  dews  have  disappeared  in  the  mornings, 
good  steady  dieting,  the  avoidance  of  suddenly 
induced  plethora,  the  maintenance  of  a  healthy 
action  of  bowels,  kidneys,  and  skin,  and  a  gen- 
eral attention  to  sound  hygienic  principles. 

MURRAY.  I.  A  N.  "W.  county  of  Georgia,  bor- 
dering on  Tennessee,  bounded  W.  by  the  Conna- 
sauga  river  and  drained  by  its  branches ;  area, 
320  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  6,500,  of  whom  757 
were  colored.  The  surface  is  elevated,  and  the 
soil  generally  fertile.  Gold,  silver,  lead,  and 
zinc  are  found.  The  chief  productions  in  1870 
were  47,269  bushels  of  wheat,  151,286  of  In- 
dian corn,  11,123  of  oats,  5,810  Ibs.  of  wool, 
40,851  of  butter,  7,698  of  tobacco,  288  bales 
of  cotton,  and  10,050  gallons  of  sorghum  mo- 
lasses. There  were  659  horses,  1,067  milch 
cows,  1,722  other  cattle,  3,025  sheep,  and  5,454 
swine.  Capital,  Spring  Place.  II.  A  S.  W. 
county  of  Minnesota,  drained  by  the  Des 
Moines  and  Rock  rivers  and  other  streams; 
area,  720  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  209.  The  sur- 
face consists  of  rolling  prairies. 

MURRAY,  or  Goobva,  a  river  of  Australia, 
which  rises  in  the  Warragong  mountains,  in 
lat.  36°  20'  S.,  Ion.  148°  15'  E.  Its  course  is 
very  tortuous,  the  curvatures  being  short,  ab- 
rupt, and  almost  incessant.  After  descending 
from  the  highlands,  it  flows  nearly  westward 
to  Ion.  144°  45'  E.,  then  takes  a  N.  W.  direc- 
tion to  Mt.  Lookout,  where  again  turning  it 
proceeds  to  Elbow,  in  lat.  34°  S.,  Ion.  139°  46' 
E.,  and  there  bending  suddenly  runs  S.  S.  W. 
to  Lake  Victoria,  into  which  it  falls  at  Wel- 
lington in  lat.  35°  30'  S.  This  river  and  its  trib- 
utaries drain  an  area  of  about  500,000  sq.  m. 
Its  length  is  about  1,000  m.,  and  its  average 
breadth  from  100  to  150  yards.  It  overflows 
its  banks  periodically,  and  sometimes  rises  30 
or  40  ft.  above  its  ordinary  level.  During  this 
season  it  is  navigable  to  within  90  m.  of  its 
source,  and  then  steamers  and  barges  ply  regu- 
larly between  Wellington,  Albury,  and  the  in- 
termediate towns.  Its  principal  affluents  are 
the  Goulburn,  Campaspe,  Murrumbidgee  (with 
the  Lachlan),  and  Darling.  Lake  Alexandrina, 
Victoria,  or  Kayinga,  which  connects  it  with 
the  sea,  is  about  30  m.  long  and  15  m.  broad, 
but  in  general  very  shallow.  The  entrance  to 
it  from  the  sea  not  being  navigable,  a  tram- 
way has  been  constructed  between  Goolwa  and 
Port  Elliot,  which  is  worked  in  connection 
with  the  river  steamers. 

MURRAY,  Alexander,  an  American  naval  officer, 
born  at  Chestertown,  Md.,  in  1755,  died  in 
Philadelphia,  Oct.  6,  1821.  In  1776  he  was 
appointed  a  lieutenant  in  the  continental  navy, 
but  there  being  no  employment  for  him  afloat, 
he  served  through  the  campaigns  of  1776-'7  as 
lieutenant  and  captain  in  the  first  Maryland 
regiment,  participating  in  the  battles  of  Flatbush 
and  White  Plains.  At  the  close  of  the  cam- 


MURRAY 


paign  of  1777  he  was  appointed  to  the  com- 
mand of  a  letter  of  marque,  in  which  he  was 
captured  by  a  British  squadron  and  carried 
into  New  York.  After  his  exchange  he  served 
as  lieutenant  in  the  Trumbull,  in  the  action 
with  the  Iris  and  Gen.  Monk  off  the  mouth  of 
the  Delaware.  In  1798  he  was  made  captain, 
and  served  in  the  West  Indies,  in  command  of 
the  Montezuma,  and  afterward  of  the  Constel- 
lation. In  1802  he  commanded  the  Constella- 
tion in  the  Mediterranean ;  and  an  attack  which 
he  made  upon  a  flotilla  of  17  gunboats  was  the 
first  affair  of  the  war  with  Tripoli.  At  his 
death  he  was  in  command  of  the  navy  yard  at 
Philadelphia,  and  was  senior  officer  of  the  navy. 

MURRAY,  Alexander,  a  Scottish  philologist, 
born  at  Dunkitterick,  Kirkcudbrightshire,  Oct. 
22,  1775,  died  in  Edinburgh,  April  15,  1813. 
He  was  the  son  of  a  shepherd,  learned  French, 
Latin,  Greek,  Hebrew,  Arabic,  Welsh,  and  An- 
glo-Saxon, and  in  1794  entered  the  university 
of  Edinburgh.  In  1806  he  was  assistant  pas- 
tor, and  in  1808  became  pastor  of  Urr  in  Kirk- 
cudbrightshire. In  1811  he  translated  a  letter 
•in  Geez  or  old  Ethiopic,  addressed  to  the  king 
by  the  sovereign  of  Tigre  in  Abyssinia;  and 
in  the  following  year  he  was  elected  to  the 
chair  of  oriental  languages  in  the  university  of 
Edinburgh.  His  most  important  works  are 
"Outlines  of  Oriental  Philosophy"  (Edin- 
burgh, 1812),  and  "History  of  the  Euro- 
pean Languages,  or  Researches  into  the  Affin- 
ities of  the  Teutonic,  Greek,  Celtic,  Sclavonic, 
and  Indian  Nations  "  (1813).  He  also  edited 
Bruce's  "  Travels,"  and  contributed  some  philo- 
logical papers  to  the  "Edinburgh  Review." 

MURRAY,  or  Moray,  James  Stuart,  earl  of,  regent 
of  Scotland,  born  about  1533,  killed  at  Linlith- 
gow,  Jan.  23,  1570.  He  was  an  illegitimate 
son  of  James  Y.  and  Lady  Margaret,  daugh- 
ter of  John,  fourth  Lord  Erskine,  and  when  a 
little  child  was  appointed  by  his  father  prior 
of  St.  Andrews.  He  afterward  acquired  the 
priory  of  Pittenweem,  and  that  of  Macon  in 
France,  in  commendam,  with  a  dispensation  to 
hold  three  benefices.  In  1548,  on  the  inva- 
sion of  Scotland  by  Lords  Grey  de  Wilton  and 
Clinton,  the  one  by  land,  the  other  by  sea,  the 
young  prior  commanded  a  small  band  and  re- 
pelled a  descent  made  by  the  latter  upon  St. 
Monan  on  the  coast  of  Fife,  driving  back  the 
invaders  to  their  ships.  In  the  same  year  he 
accompanied  his  sister  Mary  to  the  court  of 
France.  In  1558  he  was  one  of  the  commis- 
sioners from  Scotland  to  witness  the  ceremony 
of  marriage  between  Mary  and  the  dauphin  of 
France,  afterward  Francis  II.  In  the  contest 
between  the  queen  regent  and  the  lords  of  the 
congregation,  he  sided  alternately  with  both 
parties,  but  finally  joined  the  latter ;  and  when 
in  1559  the  congregation  resolved  to  take  the 
government  into  their  own  hands,  he  was  one 
of  the  council  appointed  for  civil  affairs.  Af- 
ter the  death  of  the  queen  regent  in  June,  1560, 
he  became  one  of  the  lords  of  the  articles,  and 
on  the  death  of  Francis  II.  was  commissioned 


to  go  to  France  and  invite  Mary  to  Scotland. 
On  her  return  he  became  her  confidant,  advi- 
ser and  prime  minister,  protected  her  in  the 
exercise  of  her  religion,  obtained  from  her  a 
proclamation  favorable  to  the  reformers,  cleared 
the  border  of  freebooters,  and  ruled  the  coun- 
try with  judgment  and  ability.  He  was  re- 
warded with  the  title  of  earl  of  Mar,  and  mar- 
ried soon  after  Agnes  Keith,  daughter  of  the 
earl  marischal,  on  which  occasion  Mary  gave 
a  series  of  splendid  entertainments.  Lord 
Erskine  claiming  the  earldom  of  Mar  as  his  pe- 
culiar right,  Lord  James  resigned  it  and  received 
instead  the  earldom  of  Murray,  and  shortly 
after  defeated  at  Corrichie  the  earl  of  Huntly, 
an  unsuccessful  competitor  for  power  and  pop- 
ularity. Although  governing  Scotland  judi- 
ciously and  with  undisputed  authority,  he  was 
too  lukewarm  a  Protestant  for  the  extreme  re- 
formers, who  lamented  the  protection  he  af- 
forded to  the  queen  in  the  use  of  the  mass,  and 
particularly  his  defence  of  her  and  her  ladies  in 
what  Knox  called  "the  superfluities  of  their 
clothes."  Between  Knox  and  Murray  a  cool- 
ness sprung  up  in  consequence,  which  contin- 
ued a  year  and  a  half ;  but  they  were  brought 
together  again  by  their  mutual  opposition  to 
the  queen's  marriage  with  Darnley.  Murray 
had  endeavored  to  prevent  it,  and  finally  re- 
sorted to  arms ;  but  being  pursued  by  his  sis- 
ter at  the  head  of  a  superior  force,  he  was 
compelled  to  fly  to  England.  On  the  mur- 
der of  Rizzio,  however,  he  was  recalled,  and 
apparently  reconciled  to  the  queen.  It  is  not 
certain  whether  or  not  he  was  accessory  to 
the  murder  of  Darnley.  He  left  Edinburgh 
the  day  before,  and  was  also  absent  from 
Scotland  during  the  trial  of  Bothwell  and  his 
subsequent  marriage  with  Mary.  After  the 
dethronement  of  the  queen  and  her  confine- 
ment in  Lochleven  castle,  Murray  was  ap- 
pointed regent  of  Scotland,  Aug.  22,  1567. 
In  this  situation  he  acted  with  vigor  .and  dis- 
cretion, and  kept  the  country  in  a  state  of 
tranquillity.  On  the  escape  of  the  queen  he 
refused  to  resign  his  power,  defeated  her  and 
her  adherents  at  Langside,  March  13, 1568,  and 
followed  up  the  victory  by  destroying  the 
strongholds  of  her  friends,  and  more  firmly  es- 
tablishing the  government.  When  Mary  was 
tried  at  York  for  complicity  in  the  murder  of 
Darnley,  Murray  bore  the  most  unqualified 
testimony  against  her.  In  passing  through  the 
streets  of  Linlithgow,  he  was  shot  through  the 
body  by  a  bullet  fired  from  a  window  by  James 
Hamilton  of  Bothwellhaugh,  and  died  the  same 
night.  Bothwellhaugh's  conduct  has  generally 
been  ascribed  to  revenge  for  a  personal  injury, 
but  there  is  reason  for  believing  that  he  acted 
as  the  executioner  of  a  doom  pronounced  on 
Murray  by  his  enemies  in  secret  conclave. 

MURRAY,  John,  an  American  clergyman,  born 
in  Alton,  Hampshire,  England,  Dec.  10,  1741, 
died  in  Boston,  Mass.,  Sept.  3,  1815.  Under 
the  influence  of  Wesley  and  Whitefield  he  be- 
came a  convert  to  Methodism,  and  an  occasion- 


MURRAY 


63 


al  preacher  in  Wesley's  connection  in  Cork, 
Ireland,  whither  his  parents  had  removed. 
About  1760  he  returned  to  England,  and  a  few 
years  later  adopted  the  doctrines  of  Universal- 
ism  promulgated  by  James  Kelly,  for  which 
he  was  excommunicated  at  Whitefield's  taber- 
nacle in  London.  In  1770  he  emigrated  to  the 
United  States.  New  York  and  New  Jersey 
were  the  first  scenes  of  his  labors,  and  subse- 
quently he  preached  in  Newport,  R.  I.,  Bos- 
ton, Portsmouth,  N.  H.,  and  other  places  in 
New  England,  in  some  of  which  his  peculiar 
doctrines  subjected  him  to  opposition,  and  oc- 
casionally to  open  violence.  In  1774  he  re- 
sided in  Gloucester,  Mass.,  and  upon  suspicion 
that  he  was  an  emissary  of  the  British  govern- 
ment in  disguise,  he  was  ordered  to  depart ;  but 
through  the  exertions  of  his  friends  he  was  en- 
abled to  remain  and  preach.  In  the  spring  of 
1775  he  was  chaplain  of  the  three  regiments 
of  the  Rhode  Island  line  encamped  before  Bos- 
ton, with  several  of  whose  officers,  including 
Greene  and  Varnum,  he  was  on  terms  of  inti- 
macy. The  rest  of  the  chaplains  united  in 
petitioning  Washington  to  remove  Murray  from 
his  office,  but  without  effect.  His  connection 
with  the  army  was  soon  after  terminated  by 
illness,  and  he  returned  to  Gloucester,  where 
he  was  established  over  a  society  of  Universal- 
ists.  In  1783  he  became  plaintiff  in  a  success- 
ful action  brought  to  recover  property  belong- 
ing to  persons  of  his  denomination,  which  had 
been  appropriated  to  the  expenses  of  the  ori- 
ginal parish  of  Gloucester,  on  the  ground  that 
the  Universalists  were  not  a  society  legally  au- 
thorized. He  participated  in  the  proceedings 
of  the  first  Universalist  convention  at  Oxford, 
Mass.,  in  1785,  and  for  a  number  of  years  he 
was  a  delegate  to  the  general  convention  of 
the  Universalists.  In  1788  he  made  a  brief 
visit  to  England,  and  in  1793  was  installed  over 
a  society  in  Boston,  where  he  passed  the  re- 
mainder of  his  life.  In  1809  he  was  paralyzed. 
He  is  considered  the  father  of  Universalism  in 
America,  although  his  doctrines  differed  essen- 
tially from  those  now  recognized  by  Universal- 
ists. He  published  three  volumes  of  letters  and 
sketches  of  sermons,  and  wrote  an  autobiogra- 
phy (8th  ed.,  Boston,  1860). 

MURRAY,  John,  a  Scottish  physician,  born  in 
Edinburgh  in  1778,  died  there,  June  22,  1820. 
He  began  his  career  as  an  apothecary  in  his 
native  city,  and  subsequently  became  eminent 
as  a  lecturer  on  natural  philosophy,  chemistry, 
materia  medica,  and  pharmacy.  In  geology  he 
was  a  zealous  Neptunian,  and  in  reply  to  Play- 
fair's  "Illustrations  of  the  Huttonian  Theory 
of  the  Earth"  (1802),  published  his  "Com- 
parative View  of  the  Huttonian  and  Neptunian 
Theories."  The  most  important  of  his  other 
works  are  "System  of  Chemistry,"  "Ele- 
ments of  Chemistry,"  and  "  System  of  Materia 
Medica  and  Pharmacy." 

MURRAY,  John,  an  English  publisher,  born 
in  London,  Nov.  27,  1778,  died  June  27,  1843. 
He  was  of  Scottish  descent,  and  his  father, 
582  VOL.  xii. — 5 


whose  name  was  MacMurray,  established  him- 
self in  1768  as  a  bookseller  in  Fleet  street, 
London.  After  a  good  education  acquired  at 
a  number  of  schools,  at  one  of  which  he  lost 
the  sight  of  an  eye  by  an  accident,  he  was 
left  in  his  15th  year  by  his  father's  death  to 
conduct  the  business,  in  which  he  was  assist- 
ed by  Mr.  Highley  the  shopman,  whom  he 
subsequently  took  into  partnership.  In  1803 
he  terminated  this  connection,  and,  entering 
a  wider  sphere  of  business,  was  thenceforth 
known  as  one  of  the  most  enterprising  and 
liberal  publishers  of  London.  By  coming  for- 
ward to  the  assistance  of  a  number  of  young 
men  who  had  become  involved  in  some  pe- 
cuniary loss  in  conducting  a  periodical  called 
the  "Miniature,"  he  secured  several  influential 
friends,  among  others  Mr.  Canning.  With  the 
latter  he  matured  in  1807  a  project  for  the 
establishment  of  the  "Quarterly  Review"  as  a 
means  of  counteracting  the  influence  of  the 
whig  "Edinburgh  Review;"  and  securing  the 
cooperation  of  George  Ellis,  the  Hebers,  Bar- 
row, Gifford,  and  others,  he  commenced  in 
1809  the  publication  of  the  new  periodical, 
which  under  the  editorial  supervision  of  .Gif- 
ford soon  attained  a  circulation  of  12,000 
copies.  In  1810  Mr.  Murray  made  the  ac- 
quaintance of  Lord  Byron,  to  whom  he  paid 
£600  for  the  first  two  cantos  of  "  Childe  Ha- 
rold," and  whose  entire  works  he  subsequently 
published.  Of  his  generosity  and  consideration 
toward  the  poet  many  instances  are  given;  and 
Byron's  correspondence  with  him,  published 
in  Moore's  "  Life  of  Byron,"  affords  an  evidence 
of  the  friendly  relations  existing  between  them. 
In  1812  he  removed  to  Albemarle  street,  where 
the  business  is  still  carried  on  by  his  son  and 
successor,  John  Murray,  and  where  a  long  line 
of  literary  celebrities,  including  Scott,  Byron, 
Campbell,  W.  Spencer,  Bishop  Heber,  the  elder 
Disraeli,  Hallam,  Mme.  de  Stael,  Crabbe,  South- 
ey,  Washington  Irving,  and  Lockhart,  were 
wont  to  assemble.  Of  the  numerous  impor- 
tant works  issued  from  the  press  of  this  house, 
it  may  suffice  to  mention  the  voyages  and  trav- 
els of  Mungo  Park,  Belzoni,  Parry,  Franklin, 
Denham,  Clapperton,  and  Layard;  the  series 
of  the  "  Family  Library ;"  the  histories  of  Hal- 
lam,  Lord  Mahon,  Grote,  Ranke,  Sir  Gardner 
Wilkinson,  and  Mrs.  Markham ;  the  "  Sketch 
Book,"  "Tales  of  a  Traveller,"  "Life  of 
Columbus,"  and  other  works  of  Washington 
Irving;  the  "Domestic  Cookery,"  of  which 
300,000  copies  were  published  ;  the  despatches 
of  the  duke  of  Wellington ;  the  dictionaries  of 
William  Smith;  an  elaborate  series  of  hand- 
books of  travel;  and  the  works  of  Crabbe, 
Heber,  Lockhart,  Milman,  Head,  Gleig,  Kugler, 
Lord  Campbell,  Leake,  Borrow,  Davy,  Raw- 
linson,  Mrs.  Somerville,  Lyell,  Murchison,  &c. 
In  1826  he  was  persuaded  into  establishing 
a  daily  journal  called  the  "  Representative," 
which  proved  a  failure ;  but  in  general  his  good 
judgment  and  tact  as  a  business  man  rendered 
his  enterprises  successful,  and  the  publications 


MURRAY 


emanating  from  his  house  were  for  the  most 
part  books  of  merit,  his  imprint  being  one  of 
their  best  recommendations.  His  liberality  to 
authors  was  a  distinguishing  trait  in  his  char- 
acter, and  he  sometimes  made  heavy  pecuniary 
sacrifices  to  gratify  others,  as  in  the  case  of  the 
autobiography  of  Lord  Byron,  which  ^  he  sur- 
rendered to  Moore  on  the  representation  that 
the  publication  of  it  might  injure  the  reputa- 
tion of  the  living  as  well  as  the  dead. 

MURRAY,  Lindley,  an  English  grammarian, 
born  at  Swatara,  Lancaster  co.,  Pa.,  in  1745, 
died  near  York,  England,  Feb.  16,  1826.  He 
received  his  primary  education  in  Philadelphia, 
in  the  academy  of  the  society  of  Friends ;  in 
1753  he  was  placed  for  a  time  in  school  in 
New  York,  and  then  entered  a  counting  house, 
being  destined  for  the  mercantile  profession. 
He  afterward  studied  law,  was  admitted  to  the 
bar,  and  his  practice  soon  became  extensive. 
When  the  revolutionary  war  broke  out,  he  re- 
tired to  the  country  on  account  of  his  health, 
and  there  remained  four  years.  But  the  want 
of  pecuniary  means  compelling  him  to  return, 
he  engaged  in  mercantile  pursuits,  and  by  the 
close  of  the  war  his  fortune  had  become  so 
ample  that  he  was  enabled  to  retire  from  busi- 
ness. Impaired  health  soon  induced  him  to 
go  to  England  with  his  family,  where  he  pur- 
chased an  estate  at  Holdgate,  near  York,  and 
occupied  himself  chiefly  with  literary  pursuits. 
In  1787  his  first  work,  "  The  Power  of  Religion 
on  the  Mind,"  was  published  anonymously. 
His  "  Grammar  of  the  English  Language,"  first 
issued  in  1795,  and  enlarged  and  improved  in 
successive  editions,  for  many  years  superseded 
all  others.  In  1797  he  published  "English 
Exercises,"  and  a  "Key"  designed  to  accom- 
pany the  grammar ;  and  subsequently  an  "  Eng- 
lish Reader,"  an  "  Introduction  to  the  English 
Reader,"  and  an  "  English  Spelling  Book."  He 
also  published  French  reading  books  of  a  char- 
acter similar  to  his  English  ones.  His  last  pub- 
lication was  a  selection  from  Home's  "Com- 
mentary on  the  Psalms,"  and  "The  Duty  and 
Benefits  of  Reading  the  Scriptures"  (1817): 
His  autobiography,  finished  in  1809,  was  pub- 
lished posthumously  in  1826. 

MURRAY,  Nicholas,  an  American  clergyman, 
born  in  Ireland,  Dec.  25,  1803,  died  in  Eliza- 
bethtown,  N.  J.,  Feb.  4, 1861.  In  1818  he  came 
to  America,  and  became  an  apprentice  in  the 
printing  establishment  of  Harper  and  brothers. 
He  was  brought  up  a  Roman  Catholic,  bul 
became  a  Protestant,  graduated  at  Williams 
college  in  1826,  studied  theology  at  Princeton 
and  in  1829  became  pastor  of  a  Presbyterian 
church  in  Wilkesbarre,  Pa.  From  1834  till 
his  death  he  was  pastor  of  the  first  Presbyte 
rian  church  at  Elizabethtown,  N.  J.  In  1849 
he  was  elected  moderator  of  the  Presbyterian 
general  assembly.  He  published  "  Notes,  His 
torical  and  Biographical,  concerning  Elizabeth 
town,  N.  J."  (Elizabethtown,  1844);  "Letter 
to  the  Right  Rev.  John  Hughes,  Roman  Oath 
olic  Bishop  of  New  York,"  under  the  signature 


of  "Kirwan"  (New  York,  1848;  enlarged  ed., 
1855) ;  "  Romanism  at  Home  "  (1852) ;  "  Men 
and  Things  as  I  saw  them  in  Europe"  (1853); 
'Parish  and  other  Pencillings "  (1854) ;  "The 
Happy  Home"  (1859);  and  "Preachers  and 
Preaching"  (1860).  "A  Dying  Legacy,"  a 
posthumous  volume,  was  printed  in  1861. 

MURRAY,  Patrick,  fifth  Baron  Elibank,  a  Scot- 
:ish  author,  born  in  February,  1703,  died  Aug. 
3, 1778.  In  1723  he  was  admitted  to  the  Scot- 
tish bar,  but  entered  the  army  the  same  year, 
and  in  1740  was  lieutenant  colonel  in  the  expe- 
dition to  Cartagena,  South  America.  After- 
ward he  turned  his  attention  to  literature,  and 
published  "Thoughts  on  Money,  Circulation, 
and  Paper  Currency  "  (Edinburgh,  1758) ;  "  An 
Inquiry  into  the  Origin  and  Consequence  of  the 
Public  Debts;"  "  Queries  relating  to  the  Pro- 
posed Plan  for  altering  Entails  in  Scotland " 
1765) ;  "  Letter  to  Lord  Hailes  on  his  Remarks 
on  the  History  of  Scotland  "  (1773) ;  and  "  Con- 
siderations on  the  Present  State  of  the  Peer- 
age of  Scotland"  (1774).  In  politics  he  was 
an  adherent  of  the  house  of  Stuart,  with  whom 
tie  maintained  a  secret  correspondence. 

MURRAY,   or  Moray,  Sir  Robert,  one  of  the 
founders  of  the  royal  society  of  London,  born 
in  Scotland  about  the  beginning  of  the  17th 
century,  died  in  June,  1673.     In  his  youth  he 
entered  the  French  service,  and  rose  to  the 
rank  of  colonel.     Subsequently  returning  to 
Scotland,  he  became  an  ardent  supporter  of 
Charles  I.,  and  afterward  of  Charles  II.,  the 
latter  of  whom  in  1651,  during  his  brief  reign 
in  Scotland,  appointed  him  justice  clerk  and 
lord  of  session.     During  the  protectorate  his 
offices  were  taken  from  him,  but  he  received 
them  again  at  the  restoration.    He  was  a  prom- 
inent member  of  a  small  club  established  in 
London  by  Boyle,  Lord  Brounker,  and  others, 
for  the  discussion  of  questions  in  natural  sci- 
ence, or,  as  it  was  then  termed,  "the  new  phi- 
losophy," and  which  by  Sir  Robert  Murray's 
efforts  obtained  in  1662  a  royal  charter  as  a 
regular  scientific  body. 
MURRAY,  William.    See  MANSFIELD. 
MURRAY,  William  Henry  Harrison,  an  American 
clergyman,  born  in  Guilford,  Conn.,  April  26, 
1840.     He  graduated  at  Yale  college  in  1862, 
and  was  licensed  to  preach  in  1863.    In  1864 
he  became  pastor  of  the  Congregational  church 
in  Greenwich,  Conn.,  but  removed  in  1866  to 
West  Meriden,  Conn.     In  1868  he  was  settled 
as  pastor  of  the  Park  street  church  in  Boston. 
He  has  become  distinguished  both  as  a  pulpit 
orator  and  as  a  lecturer,  and  during  the  winters 
of  1869-'70  and  1872-'3  he  delivered  courses 
of  Sunday  evening  sermons  in  the  music  hall, 
Boston,  which  have  been  published  under  the 
title  "  Music  Hall  Sermons "  (2  vols.,  Boston, 
1870-'73).     He    has    also    published  "Camp 
Life  in  the  Adirondack  Mountains"  (1868); 
"Words  Fitly  Spoken"  (1873),  being  selections 
from  his  pulpit  utterances ;  and  "  The  Perfect 
Horse"  (1873),  a  contribution  to  agricultural 
literature.     A  weekly  publication  of  his  ser- 


MURVIEDRO 


MUSCAT 


65 


mons  delivered  in  his  church,  under  the  title 
"Park  Street  Pulpit,"  was  issued  in  Boston 
from  the  beginning  of  1871  till  October,  1874, 
when  Mr.  Murray  resigned  his  pastorate. 

Ml  RVIEDRO  (anc.  Saguntum),  a  town  of  Spain, 
in  the  province  and  16  m.  N.  by  E.  of  the  city  of 
Valencia ;  pop.  about  7,500.  It  is  on  the  right 
bank  of  the  Palancia,  and  was  once  a  seaport, 
but  the  recession  of  the  sea  has  left  it  4  m.  in- 
land. It  is  a  straggling  town  at  the  foot  of  a 
hill,  which  is  crowned  by  a  citadel,  and  the 
streets  are  narrow  and  crooked.  The  principal 
industrial  establishments  are  flour  and  oil  mills 
and  four  distilleries.  The  Goths,  the  Moors, 
and  the  Spaniards  have  freely  used  the  rich 
marbles  of  Saguntum  as  materials  for  later 
structures.  In  1867  a  wall  was  built  around 
the  ruins  of  the  theatre.  The  fortress  was  the 
key  of  Valencia,  and  the  French  under  Suchet 
captured  it  in  1811,  after  a  battle  on  the  plain, 
Oct.  25,  where  with  about  20,000  men  they 
defeated  the  Spanish  Gen.  Blake,  who  attacked 
them  with  25,000.  (See  SAGUNTUM.) 

MFSMIS.  I.  A  Greek  poet,  who  flourished 
at  Athens  in  prehistoric  times.  He  was  said 
by  some  to  have  been  a  native  of  Thrace  and  a 
son  of  Orpheus ;  while  others  represented  him 
as  the  son  of  Eumolpus  and  Selene,  or  of  An- 
tiphemus  and  Helena,  and  the  disciple  of  Or- 
pheus. He  was  regarded  as  the  author  of  va- 
rious compositions,  especially  of  such  as  were 
connected  with  the  rites  of  Ceres  at  Eleusis, 
over  which  he  was  thought  to  have  at  one 
period  presided.  According  to  a  tradition 
preserved  by  Pausanias,  the  Museum  at  Piraeus 
received  its  name  from  Musasus  having  been 
interred  there.  A  few  specimens  of  his  reputed 
works  are  extant ;  but  Pausanias  deemed  none 
of  the  productions  ascribed  to  him  genuine 
except  a  hymn  to  Ceres.  II.  A  Greek  gram- 
marian, supposed  by  most  modern  critics  to 
have  lived  at  about  the  beginning  of  the  6th 
century  A.  D.  He  was  the  author  of  the  poem 
on  "The  Loves  of  Hero  and  Leander,"  dis- 
covered in  the  13th  century.  The  best  edi- 
tions of  it  are  those  of  Passow  (Leipsic,  1810) 
and  Schafer  (1825).  It  was  jointly  translated 
into  English  by  Marlowe  and  Chapman  (1606), 
and  there  are  several  other  English  versions. 

JIESAUS,  Johann  Karl  August,  a  German  author, 
born  in  Jena  in  1735,  died  in  Weimar,  Oct.  28, 
1787.  He  studied  theology,  and  was  a  candi- 
date for  a  rural  parish,  but  his  services  were 
declined  on  account  of  his  having  participated 
in  a  dance ;  upon  which  he  renounced  divinity, 
and  accepted  in  1763  an  employment  at  the 
court  of  Weimar,  as  governor  of  the  pages. 
He  exchanged  this  office  in  1770  for  that  of 
professor  at  the  gymnasium  of  Weimar,  which 
he  held  until  his  death.  He  wrote  Grandi- 
son  der  Zweite,  republished  in  1781- '2  under 
the  title  of  Der  Deutsche  Grandison,  directed 
against  Richardson's  admirers.  He  also  took 
the^field  against  Lavater  in  his  Physiognomische 
Reisen.  His  VollcsmarcJien  der  DeutscJien  (5 
vols.,  1782)  gained  a  still  wider  popularity. 


Kotzebue  prepared  an  edition  of  his  remains 
(Leipsic,  1791),  with  a  biography  of  the  author, 
whom  he  calls  the  good  Musaus.  Carlyle's 
"Specimens  of  German  Romance"  (London, 
1827)  contains  versions  of  some  of  the  tales. 

MUSCARDINE,  a  name  given  by  the  French  to 
a  disease  which  for  the  last  20  years  has  proved 
very  destructive  to  silkworms,  and  has  seriously 
interfered  with  the  production  of  silk  in  France 
and  other  parts  of  Europe.  The  fact  is  now 
well  established  that  the  disease  is  due  to  a 
minute  fungus,  fiotrytis  lassiana,  which  is  not 
confined  to  the  silkworm,  but  attacks  several 
other  caterpillars.  The  mycelium  (see  FUNGI) 
of  this  fungus  lives  in  and  feeds  upon  the  intes- 
tines and  other  interior  portions  of  the  silk- 
worm, finally  destroying  it.  After  its  death 
the  reproductive  portion  of  the  fungus  may  be 
seen  upon  the  surface  of  the  worm,  giving  it 
the  appearance  of  having  been  dusted  with 
flour ;  under  a  microscope  this  appears  to  be  a 
forest  of  minute  branching  threads  which  pro- 
duce an  abundance  of  spores.  Sometimes  the 
silkworm  retains  sufficient  vitality  to  spin  its 
cocoon,  and  the  fungus  does  not  manifest  itself 
externally  until  the  caterpillar  has  assumed  the 
state  of  pupa.  It  is  found  that  the  disease  is 
communicated  even  if  the  spores  fall  upon  the 
skin  of  the  worm ;  indeed,  the  spores  are  so 
exceedingly  small  that  they  readily  escape  ob- 
servation, and  when  the  fungus  is  once  intro- 
duced into  an  establishment  they  may  be  on  the 
leaves  upon  which  the  worm  feeds,  and  be  thus 
taken  into  its  interior,  or  they  may  be  brought 
in  contact  with  the  worms  in  various  ways. 
Absolute  cleanliness  and  washing  every  por- 
tion of  the  room  with  lime  water  are  the  means 
of  preventing  its  spread.  Neither  muscardine 
nor  any  other  of  the  diseases  of  silkworms 
has  appeared  in  California. 

MUSCAT,  or  Mascat,  the  chief  city  of  Oman, 
in  Arabia,  situated  at  the  head  of  a  small  inlet 
of  the  Indian  ocean,  in  lat.  23°  38'  K,  Ion.  58° 
40'  E.,  about  240  m.  S.  E.  of  the  entrance  to 
the  Persian  gulf ;  pop.  within  the  walls,  about 
30,000;  of  the  suburbs,  5,000.  The  cove  of 
Muscat,  as  the  harbor  is  called,  is  about  three 
fourths  of  a  mile  long  and  half  as  broad,  open- 
ing toward  the  northwest.  To  the  west  of 
this  inlet  is  the  larger  bay  of  Muttra,  or  Ma- 
tara,  capable  of  affording  shelter  to  shipping 
when  bad  weather  renders  it  difficult  to  enter 
the  cove.  The  city  stands  on  the  S.  side  of 
the  cove,  in  a  hollow  at  the  foot  of  cliffs  400 
or  500  ft.  high,  and  there  is  only  one  pass 
communicating  with  the  interior.  As  seen 
from  the  sea,  these  cliffs  have  no  trace  of  vege- 
tation. Their  summits  and  flanks  are  occupied 
by  a  chain  of  forts  and  towers,  reached  by 
difficult  and  narrow  paths.  These  fortifica- 
tions, which  were  built  by  the  Portuguese  at 
the  end  of  the  16th  century,  are  in  a  ruinous 
condition,  and  most  of  their  guns  have  lost 
their  carriages.  The  city  walls  are  flanked  by 
four  fortified  gates.  The  streets  are  narrow 
and  dirty,  and  some  of  them  are  almost  impas- 


66 


MUSCAT 


sable.  Half  the  town  is  in  ruins.  Many  of 
the  houses  are  mere  mat  huts,  and  even  those 
of  the  better  class  are  seldom  more  than  one 
story  high.  The  sultan's  residence  is  a  very 
plain  edifice.  There  is  no  police,  and  no  con- 
straint on  the  citizens,  who  have  the  largest 
liberty,  and  eat,  sleep,  and  sometimes  die  in 
the  open  streets.  The  climate  is  excessively 
hot,  and  the  land  breeze  at  night  is  suffoca- 
ting. The  thermometer  rarely  falls  below  90 
in  the  shade.  The  inhabitants  are  composed 
of  Arabs,  Persians,  Syrians,  Kurds,  Hindoos, 
Afghans,  Belooches,  and  negroes.  The  pre- 
vailing language  is  a  corrupt  Hindostanee,  the 
Arabic  tongue  being  confined  to  the  native 
Arabs.  Most  of  the  merchants  live  at  Muttra 
and  other  towns  along  the  coast,  and  bring  in 
boats  each  morning  the  produce  of  the  inte- 
rior and  of  the  places  along  the  Persian  gulf, 
even  fire  wood  being  thus  imported.  Muscat 
has  an  extensive  transit  trade  with  Arabia, 


MUSCATINE 

Persia  and  India.  Corn  and  cloth  are  the 
principal  imports ;  the  exports  are  dates,  horses, 
salt  fish,  hides,  and  madder,  which  are  sent  to 
India;  sharks'  fins,  to  China;  and  asses,  to 
Mauritius.  The  harbor  abounds  with  nsn,  and 
large  quantities  are  cured.  — The  district  of 
Muscat  comprises  the  city  and  its  suburbs,  and 
the  city  and  suburbs  of  Muttra,  which,  about 
4  m.  W.  of  Muscat,  is  connected  with  it  by  a 
good  road.  Muttra  stands  in  an  open  plain 
exposed  to  the  sea  breeze,  and  is  much  cooler 
than  Muscat.  It  has  docks  for  building  and 
repairing  ships,  and  a  large  part  of  its  popula- 
tion of  about  25,000  are  fishermen,  boatmen, 
sailors,  and  pilots.  The  sterility  of  the  coun- 
try around  Muscat  is  only  apparent.  In  the 
valleys  back  of  the  hills  are  woods,  streams, 
gardens,  and  villages.— In  the  15th  century 
Muscat  was  a  place  of  considerable  importance, 
and  was  subject  to  Ormuz.  Albuquerque  took 
it  in  1507",  and  it  soon  after  became  the  centre 


Muscat. 


of  the  Portuguese  commerce  in  that  part  of 
the  world.  In  1648  the  natives  expelled  the 
Portuguese,  and  took  possession  of  several 
places  in  the  Persian  gulf.  In  1707  they  ob- 
tained permission  from  the  king  of  Pegu  to 
build  vessels  in  his  territory,  constructed  ships 
armed  with  from  30  to  50  guns,  and  committed 
great  depredations  on  the  coasts  of  Malabar  and 
the  Persian  gulf,  and  on  vessels  in  the  Indian 
ocean.  During  the  latter  part  of  the  18th  cen- 
tury they  gave  up  their  piratical  habits  and 
engaged  largely  in  commerce.  (See  OMAN.) 

MUSCAT  or  Muscatel  Wine.  See  FEANCE,  WINES 
OF,  vol.  vii.,  p.  411,  and  GERMANY,  WINES  OF, 
vol.  vii.,  p.  775. 

MCSCATINE,  a  S.  E.  county  of  Iowa,  bordering 
on  Illinois,  from  which  it  is  separated  by  the 
Mississippi,  and  intersected  by  Red  Cedar  riv- 
er ;  area,  440  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  21,688.  It 
has  a  diversified  surface  and  fertile  soil,  and 
contains  extensive  beds  of  coal  and  quarries  of 
freestone  and  limestone.  It  is  traversed  by 


the  Chicago,  Rock  Island,  and  Pacific  railroad. 
The  chief  productions  in  1870  were  333,147 
bushels  of  wheat,  36,726  of  rye,  1,208,640  of 
Indian  corn,  320,256  of  oats,  96,049  of  barley, 
147,005  of  potatoes,  28,090  Ibs.  of  wool,  380,- 
382  of  butter,  and  29,841  tons  of  hay.  There 
were  9,238  horses,  7,101  milch  cows,  12,656 
other  cattle,  7,173  sheep,  and  24,504  swine  ;  5 
manufactories  of  boots  and  shoes,  13  of  car- 
riages and  wagons,  9  of  clothing,  4  of  machi- 
nery, 11  of  saddlery  and  harness,  10  of  tin, 
copper,  and  sheet-iron  ware,  6  breweries,  4 
flour  mills,  2  planing  mills,  and  3  saw  mills. 
Capital,  Muscatine. 

MUSCATINE,  a  city  and  the  capital  of  Musca- 
tine co.,  Iowa,  on  the  W.  bank  of  the.  Missis- 
sippi, at  the  apex  of  the  great  bend,  and  on  the 
Muscatine  division  of  the  Burlington,  Cedar 
Rapids,  and  Minnesota  railroad,  and  the  south- 
western branch  of  the  Chicago,  Rock  Island, 
and  Pacific  line,  130  m.  E.  of  Des  Moines; 
pop.  in  1850,  2,540;  in  1860,  5,324;  in  1870, 


MUSCLE 


6T 


6,718;  in  1873,  7,940.  It  is  built  on  a  rocky 
bluff,  and  is  the  shipping  point  of  an  exten- 
sive and  fertile  country.  Its  lumber  business 
is  large,  employing  500  hands.  Four  large  saw 
mills  in  1872  produced  30,100,000  ft.  of  lum- 
ber, 20,950,000  shingles,  and  8,700,000  laths. 
The  entire  quantity  handled  at  this  point  du- 
ring the  same  year  embraced  63,668,000  ft.  of 
lumber,  27,891,000  shingles,  and  15,049,000 
laths.  There  are  two  large  pork-packing  es- 
tablishments, three  extensive  flour  mills,  gas 
works,  and  three  banking  houses.  The  city 


has  good  public  schools,  a  Catholic  school,  two 
daily,  a  semi-weekly,  and  three  weekly  news- 
papers, a  monthly  periodical,  and  14  churches. 
Muscatine'  was  first  settled  in  1836,  and  was 
incorporated  as  a  city  in  1853. 

MUSCLE  (Lat.  musculus),  the  fibrous  contrac- 
tile tissue  forming  the  flesh  of  man  and  ani- 
mals, by  which  locomotion  and  the  various 
functions  of  life  requiring  voluntary  or  invol- 
untary movements  are  performed.  Whether 
elongated  or  enclosing  a  cavity,  this  tissue  is 
arranged  in  the  form  of  fibres,  usually  in  bun- 


FIG.  1.— Muscles  and  Tendons  of  the  Arm  and  Hand. 


dies  connected  by  areolar  tissue,  surrounded 
by  a  vascular  network,  and  supplied  with  ner- 
vous filaments.  Muscles  are  so  arranged  as  to 
produce  great  velocity,  extent  of  motion,  and 
strength,  without  injuring  the  beauty  of  pro- 
portions, by  the  obliquity  of  their  fibres  to  the 
tendons  and  of  the  last  to  the  bones  on  which 
they  act,  and  by  the  proximity  of  their  points 
of  insertion  to  the  axis  of  motion  of  the  joints. 
Muscles  are  attached  to  bone  by  means  of  ten- 
dons, rounded  or  flattened  fibrous  cords,  white 
and  shining,  inelastic,  and  very  resisting ;  apo- 
neuroses  or  fasciae  are  firm,  shining  fibrous 
membranes,  enveloping  the  muscles,  giving  at- 
tachments to  their  fibres,  and  often  fixed  to 
bones  like  the  tendons.  Muscles  occupy  the 
whole  distance  between  the  skin  and  bones, 
and  take  an  elongated,  broad,  or  thin  form, 
according  to  the  necessities  of  the  several  parts 
of  the  body ;  their  strength  is  in  proportion  to 
their  length  and  thickness,  and  may  be  rapid- 
ly exhausted  by  continuous  exertion.  Muscles 
are  called  voluntary  or  involuntary,  according 
as  they  are  or  are  not  under  the  control  of  the 
will ;  the  division  is  not  strictly  accurate,  as 
all  of  the  former  at  times  contract  indepen- 
dently of  the  will,  and  some  of  the  latter  are 
to  a  certain  extent  under  the  influence  of  vo- 
lition. The  former  are  generally  solid,  as  in 
the  muscles  of  the  trunk  and  limbs,  and  the 
latter  hollow,  as  in  the  heart  or  the  muscular 
layers  surrounding  cavities  and  canals.  The 
voluntary  and  involuntary  muscles  are  also  dis- 
tinguished by  their  structure  ;  the  former  con- 
sisting of  striped,  the  latter  of  unstriped  fibres. 
The  fibres  of  voluntary  muscles  are  generally 
cylindrical,  though  more  or  less  prismatic  or 
many-sided,  being  somewhat  flattened  against 
each  other.  They  vary  in  length  in  different 
muscles,  and  in  the  human  subject  average 
^5-  of  an  inch  in  diameter.  Their  color  in 
man  and  the  higher  animals  is  ruddy,  and  they 
are  elegantly  marked  by  transverse  or  circu- 
lar striations,  giving  them  a  very  characteris- 


tic appearance,  which  has  led  to  their  being 
distinguished  by  the  name  of  striped  fibres. 
They  consist  of  a  cylindrical  or  prismatic  mass 
of  contractile  substance  marked  with  the  above 


FIG.  2.— Striped  Muscular  Fibre,  crushed  at  one  end  and 
breaking  up  into  fibrillae. 

mentioned  striations  throughout  its  entire 
thickness,  and  containing  also  minute  elonga- 
ted or  oval  bodies  termed  nuclei.  Each  fibre  is 
invested  by  a  delicate,  transparent,  structure- 
less and  colorless  membrane,  the  sarcolemma, 
which  supports  the  contractile  material  and 
limits  its  lateral  expansion.  The  fibres  are 


FIG.  3.— Striped  Muscular  Fibre,  highly  magnified,  torn 
across,  and  showing  the  Sarcolemma. 

arranged  side  by  side,  parallel  with  each  oth- 
er, and  united  in  small  groups  or  bundles  of 
100  to  200  each.  These  bundles  are  again 
united  into  larger  secondary  bundles,  connect- 
ed with  each  other  by  areolar  tissue,  and  so 
on ;  the  entire  muscle  being  invested  with  an 
external  fibrous  expansion  of  condensed  are- 
olar tissue,  and  abundantly  supplied  with  blood 
vessels  and  nerves.  The  unstriped  or  involun- 
tary muscular  fibres  are  soft,  pale,  flattened 


68 


MUSCLE 


bands,  apparently  homogeneous  or  finely  gran- 
ular, about  yoVfr  of  an  incn  in  diameter?  with 
an  elongated  nucleus  in  the  central  part  of 
each  one.  The  fibres  are  arranged  in  paral- 


FIG.  4.— Transverse  Section  of  a  Voluntary  Muscle,  showing 
the  bundles  of  Muscular  Fibres  and  intervening  layers 
of  Areolar  Tissue,  and  the  external  Fibrous  Expansion. 

lei  layers,  their  pointed  extremities  interlock- 
ing with  each  other,  so  as  to  form  membra- 
nous expansions  surrounding  the  cavities  of 
the  internal  organs.  Thus  the  oesophagus,  the 
stomach,  the  intes- 
tines, the  bladder  and 
urinary  passages,  the 
uterus  and  Fallopian 
tubes,  the  excretory 
ducts  of  the  glandular 
organs,  and  the  ar- 
teries and  veins,  all 
have  their  muscular 
coat,  composed  of  un- 
striped  fibres,  and  lia- 
ble to  contraction  and 
relaxation  indepen- 
dently of  the  will.  An 
exception  to  the  rule 
that  involuntary  mus- 
cular organs  are  com- 
posed of  unstriped 
fibres  is  found  in  the 
heart  and  in  the  great 
veins  immediately  con- 
tiguous to  it.  Here  the 
muscular  fibres  belong 
to  the  striped  variety, 
but  they  are  smaller 
than  those  of  volunta- 
ry muscles,  their  stri- 
ations  are  less  distinct,  and  they  also  present 
the  peculiarity  of  branching  and  inosculating 
with  each  other,  which  is  not  seen  in  other 
striated  muscular  fibres.  In  all  probability  the 
difference  in  structure  between  the  two  kinds 
of  fibres,  strictly  speaking,  has  reference  to 
their  mode  of  contraction,  rather  than  to  its 
voluntary  or  involuntary  character.  The  con- 
traction of  the  striped  muscular  fibres  is  prompt, 
vigorous,  and  rapidly  followed  by  relaxation,  as 
in  the  voluntary  muscles  and  the  heart ;  that  of 
the  unstriped  fibres  is  generally  sluggish,  grad- 
ual, and  continued,  as  in  the  peristaltic  action 


FIG.  5. — Unstriped  Muscular 
Fibres,  highly  magnified, 
from  the  walls  of  the  Kenal 
Vein. 


of  the  alimentary  canal.  Striped  fibres  have 
been  found  in  all  vertebrates  and  in  articulates ; 
as  we  descend  the  animal  scale  the  movements 
become  more  and  more  automatic,  until  com- 
plex muscular  action  gives  place  to  simple  cili- 
ary vibration.— The  contractility  of  muscle  de- 
pends on  an  inherent  property,  independent  of, 
though  capable  of  modification  by,  nervous  in- 
fluence. The  stimuli  which  induce  contraction 
are  volition,  emotion,  impressions  conveyed  to 
the  nervous  centres  and  involuntarily  reflected 
thence,  and  various  physical  and  chemical  agents 
applied  to  any  portion  of  the  course  of  a  motor 
nerve  or  to  the  muscular  fibres.  A  muscle  in 
action  becomes  shorter  and  thicker,  changing  its 
relative  proportions  without  any  actual  change 
in  bulk.  After  death  muscles  become  fixed  and 
rigid,  a  condition  constituting  the  rigor  mor- 
tis. In  the  active  contractions  which  charac- 
terize muscles  on  the  application  of  stimulus, 
force  is  exerted  against  some  opposing  power ; 
this  is  attended  with  exhaustion  or  fatigue,  and 
requires  intervals  of  rest.  Sustained  contrac- 
tion consists  of  an  infinite  number  of  partial 
momentary  contractions  acting  in  succession. 
There  are  altogether  in  the  human  body  527 
distinct  muscles,  of  which  261  are  in  pairs,  and 
5  single  on  the  median  line ;  of  these  there  are 
in  the  head  and  face  83,  the  orbicularis  oris 
being  single;  in  the  neck  49,  the  arytenoid 
of  the  larynx  being  single ;  in  the  thorax  78, 
the  triangularis  sterni  and  the  diaphragm  being 
single ;  in  the  abdomen  33,  the  sphincter  ani 
being  single ;  in  the  back  78 ;  in  the  upper 
extremities  98,  and  in  the  lower  108.  Yet, 
with  all  this  complex  apparatus,  everything  is 
in  perfect  order  and  harmony.  Matteucci  and 
Du  Bois-Reymond  have  investigated  the  elec- 
tric currents  of  muscles.  The  combination  of 
the  muscular  movements  is  in  most  cases  so 
far  independent  of  the  will,  that  we  are  apt  to 
lose  sight  of  their  perfection ;  but  let  paralysis 
affect  one  side  of  the  body  or  contraction  draw 
up  a  muscle,  and  the  fact  becomes  at  once  evi- 
dent, as  may  be  seen  every  day  in  palsy  of  one 
side  of  the  face,  or  strabismus  with  the  turn- 
ing in  or  out  of  the  eye.  The  simple  process 
of  walking,  performed  it  may  be  unconsciously, 
with  its  nice  adjustments  executed  by  the  au- 
tomatic guidance  of  the  senses  rather  than  by 
any  act  of  the  will,  is  what  the  most  ingenious 
mechanician  can  never  effect  in  an  automaton, 
from  the  impossibility  of  harmonizing  the  many 
acts  which  constitute  walking. — The  energy 
and  rapidity  of  muscular  contraction  is  more 
remarkable  in  the  lower  animals  than  in  man. 
The  muscular  power  of  insects  is  seen  in  the 
rapid  flight  of  the  dragon  fly,  the  leap  of  the 
flea  and  the  cricket,  the  fixed  attitudes  of  some 
larvae,  and  the  strength  of  beetles.  It  is  very 
great  in  the  flight  of  birds,  though  their  whole 
structure  is  organized  for  aerial  motion ;  the 
power  of  the  wings  is  three  times  as  great  as 
that  of  the  legs  in  ordinary  birds,  and  their 
absolute  power  in  proportion  to  the  weight  of 
the  body  is  as  10,000  to  1 ;  in  small  birds  the 


MUSCLE 


MUSES 


69 


movements  of  the  wings  are  so  rapid  that  they 
cannot  be  counted  by  the  eye ;  the  muscular 
force  of  the  hawk  can  propel  it  150  miles  an 
hour,  and  the  albatross  can  fly  across  the  ocean 
without  fatigue.  Dragons,  flying  fish,  pha- 
langers,  and  squirrels  (pteromys),  though  well 
organized  in  some  respects  for  aerial  progres- 
sion, cannot  fly  for  want  of  sufficient  muscular 
power ;  but  the  extinct  pterodactyl  shows  evi- 
dence of  having  possessed,  like  the  existing  bats, 
extensive  powers  of  flight.  The  amount  of 
muscular  force  necessary  for  flight  is  so  great, 
that  if  man  could  concentrate  all  the  strength 
employed  in  a  day's  labor,  he  could  not  support 
himself  in  the  air  for  more  than  five  minutes ; 
the  accomplishment  of  flight  in  man,  even  with 
the  assistance  of  any  contrivance  thus  far  sug- 
gested, may  be  safely  considered  an  impossi- 
bility. The  energy  of  the  muscular  system  of 
fishes,  considering  the  rapidity  with  which  they 
move  in  their  dense  medium,  must  be  very 
great.  Other  familiar  examples  of  muscular 
power  are  seen  in  the  constrictions  of  the  boas ; 
the  leap  of  the  frog,  kangaroo,  jerboa,  and 
hare;  the  speed  of  the  antelope;  the  spring 
of  the  lion ;  and  the  strength  of  the  ox  and 
elephant.  The  muscular  power  of  man  is  more 
advantageously  displayed  by  the  extent  and 
variety  of  motion  than  by  actual  force;  but 
by  scientific  training  great  strength  may  be 
obtained  from  naturally  feeble  persons.  The 
rapidity  of  muscular  action  is  familiarly  seen 
in  the  ventricular  contractions  of  a  child's 
heart,  each  of  which  occupies  a  little  more 
than  half  a  second ;  in  the  movements  of  the 
vocal  cords  in  rapid  singing  or  speech;  and 
most  remarkably  in  the  flight  of  insects,  whose 
wings  strike  the  air  sometimes  thousands  of 
times  in  a  minute,  by  a  muscular  mechanism 
and  arrangement  of  elements  mentioned  under 
GNAT.  Muscle  may  be  hypertrophied  from 
excess  of  nutrition  arising  from  abundance 
of  formative  material,  from  increased  supply 
of  blood,  but  principally  from  preternatural 
formative  capacity;  the  opposite  conditions 
lead  to  atrophy  of  muscle.  A  remarkable 
change  in  muscle  consists  in  its  fatty  degene- 
ration, to  which  the  fibres  of  the  heart  are  very 
subject ;  the  muscles  of  the  limbs  after  paraly- 
sis are  occasionally  thus  affected.  Throughout 
the  animal  kingdom  the  development  of  the 
muscular  system  is  in  conformity  with  that  of 
the  nervous  system.  The  vertebral  system  of 
muscles  is  most  developed  in  fishes,  the  costal 
in  serpents,  the  hyoid  in  fishes,  the  mastica- 
tory in  vertebrates,  the  tegumentary  in  those 
mammals  armed  with  spines  (like  the  hedge- 
hog and  porcupine),  and  in  the  unpaired  or 
vertical  fins  of  fishes ;  those  of  the  voice  are 
most  developed  in  birds,  mammals,  and  man ; 
those  of  the  limbs  inversely  as  those  of  the 
spine,  and  feeblest  in  fishes;  the  diaphragm 
exists  in  mammals  only.  The  muscles  of  the 
hand  reach  their  highest  perfection  in  man, 
while  those  of  the  tongue,  eyes,  ears,  and  nose 
show  that  many  groups  of  muscles  which  are 


complete  in  the  lower  mammals,  exist  in  man 
in  a  comparatively  rudimentary  condition. — 
Muscles  which  move  a  limb  in  opposite  direc- 
tions are  called  antagonist  muscles.  The  flexor 
muscles  of  the  arm,  for  instance,  bend  the  limb 
at  the  elbow  joint,  and  the  extensor  muscles 
draw  it  back,  or  extend  the  arm  in  a  direct 
line ;  thus  these  muscles  antagonize  each  other. 
There  is  a  sort  of  passive  action  in  the  differ- 
ent muscles  of  the  body,  constituting  what  is 
termed  the  natural  tone  of  the  system;  and 
when  this  is  los't  or  partially  enfeebled  in  one 
set  of  muscles,  their  natural  antagonists  have 
an  undue  action  on  the  parts,  and  cause  dis- 
figurement by  destruction  of  the  natural  bal- 
ance. The  form  and  position  of  the  muscles 
of  the  face,  for  instance,  keep  up  a  balance  of 
feature  in  the  natural  expression  of  immobility 
or  stillness ;  those  of  one  side  antagonize  those 
of  the  other.  In  paralysis  of  one  side  of  the 
face,  the  muscles  of  that  side  are  deprived  of 
their  natural  tone  and  power  of  action,  while 
those  of  the  other  side  retain  their  tone  and 
power  as  before ;  the  consequence  of  which  is, 
that  the  latter  draw  the  mouth  to  their  side  of 
the  face,  while  the  others  are  unable  to  coun- 
terbalance this  action  from  want  of  power  to 
act  in  the  opposite  direction.  Certain  mus- 
cles are  antagonized  by  the  natural  elasticity 
of  the  parts  to  which  they  are  attached ;  the 
elasticity  of  the  ribs  and  that  of  the  elastic 
ligaments  of  the  spinal  column  may  be  consid- 
ered as  antagonistic  to  the  natural  tone  and 
power  of  the  muscles  attached  to  them,  or  act- 
ing in  a  contrary  direction . 

MUSCLE  SHOALS.     See  TENNESSEE  EIVEE. 

MISCOGEE,  a  W.  county  of  Georgia,  sepa- 
rated from  Alabama  by  the  Chattahoochee 
river,  and  bounded  E.  and  S.  E.  by  Upatoi 
creek ;  area,  about  200  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870, 
16,663,  of  whom  9,220  were  colored.  A 
branch  of  the  Southwestern  railroad  has  its 
terminus  at  the  county  seat.  The  chief  pro- 
ductions in  1870  were  2,140  bushels  of  wheat, 
103,117  of  Indian  corn,  10,205  of  oats,  29,560 
of  sweet  potatoes,  53,147  Ibs.  of  butter,  and 
5,150  bales  of  cotton.  There  were  456  horses, 
841  mules  and  asses,  1,257  milch  cows,  2,184 
other  cattle,  and  3,784  swine ;  1  manufactory  of 
agricultural  implements,  3  of  brick,  3  of  cotton 
and  3  of  woollen  goods,  2  of  cotton  and  woollen 
machinery,  1  of  engines  and  boilers,  4  foun- 
deries,  and  5  flour  mills.  Capital,  Columbus. 

MUSCOGEES.    See  CEEEKS. 

MUSCOVY.    See  RUSSIA. 

MUSCOVY  DUCK.     See  DUCK:,  vol.  vi.,  p.  289. 

MUSES  (Gr.  fiovaai),  in  classical  mythology, 
the  goddesses  originally  of  song,  and  afterward 
of  all  kinds  of  poetry  and  of  the  arts  and 
sciences.  According  to  the  earliest  legends, 
they  had  their  principal  seats  in  Pieria  on 
Mt.  Olympus  and  in  Bo3otia  on  Mt.  Helicon. 
Homer  styles  them  the  Olympian,  and  Hesiod 
the  Heliconian ;  according  to  the  latter,  how- 
ever, they  were  born  on  Olympus,  and  dwelt 
at  a  short  distance  from  the  pinnacle  on  which 


70 


MUSEUM 


Jupiter  was  enthroned,  whence  they  visited 
Helicon  to  bathe  in  Hippocrene,  and  celebrate 
their  choral  dances  around  the  altar  on  the  top 
of  the  mountain.  K.  O.  Mtiller  infers,  from  the 
fact  that  the  worship  of  the  muses  originally 
flourished  on  the  same  mountain  which  was 
represented  as  the  common  abode  of  the  gods, 
that  it  was  the  poets  of  that  region,  the  ancient 
Pierian  minstrels,  whose  imagination  created 
and  arranged  the  Olympian  council.  Elsewhere 
they  were  chiefly  honored  as  the  nymphs  of 
fountains.  They  were  commonly  esteemed  the 
daughters  of  Jupiter  and  Mnemosyne,  but  were 
also  called  daughters  of  Coelus  and  Terra 
(Uranus  and  Ge),  of  Pierus  and  a  Pimpleian 
nymph,  of  Jupiter  and  either  Plusia,  Moneta, 
or  Minerva,  of  Apollo  and  Plusia,  and  of  ^Ether 
and  Terra.  Their  number  was  variously  given 
at  first  as  either  three,  four,  or  seven,  but  was 
at  length  established  and  recognized  as  nine 
throughout  Greece.  Hesiod  first  states  the 
names  of  all  the  nine,  by  which  they  are  usu- 
ally designated:  Olio,  the  muse  of  history; 
Euterpe,  of  lyric  poetry ;  Thalia,  of  comedy ; 
Melpomene,  of  tragedy ;  Terpsichore,  of  choral 
dance  and  song ;  Erato,  of  erotic  poetry ;  Po- 
lyhymnia, of  the  sublime  hymn;  Urania,  of 
astronomy ;  and  Calliope,  of  epic  poetry.  In 
Homer  as  in  later  authors  they  sing  festive 
songs  at  the  banquets  of  the  gods,  and  are  in- 
voked by  mortal  poets  to  bring  before  the 
mind  the  events  which  they  have  to  relate,  and 
to  confer  the  gift  of  poetry.  They  punished 
Thamyris,  who  had  presumed  to  excel  them, 
with  blindness ;  stripped  the  sirens,  who  had 
ventured  on  a  contest  with  them,  of  their 
wings ;  and  metamorphosed  the  nine  daughters 
of  Pierus,  who  sought  to  rival  them,  into  birds. 
Though  usually  regarded  as  virgin  divinities, 
the  greatest  mythical  bards,  such  as  Linus 
and  Orpheus,  were  called  their  sons.  Apollo, 
as  the  god  of  the  lyre,  led  their  choir,  and 
they  themselves  had  the  gift  of  prophecy. 
They  were  worshipped  with  libations  of  water 
or  milk  and  honey,  received  various  designa- 
tions from  the  poets  according  to  the  places  that 
were  sacred  to  them,  and  were  represented 
each  with  particular  attributes  in  works  of  art. 
MUSEUM  (Gr.  povaelov,  a  temple  of  the  muses), 
a  repository  of  objects  relating  to  history, 
science,  or  the  arts.  In  the  modern  sense  of 
the  term  the  temples  of  Apollo  at  Delphi  and 
Juno  at  Samos,  and  the  acropolis  at  Athens, 
as  receptacles  of  works  of  art,  were  muse- 
ums. In  history  the  name  was  first  applied 
to  the  academy  founded  by  Ptolemy  Philadel- 
phus  at  Alexandria.  Cosmo  the  Elder  be- 
gan the  first  of  the  now  celebrated  galleries 
of  Florence,  and  to  him  is  due  the  conception 
of  the  museum  in  its  modern  signification. 
Pope  Julius  II.  founded  the  museum  of  the 
Vatican.  During  the  16th  and  17th  centuries 
the  museum  mania  led  to  the  stripping  of  the 

Erovinces  of  works  of  art,  which  were  col- 
>cted  in  the  capitals ;  and  thus  were  begun  the 
great  museums  and  galleries  in  nearly  all  the 


MUSHROOM 

leading  cities  on  the  continent.  Besides  paint- 
ino-s  and  statuary,  many  of  the  museums  com- 
prise collections  of  bronzes,  medals,  gems, 
cameos,  and  intaglios.  The  Ashmolean  museum 
in  Oxford,  founded  about  1680,  is  the  oldest  in 
England ;  and  the  British  museum  in  London, 
established  in  1753,  is  the  most  important  in 
the  world.  In  some  of  the  European  cities 
there  are  special  repositories,  like  the  Thor- 
waldsen  museum  in  Copenhagen  and  that  in 
Paris  established  by  Plon  in  the  Louvre  in 
1875.  The  celebrated  collections  are  described 
in  this  Cyclopaedia  under  the  names  of  the  cities 
in  which  they  are  situated ;  and  the  more  promi- 
nent, such  as  the  British  museum,  the  Louvre, 
and  the  Vatican,  are  particularly  described 
under  their  own  titles.  There  are  also  special 
museums  of  palseontological,  anatomical,  zo- 
ological, geological,  and  mineralogical  collec- 
tions, which  are  mentioned  in  connection  with 
the  places  or  institutions  in  which  they  are 
situated,  or  with  which  they  are  connected. 

MTSHROOM  (Fr.  mousseron,  from  mousse,  moss, 
because  mushrooms  are  often  found  grow- 
ing in  it),  the  name  of  several  edible  fungi, 
chiefly  of  the  genus  agaricus.  The  genus  is 
large,  and  contains  the  most  highly  organized 
forms  found  among  fungi ;  the  number  of  spe- 
cies known  to  be  edible  is  few;  untested  ag- 
arics, and  those  known  to  be  poisonous,  to- 
gether with  other  fungi  of  similar  appear- 
ance, are  popularly  called  toadstools.  The  ag- 
arics have  an  abundant  mycelium,  known  to 
gardeners  as  the  spawn,  consisting  of  white, 
cottony  filaments,  which  spread  in  every  direc- 
tion through  the  soil;  this,  which  is  the  ve- 
getative portion  of  the  plant,  grows  quite 
out  of  sight.  That  which  is  .popularly  recog- 
nized as  the  mushroom  corresponds  to  the  in- 
florescence in  other  plants  ;  this  appears  upon 
the  mycelium  as  a  small  knob,  and  soon  pushes 
its  way  to  the  surface,  where  it  is  at  first 
nearly  spherical,  but  it  rapidly  develops  and 
shows  its  various  parts.  There  is  a  stem,  bear- 
ing at  its  top  an  expanded,  umbrella-shaped 
portion,  the  pileus  or  cap.  In  the  button  state, 
the  covering  or  skin  of  the  cap  (volva)  is  at- 
tached to  the  stem,  but  as  the  cap  expands  this 
breaks  away,  leaving  a  fragment  upon  the 
stem,  known  as  the  ring  or  annulus.  Upon 
the  under  side  of  the  cap  are  numerous  thin 
vertical  plates,  radiating  from  the  stem,  but 
not  attached  to  it ;  these  are  the  hymenium, 
popularly  called  the  gills ;  a  thin  transverse 
section  of  one  of  these  plates,  when  highly 
magnified,  shows  its  surface  to  be  studded 
with  large  cells  terminating  in  four  points, 
each  of  which  bears  a  spore.  The  different 
species  of  agaricus  present  great  variety  in  the 
form  and  size  of  the  cap,  and  the  color  and 
character  of  its  surface  ;  the  gills  and  the 
spores  vary  in  color,  which  serves  to  divide 
the  genus  into  groups  according  as  they  are 
white,  pink,  rust  color,  purplish  brown,  or 
black.  Mushrooms  grow  wild  in  Europe  and 
America,  and  a  majority  of  the  edible  spe- 


MUSHKOOM 


cies  are  common  to  both.  In  the  articles 
FUNGI  and  LYOOPEEDON  reference  is  made 
to  the  recent  attempts  of  English  natural- 
ists to  increase  the  list  of  edible  fungi,  and 
to  popularize  them  as  articles  of  food.  In 
this  place  are  enumerated  the  principal  species 
which  have  received  the  name  of  mushroom, 
and  are  common  to  both  England  and  the 
United  States. — Locality  appears  to  have  much 
to  do  with  the  quality  of  mushrooms.  Some 
of  the  agarics  which  are  highly  esteemed  in 
England  have  here  proved  unpalatable,  and  the 
common  mushroom,  A.  campestris,  so  gener- 
ally eaten  elsewhere,  is  not  only  rejected  in 
the  markets  of  Italy,  but  is  regarded  with 
dread.  This  varies  considerably,  but  in  all 
cases  is  to  be  distinguished  by  its  white,  firm, 
solid  stem,  its  fleshy  cap,  and  its  pink  gills ; 
when  the  cap  begins  to  expand  the  gills  are 
pale,  but  they  soon  become  pink,  and  on  this 
account  it  is  in  some  parts  of  this  country 


Common  Mushroom  (Agaricus  campestris). 

known  as  the  pink-gill ;  when  older  the  gills 
become  chocolate  -  colored  and  then  tawny 
black,  in  which  state  they  are  regarded  as  unfit 
for  food.  It  has  a  pleasant  and  characteristic 
odor,  by  which  those  familiar  with  it  can  dis- 
tinguish the  plant.  This  species  is  found  in 
pastures,  and  in  some  years  in  great  abun- 
dance ;  its  proper  season  is  September  and 
October,  when  our  markets  are  abundantly  sup- 
plied from  the  wild  growth;  at  other  times 
cultivated  mushrooms  are  to  be  had,  but  at 
very  high  prices.  This  is  the  only  species  cul- 
tivated. Mushrooms  resemble  flesh  in  flavor 
more  nearly  than  do  any  other  vegetables,  and 
it  is  asserted  by  Badham  that  they  contain 
similar  proximate  principles.  They  are  used 
to  form  a  dish  by  themselves,  either  stewed, 
broiled,  or  baked,  and  are  largely  employed  to 
flavor  other  dishes,  entering  into  a  great  variety 
of  stews,  fricassees,  and  sauces ;  many  are  con- 
sumed in  the  preparation  of  catsup,  which  is 
the  juice  of  the  mushrooms  extracted  by  sprin- 


kling them  with  salt  and  flavored  with  spices. 
The  general  testimony  is  that  mushrooms  are 
highly  nutritious,  but  difficult  of  digestion, 
and  unsuited  to  persons  with  delicate  stom- 


Horse  Mushroom  (Agaricus  arvensis). 

achs. — The  horse  mushroom  (A.  arvensis), 
called  snowball  in  the  southern  states,  has  a 
hollow  stem,  with  a  broad,  pendulous  ring ;  a 
slightly  conical  cap ;  the  gills  brownish  white, 
and  never  of  the  pure  pink  color  of  the  pre- 
ceding; while  the  common  mushroom  rarely 
excels  3  or  4  in.  across,  this  is  sometimes  more 
than  a  foot;  it  turns  brownish  yellow  when 
broken.  This  species  is  quite  common,  and  in 
English  markets  is  much  more  abundant  than 
the  other.  The  parasol  agaric  (A.  procerus) 
has  a  stem  6  or  8  in.  high,  hollow,  with  a 
loose  pith,  and  tapering  upward  from  a  pear- 
like  bulb  at  the  base ;  ring  loose  on  the  stem ; 


Parasol  Mushroom  (Agaricus  procerus). 

the  cap  when  expanded  is  3  to  7  in.  across, 
with  a  blunt  point  in  the  centre,  and  with  a 
brown  and  more  or  less  torn  cuticle;  gills 
white.  According  to  the  late  Mr.  Curtis,  this 


MUSHROOM 


when  fresh  has  the  flavor  of  a  hazel  nut,  and 
he  calls  it  the  nut  mushroom;  he  consid- 
ers that  this  flavor,  together  with  the  mova- 
ble ring  upon  the  stem  and  the  brown  color, 
will  allow  of  its  ready  identification.  In  Eng- 
land this  ranks  as  one  of  the  finest  flavored, 
and  those  who  have  tried  it  here  coincide  in 
the  opinion.  A.  prunulus,  A.  rube&cens,  and 
A.  nebularius  are  species  common  to  both 
England  and  the  United  States.  The  favorite 
mushroom  of  Italy,  A.  Ccesareus,  regarded  as 
the  most  delicious  of  all  fungi,  was  found 
abundantly  in  North  Carolina  by  Mr.  Curtis, 
who  called  it  the  imperial  mushroom. — The 
French  call  all  mushrooms  champignons,  but 
in  England  the  name  is  restricted  to  the  fairy- 
ring  champignon,  which  is  by  some  called 
agaricus  oreades,  and  by  other  authors  it  is 
placed  in  the  genus  marasmius.  The  fairy 
rings  which  are  so  common  in  pastures  and 
lawns  in  England  are  circles  of  bright  green 
in  the  grass  of  a  few  feet  to  several  yards  in 
diameter;  these  are  produced  by  the  myce- 
lium of  fungi  which,  having  exhausted  the  soil 
within  the  ring,  is  constantly  spreading  and 
enlarging  the  circle.  The  champignon  is  the 
most  important  of  these  fungi ;  it  is  only  1  or 
2  in.  in  diameter,  with  a  very  tough  stem ;  the 
cap  is  dull  fawn  color  when  moist,  and  when 
dry  creamy  white,  with  the  gills  of  the  same 
color,  broad  and  far  apart.  A  very  acrid 
champignon,  A.  urens,  has  a  similar  appear- 
ance, but  the  gills  are  narrow  and  much 
crowded.  The  champignon  is  one  of  the  most 


Fairy  King  Champignon  (Marasmius  oreades). 

highly  flavored  fungi,  and  may  be  kept  in  the 

dry  state  for  years  without  losing  its  aroma. 

The  chantarelle  (cantharellus  cibarius),  one  of 
the  esteemed  rarities  in  England,  was  found  in 
great  abundance  in  North  Carolina,  but  was 
not  relished  by  Mr.  Curtis  or  his  friends.  Mr. 
Curtis  in  a  letter  to  the  Eev.  Mr.  Berkeley  sta- 
ted that  he  had  eaten  40  species  of  edible  fungi 
collected  within  two  miles  of  his  residence,  and 
that  he  had  detected  111  kinds  in  North  Car- 
olina alone.— The  cultivation  of  mushrooms, 
which  is  so  largely  practised  abroad,  is  in  this 
country  mainly  confined  to  private  gardens; 
an  attempt  was  made  by  the  late  Prof.  Blot  to 
cultivate  them  on  a  commercial  scale,  but  his 


structures,  being  of  wood  and  underground, 
decayed  and  fell  to  ruin  before  the  success  of 


Chantarelle  (Cantharellus  cibarius). 

the  project  was  established.  Occasionally  a 
florist  may  make  a  bed  for  mushrooms  under 
the  stage  of  his  greenhouse,  and  from  these 
and  other  sources  there  is  a  scanty  supply  of 
fresh  mushrooms;  but  except  during  the  au- 
tumn months  restaurants  and  hotels  depend 
upon  those  imported  from  France  in  sealed 
tins.  The  mushroom  appears  to  be  depen- 
dent upon  the  horse,  it  being  supposed  that  the 
spores  are  taken  into  the  animal  with  the  grass 
it  eats,  and  germinate  in  the  droppings;  the 
manure  of  horses  and  cattle  is  the  medium  in 
which  the  mycelium  of  the  mushroom  flour- 
ishes most  vigorously ;  hence  in  cultivation  an 
abundant  supply  of  this  is  required,  and  also 
a  stock  of  mycelium  or  spawn.  The  earth  of 
riding  schools,  or  that  from  the  track  of  a 
horse  mill,  in  which  the  droppings  of  the  horses 
are  thoroughly  beaten  into  the  soil,  is  found  to 
afford  an  abundant  supply  of  spawn;  when 
once  obtained  it  can  be  multiplied  to  any  ex- 
tent, and,  as  it  retains  its  vitality  when  dry, 
can  be  transported ;  that  sold  in  this  country 
comes  from  Europe.  Horse  and  cow  droppings 
and  loam  are  mixed  together  and  formed  into 
blocks  like  large  bricks ;  when  these  are  partly 
dry,  a  hole  is  made  in  each  and  a  small  piece 
of  spawn  inserted ;  the  bricks  are  then  placed 
upon  a  hotbed  and  kept  at  a  temperature  of 
60°  F.  until  the  whole  mass  of  each  is  per- 
meated by  the  threads  of  the  mycelium ;  fur- 
ther development  is  then  checked  by  com- 
pletely drying  the  bricks,  and  afterward  they 
are  stacked  away  in  a  dry  place  for  use  or  for 
sale.  Mushrooms  are  grown  in  houses  built 
for  the  purpose,  in  out  buildings,  cellars,  caves, 
or  wherever  a  uniform  temperature  of  between 
50°  and  60°  can  be  maintained.  Cultivators 
vary  so  much  as  to  details  that  general  princi- 
ples only  can  be  stated.  Some  use  pure  horse 
droppings,  others  mix  these  with  those  of  cat- 
tle ;  the  beds  are  made  of  the  fermenting  ma- 
nure built  up  solidly  and  large  enough  to  main- 
tain a  heat  of  about  70°.  The  bed  being  of 


MUSHROOM 


MUSIC 


the  proper  temperature,  bits  of  a  brick  of 
spawn  are  inserted  in  it  at  intervals,  and  when 


Mushrooms  grown  in  a  Cask. 

the  mycelium  is  growing  rapidly,  or  the  spawn 
"runs,"  about  two  inches  of  soil  are  placed 
upon  the  bed,  and  it  is  then  covered  with 
straw;  water  is  applied  if  necessary,  and  it 
should  be  warmed  to  the  temperature  of  the 
bed.  Mushrooms  appear  in  six  or  eight  weeks, 
and  are  collected  when  in  the  button  state  or 
larger  as  required ;  it  injures  the  bed  to  cut 
the  mushrooms,  hence  they  are  twisted  off. 
Instances  are  given  of  successful  cultivation  in 
tubs  made  by  sawing  a  cask  in  two,  in  boxes 
which  are  stacked  upon  each  other,  upon  shelves 


Mushroom  Cave. 


in  a  stable,  and  in  other  unusual  places.  In 
England  beds  are  profitably  made  in  the  open 
air,  but  with  us  the  extremes  of  temperature 
are  too  great  for  this  kind  of  culture.  Mush- 
room culture  is  conducted  upon  the  largest 
scale  in  the  vicinity  of  Paris,  where  there  are 
extensive  caves  formed  by  the  removal  of 
building  stone ;  these  caves  are  from  20  to  60 
ft.  deep  and  of  great  extent ;  one  of  them  con- 
tains 16  m.  of  mushroom  beds,  and  in  another 
the  beds  measured  one  year  over  21  m.  in 
length.  As  the  plant  does  not  require  light, 
and  as  these  caves  have  the  requisite  unifor- 
mity of  temperature,  they  are  utilized  by  the 
mushroom  cultivators,  who,  notwithstanding 


the  labor  and  difficulty  of  bringing  the  immense 
quantity  of  manure  to  the  spot,  find  it  a  prof- 
itable business.  One  of  the  large  quarry  plan- 
tations when  in  full  bearing  sent  3,000  Ibs.  of 
mushrooms  to  the  Paris  market  daily. — Not- 
withstanding the  efforts  that  have  been  made 
abroad  to  add  various  neglected  fungi  to  the 
food  supply,  the  fact  that  there  are  many  which 
are  highly  poisonous  has  confined  the  use  of 
all  but  the  commoner  species  to  a  very  few 
enthusiastic  amateurs.  Unfortunately  there  is 
no  general  rule  for  distinguishing  the  whole- 
some from  the  harmful ;  the  colors  produced 
by  contact  with  a  silver  spoon  or  by  the  action 
of  salt  have  been  proposed,  but  are  fallacious, 
and  the  only  guide  to  be  relied  upon  is  an  eye 
educated  to  observe  the  peculiarities  of  struc- 
ture, color,  &c.,  which  characterize  the  various 
species.  As  a  general  rule,  the  wholesome 
fungi  have  an  agreeable  smell  and  taste,  and 
all  those  with  a  repulsive  odor  and  an  acrid 
taste  in  the  fresh  state  should  be  rejected. — 
Most  of  the  general  treatises  upon  gardening 
have  a  chapter  on  mushrooms.  Descriptions 
of  species  will  be  found  in  Badham's  "Escu- 
lent Funguses  of  England "  (London),  Cooke's 
"Handbook  of  British  Fungi"  (2  vols.,  Lon- 
don, 1871),  and  the  numbers  of  the  "  Garden- 
ers' Chronicle  "  (weekly,  London)  for  several 
years  past.  For  cultivation,  see  Robinson's 
"  Mushroom  Culture  "  (London,  1870). 

MUSIC  (Gr.  fiovaa,  a  muse),  an  agreeable  com- 
bination and  arrangement  of  sounds,  and  the 
art  of  so  combining  and  arranging  sounds.  It 
is  indispensable  to  have  some  knowledge  of 
the  nature  of  sounds  before  we  begin  the  con- 
sideration of  the  manner  in  which  they  are 
arranged  and  compounded  in  music.  We  here 
give  only  that  information  which  is  essential 
to  the  understanding  of  the  subject  of  this  arti- 
cle, referring  the  reader  to  the  article  SOUND 
for  a  discussion  of  the  nature  of  sonorous  vi- 
brations and  of  their  properties.  The  more 
rapidly  the  sonorous  pulses  of  the  ear  follow 
each  other,  the  higher  is  the  pitch  of  the  sound 
perceived.  Thus,  the  gravest  sound  which  is 
really  musical  is  caused  by  40  vibrations  ,a  sec- 
ond, while  the  auditive  sensation  the  highest 
in  pitch  is  produced  by  about  40,000  a  second. 
But  the  sounds  employed  in  music  have  not 
so  extended  a  range ;  they  are  practically  em- 
braced by  about  seven  octaves,  extending  from 
40  vibrations  to  about  5,000  a  second.  The 
gravest  sound  of  an  orchestral  instrument  is 
the  E  of  the  contra-bass,  of  40  vibrations  a 
second.  Modern  pianos  and  organs  indeed  give 
generally  the  C  (of  33  vibrations)  below  the  E 
of  the  contra-bass;  and  some  recent  grand 
pianos  extend  as  low  as  the  A  (of  27  vibra- 
tions) in  the  next  lower  octave.  In  the  largest 
organs  there  is  also  sometimes  a  pipe  which 
gives  a  sound  that  descends  into  the  yet  lower 
octave,  reaching  the  C  of  16£  vibrations.  But 
none  of  these  grave  sounds  below  the  E  of  the 
contra-bass  can  be  termed  musical;  for  the 
separate  pulses  which  compose  them  do  not 


MUSIC 


blend  into  smooth  continuous  sensations,  but 
produce  beats,  corresponding  in  number  to  the 
rate  of  vibration  indicated  above.  These  grave 
sounds  cannot  be  used  alone,  but  are  always 
sounded  in  unison  with  pipes  or  instruments 
giving  their  higher  octaves  and  harmonics. 
Thus  the  latter  are  compounded  with  the  harsh 
fundamental  of  the  grave  note,  and  at  the  same 
time  blend  with  any  harmonics  which  may 
accompany  the  fundamental  of  these  grave 
sounds.  In  the  higher  regions  of  musical 
sounds,  pianos  give  the  notes  A  and  even  0, 
of  3,520  and  4,224  vibrations.  The  most  acute 
sound  of  orchestral  music  is  the  D  (of  4,752 
vibrations)  of  the  piccolo  flute.— There  are 
three  distinctions  to  be  made  among-  sounds : 
their  pitch,  of  which  we  have  just  spoken; 
their  intensities,  concerning  which  it  is  not 
necessary  to  enlarge ;  and  their  timbre,  or  that 
character  by  which  we  distinguish  between 
sounds  having  the  same  pitch  and  intensity. 
All  simple  sounds,  which  we  define  as  those 
having  only  one  pitch,  have  the  same  timbre. 
Such  aro  the  sounds  given  by  flue  organ  pipes, 
or  by  tuning  forks  when  mounted  on  resonant 
boxes.  But  the  sounds  employed  in  music  are 
always  composite,  being  formed  of  several  sim- 
ple sounds  whose  numbers  of  vibrations  are  to 
each  other  generally  as  1,  2,  3,  4,  &c.  ^  Sim- 
ple sounds  are  unfit  for  musical  expression  by 
reason  of  their  want  of  brilliancy ;  for  this  rea- 
son the  notes  of  closed  flue  pipes  are  rarely 
sounded  alone,  but  to  invest  their  tones  with 
feeling  and  life  they  are  combined  with  other 
stops,  giving  the  harmonics  or  furniture  of 
their  simple  sounds.  The  sounds  of  the  flute 
approach  in  character  those  given  by  closed 
organ  pipes;  but  when  associated  with  other 
instruments  which  bring  out  the  sequence  of 
the  harmony,  the  flute,  by  reason  of  the  per- 
fect softness  of  its  sounds  and  the  facility  with 
which  it  renders  rapid  movements,  is  charm- 
ing, and  cannot  be  replaced  by  any  other  in- 
strument. It  held  a  far  more  important  place 
in  ancient  than  in  modern  music;  but  even 
among  the  ancients  the  abler  masters  preferred 
the  more  thrilling  sounds  of  stringed  instru- 
ments. The  sounds  of  all  other  instruments, 
as  well  as  the  notes  of  the  human  voice,  are 
composite,  formed  by  the  blending  of  several 
simple  sounds,  having  different  positions  in 
the  musical  scale.  (See  HARMONY.)  Helm- 
holtz  has  proved  that  the  distinctive  timbre  of 
any  given  sound  is  due  to  the  number  and  rel- 
ative intensities  of  its  elementary  sounds,  or 
harmonics. — Stopped  wooden  flue  pipes  of  large 
section  give  nearly  simple  sounds  when  blown 
with  a  feeble  pressure.  An  increase  of  pres- 
sure in  the  blast  develops  the  third  harmonic, 
and  an  excessive  pressure  may  injure  the  tim- 
bre of  the  sound  by  giving  to  it  too  great  an 
intensity  compared  with  that  of  the  funda- 
mental ;  it  may  even  cause  the  latter  to  dis- 
appear, and  then  the  whole  sound  will  have 
risen  in  pitch  by  an  octave  and  a  fifth.  Stop- 
ped organ  pipes  having  small  area  of  section 


compared  with  their  lengths  give  the  fifth 
harmonic  as  well  as  the  first  and  third.  In 
other  words,  closed  pipes  give  the  uneven  har- 
monics ;  open  and  narrow  pipes  give  the  com- 
plete series  of  harmonics  up  to  a  certain  num- 
ber. Thus,  if  we  close  all  the  holes  in  a  flute 
and  blow  gently,  and  then  with  increasing  in- 
tensity, the  instrument  will  successively  give 
the  first,  second,  third,  and  fourth  harmonics. 
In  the  case  of  the  narrow  open  pipes  in  the 
organ  (viola,  principal,  violoncello,  contra-bass, 
viola-di-gamba),  powerful  pressure  of  wind 
gives  the  fundamental  sounds  of  these  pipes 
accompanied  by  the  clear  sounds  of  all  the 
harmonics,  including  the  sixth.  It  is  quite 
otherwise  in  the  case  of  the  large  open  pipes. 
From  the  considerable  mass  of  air  which  they 
contain,  and  from  the  fact  that  they  do  not 
readily  jump  in  their  pitch  from  the  funda- 
mental to  one  of  the  harmonics  on  increasing 
the  wind  pressure,  these  large  pipes  form  the 
basis  of  the  mass  of  sounds  of  the  organ,  and 
hence  they  have  been  called  the  principal  re- 
gister. In  these  pipes  the  fundamental  sound 
is  intense,  and  is  accompanied  by  a  few  har- 
monics of  feeble  intensities.  In  the  flute  or 
chimney  pipes,  the  timbre  receives  a  brilliant 
character  from  a  small  open  pipe  adapted  to  the 
top  of  these  closed  pipes.  By  combining  the 
stops  on  the  organ,  one  can  produce  a  great  vari- 
ety of  timbre ;  and  in  this  regard  the  organ  has 
the  advantage  over  all  other  musical  instru- 
ments. Vibrating  plates,  or  reeds,  are  used  in 
the  reed  pipes  of  the  organ,  in  the  melodeon,  and 
in  the  clarinet,  hautboy,  and  bassoon ;  while  in 
the  horn,  trumpet,  trombone,  and  cornet  the 
lips  perform  the  office  of  the  reed.  The  sounds 
of  all  reed  instruments  are  peculiarly  rich  in 
harmonics;  it  is  not  difficult  to  distinguish 
those  even  as  high  as  the  twentieth.  The  fun- 
damental, or  some  powerful  harmonic,  is  gen- 
erally reenforced  in  reed  organ  pipes  by  sur- 
mounting them  with  open  or  partly  closed 
tubes  of  various  sizes  and  forms ;  and  thus  are 
obtained  the  various  timbres  of  these  instru- 
ments, such  as  the  trumpet,  vox  liumana,  &c. 
The  clarinet  gives  only  the  odd  series  of  har- 
monics, 1,  3,  5,  7,  &c.,  while  the  hautboy  and 
bassoon  give  the  entire  series,  1,  2,  3,  4,  &c. 
If  the  hautboy  takes  one  note  of  an  interval 
and  the  clarinet  another,  some  concords  will 
sound  best  when  the  former  instrument,  others 
when  the  latter  takes  the  upper  note.  Among 
stringed  instruments  those  of  the  violin  kind 
occupy  the  highest  place.  The  tones  of  these 
are  highly  complex,  containing  the  clear  sounds 
of  the  higher  harmonics  from  the  sixth  to  the 
tenth ;  and  as  violins  do  not,  like  the  piano, 
give  fixed  sounds  evolved  by  a  keyboard,  they 
have  great  sonorous  flexibility,  giving  the  per- 
former the  power  of  playing  in  any  mode  or 
scale,  and  of  gliding  from  one  note  to  another 
without  perceptibly  breaking  the  continuity  oJ 
the  sound ;  and  above  all,  he  can  obtain  any 
note  with  varying  intensity,  and  thus  express 
his  feelings  by  the  most  exquisite  modulation. 


MUSIC 


75 


When  the  violin  is  well  played,  the  fundamental 
or  lowest  harmonic  comes  out  with  force,  and 
the  harmonics  up  to  the  sixth  are  feebler  than 
in  the  cases  of  the  guitar,  harp,  or  piano  ;  but 
the  sixth  and  higher  harmonics  are  stronger 
than  in  the  case  of  the  latter  instruments.  On 
examining  with  a  vibration  microscope  the 
forms  of  the  vibrations  of  the  strings,  Helm- 
holtz  found  that  in  instruments  of  the  highest 
excellence  these  forms  remained  constant  du- 
ring the  whole  duration  of  the  tone.  To  this 
great  regularity  in  the  vibrations  he  attributed 
the  purity  of  the  sounds  of  old  instruments ; 
and  for  the  same  reason  the  strings  can  be 
sounded  with  more  force.  In  the  piano  the 
sounds  are  composite;  the  lower  harmonics 
are  relatively  stronger  than  in  the  violin,  but 
the  harmonics  above  the  sixth,  which  in  the 
main  form  dissonant  combinations  with  those 


below  the  sixth,  are  purposely  prevented  from 
appearing  in  the  sounds  of  this  instrument,  by 
causing  the  hammers  to  strike  the  strings  at 
points  distant  from  the  ends  of  the  strings 
about  one  seventh  of  their  length.  The  sounds 
of  the  harp  and  guitar  differ  from  those  of  the 
piano  ;  for  in  these  instruments  we  have  catgut 
strings  which  are  pulled  aside  from  their  po- 
sitions of  equilibrium,  and  then  allowed  to  vi- 
brate freely ;  in  such  circumstances  the  higher 
harmonics,  which  appear  in  the  first  swings  of 
the  cords,  soon  disappear  from  their  sounds. 
But  no  instrument  emits  sounds  so  smooth,  so 
clear,  and  so  touching  as  those  of  the  human 
voice.  The  voices  of  men  are  classed  as  bass, 
barytone,  and  tenor ;  those  of  women  as  con- 
tralto, mezzo-soprano,  and  soprano.  The  posi- 
tion on  the  musical  scale  and  the  range  of  these 
voices  are  given  as  follows  in  musical  notation : 


Bass.  Barytone. 


Tenor.          Contralto.          Mezzo-soprano.       Soprano. 


We  thus  see  that  ordinary  voices  do  not  in- 
clude two  full  octaves.  The  range  from  the 
lower  F  of  the  bass  to  the  higher  G  of  the 
soprano  is  a  little  more  than  three  octaves. 
These  limits,  however,  have  been  extended  in 
exceptional  cases.  Prsetorius,  in  his  Syntagma 
Musicum,  says  that  in  the  16th  century,  in  the 
time  of  Orlando  di  Lasso,  there  were  at  the  court 
of  Bavaria  three  basses,  the  brothers  Fischer 
and  one  Gassner,  who  sang  the  F_i ;  while 
the  highest  note  ever  recorded  is  that  attained 
by  Lucrezia  Ajugari,  called  La  Bastardella. 


| 

1  cv                               D 

| 

*-j.                                     /L 

I  _^            i                        fni 

1                   '                          v  U 

1 

3 

FISCHER. 

BASTARDELLA. 

Mozart,  who  heard  her  at  Parma  in  1770,  gives 
several  passages  which  she  sang  for  him.  We 
copy  the  last  of  them,  which  ends  in  08 : 


She  trilled  on  the  D6  and  performed  other  ex- 
traordinary feats.  Mozart's  father  says  that 
La  Bastardella  sang  these  passages  with  a  little 
less  force  than  the  lower  notes,  but  that  her 
voice  remained  as  pure  as  a  flute.  She  could 
descend  easily  as  far  as  Ga.  Kuhlau  wrote  for 
a  songstress  who  astonished  St.  Petersburg  in 
1823  the  part  of  Adelaide  in  his  opera  of  Le 
chateau  des  brigands.  The  dominant  air  in 
the  third  act  reaches  as  high'  as  A6.  "  At  one 
representation,  just  as  she  was  about  to  give 
the  perilous  note,  the  leader  of  the  orchestra 
looked  at  her  fixedly,  which  so  disconcerted 
her  that  she  gave  06."  The  voice  of  Gaspard 
Forster  embraces  three  octaves,  from  A_i  to 
A5 ;  while  that  of  the  younger  of  the  Sessi 
sisters  extends  through  three  octaves  and  a 
half,  from  02  to  F6.  Catalani's  voice  had 
likewise  a  compass  of  three  and  a  half  oc- 


rs1  — 

f   f 

1 

1 

^  ^  i 

fc^~ 

1  

E3 

HI 

-*• 

i 

•3 

taves,  as  also  had  the  voice  of  Farinelli,  who 
went  from  A  to  Ds. 


FORSTER. 


FARINELLI. 


Very  remarkable  heights  have  likewise  been 
reached  by  Nilsson  and  Oarlotta  Patti.  At  the 
age  of  puberty  the  glottis  of  man  suddenly 
enlarges,  and  the  voice  ordinarily  descends  in 
pitch  an  octave.  This  change  does  not  take 
place  in  castrates ;  their  voices  remain  as  in 
their  childhood,  and  are  distinguished  by  an  in- 
describable flute-like  quality.  But  cases  are  on 


MUSIC 


record  where  the  voice  has  never  acquired  the 
pitch  characteristic  of  manhood  ;  thus,  M.  Du- 
pont,  who  often  sings  at  the  celebration  of  high 
mass  in  Paris,  has  a  remarkably  fine  soprano 
voice,  yet  he  is  36  years  old  (1874),  and  is  the 
father  of  several  children.  —  In  music  we  con- 
sider the  ratios  of  the  numbers  of  vibrations  of 
definite  sounds  more  than  the  absolute  num- 
ber of  the  vibrations,  or  pitch,  of  these  sounds. 
From  the  most  ancient  times  it  has  been  known 
that  the  most  harmonious  concords  are  pro- 
duced by  means  of  the  simultaneous  sounding 
of  strings  whose  lengths  bear  to  each  other 
simple  ratios.  Pythagoras,  who  probably  de- 
rived the  fact  from  the  Egyptians,  says  that 
when  the  ratio  of  the  lengths  of  the  strings 
was  as  1  :  2,  the  grave  note  sounded  in  unison 
with  its  octave,  while  the  ratio  2  :  3  gave  the 
quint,  and  3  :  4  gave  the  quart.  We  now 
know  that  the  numbers  of  vibrations  of  similar 
strings  are  inversely  as  their  lengths,  so  that 
the  existence  of  the  above  consonant  intervals 
depends  alone  on  the  ratio  of  the  vibrations  of 
the  strings,  and  not  on  the  absolute  number 
of  vibrations  of  the  fundamental  note  of  the 
chord.  (See  HARMONY.)  When  we  double  the 
number  of  vibrations  corresponding  to  a  note, 
we  obtain  the  octave  of  this  note,  and  the  sen- 
sation caused  by  this  higher  octave  seems  to 
repeat  that  which  corresponded  to  the  lower. 
This  interval  of  the  octave,  which  includes  all 
the  notes  of  any  musical  system,  is  established 
by  our  physiological  constitution,  and  was  de- 
termined long  before  it  was  known  that  to 
obtain  the  octave  of  a  note  we  had  to  double 
the  number  of  its  vibrations.  Modern  science 
has  shown  that  the  following  musical  conso- 
nances are  only  obtained  when  their  constitu- 
ent notes  have  the  following  vibration  ratios  : 
octave,  1:2;  fifth,  2:3;  fourth,  3:4;  major 
third,  4:5;  minor  third,  5:6;  major  sixth, 
3:5;  minor  sixth,  5  :  8.  Within  the  compass 
of  the  octave  are  seven  distinct  steps  of  pitch, 
constituting  the  gamut.  We  here  give  the  names 
of  the  notes  of  the  natural  gamut  in  English 
and  German,  and  in  Italian  and  French  notation. 
Under  these  names  we  give  the  relative  numbers 
of  their  vibrations  in  whole  numbers  and  in 
fractions  ;  and  in  the  succeeding  line  are  the 
intervals  between  the  notes  of  the  gamut  : 

j      C         DE      F  .  G    A    B     C 

(utordo    re    mi    fa    sol    la    si    do 


Batio 
of  vibra- 
tions. 


1 


24 
1 


Intervals    be-  ) 
tween  succes-  V     -|. 


eive  notes. 


27:  30 
t  :  * 

V   1 


32  :  36  :  40 
fV|:| 


45  :  48 


I 


The  gamut  does  not  suppose  a  knowledge  of 
the  absolute  height  of  the  notes ;  it  only  fixes 
the  ratios.  The  first  note,  or  tonic,  can  have 
any  pitch ;  but  once  fixed  upon,  all  the  others 
must  follow  in  the  ratios  of  the  above  numbers ; 
thus,  if  0  makes  240  vibrations,  then  D  in  the 
same  time  must  give  270,  E  300,  F  320,  and 


so  on.  One  gamut  is  continued  by  a  second, 
formed  by  simply  doubling  the  numbers  of  vi- 
brations constituting  the  first,  and  another  by 
doubling  the  vibrations  of  the  second,  and  so 
on.  The  ratios  between  the  successive  notes 
of  the  gamut  and  the  first  note,  or  tonic,  are 
denominated  their  musical  intervals.  In  the 
following  table  we  give  the  names  of  the  in- 
tervals preceded  by  the  names  of  the  notes. 
These  intervals  are  designated  by  the  position 
of  the  notes  in  the  gamut : 


C:  0 

C:D 

C:E 

C:F 

C:G 

0:  A 

0:B 

0:  C3 

C:D3 

0:E3 

0:F2 

C:  Ga 


Unison 

1:  1 

Second 

8:  9 

Third 

4:5 

Fourth 

3:4 

Fifth 

2:  3 

Sixth 

3:5 

Seventh 

8:  15 

Octave 

1  :  2 

Ninth 

4:  9 

Tenth 

2  :  5 

Eleventh 

3:  8 

Twelfth 

1  :  3 

Double  octave 

1  :4 

Seventeenth 

1  :5 

&c. 

&c. 

C:C3 


C:E8 


&c. 


The  first  six  notes  received  their  present  Italian 
names  from  the  Benedictine  Guido  Aretino 
in  1026.  They  are  the  first  syllables  of  the 
words  taken  from  the  following  stanza  of  the 
hymn  to  St.  John  the  Baptist : 

UT  queant  laxis  .RjEfconare  fibris 
J/7ra  gestorum   FAmull  tuorum, 
SOL\&  polluti      Z-4bii  reatum, 
Sancte  Johannes. 

The  air  to  which  this  hymn  is  now  sung  at 
Rome  on  St.  John  Baptist's  day  is  altogether 
different  from  that  used  by  Guido,  for  in  an- 
cient times  the  six  syllables  were  sung  to  the 
notes  which  these  syllables  designated.  The 
word  si,  derived  from  the  fourth  line  (S  and  I), 
was  first  used  by  Francois  Lemaire  in  1684  to 
designate  the  seventh  note  of  the  gamut.  The 
use  of  these  words  in  solmization  caused  the 
Italians  to  change  the  ut  into  do.  These  names 
for  the  notes  did  not  spread  very  rapidly,  for 
during  the  time  of  Jean  de  Muris,  in  the  14th 
century,  they  still  sang  at  Paris  the  syllables 
pro,  to,  no,  do,  tu,  a;  but  finally  Guide's 
names  prevailed,  except  in  Germany  and  Eng- 
land, where  the  notes  are  generally  designated 
by  the  letters  0,  D,  E,  F,  G,  A,  B  (or  H).  The 
origin  of  the  latter  nomenclature  is  as  follows : 
Before  the  6th  century,  certainly  during  .the 
time  of  Gregory  the  Great,  they  formed  a  se- 
ries of  gamuts  corresponding  to  the  ordinary 
range  of  the  notes  of  the  human  voice,  and  of 
the  principal  musical  instruments  then  in  use. 
The  notes  were  designated  by  the  first  seven 


MUSIC 


77 


letters  of  the  alphabet,  in  this  manner :  A,  B, 
0,  D,  E,  F,  G;  a,  b,  c,  d,  e,  f ,  g;  aa,  bb,  cc, 
dd,  ee.  Subsequently  they  added  another  note 
lower  in  pitch  than  those  already  embodied  in 
their  system,  and  this  note  was  indicated  by 
the  Greek  gamma  (y),  whence  the  name  gamut. 
Others  say  that  gamut  comes  from  the  fact 
that  the  letter  y  was  placed  on  the  lowest  line 
of  the  staff.  Guido  replaced  the  letters  by 
points  which  he  wrote  on  parallel  lines  (the 
staff),  each  of  which  belonged  to  a  certain  let- 
ter, called  the  key  or  clef  of  that  line.  Thus 
when  an  F  had  been  written  at  the  beginning 
of  a  line,  it  indicated  that  all  points  on  that 
line  represented  the  note  F.  Afterward  they 
enlarged  these  points,  placed  them  between 
the  lines,  and  increased  the  number  of  the 
lines  and  spaces  as  they  were  needed.  In  order 
to  indicate  a  chord,  or  the  simultaneous  sound- 
ing of  two  or  more  notes,  these  notes  were 
placed  one  below  the  other,  and  from  this 
method  of  notation  arose  the  name  of  counter- 
point, or  the  science  of  accords.  Musical  no- 
tation at  first  only  indicated  the  heights  of  the 
various  notes  on  the  musical  scale ;  in  1338  De 
Muris  invented  squares  to  indicate  their  dura- 
tion. This  system  was  improved  by  Ottavio 
Petrucci  (1470),  who  in  1502  was  the  first  to 
print  music  by  means  of  movable  types.  The 
syllables  do,  re,  mi,  fa,  sol,  la  did  not  origi- 
nally stand  for  fixed  notes,  but  simply  the 
degrees  of  any  gamut  whatever.  They  stood 
for  the  hexachord  of  Guido,  and  were  written 
below  the  letter  which  designated  the  fixed 
gamuts,  beginning  with  0,  with  F,  or  with  G : 


C  D   E    F    G  A 

do  re  mi  fa  sol  la    . 
.    do  re  mi  fa  sol  la 
.    do  re  mi  fa    . 


B    c    d      e     f 


Thus  the  same  note  could  occupy  different 
positions  in  the  movable  gamut,  which  was 
often  incompatible  with  the  preservation  of 
the  established  intervals  of  the  notes,  do,  re, 
mi,  fa,  sol,  la.  Hence  arose  different  modes, 
more  or  less  harmonious,  and  a  great  confusion 
in  the  ancient  system  of  music.  They  then 
felt  the  necessity  of  changing  slightly  the  pitch 
of  certain  fixed  notes  when,  by  the  transposi- 
tion of  the  movable  gamut,  the  intervals  of  the 
corresponding  fixed  notes  did  not  give  the  in- 
tervals originally  given  to  the  series  do,  re,  mi, 
fa,  sol,  la.  Thus,  when  do  was  written  below 
F,  and  fa  below  B,  the  interval  of  F  to  B 
should  have  been  a  fourth ;  but  as  in  reality  it 
was  greater,  they  diminished  it  by  flattening  B 
a  semitone.  The  latter  note  was  then  called 
B  molle,  while  it  was  B  durum  in  the  gamut 
which  began  in  0.  They  indicated  these  changes 
by  writing  a  ft,  round  or  square,  and  this  is  the 
origin  of  the  signs  (,  and  fy  The  origin  of  these 
signs  is  shown  in  the  French  language,  in  which 
they  are  respectively  termed  Umol  and  lecarre. 
By  many  modifications  musical  notation  grew 
*  into  the  present  system. — The  signs  now  em- 


quaver r, 

/ 

and  demi- 


ployed  in  music  denote  the  length,  pitch,  and 
force  of  tones,  or  rhythm,  melody,  and  expres- 
sion. The  length  of  a  note  is  represented  by 
its  shape.  The  notes  are  the  breve  £sj  or  \fa\  , 
semibreve  ffl,  minim  P,  crotchet  f , 
semiquaver  f,  demisemiquaver 

quaver  8,  but  the  first  and  last^of  these  are 

little  used.  The  breve  is  twice  as  long  as  the 
semibreve,  the  semibreve  twice  as  long  as  the 
minim,  and  so  on.  A  dot  following  a  note 

lengthens  it  one  half,  thus,  f  "=  f    f.      Rests, 

indicating  silence,  are:  n— ',  equal  in  length  to 
a,  or  a  whole  bar ;  *  =  P;  f  =s ^ ;  ?f  =e  P- 

*f  =  j^'^=p;  *  =$.  Rhythm  is  fur- 
ther marked  by  the  division  of  time  into  mea- 
sures of  equal  length  indicated  by  vertical  lines 
drawn  across  the  staff.  Measures  again  are 
divided  into  two,  three,  four,  or  six  parts, 
and  the  first  part  of  a  measure  is  almost  always 
accented.  There  are  four  measures  in  common 
use :  double,  triple,  quadruple  or  common,  with 
a  secondary  accent  on  the  third  part,  and  sex- 
tuple, with  a  secondary  accent  on  the  fourth 
part,  each  represented  by  figures  placed  at  the 
beginning  of  the  staff,  as  follows : 


or 


or 


Thus,  taking  the  crotchet  as  a  standard,  in 
double  time  there  must  be  two  crotchets  or 
their  equivalent  in  every  bar  or  measure,  in 
triple  three,  in  quadruple  four,  in  sextuple  six. 
There  are  exceptions  to  these  rules,  however, 
and  even  five  crotchets  to  a  bar  have  been  used 
with  eccentric  effect. — The  pitch  of  a  tone  is 
determined  by  its  position  on  the  staff,  which 
consists  of  five  parallel  lines  and  the  four  in- 
tervening spaces,  and  by  the  clef,  which  indi- 
cates the  pitch  of  all  the  notes  on  one  line  or 
space  of  the  staff,  whence  the  rest  are  easily 
found.  In  the  early  Italian  school  every  kind 
of  voice  had  its  own  clef,  but  at  present  only 
two  are  in  general  use,  the  treble  or  G  clef 


of  the  violin,  5E=E,  and  the  bass  or  F  clef, 


)^ — .    In  some  musical  scores,  however,  par- 


ticularly Italian,  the  C  clef  is  retained  for  the 
tenor  and  alto  parts.    For  the  former  it  is  placed 


on  the  fourth  line, 


tzz,  which  thus  be- 


comes the  position  of  0,  and  for  the  latter  on 


the  third,  _JMI The  popular  plan  in  wri- 


78 


MUSIC 


ting  music  in  four  parts  is  to  put  the  alto  on  the 
same  staff  with  the  trehle,  and  the  tenor  with 
the  hass  or  treble.  With  these  staves,  and  the 
aid  of  short  lines  called  leger  lines  above  and 


below  the  staves,  we  are  able  to  represent  all 
the  notes  of  the  human  voice,  and  even  more. 
The  following  is  the  musical  scale  from  the 
lowest  bass  note  to  the  highest  soprano : 


DE    FGAB    CD    EF    G  A    B  C    DE 


The  pitch  of  any  note  may  be  raised  half  a  tone 
by  means  of  a  sharp  (ft)  placed  before  it,  or  low- 
ered half  a  tone  by  a  flat  fo).  When  a  sharp 
or  flat  is  placed  on  a  line  or  space  at  the  begin- 
ning of  a  staff,  it  affects  every  note  occurring 
on  that,  line  or  space  and  its  octaves  through- 
out the  piece.  A  natural  (J|)  restores  to  its  nor- 
mal pitch  a  note  affected  by  a  flat  or  sharp. 
A  note  or  passage  may  be  raised  or  lowered 
an  octave  by  writing  over  or  under  it  the  sign 

8va. Besides  the  words  forte, 

fortissimo,  piano,  pianissimo,  and  their  abbre- 
viations,/.,/"., p.,  pp.,  indicating  that  a  note 
or  passage  is  to  be  given  loud,  very  loud,  soft, 
or  very  soft,  there  are  the  signs  — ==C  (crescen- 
do), denoting  a  tone  gradually  increasing  from 
soft  to  loud ;  ^=—  (diminuendo),  the  reverse 
of  crescendo ;  >  (sforzando),  an  explosive  tone 


instantaneously   diminished ; 

(staccato),  a  short  articulate  utterance  as  if  each 

note  were  followed  by  a  brief  rest ;  and  — *~f — 

(legato),  a  binding  together  of  successive  tones. 
The  system  of  musical  notation  adopted  in- 
dicates to  the  performer  the  pitch,  the  dura- 
tion, and  in  an  imperfect  manner  the  intensity 
of  musical  sound,  but;  conveys  no  idea  of  the 
timbre  or  composition  of  these  sounds.  A 
musical  note,  indeed,  gives  merely  the  pitch  of 
the  fundamental  or  first  harmonic  of  a  musi- 
cal sound.  This  defect  is  unavoidable,  and  to 
the  musician  is  generally  of  little  consequence ; 
for  in  concerted  music  the  parts  are  writ- 
ten for  special  instruments,  whose  qualities  of 
sound  are  well  known  to  the  musical  ear. — 
It  was  only  after  ages  of  experience,  and  many 
changes,  that  the  system  of  music  reached  its 


present  condition.  The  principal  problem  was 
this:  Whatever  the  note  selected  from  the 
scale  to  begin  the  gamut,  the  other  notes  when 
combined  with  the  former  shall  give  the  estab- 
lished musical  intervals.  In  order  to  solve  this 
problem,  the  fixed  notes  were  altered,  either 
by  elevating  them  in  pitch  by  a  semitone, 
which  operation  is  called  sharpening  a  note, 
and  is  indicated  by  the  sign  |,  or  by  lowering 
them  a  semitone  in  pitch,  which  is  to  flatten  a 
note,  and  is  indicated  by  the  sign  |j.  For  the 
value  of  this  semitone  the  interval  f  f-  has  been 
adopted,  which  is  smaller  than  the  ratio  -^f , 
the  value  of  the  interval  E  F.  The  notes  0, 
D,  E,  &c.,  are  given  by  the  white  keys  of  the 
piano  and  organ,  while  the  black  keys  give 
the  sharps  and  flats.  The  gamuts  are  always 
designated  by  the  name  of  their  first  note,  or 
tonic.  All  the  gamuts  called  major  are  model- 
led on  the  primitive  gamut  of  0,  formed  by 
the  series  of  natural  notes,  0,  D,  E,  &c.  The 
gamut  of  G  is  formed  of  the  notes  G,  A,  B,  0, 
D,  E,  F#,  G;  that  of  F,  of  the  notes  F,  G,  A, 
Bfr,  0,  D,  E,  F.  These  gamuts  constitute  the 
major  mode.  Music,  however,  requires  also  a 
minor  mode,  formed  of  gamuts  whose  type  is 
the  gamut  of  A  minor :  A,  B,  0,  D,  E,  F,  G, 
A.  The  principal  difference  between  the  two 
modes  consists  in  the  introduction  of  the  minor 
third,  A— C  (5  :  6),  in  the  place  of  the  major 
third,  0— E  (4  :  5).  They  are  both  character- 
ized by  a  perfect  accord,  formed  with  the  third 
and  fifth  of  the  tonic,  as  follows : 


Perfect  major  accord,  C 


minor 


E   G. 

0   E,  or  C   Ej,  G. 


The  major  and  minor  scales  give  us  a  series  of 
11  notes,  which,  severally  combined  with  the 
tonic,  form  10  distinct  intervals.  In  musical 
notation  they  are  as  follows : 


Second. 


Minor  Third. 


Major  Third. 


Fourth. 


Fifth. 


^fee  -— 

^  —  id 

' 



5-  

Minor  Sixth. 


Major  Sixth. 


Minor  Seventh. 


Major  Seventh. 


Octave. 


m 


MUSIC 


79 


In  the  minor  mode  we  are  often  obliged  to 
elevate  by  a  semitone  the  seventh  and  also  the 
sixth  note  of  the  gamut.  To  obtain  absolute 
purity,  all  gamuts  on  an  instrument  of  fixed 
sounds,  like  the  organ  or  piano,  would  require 
an  extraordinary,  indeed  an  almost  impracti~ 
cable  complication.  Mr.  A.  J.  Ellis  has  shown 
in  a  paper  published  in  the  "  Proceedings  of 
the  Royal  Society,"  vol.  xiii.,  "  On  a  perfect 
Musical  Scale,"  that  within  the  compass  of  an 
octave  72  notes  would  be  required  to  give  an 
absolutely  perfect  command  of  all  the  keys 
that  are  now  used  in  music.  It  has  there- 
fore been  found  necessary  to  make  a  compro- 
mise, in  perfect  harmonious  effects,  in  the  con- 
struction of  instruments  with  fixed  sounds; 
and  thus  has  come  about  the  universal  adop- 
tion of  the  musical  scale  known  as  that  of 
"equal  temperament,"  so  called  because  be- 
tween any  two  contiguous  notes  the  same  in- 
terval (called  a  semitone)  exists  throughout  the 
whole  scale.  As  the  octave  is  divided  into  12 
equal  intervals,  it  follows  that  each  of  these 


intervals  is  equal  to   |/2,  or  to  1-05946.     This 

scale  being  a  compromise,  the  major  triads  are 
slightly  dissonant.  Thus,  in  the  natural  scale 
the  ratio  of  the  vibrations  of  G  :  E  :  G  are  as 
1  :  1*25  :  1*5 ;  but  on  the  scale  of  equal  temper- 
ament these  same  notes  bear  to  each  other  the 
vibration  ratios  of  1  :  1-2599  :  1-4983.  Thus  it 
follows  that  the  interval  of  the  major  third  is 
sharpened,  while  the  fifth  is  flattened.  If  we 
take  the  middle  octave  of  the  piano  for  an  ex- 
ample, we  shall  find  that  E  and  A  are  three 
vibrations  a  second  too  sharp,  while  the  fourth 
and  fifth  are  out  of  tune  by  one  vibration  a 
second.  For  convenience  of  comparison  we 
here  give  the  two  scales.  The  natural  scale  is 
placed  below  the  scale  of  equal  temperament. 
The  numbers  of  vibrations  in  a  sound,  correct 
to  the  nearest  unit,  are  written  under  the  notes. 
When  the  vibration  number  is  a  fraction  more 
or  less  than  the  number  given,  the  sign  +  or  — 
is  respectively  attached  to  the  number.  The 
notes  belong  to  the  middle  octave  of  the  piano. 


C        Ctf          D  Dfl         E  F  F|         a  Gtf         A  Aft          B 

264     280-     296+     314-      333-      352+     373+      395+      419+      444-     470+      498  + 


0 

264 


D  E|,         E  F 

297        317-      330         352 


G  Aj,        A 

396         422+      440 


Tb          B 

469+      495 


The  ratio  of  the  semitones  of  the  tempered 
scale  is  approximately  |f ,  and  a  tone  on  this 
scale  barely  differs  from  the  major  tone  of  -f. 
This  invention  has  been  variously  attributed  to 
Keidhart  and  Werckmeister,  to  Sebastian  Bach, 
and  to  Lambert  the  geometrician.  This  musi- 
cal scale  was  first  applied  to  the  clavichord, 
and  Emanuel  Bach,  son  of  Sebastian,  said  a 
well  tuned  clavichord  was  the  most  accurate 
of  all  instruments ;  this  remark  is  readily  un- 
derstood when  it  is  explained  that,  from  the 
manner  of  production  of  the  sounds  on  this 
instrument,  the  higher  harmonics,  even  when 
evolved,  are  feeble  and  soon  die  out  from  the 
sounds,  while  the  resultant  tones  appear  only 
at  the  moment  the  chords  are  forcibly  struck. 
But  all  organists  know  how  harshly  intervals 
are  given  on  a  stop  of  reed  pipes,  or  on  the 
furniture  register,  tuned  to  the  equal-tempered 
scale.  This  harshness  is  due  to  the  imperfect 
tuning  causing  the  beating  of  harmonics  and 
resultant  tones.  An  excellent  method  of  com- 
paring the  relative  effects  of  natural  and  of 
tempered  tuning  is  to  listen  to  a  few  voices 
singing  a  series  of  sustained  chords  of  three  or 
four  parts  without  accompaniment,  and  then 
1!3ten  to  exactly  the  same  chords  with  the  ac- 
)mpanimeht  of  a  piano  or  melodeon.  In  the 
itter  case  the  harshness  of  the  accompaniment 
is  forcibly  brought  out.  One  naturally  sings 
irfect  intervals,  and  a  violinist  with  a  refined 
IT  will  involuntarily  play  on  the  natural  scale ; 
but  if  the  voice  is  educated  by  the  accompani- 
lent  of  the  piano  instead  of  the  violin,  and  if 
violinist  is  always  accompanying  the  fixed 
533  VOL.  xn. — 6 


tones  of  an  orchestra,  then  they  will  both  have 
acquired  the  habit  of  rendering  the  false  in- 
tervals of  the  tempered  scale. — The  vibration 
fraction  of  an  interval  expresses  the  ratio  of 
the  numbers  of  vibrations  performed  in  the 
same  time  by  the  two  notes  which  form  the 
interval.  Thus,  the  vibration  fraction  £  means 
that  while  the  lower  of  the  two  notes,  forming 
a  major  third,  makes  four  vibrations,  the  higher 
of  these  notes  makes  five.  Therefore,  while 
the  lower  makes  one  vibration,  the  higher 
makes  five  fourths  of  a  vibration,  or  one  vibra- 
tion and  a  quarter.  Conversely,  while  the 
higher  note  makes  one  vibration,  the  lower 
makes  four  fifths  of  a  vibration.  This  reason- 
ing is  general,  and  hence  follows  this  rule :  Any 
fraction  greater  than  unity  denotes  the  number 
of  vibrations,  and  fractions  of  a  vibration,  made 
by  the  higher  of  two  notes  forming  a  certain 
interval  while  the  lower  note  is  making  a  sin- 
gle vibration.  Similarly,  any  fractioif  less  than 
unity  indicates  the  proportion  of  a  whole 
vibration  performed  by  the  lower  note  while 
the  upper  is  making  one  complete  vibration. 
The  rules  for  adding  and  subtracting  musical 
intervals  are  as  follows :  To  find  the  vibration 
fraction  for  the  sum  of  two  intervals,  multiply 
their  separate  vibration  fractions  together.  To 
find  the  vibration  fraction  for  the  difference  of 
two  intervals,  divide  the  vibration  fraction  of 
the  wider  by  that  of  the  narrower  interval. 
Thus,  a  major  third  added  to  a  fifth  gives  a 
major  seventh ;  while  a  major  third  subtracted 
from  a  fifth  leaves  a  minor  third.  One  of  the 
most  common  applications  of  the  second'  rule 


80 


MUSIC 


is  when  an  interval  has  to  be  inverted.  The 
inversion  of  an  interval  less  than  an  octave  is 
the  difference  between  it  and  an  octave ;  i.  e., 
the  interval  which  remains  after  the  first  has 
been  subtracted  from  an  octave.  Thus,  to 
invert  the  minor  third  we  divide  2  by  f ;  or, 
in  other  words,  we  invert  the  vibration  frac- 
tion of  the  interval  and  multiply  by  2.  This 
operation  gives  ns  f ;  therefore,  the  inversion 
of  the  minor  third  is  the  major  sixth.  Evi- 
dently there  exists  a  mutual  relation  between 
an  interval  and  its  inversion,  so  that  each  is 
the  inversion  of  the  other.  Thus,  the  inver- 
sion of  the  major  sixth  is  the  minor  third. 
The  following  three  pairs  of  consonant  inter- 
vals, embraced  within  the  compass  of  an  oc- 
tave, have  to  each  other  the  mutual  relation 
of  inversions : 

Minor  third,  .  .  £  —  Major  sixth,  .  .  f 
Major  third,  .  .  f-  —  Minor  sixth,  .  .  £ 
Fourth, ....  |  —  Fifth,  .  .  .  .  f 

— Musical  sounds  of  different  pitch,  simultane- 
ously emitted,  form  a  chord.  Chords  formed 
of  two  notes  are  called  binary  chords ;  those 
of  three  notes  are  called  triads.  A  binary 
chord  is  consonant  when  its  two  notes  form  a 
consonant  interval.  In  a  triad  there  are  three 
intervals:  one  between  its  lowest  note  and^the 
next  higher,  one  between  the  middle  and  high- 
est note,  and  one  between  the  lowest  and 
highest.  The  triad  is  only  consonant  when 
all  three  of  these  intervals  are  concords. 
Therefore,  to  form  consonant  triads  we  select 
a  note,  then  find  the  others,  each  of  which 
forms  with  the  bottom  note  a  consonant  inter- 
val. We  then  determine  whether  the  interval 
between  the  two  higher  notes  is  a  consonant 
one;  if  this  be  so,  then  the  triad  is  conso- 
nant. To  determine  all  of  the  consonant  tri- 
ads contained  in  an  octave,  above  any  selected 
bottom  note,  we  must  assign  to  the  middle  and 
top  notes  every  possible  consonant  position 
with  respect  to  the  fixed  bottom  note,  and 
reject  all  such  relative  positions  as  give  rise 
to  dissonant  intervals  between  those  notes 
themselves.  The  remaining  positions  will 
constitute  all  the  consonant  triads  which  have 
for  their  lowest  note  that  originally  selected. 
The  intervals  at  our  disposal  are :  for  the  mid- 


dle note,  from  the  minor  third  to  the  minor 
sixth ;  and  for  the  upper  note,  from  the  major 
third  to  the  major  sixth.  In  the  following 
table  the  possible  positions  of  the  middle  note 
with  respect  to  the  bottom  note  are  shown 
in  the  left-hand  vertical  column,  the  name  of 
each  interval  being  accompanied  by  its  vibra- 
tion fraction.  The  possible  positions  of  the 
top  note  are  similarly  shown  in  the  top  hori- 
zontal line.  Each  space  common  to  a  hori- 
zontal and  vertical  line  contains  the  vibration 
fraction  of  the  interval  formed  between  the 
simultaneous  positions  of  the  middle  and 
upper  notes  named  at  the  beginning  of  these 
lines.  The  intervals  thus  formed  which  are 
dissonant  are  designated  by  being  enclosed  in 
brackets.  Whenever  they  are  consonant  the 
name  of  the  interval  is  given. 


Major 
third. 

Fourth. 

Fifth. 

f 

Minor 
sixth. 

1 

Major 
sixth. 

Minor 
third. 

in] 

m 

M^jor 
third. 

1 
Fourth. 

Fourth. 

Major 
third. 

M] 

Mtaor 
third. 

UN 

Fourth. 

[£] 

Minor 
third. 

Major 
third. 

m 

[tt] 

Fifth, 
t 

Minor 
sixth. 

1 

[If] 

An  examinati< 
that  the  follow 

Middle  note. 
Minor  third. 
Major  third. 
Fourth. 

The  above  co 
musical  notati< 

m  of  the  above  tables  shows 
ing  are  all  the  consonances  : 

Upper  note. 
Fifth,  or  minor  sixth. 
Fifth,  or  major  sixth. 
Minor  sixth,  or  major  sixth. 

usonances  are  thus  expressed  in 
m: 

We  thus  obtain  two  groups  of  three  major 
and  three  minor  triads,  which  may  be  ar- 
ranged thus : 


(a) 


Fifth. 
Major  third. 


,  xj  Fifth.  ,0. 

W\  Minor  third.     <« 


Minor  sixth. 
Minor  third. 


sixth, 
third. 


jMaior  sixth. 
\  Fourth. 

(  Minor  sixth. 
l  Fourth. 


The  above  six  consonant  triads  may  be  de- 
fined by  the  intervals  separating  the  middle 


from  the  bottom  note,  and  the  top  from  the 
middle  note,  instead  of  defining  these  in- 
tervals, as  we  have  done  above,  by  the  inter- 
vals formed  by  their  middle  and  top  notes 
with  the  bottom  note.  To  bring  about  this 
change  we  perform  on  each  one  a  subtraction 
of  intervals.  Thus,  the  difference  between  a 
fifth  and  a  major  third  is  f  x|=£,  or  a  minor 
third.  In  this  manner  we  find  that  the  top 
and  middle  notes  are  separated  by  the  follow- 
ing intervals : 


MUSIC 


81 


a 

b 

c 

a 

|3 

V 

Minor 
third. 

Fourth. 

Major 
third. 

Major 
third. 

Fourth. 

Minor 
third. 

Hence  the  two  groups  may  be  written  as  below : 


,,.  j  Minor  third. 
* '  ]  Major  third. 

,,(  Major  third. 
1  '1  Minor  third. 


03') 


Fourth. 
Minor  third. 

Fourth. 
Major  third. 


Major  third. 
Fourth. 

Minor  third. 
Fourth. 


It  can  now  be  shown  that  the  triads  of  each 
group  are  closely  connected.  Take  (a),  and 
form  from  it  another  triad,  by  causing  its  bot- 
tom note  to  ascend  one  octave,  the  other  two 
remaining  where  they  were.  The  middle  will 
then  become  the  bottom  note,  the  top  the  mid- 
dle note,  and  the  octave  of  the  former  note 
the  top  note.  Hence  the  lower  interval  of  the 
new  triad  will  be  the  upper  interval  of  the  old 
triad,  i.  e.,  a  major  third.  The  upper  interval 
of  the  new  triad  will  necessarily  be  the  inver- 
sion of  the  interval  which  separated  the  ex- 
treme notes  of  the  old  triad.  This  interval  is 


a  fifth  (see  (a)  ),  and  its  inversion  by  the  table 
already  given  is  a  fourth.  Hence  the  new  triad 

is  JM°norhthird  [»  which  is  identical  with 
(b').  If  we  modify  (b^)  in  the  same  way,  the 
new  interval  is  the  inversion  of  the  minor 
sixth,  i.  e.,  the  major  third,  and  the  resulting 

triad,  viz.,  j  FoTJ;htllird  ['  is  identical  with 
(c').  This  triad,  when  similarly  treated,  brings 
us  back  to  (a'),  and  the  cycle  of  changes  is 
complete.  By  an  extension  of  the  word  "  in- 
version," it  is  usual  to  call  the  triads  (b')  and 
(c')  the  first  and  second  inversions  of  the  tri- 
ad (a').  Exactly  similar  relations  hold  be- 
tween the  members  of  the  second  group  of 
triads ;  (/?')  and  (y')  are  accordingly  called  the 
first  and  second  inversions  of  the  triad  (a). 
The  proof  is  exactly  like  that  just  given,  and 
will  be  easily  supplied  by  the  reader.  If  we 
choose  0  as  the  bottom  note  of  (a')  and  (a'), 
the  major  and  minor  groups  will  be  expressed 
in  musical  notation  by 


They  may  also  be  defined  in  the  language  of 
thorough  bass,  which  refers  every  chord  to  its 
lowest  note,  in  accordance  with  the  mode 
adopted  in  (a),  (b),  (c) ;  (a),  (/3),  (y).  Thus  the 
triads  (a'),  (b'),  (c')  would  be  indicated  by  the 
figures  %,  f,  %  respectively,  and  so  would  the 
triads  (a'),  (p'),  and  (y');  the  differences  be- 
tween minor  and  major  thirds  and  sixths  be- 
ing left  to  be  indicated  by  the  key  signature. 
The  positions  (a7)  and  (a')  are  regarded  as  the 
fundamental  ones  of  each  group,  (b'),  (c ),  and 
(/?'),  (y')  being  treated  as  derived  from  them 
respectively  by  inversion.  The  fundamental 
triads  bear  the  name  of  their  lowest  notes; 
thus  (a')  and  (ar)  are  called  respectively  the 
major  and  minor  common  chords  of  C.  The 
remaining  members  of  each  group  are  not 
named  after  their  lowest  note,  but  after  that 
of  their  fundamental  inversion ;  thus  (b'),  (c;), 
and  (p'),  (y7)  are  respectively  the  major  and 
minor  common  chords  of  G  in  their  first  and 
second  inversions.  The  reason  of  this,  as  far 
as  the  major  group  is  concerned,  follows  di- 
rectly from  Helmholtz's  theory  of  consonance 
and  dissonance.  The  notes  of  the  triads  (a'), 
v^O)  (c/)  are  all  coincident  with  individual  har- 
monics of  a  composite  sound  whose  funda- 


mental tone  is  the  low  0 


for 


(a')  and  (b'),  and  the  octave  above  that  note 
for  (c')  ;  hence  they  may  be  regarded  as  form- 
ing a  part  of  the  composite  vibration  of  a  C 
sound,  and  therefore  each  triad  may  be  ap- 
propriately called  by  its  name.  With  the  mi- 
nor triads  this  is  not  so  completely  true,  be- 
cause the  E|,  in  (a;),  (/?'),  and  (y')  is  not  coinci- 
dent with  an  overtone  of  C.  The  other  two 
notes,  however,  are  in  each  case  leading  har- 
monics of  C,  and"  therefore  these  triads  belong 
at  any  rate  more  to  0  than  to  any  other  note, 
Common  chords  of  more  than  three  constitu- 
ent sounds  can  only  be  formed  by  adding  to 
the  consonant  triads  notes  which  are  exact  oc- 
taves above  or  below  those  of  the  triads.  The 
bright  open  character  of  the  major  and  the 
gloomy  veiled  effects  of  minor  chords  are  at- 
tributed by  Helmholtz  to  the  different  way  in 
which  combination  tones  enter  in  the  two 
cases.  The  positions  of  the  first  order  of  com- 
bination tones,  for  each  of  the  six  consonant 
triads,  are  shown  in  crotchets  in  the  appended 
stave,  the  primaries  being  indicated  by  minims : 


v 

& 

IT 

/L 

22 

22 

II 

g 

-41^ 

! 

t-^:-      4-..       4 

2  —  ^  ^ 

—  t- 

~H~ 

i 


m 


•  MUSIC 


Each  interval  gives  rise  to  its  own  combination 
tone,  but,  in  the  cases  of  the  fundamental  po- 
sition and  second  inversion  of  the  0  major 
triad,  two  combination  tones  happen  to  coin- 
cide. The  reader  will  at  once  observe  that  in 
the  major  group  no  note  extraneous  to  the 
harmony  is  brought  in  by  the  combination 
tones.  In  the  minor  group  this  is  no  longer 
the  case.  The  fundamental  position  and  the 
first  inversion  of  the  triad  are  both  in  an  A|>, 
which  is  foreign  to  the  harmony,  and  the  sec- 
ond inversion  involves  an  additional  extraneous 
note,  B|>.  The  position  of  these  adventitious 
sounds  is  not  such  as  to  produce  dissonance, 
for  which  they  are  too  far  from  each  other  and 
from  the  notes  of  the  triad ;  but  they  cloud  the 
transparency  of  the  harmony,  and  so  give  rise 
to  the  effects  characteristic  of  the  minor  mode. 
The  unsatisfying  character  of  minor  compared 
with  major  triads  comes  out  with  peculiar  dis- 
tinctness on  the  melodeon;  as  indeed,  from 
the  powerful  combination  tones  of  that  instru- 
ment, we  should  naturally  have  anticipated. — 
Sedley  Taylor,  from  whose  work  "  On  Sound 
and  Music  "  nearly  all  of  the  above  passage  on 
inversion  is  taken,  says :  "  The  musical  nota- 
tion in  ordinary  use  evidently  takes  for  granted 
a  scale  consisting  of  a  limited  number  of  fixed 
sounds.  Moreover,  it  indicates  directly  abso- 
lute pitch,  and  only  indirectly  relative  pitch. 
In  order  to  ascertain  the  interval  between  any 
two  notes  on  the  stave,  we  must  go  through  a 
little  calculation,  involving  the  clef,  the  key 
signature,  and  perhaps,  in  addition,  'acciden- 
tal '  sharps  or  flats.  Now  these  complications, 
if  necessary  for  pianoforte  music,  are  perfectly 
gratuitous  in  the  case  of  vocal  music.  The 
voice  wants  only  to  be  told  on  what  note  to 
begin,  and  what  intervals  to  sing  afterward; 
i.  e.,  it  is  concerned  with  absolute  pitch  only 
at  its  start,  and  needs  to  be  troubled  with  it 
no  further.  Hence,  to  place  the  ordinary  no- 
tation before  a  child  who  is  to  be  taught  to 
sing,  is  like  presenting  him  with  a  manual  for 
learning  to  dance,  compiled  on  the  theory  that 
human  feet  can  only  move  in  twelve  different 
ways.  Not  only  does  the  established  notation 
encumber  the  vocalist  with  information  which 
he  does  not  want ;  it  fails  to  communicate  the 
one  special  piece  of  information  which  he  does 
want.  It  is  essential  to  really  good  music  that 
every  note  heard  should  stand  in  a  definite  re- 
lationship to  its  tonic  or  key  note.  Now  there 
is  nothing  in  the  established  notation  to  mark 
clearly  and  directly  what  the  relation  ought  in 
such  case  to  be.  Unless  the  vocalist,  besides 
his  own  part,  is  provided  with  that  of  the  ac- 
companiment, and  possesses  some  knowledge 
of  harmony,  he  cannot  ascertain  how  the  notes 
set  down  for  him  are  related  to  the  key  note 
and  to  each  other.  The  extreme  inconvenience 
of  this  must  have  become  painfully  evident 


to  any  one  who  has  frequently  sung  concert- 
ed music  from  a  single  part.  A  bass,  we  will 
suppose,  after  leaving  off  on  F#,  is  directed  to  • 
rest  thirteen  bars,  and  then  come  in  fortissimo 
on  his  high  Efc.  It  is  impossible  for  him  to 
keep  the  absolute  pitch  of  Fj^in  his  head  du- 
ring this  long  interval,  which  is  perhaps  occu- 
pied by  the  other  voices  in  modulating  into 
some  remote  key ;  and  his  part  vouchsafes  no 
indication  in  what  relation  the  E^  stands  to 
the  notes  or  chords  immediately  preceding  it. 
There  remains  then  nothing  for  him  to  do  but 
to  sing  at  a  venture  some  note  at  the  top  of 
his  voice,  in  the  hope  that  it  may  prove  to  be 
E|>,  though  with  considerable  dread,  in  the  op- 
posite event,  of  committing  a  conspicuous  for- 
tissimo blunder.  The  essential  requisite  for  a 
system  of  musical  notation,  therefore,  is  that, 
whenever  it  specifies  any  sound,  it  shall  indi- 
cate in  a  direct  and  simple  manner  the  relation 
in  which  that  sound  stands  to  its  tonic  for  the 
time  being.  A  method  by  which  this  criterion 
is  very  completely  satisfied  shall  now  be  briefly 
described.  The  old  Italian  singing  masters  de- 
noted the  seven  notes  of  the  major  scale,  reck- 
oned from  the  key  note  upward,  by  the  sylla- 
bles do,  re,  mi,  fa,  sol,  la,  si.  As  long  as  a 
melody  moves  only  in  the  major  mode,  without 
modulation,  it  clearly  admits  of  being  written 
down,  as  far  as  relations  of  pitch  only  are  con- 
cerned, by  the  use  of  these  syllables.  The 
opening  phrase  of  '  Rule  Britannia,'  for  in- 
stance, would  stand  thus :  do,  do,  do,  re,  mi,  fa, 
sol,  do,  re,  re,  mi,  fa,  mi.  In  order  to  abridge 
the  notation,  we  may  indicate  each  syllable  by 
its  initial  consonant.  The  ambiguity  which 
would  thus  arise  between  sol  and  si  is  got  rid 
of  by  altering  the  latter  syllable  into  ti.  In 
order  to  distinguish  a  note  from  those  of  the 
same  name  in  the  adjacent  octaves  above  and 
below  it,  an  accent  is  added,  either  above  or 
below  the  corresponding  initial.  Thus  d'  is  an 
octave  above  d;  d,  an  octave  below  d.  When 
a  modulation  (i.  e.\  a  change  of  tonic)  occurs, 
it  is  shown  in  the  following  manner :  A  note 
necessarily  stands  in  a  twofold  relation  to  the 
outgoing  and  incoming  tonic.  The  interval  it 
forms  with  the  new  tonic  is  different  from  that 
which  it  formed  with  the  old  one.  Each  of 
these  intervals  can  be  denoted  by  a  suitable 
syllable  initial,  and  the  displacement  of  one  of 
these  initials  by  the  other  represents  in  the 
aptest  manner  the  supersession  of  the  old  by 
the  new  tonic.  The  old  initial  is  written  above 
and  to  the  left  of  the  new  one.  Thus  rf  indi- 
cates that  the  note  re  is  to  be  sung,  but  its  name 
changed  to  fa.  As  this  is  a  somewhat  difficult 
point,  a  few  modulations  are  appended,  ex- 
pressed both  in  the  established  notation  and  in 
that  now  under  consideration.  The  instances 
selected  are  from  0  to  G-,  from  0  to  F,  from 
E  to  C,  from  G  to  F#. 


fg j 


f       m       d 


S 


d,       f       m       d 


MUSIC 


83 


Immediately  after  a  modulation,  the  ordinary 
syllable  initials  come  into  use  again,  and  con- 
tinue to  be  employed  until  a  fresh  modulation 
occurs.  It  will  be  seen  at  once  that  the  diffi- 
culty of  '  remote  keys,'  which  is  so  serious  in 


f      m       d 


the  established  notation,  thus  altogether  disap- 
pears. For  instance,  a  vocal  phrase  occurring 
in  Spohr's  'Last  Judgment,'  which  in  the  es- 
tablished notation  is  represented  in  the  fol- 
lowing manner : 


il§||il== 


takes,  in  the  notation  before  us,  the  simple  form, 

sit   |   d'  mf  8   \    sfl  II  s    |  / m. 


As  another  example,  take  the  following,  from 
the  same  work : 


d 


The  system  of  notation  of  which  a  cursory 
sketch  has  just  been  given  originated,  it  is  said, 
with  two  Norwich  ladies  named  Glover,  but 
has  received  its  present  form  at  the  hands  of 
Mr.  J.  Curwen,  to  whom  it  owes  the  name  of 
'tonic  sol-fa,'  by  which  it  is  now  so  widely 
known.  No  mention  has  been  made  of  the 
notation  for  minor  and  chromatic  intervals, 
nor  of  that  for  denoting  the  relations  of  time 
by  measures  appealing  directly  to  the  eye,  in- 
stead of  by  mere  symbols.  On  these  and  all 
other  points  connected  with  his  system,  Mr. 
Curwen's  published  works  on  tonic  sol-fa 
give  full  and  thoroughly  lucid  and  intelligible 
explanations.  Mr.  Curwen  has  also  created  a 
very  extensive  literature  of  the  best  vocal  mu- 
sic, printed  in  his  own  notation,  which  has 
given  a  most  remarkable  impulse  to  choral 
singing."  Helmholtz  gives  his  opinion  in  favor 
of  the  tonic  sol-fa  method. — Melody  is  a  se- 
quence of  sounds  of  different  heights  and  du- 
rations, producing  an  agreeable  effect.  In  the 
development  of  music,  melody  preceded  har- 
mony ;  and  Helmholtz  traces  the  progress  of 
musical  theory  through  three  distinct  periods, 
viz. :  1,  homophonous  music  of  antiquity,  to 
which  belongs  the  music  at  present  in  use  among 
oriental  people;  2,  polyphonic  music  of  the 
middle  ages,  which  allows  of  several  parts,  but 
without  attaching  any  importance  to  the  indi- 
vidual signification  of  musical  accords ;  its  pe- 
riod extends  from  the  10th  to  the  lYth  century, 
when  it  developed  into :  3,  harmonic  or  modern 
music,  characterized  by  the  importance  given 
to  harmony  considered  in  itself.  This  school 
of  music  began  to  develop  in  the  16th  century. 
The  best  theory  of  melody,  like  that  of  har- 
mony, is  based  on  the  existence  of  the  har- 
monics in  all  musical  sounds.  The  harmonics 
which  exist  in  any  two  sounds  determine  the 
affinity  of  their  sequence,  just  as  the  affinities 
existing  between  the  notes  of  any  chord  depend 


d 


f 


d 


on  the  harmonics  which  are  common  to  them. 
It  is  necessary  for  the  existence  of  a  melody 
that  the  sounds  composing  it  shall  have  definite 
intervals  between  them,  or,  in  other  words, 
steps  in  pitch,  and  that  these  sounds  shall  have 
definite  durations.  The  measure  of  the  music 
directs  us  in  the  division  of  time,  while  the 
sequence  of  the  notes  by  definite  numbers  of 
tones  and  semitones  gives  us  'the  means  of 
making  the  steps  in  pitch ;  and  thus  we  have 
the  movement  of  the  music  from  the  rhythm 
and  the  melody.  Such  sounds  as  that  made  by 
the  wind  produce  confused  and  unmusical  im- 
pressions because  of  the  absence  of  measure 
and  of  gradations  in  pitch ;  but  music  has  a 
scale  for  measuring  the  ascending  and  descend- 
ing movements  of  sounds,  and  this  scale  is  the 
gamut.  The  foregoing  considerations  will  lead 
to  a  rational  explanation  why,  in  the  musical 
scale,  we  have  the  octave,  the  fifth,  the  third, 
and  so  on.  In  the  following  table  are  given 
the  tonic,  and  under  it  various  musical  inter- 
vals. Each  interval  is  followed  by  those  of  its 
harmonics  which  it  has  in  common  with  the 
tonic.  The  greater  the  number  of  such  ties, 
the  greater  the  affinity  of  the  notes. 


Tonic  (1) 
Octave  (2) 
Twelfth  (3) 
Fifth 


Major  third 
Minor  third 


The  octave  has  all  of  its  even  harmonics  in 
common  with  the  tonic ;  therefore  the  affinity 
between  it  and  the  tonic  is  greater  than  that 
between  the  notes  forming  any  other  interval. 
Hence,  the  octave  is  to  a  great  extent  the  rep- 
etition of  the  tonic,  and  this  is  of  course  true 
of  all  the  notes  of  any  octave,  referred  to  the 


MUSIC 


same  notes  in  the  octave  below.     Thus  we 
have  a  rational  explanation  of  the  fact  that 
each  succeeding  octave  repeats  the  impression 
made  by  the  one  which  preceded  it.     The  fun- 
damental tone  of  the  twelfth  is  really  the  third 
harmonic  of  the  tonic,  and  its  second  and  third 
harmonics  coincide  with  the  sixth  and  ninth 
harmonics  of  the  tonic;  but  the  affinity  be- 
tween the  tonic  and  its  twelfth  is  evidently  far 
less  than  that  existing  between  the  tonic  and 
its  octave.    In  diminishing  degrees  of  affinity 
follow  the  fifth,  fourth,  major  third,  and  minor 
third.    The  nearest  affinities  dominated  in  the 
earlier  periods  of  music.    Thus,  in  the  poly- 
phonic chanting  of  the  middle  ages  the  fifths 
were  most  in  vogue,  while  the  thirds  and  sixths 
are  typical  of  modern  music,  and  are  charac- 
teristic of  the  early  developments  of  harmony. 
According  to  Helmholtz,  there  is  an  affinity  of 
the  first  degree  between  two  sounds  when  they 
have  at  least  one  harmonic  in  common;  an 
affinity  of  the  second  degree  when  the^two 
sounds  have  a  harmonic  in  common  with  a 
third  sound.    From  these  premises  he  deduces 
the  construction  of  the  diatonic  scale  with 
notes  which  have  for  the  tonic  affinities  of  the 
first  and  second  degrees.    The  immediate  affin- 
ities of  the  tonic  0  are  composed  of  the  notes 
Oa,  G,  F,  A,  E,  and  E|>,  if  we  confine  ourselves 
to  the  first  six  harmonics,  the  others  being  too 
feeble  to  determine  an  affinity.     We  thus  have 
the  gamuts  :Q__E_F_G_A__Ca; 
or  better,  0  _  _  Ea|>  _  F  _  G  _  A  _  _  02,  for 
we  cannot  place  in  the  same  gamut  notes  so 
near  to  each  other  as  E  and  Eu.    In  this  series 
there  are  two  intervals  which  are  too  large, 
and  in  order  to  divide  them  we  must  recur  to 
the  affinities  of  G,  which  are  0,  D,  Ej,,  B,  C2. 
The  D  and  the  B  are  thus  found  to  be  related 
to  0  by  an  affinity  of  the  second  degree ;  on 
interpolating  them  in  the  above  gamuts,  we 
obtain  the  diatonic  gamut  0,  D,  E,  F,  G,  A,  B, 
Ca ;  which  becomes  the  minor  ascending  gamut 
if  we  place  E[,  in  the  place  of  E.    The  D  which 
we  find  in  the  affinity  of  F  differs  by  a  comma 
from  D  as  determined  by  G.    These  examples 
will  serve  to  show  the  method  followed  by 
Helmholtz.    "  In  studying  the  rules  of  harmony 
we  finally  perceive  that  the  accords,  considered 
as  complex  sounds,  contain  the  same  relations 
of  affinity  as  the  notes  of  the  gamut,  by  reason 
of  the  coincidence  of  some  of  their  notes.    The 
important  function  of  the  tonic  in  modern 
music,  or  what  M.  Fetis  calls  the  principle  of 
tonality,  is  also  explained  by  the  properties  of 
the  harmonics  of  the  tonic.     These  principles, 
so  clear  and  so  simple,  have  afforded  Helmholtz 
the  means  of  deducing  from  considerations  in 
some  respects  mathematical  the  fundamental 
rules  of  musical  composition.    Nevertheless, 
we  cannot  but  be  of  the  opinion  that  the  last 
word  on  the  theory  of  music  has  not  been  said, 
for  all  of  the  deductions  of  Helmholtz  are  noi 
beyond  criticism.    Thus,  Arthur  von  Oettingen 
has  criticised  with  much  reason  the  explanation 
which  Helmholtz  gives  of  the  difference  be- 


tween the  major  and  minor  modes,  for  the 
jhenomenon  of  the  harmonics  is  sometimes 
i>arely  perceptible.  Yon  Oettingen  finds  that 
difference  in  the  reciprocal  principles  of  tonicity 
and  of  phonicity.  The  tonicity  of  an  interval 
or  of  an  accord  consists  in  the  possibility  of  con- 
sidering it  as  a  group  of  harmonics  of  the  same 
'undamental  sound.  It  is  thus  that  the  major 
accord  is  formed  by  the  fourth,  fifth,  and  sixth 
Harmonics  of  the  tonic  or  fundamental.  1. 
Phonicity  is  the  inverse  property  of  having  a 
larmonic  in  common ;  the  minor  accord  ^,  £, 
A  has  the  sound  1  as  common  harmonic  or 
phonic.  The  major  accord  has  the  phonic  60 ; 
the  minor  accord  has  for  tonic  -^5-.  These  re- 
lations can  be  expressed  as  follows : 


4-5- 


60 


Tonic.       Accord       Phonic, 
(minor). 

F     A-C-E     E 


Tonic.       Accord       Phonic, 
(major). 

C     C-E-G     B 


Musicians  call  C  the  tonic  and  G  the  domi- 
nant of  the  gamut  of  C  major,  which  can  be 
written  thus  : 


OD 

1 


EFGA 

I       I       I       I 


B 


Yon  Oettingen  calls  E  the  phonic  and  A  the 
dominant  of  A  minor,  and  writes  the  above 
gamut  as  follows: 


E      F 


G      A 

!      f 


B      C 

f       I 


D      E 

4       1 


By  the  development  of  this  dualism  he  obtains 
the  parallel  construction  of  the  major  and  mi- 
nor modes."  (Radau,  Acoustique.}— Whenever 
music  is  written  for  parts,  the  laws  of  harmony 
necessarily  come  into  play,  and  the  skill  of  the 
composer  is  required,  not  only  to  have  the 
harmonics  correct,  but  that  the  parts  shall  be 
distinct  and  clear.  This  polyphonic  style  re- 
quires very  intricate  laws,  and  hence  persons 
capable  of  creating  lovely  melodies,  and  wri- 
ting them  in  combination  with  other  themes, 
are  as  rare  as  great  poets.  In  harmonious 
treatment  of  music,  the  following  are  a  few 
of  the  radical  laws.  In  the  regular  progression 
of  harmonics  the  fundamental  bass  note  falls 
a  fifth  to  whatever  note,  or  rises  a  fourth  to 
the  octave  above  it ;  but  this  law  has  many 
exceptions.  If  in  the  treble  or  soprano  part 
the  procession  of  notes  is  upward,  say  C  D  E 
G,  the  bass  cannot  give  the  same  notes,  but 
must  use  others,  such  iterations  being  intoler- 
able to  the  musical  ear.  Accordingly,  it  is  a 
rule  in  harmony  or  part  writing  that  contrary 
motion  is  best  between  the  extreme  parts ;  or 
that  when  one  goes  upward  the  others  go 
downward,  and  the  reverse.  The  parallel  mo- 
tion, as  it  is  called,  is  in  use  between  extreme 
parts,  but  then  the  notes  must  be  different. 
Thirds  or  sixths  move  harmoniously  together. 
When  the  parts  are  in  octaves,  the  law  against 
identical  notes  moving  up  or  down  together 


MUSIC 


85 


ceases,  for  the  effect  of  such  unity  supersedes 
harmony  for  the  moment.  There  are  certain 
keys  which  have  a  close  alliance  to  others. 
Given  a  certain  key  or  tonic,  for  example,  on 
which  it  is  proposed  to  write  a  piece,  say  C : 
the  keys  having  the  closest  alliance  to  this  are 
G  major,  the  fourth  below ;  A  minor,  the  third 
below ;.  F  major,  the  fourth  above ;  and  E 
minor,  the  third  above.  Next  in  order  of  alli- 
ance to  0  are  E  major,  E  flat  major,  A  major, 
and  A  flat  major.  The  key  of  B  major  is 
widely  dissociated  from  C  ;  so  too  B  flat  ma- 
jor; and  F  sharp  major  is  a  distant  musical 
shore  only  to  be  approached  in  a  long  musical 
voyage.  D  minor  and  D  major  in  their  rela- 
tions to  C  can  be  used  but  transiently.  D  flat 
major  can  be  reached  readily  through  0  minor. 
The  passing  to  a  new  key  without  an  inter- 
mediate chord  is  called  a  transition ;  when  one 
or  more  chords  are  used,  it  is  called  a  modu- 
lation. Transitions  are  among  the  brilliant 
effects  of  modern  dramatic  music.  A  great 
surprise,  sudden  and  violent  emotion,  warrants 
a  transition,  and  the  change  may  be  further 
enforced  by  an  explosion  of  all  the  orchestral 
instruments.  The  transition  is  marked  in  pro- 
portion as  the  notes  of  the  scale  are  changed. 
A  transition  from  0  to  G  for  the  purpose 
named  would  be  timid  and  feeble ;  but  one 
from  C  to  A  flat  or  D  flat  would  be  effective. 
In  the  one  case  all  the  notes  of  the  chord  of  G 
are  found  in  the  scale  of  C ;  in  the  others,  two 
notes  are  changed  ;  hence  the  shock. — "We 
close  this  portion  of  the  article  with  a  few 
observations  on  the  relations  existing  between 
the  physical  theory  of  consonance  and  disso- 
nance and  the  aesthetics  of  music.  Helmholtz 
founds  his  theory  of  consonance  and  dissonance 
on  the  fact  that  whenever  a  dissonance  is  per- 
ceived beats  are  produced  by  the  constituent 
sounds  of  the  chord,  and  that  in  consonance 
these  beats  are  few  or  entirely  wanting.  On 
this  physical  basis  the  intervals  are  placed  in 
the  following  order,  according  to  their  degree 
of  freedom  from  dissonance.  The  octave  stands 
first,  then  follow  the  fifth,  the  fourth,  the  major 
third,  the  major  sixth,  the  minor  third,  the 
minor  sixth.  This  classification,  as  stated,  is 
based  on  the  decreasing  number  of  beating 
harmonics  in  the  successive  intervals;  but  it 
does  not  necessarily  follow  that  the  smoothest 


chords  will  always  be  those  which  are  musi- 
cally the  most  pleasing ;  for  may  there  not  be 
some  other  property  which  gives  us  greater 
satisfaction  than  mere  consonance  ?  "^Esthetic 
considerations  come  in  here,  with  the  same 
right  to  be  heard  as  mechanical  considerations 
within  their  own  domain.  Now  unquestion- 
ably the  ear's  order  of  merit  is  not  the  same 
as  the  mechanical  order.  It  places  thirds  and 
sixths  first,  then  the  fourth  and  fifth,  and  the 
octave  last  of  all.  The  constant  appearance 
of  thirds  and  sixths  in  two-part  music,  com- 
pared with  the  infrequent  employment  of  the 
remaining  concords,  leaves  no  doubt  on  this 
point.  In  fact  these  intervals  have  a  peculiar 
richness  and  permanent  charm  about  them,  not 
possessed  by  the  fourth  or  fifth  to  anything 
like  the  same  extent,  and  by  the  octave  not  at 
all.  The  thin  effect  of  the  octave  undoubtedly 
depends  on  the  fact  that  every  harmonic  of 
the  higher  of  two  musical  sounds  forming  that 
interval,  coincides  exactly  with  a  harmonic  of 
the  lower  sound.  Thus  no  new  sound  is  intro- 
duced by  the  higher  note  ;  the  quality  of  that 
previously  heard  is  merely  modified  by  the 
alteration  of  relative  intensity  among  the  con- 
stituent harmonics.  Major  and  minor  thirds 
bring  in  a  greater  variety  of  pitch  in  the  re- 
sultant mass  of  sound  than  does  the  fifth ;  but 
this  can  hardly  be  said  of  the  major  and  mi- 
nor sixths  compared  with  the  fourth.  On  the 
whole,  we  are  inclined  to  attribute  the  predi- 
lection of  the  ear  for  thirds  and  sixths,  over 
the  other  concords,  to  circumstances  connected 
with  its  perception  of  key  relations,  though 
we  are  not  able  to  give  a  satisfactory  account 
of  them.  The  ear  enjoys,  in  alternation  with 
consonant  chords,  dissonances  of  so  harsh  a 
description  as  to  be  barely  endurable  when 
sustained  by  themselves.  This  constitutes  a 
marked  distinction  between  it  and  the  other 
organs  of  sense.  As  instances  of  the  kind  of 
discords  in  which  the  ear  can  find  delight,  take 
the  following.  The  chord  marked  *  should  in 
each  case  be  played  first  by  itself,  and  then  in 
the  place  assigned  to  it  by  the  composer.  The 
effect  of  this  isolated  discord  is  so  intensely 
harsh  that  it  is  at  first  difficult  to  understand 
how  any  preceding  and  succeeding  concords 
can  make  it  at  all  tolerable ;  yet  the  sequence, 
in  both  phases  cited,  is  beautiful. 


Last  Chorus,  BACH'S 
Passion."— (St.  Matthew.) 


Considerations  such  as  those  just  alleged  tend 
to  show  that,  while  physical  science  is  ab- 
solutely authoritative  in  all  that  relates  to 


the  constitution  of  musical  sounds,  and  the 
smoothness  of  their  combinations,  the  com- 
poser's direct  perception  of  what  is  musi- 


86 


MUSIC 


cally  beautiful  must  mainly  direct  him  in  the 
employment  of  his  materials."— Besides  the 
authorities  previously  mentioned,  see  Fetis, 
Traite  du  contrepoint  et  de  la  fugue  (Pans, 
1825);  Reicha,  Traite  de  haute  composition 
musicale,  edited  by  Czerny  (4  vols.,  Vienna, 
1834)-  Cherubini,  Cours  de  contrepoint  et  de 
fugue  (Paris,  1835 ;  translated  into  English  by 
0.  Clarke) ;  Dehn,  Lehre  wm  ContrapunU,  &c. 
(Berlin,  1841) ;  Marx,  Die  Lehre  von  der  mu- 
sikalischen  Composition  (4  vols.,  Leipsic,  1852) ; 
Richter,  Lehrbuch  der  Harmonie  (Leipsic,  6th 
ed.,  1866;  translated  into  English  by  John  P. 
Morgan,  New  York,  1867) ;  Ouseley,  "  Treatise 
on  Harmony"  (Oxford,  1868);  "Treatise  on 
Counterpoint,  Canon,  and  Fugue  "  (1869) ;  and 
Weber,  Allgemeine  Mmiklehre  (Darmstadt, 
1872).—  HISTORY  OF  Music.  The  history  of 
music  is  older  than  that  of  civilization.  The 
most  savage  races  are  found  to  have  some  rude 
musical  instruments,  sufficient  at  least  to  mark 
certain  rhythmical  divisions  of  time  and  to 
serve  as  accompaniment  to  the  dance ;  those 
less  savage  have  melodies ;  while  in  all  recorded 
instances  where  nations  have  advanced  from 
barbarism  to  civilization  music  has  followed 
the  national  growth.  Among  the  oldest  na- 
tions of  whose  history  we  have  any  knowledge 
it  has  been  cultivated  from  time  immemorial. 
The  Hindoo,  Chinese,  and  Japanese  music  is 
probably  what  it  was  thousands  of  years  ago. 
The  Chinese,  whose  music  practically  is -un- 
pleasant to  refined  ears,  have  some  sweet-toned 
instruments,  and  a  notation  for  the  melodies 
played  on  them  which  is  sufficiently  clear. 
Their  history  and  fables  touching  the  art  ante- 
'date  by  many  centuries  those  of  classic  na- 
tions; in  the  time  of  the  emperor  Hoangti, 
some  centuries  before  the  Christian  era,  they 
had  discovered  that  the  octave  was  divisible 
into  12  semitones.  The  relations  which  the 
Egyptians  assigned  between  the  sounds  of  mu- 
sic and  the  planets,  the  signs  of  the  zodiac  and 
the  24  hours,  are  all  found  among  the  Chinese. 
The  two  Chinese  instruments,  the  Mn  and  the 
c7ie,  contain  all  the  elements  of  whatever  scales.. 
Calculations  among  the  Chinese  on  all  combi- 
nations of  sounds  have  been  carried  to  a  great 
extent.  Kouie,  a  Chinese  musician  who  lived 
1,000  years  before  the  assumed  era  of  Orpheus, 
said :  "  When  I  play  upon  my  Icing  the  animals 
range  themselves  spell-bound  before  me  with 
melody."  Confucius  said  100  years  before  Pla- 
to :  u  Wouldst  thou  know  if  &  people  be  well  gov- 
erned, if  its  manners  be  good  or  bad,  examine 
the  music  it  practises."  In  their  system  and 
practice  the  Chinese  detail  eight  kinds  of  sound 
under  which  all  can  be  classed :  metal,  stone, 
silk,  bamboo,  gourd,  earthenware,  skins,  and 
wood.  This  division,  according  to  them,  is  to 
be  found  in  nature.  The  different  substances 
are  made  into  instruments.  They  are,  besides 
the  gong  and  the  bamboo  pipes,  the  Icin,  a  body 
of  thin  wood  curved  like  the  top  of  a  violin  to 
increase  resonance,  with  five  strings  of  silk  of 
different  sizes ;  the  che,  an  instrument  kindred 


to  the  Mn,  but  having  the  chromatic  or  scale 
of  half  tones ;  the  king,  a  frame  of  wood  with 
pendent  stone,  graduated  through  16  notes, 
and  struck  with  a  hammer ;  drums ;  a  species 
of  flutes,  which  anciently  had  but  three  finger 
holes ;  brass  instruments  of  the  trumpet  spe- 
cies; guitars  resembling  the  mandolin;  and 
little  boards  with  a  pleasant  sound.  The  Chi- 
nese make  use  of  music  in  their  most  dignified 
ceremonies.  The  sacred  imperial  hymn,  sung 
with  great  pomp  annually,  is  a  sequence  of 
long-drawn  notes,  precisely  parallel  to  the^early 
church  music  in  unison,  and  lacking  the  inter- 
val of  the  fourth  and  seventh,  like  the  old 
crude  popular  scales  of  some  European  nations. 
The  secular  melodies  of  the  Chinese  are  found- 
ed upon  sequences  of  notes,  such  as  are  found 
in  playing  on  the  black  keys  of  the  pianoforte. 
They  eschew  all  harmony  on  principle.  Music 
makes  no  progress  among  the  Chinese,  as  their 
sumptuary  laws  would  restrain  its  development 
if  there  were  genius  to  advance  it.  The  head 
of  the  musicians  in  China  is  called  conservator 
of  the  five  capital  virtues :  humanity,  justice, 
politeness,  wisdom,  and  rectitude.  Their  mu- 
sic affects  a  certain  seriousness,  rejecting  the 
sensuous  element.  The  Persians  rank  vocally 
among  them  as  the  Italians  do  among  us,  and 
it  has  been  said  that  singers  from  that  country 
make  concert  tours  in  China.— The  higher  style 
of  oriental  music,  which  has  a  limited  degree 
of  melodious  merit,  with  rhythms  logically  and 
distinctly  drawn  from  consociation  with  poetry 
as  refined  and  liquid  as  the  Italian,  may  be 
found  in  that  of  India,  dating  also  from  the  re- 
motest antiquity.  The  poetic  legends  of  Hin- 
dostan,  and  indeed  of  all  southern  Asia,  rival 
those  of  China  and  Greece  in  ascribing  fabu- 
lous effects  to  music.  The  Hindoos  consider 
every  art  as  a  direct  revelation  from  heaven  ; 
and  while  their  inferior  deities  communicated 
other  parts,  it  was  Brahma  himself  who  pre- 
sented music  to  mortals.  To  his  son  Nared  is 
imputed  the  invention  of  the  vina,  a  stringed 
instrument  with  a  finger  or  key  board  for  frets, 
being  of  the  same  family  as  the  modern  guitar. 
The  Hindoo  writers  on  music  (and  there  are 
works  exhibiting  earnest  study  of  its  mathe- 
matical bases)  theoretically  recognize  divisions 
of  the  scale  corresponding  to  our  octave  in  22 
fractional  tones,  these  fractions  being  quarters 
or  thirds,  or  approximate  equivalents.  As  to 
the  fractions,  they  admit  practically  that  they 
have  no  existence,  since  only  tones  or  semi- 
tones are  known  in  their  actual  compositions. 
The  succession  of  tones  and  semitones  in  their 
scale  is  that  of  the  diatonic.  The  seven  notes 
of  this  scale  they  term  swarras  or  sounds,  the 
first  or  key  note  being  distinguished  from  all 
others  by  this  generic  word,  and  the  six  others 
by  different  names.  But  their  words  being 
polysyllabic,  the  ancient  Hindoo  artists  took 
their  first  syllables  only  to  designate  respec- 
tively the  notes  of  the  scale.  The  syllables 
thus  chosen  are  quite  as  good  as  the  Italian  do, 
re,  mi,  fa,  sol,  la,  si,  do,  and  are  as  follows : 


MUSIC 


87 


*«,  ri,  ga,  ma,  pa,  dha,  ni.  These  are  the  notes 
of  the  major  diatonic  scale.  The  minor  mode 
is  also  familiar  to  East  Indian  music.  The  fin- 
ger board  of  the  vina  is  about  two  feet  long, 
with  frets  like  the  guitar,  which  permit  the 
player  to  divide  the  scale  into  half  tones  over 
14  notes.  The  Hindoo  writers  have  names 
corresponding  to  ours  for  the  tonic  or  first, 
the  mediant  or  third,  and  dominant  or  fifth  of 
the  scale ;  and  indeed  there  are  multitudinous 
proofs  of  their  assiduous  study  of  the  art,  how- 
ever limited  their  practical  skill,  owing  to  the 
paucity  and  imperfection  of  their  instruments. 
They  have  music  in  common  and  triple  time,  that 
is,  in  groups  of  two  and  three  notes  severally. 
— The  Hebrew  music,  both  vocal  and  instru- 
mental, is  constantly  referred  to  in  the  Bible, 
and  especially  in  the  Psalms,  and  yet  we  have 
no  certain  knowledge  as  to  its  character.  It 
was  probably  founded  on  the  music  of  the 
Egyptians,  and  it  is  conjectured  that  one  of 
the  results  of  the  Egyptian  training  which 
Moses  received  was  the  introduction  into  the 
Hebrew  service  of  the  music  of  the  Egyptian 
priesthood.  But  no  melodies  that  have  come 
down  to  us  can  be  identified  as  those  used  in 
the  temple  service.  That  the  singers  were  a 
body  by  themselves  under  leaders,  and  that  the 
singing  was  done  by  alternate  choirs,  as  was 
later  the  case  with  the  primitive  Christians,  is 
well  known.  That  they  had  various  instru- 
ments, both  wind  and  stringed,  is  also  known. 
So  also  had  the  Egyptians ;  but  as  none  of  the 
ancient  nations  possessed  a  knowledge  of  har- 
mony, the  music  they  produced  must  have  been 
to  a  degree  harsh  and  dissonant.  The  discovery 
by  Bruce  of  a  painting  of  a  harp  upon  a  The- 
ban  tomb  furnished  the  first  evidence  as  to  the 
ancient  state  of  music  on  the  Nile,  and  of  the 
fact  that  long  before  Athens  was  founded  the 
Egyptians  were  possessed  of  stringed  instru- 
ments. It  is  further  proved  from  the  monu- 
ments that  the  Egyptians  had  an  instrument 
with  frets  like  the  guitar ;  none  of  the  hun- 
dreds of  representations  of  instruments  of 
Grecian  music  indicate  that  the  Greeks  had 
arrived  at  that  point  of  ingenuity.  What  the 
Egyptian  composition  of  music  was  can  only 
be  inferred,  for  no  relics  of  it  exist,  unless  the 
inartificial  songs  of  the  boatmen  on  the  Nile 
be  taken  as  samples  of  the  art  of  a  polished 
people. — Greek  music  was  probably  little  more 
than  sonorous  declamation,  sustained  by  the 
lyre,  and  some  pleasant  notes  from  the  flute 
and  pandean  pipes,  with  the  martial  trumpet 
on  occasion.  In  the  Greek  drama  the  language 
was  sung,  not  spoken.  It  was  a  musical  reci- 
tative, and  the  chorus  intoned.  The  theatres 
were  very  large,  without  roofs,  and  were  ca- 
pable of  holding  many  thousands.  To  enable 
the  performers  to  be  heard  well,  it  was  neces- 
sary so  to  intone  the  voice;  and  moreover 
they  wore  metallic  masks  to  add  to  the  reso- 
nance. This  was  as  artificial  a  mode  of  repre- 
senting passion  and  emotion  as  the  modern 
opera,  though  its  means  were  fewer.  It  is 


generally  conceded  that  the  Greeks  did  not 
understand  harmony,  and  that  their  lyre  of  a 
few  strings  merely  played  the  notes  of  the 
voice.  The  discovery  of  some  Greek  musical 
manuscripts  (that  is,  poetry  with  musical  signs) 
on  the  revival  of  letters  gave  rise  to  great  dis- 
plays of  erudition  and  much  passionate  argu- 
ment. Fanaticism  in  favor  of  Greek  music 
culminated,  but  all  to  no  purpose ;  for  no  sat- 
isfactory key  to  the  Greek  system  was  found. 
Although  a  treatise  on  ancient  music  by  Euclid 
is  extant,  and  other  writers  of  antiquity  who 
have  come  down  to  us  discuss  it,  they  shed 
little  light  on  the  ancient  musical  manuscripts. 
"We  know  that  the  Greeks  had  many  hundreds 
of  musical  signs;  that  to  be  a  musician-poet 
required  years  of  practice;  but  with  the  in- 
terpretations of  the  two  or  three  extant  Greek 
musical  manuscripts,  we  can  only  discover,  if 
the  interpretations  be  right,  that  they  had 
some  sort  of  minor  mode,  and  declaimed  in  a 
kind  of  recitative,  and  intoned  pretty  much  as 
is  done  in  the  Roman  Catholic  service  by  the 
priest.  The  Greek  lyre  was  too  poor  an  instru- 
ment to  afford  much  melody,  though  the  an- 
cient flute  might  have  had  some  advantages; 
and  as  there  was  a  theocratic  resistance  to  im- 
provements in  instruments,  and  the  mainte- 
nance of  music  in  prescribed  forms  was  con- 
sidered a  state  necessity,  we  may  fairly  infer 
that  .the  science  of  music  was  not  understood 
by  the  Greeks.  Nevertheless  their  interest  in 
it  was  great.  Musical  tournaments  were  held, 
and  choruses  and  dances  were  used  to  aid  the 
religious  ceremonies.  Pythagoras  and  Aris- 
toxenes  wrote  upon  the  art,  and  Boethius  has 
expounded  their  theories  in  five  books  De  Mu- 
sica.  "With  the  Romans  the  art  never  made 
any  progress,  and  their  music  seems  to  have 
been  an  echo  of  the  Greek,  without  force  or 
originality. — In  tracing  the  history  of  the  art 
as  it  exists  in  our  own  day,  we  need  go  no 
further  back  than  to  the  beginning  of  the 
Christian  era ;  for  although  modern  music  may 
be  said  to  have  a  certain  relation  to  that  of  the 
ancients,  the  connection  between  the  two  is  so 
slight  that  it  may  be  disregarded.  We  look 
therefore  to  the  early  music  of  the  Christian 
church,  to  whose  fostering  influence  through 
several  centuries  the  preservation  and  progress 
of  the  art  was  due,  for  the  foundation  upon 
which  the  modern  system  is  built.  The  exact 
nature  of  the  psalms  used  by  the  early  Chris- 
tians is  not  known,  but  they  were  sung  an- 
tiphonally,  and  probably  were  borrowed  partly 
from  Hebrew  and  partly  from  pagan  sources. 
The  first  high  ecclesiastic  who  is  known  to 
have  greatly  interested  himself  in  the  music  of 
the  church  was  St.  Ambrose,  to  whom  are  at- 
tributed many  of  the  early  hymns  and  the  selec- 
tion of  the  four  so-called  Ambrosian  keys  or 
scales  in  which  he  advised  that  the  music  for 
the  church  should  be  written.  The  next  emi- 
nent priest  to  set  his  mark  upon  the  music  of 
his  time  and  to  further  the  advancement  of 
the  art  was  Pope  Gregory  I.  (590-604).  He 


MUSIC 


established  new  ecclesiastical  keys,  founded 
and  encouraged  a  system  of  musical  training  at 
Rome,  wrote  many  hymns,  and  finally  was  the 
father  of  the  Gregorian  chant,  upon  the  broad 
foundation  of  which  the  music  of  the  church 
rested  for  several  centuries.  But  as  yet  har- 
mony, the  most  important  element  of  music, 
did  not  exist.  In  chanting,  the  performers  all 
sang  the  melody.  The  system  of  musical  nota- 
tion was  also  exceedingly,  imperfect,  certain 
signs  called  numce  being  used  to  designate  the 
pitch  and  duration  of  notes,  the  lines  and 
spaces  of  the  staff  not  yet  being  invented.  It 
was  not  until  the  discovery  of  harmony,  and 


the  invention  of  the  staff  and  of  a  proper  no- 
menclature for  the  notes  of  the  scale,  that  the 
art  of  music  began  to  free  itself  from  its  fet- 
ters. During  the  7th,  8th,  and  9th  centuries 
there  is  little  to  be  recorded  in  the  way  of  mu- 
sical progress.  At  the  close  of  the  9th  century 
Hucbald,  a  Flemish  monk,  wrote  a  treatise  on 
harmony,  which  had  already  begun  to  be  prac- 
tised after  a  rude  fashion,  the  octave,  fourth, 
and  fifth  only  being  used,  and  the  parts  pro- 
gressing together.  The  following  example, 
harsh  enough  to  modern  ears,  will  serve  better 
than  any  description  to  show  the  condition  of 
the  science  of  harmony  in  those  days : 


Nos    qui  vi  -  vi-mus  be-  ne  -  di  -  ci-mus  Do-mi  -  num  ex  hoc  mine  et    UB  -  que  in    sse  -  cu  -  lum. 


The  notation  is  modern,  for  it  was  not  till  more 
than  a  century  later  that  Guido  Aretino,  also  a 
monk,  added  two  lines  to  the  staff,  then  consist- 
ing of  two  only,  and  originated  the  system  of 
solmization  on  which  his  reputation  rests.    At 
the  same  time  that  progress  was  made  in  harmo- 
ny within  the  church,  the  love  of  music,  innate 
in  human  nature,  found  expression  through  the 
songs  of  the  people.     There  is  scarcely  any  na- 
tion whose  traditions  do  not  furnish  examples 
of  folk  songs  of  a  remote  antiquity.    The  Celts 
made  great  progress  in  this  direction;    their 
bards  were  famous  for  their  skill  in  poetry 
and  song.    They  also  possessed  an  instrument 
known  as  the  crowth,  which  had  several  strings 
of  different  pitch ;  and  many  writers  on  music 
have  asserted  their  belief  that  the  secrets  of 
harmony  were  known  to  them  before  they 
were  to  the  Italians.     The  French  also  had 
their  chansons,  the  Italians  their  canzonetti, 
and  the  Germans  their  Vollcslieder.    Nothing 
was  more  common  than  for  the  church  com- 
posers to  adopt  some  well  known  popular  air 
as  a  theme  for  their  masses.     Indeed,  the  mass- 
es were  not  infrequently  named  after  the  song 
which  served  as  their  basis,  so  that  we  find 
the  mass  "  Farewell,  my  loves,"  that  of  "  The 
Armed  Man,"  that  of  "  The  Pale-faced  Man," 
that  of  "The  Red  Noses,"  and  many  others 
similarly  named.      The  minstrels,   jongleurs, 
minnesingers,  and  troubadours  played  a  very 
important  part  in   the  development  of    the 
music  of   the  middle  ages.      From  the  close 
of  the  llth  to  the  commencement  of  the  14th 
century  these  musicians  exercised  a  wide  in- 
fluence.     Minstrelsy  and  warlike  deeds  were 
closely  associated ;  many  of  the  knights  were 
also  minstrels.    Among  those  nobles  who  were 
distinguished  troubadours  were  Thibaut,  king 
of  Navarre,  the  chevalier  Raoul  de  Coucy,  and 
William  IX.,  count  of  Poitou.     Pierre  Vidal  of 
Toulouse  accompanied  Richard  of  England  as 
minstrel  on  the  third  crusade.     The  trouba- 
dours cultivated  various  kinds  of  lyric  compo- 
sitions, such  as  the  chanson  or  love  song,  the 


sirvente  or  satire,  the  tenson  or  lyric  contest, 
the  lalada  or  ballad,  and  the  serena  or  sere- 
nade.    On  their  return  from  the  crusades  they 
brought    home    various    new  musical    forms 
caught  in  the  East,  which  served  to  enlarge  the 
domain  of  melody.     In  the  beginning  of  the 
14th  century  the  troubadours  as  a  class  disap- 
peared ;  but  in  that  century  music  received  a 
fresh  impetus  from  the  Netherlander,  who 
suddenly  took  the  lead  of  all  European  natipns 
in  the  cultivation  of  the  art,  which  supremacy 
they  held  for  a  century  and  a  half,  sending  their 
musicians  as  teachers,  leaders,  and  composers 
into  all  countries.     The  Netherlands  at  this 
time  were  rich  and  prosperous;   their  cities 
were  in  a  condition  almost  of  republican  free- 
dom ;  the  government  under  the  house  of  Bur- 
gundy was  liberal,  and  fostered  with  especial 
care  the  arts  of  painting  and  music.    Counter- 
point received  great  attention  during  the  peri- 
od of  the  Dutch  supremacy,  and  in  the  course 
of  the  15th  century  the  Netherlander  became 
the   most  learned  contrapuntists  in  Europe. 
The  first  of  their  composers  who  came  into  no- 
tice was  Guillaume  Dufay,  born  in  Hainaut,  in 
the  latter  part  of  the  14th  century.     His  mass- 
es, which  are  to  be  found  in  manuscript  in  the 
papal  chapel,  are  the  oldest  known  in  contra- 
puntal form.     Dufay  is  credited  with  having 
emancipated  music  from  the  harsh  succession 
of  fourths,  fifths,  octaves,  and  unisons,  which 
constituted  the  harmony  of  preceding  compo- 
sers.   The  next  Flemish  composer  of  eminence 
was  Jan  Okeghem,  who  exerted  great  influence 
not  only  as  a  composer,  but  also  as  a  teacher. 
Among  his  pupils  was  Josquin  des  Pres  (died 
about  1530),  the  most  famous  composer  of  his 
day.    He  did  not  strive,  as  did  many  of  his  time, 
to  construct  impossible  fugues  and  ingenious 
contrapuntal  puzzles,  written  simply  to  display 
his  technical  knowledge,  but  sought  to  infuse 
intelligence  and  soul  into  all  the  parts,  and  to 
give  sympathy  and  expression  to  music.     His 
influence  was  felt  in  Italy,  where  for  a  time  he 
was  attached  to  the  pontifical  choir  of  Sixtus 


MUSIC 


89 


IV.,  and  in  France,  where  he  was  composer 
and  chief  singer  in  the  chapel  of  Louis  XII. 
Among  his  celebrated  pupils  were  Jannequin 
Arcadelt  and  Willaert.  With  the  last  named 
of  these  composers  (died  about  1563)  the  ascen- 
dancy of  the  Dutch  in  musical  composition  be- 
gan to  decline.  The  application  of  movable 
metal  types  to  the  printing  of  notes  in  1502 
served  to  cheapen  and  diffuse  published  music. 
Willaert's  greatest  distinction  rests  on  the  fact 
that  he  was  the  first  celebrated  composer  who 
gave  his  attention  to  the  composition  of  mad- 
rigals, from  which  fact  he  was  called  "the 
father  of  the  madrigal."  While  still  a  young 
man  he  went  to  Venice,  and  he  became  the 
head  of  the  Venetian  school.  During  the 
16th  century,  and  contemporary  with  Willaert, 
lived  many  notable  composers:  in  Italy,  Pa- 
lestrina,  Constanzo  Festa,  Luca  Marenzio  (one 
of  the  greatest  of  madrigalists,  surnamed  the 
Sweet  Swan),  and  Cypriano  de  Rore,  called  by 
the  Italians  il  Divino ;  in  the  Netherlands,  Or- 
lando di  Lasso,  Clemens  non  Papa,  and  Chris- 
tian and  Sebastian  Hollander ;  in  Spain,  Cris- 
tofano  Morales;  in  England,  Marbeck,  Tallis, 
Bird,  Morley,  Weelkes,  and  Wilbye.  Nearly 
all  of  these  distinguished  themselves  as  com- 
posers of  madrigals;  the  English  cultivated 
this  form  of  composition  with  so  much  suc- 
cess that  the  practice  of  madrigals  became  du- 
ring that  century  the  delight  of  refined  society ; 
sight  reading  was  at  that  time  even  more  than 
in  our  own  day  a  common  accomplishment 
among  the  educated.  The  madrigals  of  Wil- 
bye, Weelkes,  and  Morley  have  never  been 
surpassed  in  beauty  of  melody  and  form,  or 
in  the  freedom  with  which  the  different  parts 
move.  In  1601  Thomas  Morley  published  a 
collection  of  madrigals  in  fulsome  praise  of 
Queen  Elizabeth,  entitled  "  The  Triumphs  of 
Oriana,"  to  which  20  English  composers  con- 
tributed. Of  the  composers  of  other  nations 
whom  we  have  named,  the  two  most  famous 
were  Palestrina  and  Orlando  di  Lasso.  The  lat- 
ter was  the  last  of  the  great  Netherlands  school, 
and  after  his  death  the  ascendancy  passed  over 
to  the  Italians.  As  to  Palestrina,  it  is  difficult 
to  overestimate  the  talent  of  the  man  or  his 
influence  over  the  art  in  his  day.  In  his  com- 
positions the  solemn  words  of  the  mass  found 
their  highest  and  noblest  musical  expression. 
He  was  truly  regarded  as  the  great  reformer 
of  church  music.  So  fully  was  his  genius 
recognized  by  the  composers  of  his  own  time, 
that  14  of  the  most  celebrated  combined  to 
compose  and  dedicate  to  him  a  collection  of 
psalms  in  five  parts.  He  used  only  the  eccle- 
siastical modes,  and  avoided  all  straining  after 
effect  by  strange  harmonies;  but  his  knowl- 
edge of  counterpoint,  and  the  elevation  and 
nobility  of  his  style,  made  his  masses  and 
his  other  compositions,  of  which  he  wrote  a 
vast  number,  examples  for  all  time  of  what 
true  church  music  should  be.  During  this 
century  the  keyed  instruments  in  use  were  the 
organ,  the  virginal,  the  spinet,  the  clavichord, 


and  the  harpischord.  The  viol,  the  guitar,  and 
the  flute  were  also  used.  Between  1550  and 
1600  instruments  were  first  introduced  into 
churches  for  the  purpose  of  accompanying 
voices.  No  such  thing  as  independent  accom- 
paniment was  known  at  this  time,  the  instru- 
ments being  used  only  to  reenforce  the  voice 
and  playing  from  the  vocal  score.  The  vio- 
lin now  began  to  assume  new  importance,  and 
in  the  hands  of  the  Amati  family  and  their 
immediate  successors  it  was  brought  with  won- 
derful rapidity  to  a  beauty  of  form  and  color 
and  sweetness  of  tone  that  have  not  since 
been  excelled.  It  is  the  only  example  in  his- 
tory of  an  instrument  which  at  once  attained 
its  perfection,  and  which  the  inventors  of  two 
centuries  and  a  half  have  not  been  able  to  im- 
prove upon.  (See  AMATI.) — The  closing  year 
of  the  16th  century  witnessed  the  birth  both  of 
opera  and  of  oratorio.  In  the  year  1600  was 
performed  at  Florence  a  work  entitled  Euri- 
dice,  una  tragedia  per  musica.  The  words 
were  by  Rinuccini,  the  music  by  Peri.  This 
work  possessed  after  a  rude  fashion  the  charac- 
teristics of  the  modern  opera.  In  the  same 
year  was  performed  at  Rome  Emilio  del  Cava- 
liere's  religious  drama  L'Anima  e  corpo,  which 
may  be  considered  the  forerunner  of  the  ora- 
torio, as  Peri's  work  was  of  the  opera.  The 
way  had  been  long  preparing  for  both  opera 
and  oratorio,  through  the  miracle  plays  and 
the  performances  representing  the  passion  of 
Christ.  These  sacred  musical  dramas  were 
often  performed  in  a  hall,  called  by  the  Ital- 
ians oratorio,  adjoining  the  church,  and  hence 
came  to  be  called  by  that  name.  Cavaliere's 
work  was  first  represented  on  the  stage  of  the 
church  of  La  Vallicella,  with  appropriate  scenery 
and  action.  The  personages  were  Time,  Pleas- 
ure, the  Body,  the  World,  and  Human  Life. 
There  was  also  a  chorus  that  commented,  after 
the  manner  of  the  Greek  tragedies,  upon  the 
events  narrated.  The  instruments  of  accom- 
paniment were  placed  behind  the  scenes,  and 
were  as  follows :  una  lira  doppia,  a  double  lyre ; 
un  clavicembalo,  a  harpsichord ;  un  chitarone, 
a  large  guitar ;  due  flauti,  two  flutes.  Instead 
of  overture,  a  madrigal  with  all  the  voice  parts 
doubled  was  recommended  by  the  composer. 
The  example  thus  set  by  Cavaliere  was  speedily 
followed  by  other  composers.  Among  the  most 
distinguished  of  those  who  contributed  to  this 
form  of  composition  during  the  17th  century 
were  Carissimi,  Stradella,  Scarlatti,  and  Caldara. 
Another  element  combined  with  that  of  the 
miracle  plays  to  give  form  to  the  opera ;  this 
was  Greek  tragedy.  With  the  revival  of  letters 
a  new  impetus  had  been  given,  especially  in 
Italy,  to  the  study  of  the  Greek  authors.  At 
the  house  of  Giovanni  Bardi,  count  of  Vernico, 
in  Florence,  a  small  musical  and  literary  circle 
was  accustomed  to  meet  to  discuss  the  probable 
forms  of  Greek  music,  and  the  method  in  which 
they  could  be  made  available.  Vincenzo  Galilei, 
father  of  the  astronomer,  was  one  of  this  num- 
ber. From  theory  they  advanced  to  practice, 


90 


MUSIC 


and  Galilei  was  the  first  to  write  music  for  a 
single  voice.  Among  the  members  of  this  circle 
were  the  poet  Rinuccini  and  the  musician  Peri. 
Their  efforts  to  reproduce  the  musical  declama- 
tion of  the  Greeks  resulted  finally  in  the  mu- 
sical setting  to  Rinuccini's  Euridice,  in  which 
appeared  what  they  called  the  stilo  rappresen- 
tativo,  which  in  a  somewhat  altered  form  we 
now  know  as  recitative.  The  opera  of  Euri- 
dice was  called  by  its  authors  a  drama  per  mu- 
sica,  the  term  opera  not  being  applied  to  this 
kind  of  composition  till  1656.  The  scenery 
represented  first  green  fields,  then  the  ocean, 
afterward  the  abodes  of  the  blest,  and  finally 
the  torments  of  the  infernal  regions.  The  lan- 
guage was  bombastic,  and  the  music  awkward 
and  affected.  The  solos  were  in  the  style  of 
recitative,  and  the  choruses  in  madrigal  form. 
The  instruments  were  the  same  as  those  men- 
tioned above  in  the  oratorio.  The  next  Italian 
operatic  composer  of  eminence  was  Olaudio 
Monte verde.  His  Orfeo,  composed  in  1607, 
was  an  advance  upon  Peri's  music.  The  or- 
chestration was  better,  the  recitative  more  dra- 
matic, and  suggestions  appeared  of  the  aria, 
which  was  yet  to  be  invented.  The  opera 
quickly  spread  over  Italy,  and  finally  crossed 
the  Alps,  Cardinal  Mazarin  introducing  it  in 
1645  into  France.  The  first  opera  there  per- 
formed was  La  finta  pazza,  which  was  given 
in  the  presence  of  Louis  XIV.  The  first  French 
opera  was  called  Akebar  roi  de  Mogol ;  the 
words  and  music  were  by  the  abbe  Mailly,  and 
it  was  performed  in  1646.  The  first  French 
operatic  composer  of  any  note  was  Cambert, 
who  however  was  speedily  supplanted  in  the 
favor  of  the  king  by  the  Italian  Lulli.  This 
composer  for  many  years  controlled  the  French 
lyric  stage,  more  by  his  sense  of  dramatic  situ- 
ations than  by  the  merit  of  his  musical  forms. 
He  was  the  first  to  elaborate  and  give  promi- 
nence to  the  overture.  The  first  of  his  operas 
performed  in  France  was  Les  fetes  de  V Amour 
et  de  Bacchus,  which  was  represented  in  1672. 
The  principal  Italian  composers  during  the  last 
half  of  the  17th  century  were  Cesti,  Alessan^ 
dro  Scarlatti,  and  Carissimi.  The  last  did  not 
write  for  the  stage.  Henry  Purcell  (1658-'95) 
was  at  this  time  one  of  the  few  native  com- 
posers on  whom  the  English  could  look  with 
pride.  He  had  been  a  close  student,  almost 
an  imitator,  of  the  style  of  Carissimi,  and  did 
much,  both  through  his  operas  and  church  com- 
positions, for  the  elevation  of  his  art. — The 
18th  century  was  the  age  of  great  orchestral 
writers,  operatic  and  oratorio  composers,  and 
performers.  It  would  be  impossible  to  name 
all  of  the  illustrious  musicians  of  that  century ; 
among  those  of  most  conspicuous  talent  were 
(in  the  order  of  their  birth)  Marcello,  Domeni- 
co  Scarlatti,  Rameau,  Handel,  Bach,  Porpora, 
Hasse,  Martini,  Pergolesi,  Jomelli,  Gluck,  Pic- 
cmi,  Haydn,  Gretry,  Paisiello,  dementi,  Cima- 
rosa,  Mozart,  Cherubini,  Mehul,  Beethoven,  and 
Spontini.  Auber,  Schubert,  Rossini,  Meyer- 
beer, Donizetti,  and  others,  though  born  in  the 


18th  century,  belong  rather  to  the  19th,  in 
which  their  genius  began  to  manifest  itself. 
We  can  only  refer  with  any  detail  to  such  of 
those  whom  we  have  named  as  exercised  a 
marked  and  lasting  influence  upon  the  art. 
First  among  them  was  Johann  Sebastian  Bach. 
Though  he  was  only  cantor  at  St.  Thomas's 
church  in  Leipsic,  and  undertook  no  works 
that  were  not  in  the  simple  line  of  his  duty, 
he  has  given  to  the  world  organ  and  vocal 
compositions  unrivalled  in  their  way.  The 
art  of  fugue  writing,  so  steadfastly  cultivated 
during  the  so-called  Dutch  period,  he  per- 
fected. Taking  the  German  chorals  for  his 
themes,  he  wrought  upon  them  his  great  work, 
the  passion  music,  the  sublimest  ever  composed 
for  the  Protestant  church.  Though  Bach  pro- 
duced also  delightful  compositions  for  the 
stringed  orchestra,  such  as  his  suite  in  D,  his 
fame  must  rest  upon  his  passion  music  and  his 
organ  and  pianoforte  works.  While  Bach  waa 
elevating  the  church  music  of  Protestantism, 
his  great  contemporary  Handel  was  working 
out  that  mighty  chain  of  oratorios  that  have 
since  been  the  delight  of  the  world.  For  many 
years  he  had  devoted  himself  to  the  composi- 
tion of  Italian  operas ;  more  than  40  of  these 
exist,  but  never  will  be  placed  upon  the  stage 
again.  From  them,  however,  have  been  select- 
ed many  arias,  such  as  the  Lascia  cfrio  pianga 
from  the  opera  of  Rinaldo,  that  are  still  among 
the  greatest  favorites  of  the  concert  room.  It 
was  fortunate  for  the  world  that  Handel  failed 
in  his  operatic  enterprises,  otherwise  such  works 
as  "Saul,"  "Samson,"  "Judas  Maccabeus," 
"Israel  in  Egypt,"  and  the  "Messiah"  would 
never  have  existed.  In  the  century  and  a  quar- 
ter that  has  elapsed  since  they  were  created, 
no  greater  works  of  their  kind  have  been  pro- 
duced. From  Haydn  composition  for  the  or- 
chestra received  its  greatest  development.  This 
illustrious  composer  when  a  boy  had  the  benefit 
of  instruction  from  Porpora,  the  great  Italian 
composer,  from  whom  he  derived  his  knowl- 
edge of  vocal  writing ;  and  he  learned  the  art 
of  setting  words  to  music  from  Metastasio  the 
poet.  But  with  all  these  advantages  he  failed 
as  an  operatic  composer,  while  he  succeeded  in 
orchestral  music  and  oratorios.  His  genius  for 
melody  was  so  great  that,  although  he  was  near- 
ly contemporary  with  Handel,  his  melodies  are 
in  advance  of  Handel's  in  grace,  symmetry,  and 
essential  beauty.  His  muse  was  kindred  with 
Mozart's.  In  symphonic  writing,  in  many  re- 
spects, he  has  not  been  excelled ;  in  breadth 
and  depth,  however,  the  palm  for  that  depart- 
ment has  been  awarded  to  his  successor  Bee- 
thoven. The  form  of  the  symphony,  as  devel- 
oped by  Haydn,  is  derived  from  that  of  the 
piano  sonato  or  violin  quartet;  generally  it 
is  composed  of  four  movements:  an  allegro, 
usually  the  principal  movement ;  then  a  slow 
movement;  then  a  minuet,  or  old  dance  tune; 
then  a  rondo,  or  finale,  of  quick  movement. 
There  is  no  organic  completeness  in  this  de- 
sign, so  far  as  the  number  of  movements  is 


MUSIC 


91 


concerned;  they  are  all  distinct,  and  there 
might  as  well  be  one  movement,  or  40,  if  so 
many  could  be  compassed;  but  symphonies 
and  quartets  were  composed  according  to  this 
method  as  though  under  an  irrefragable  law. 
Their  structure  is:  a  theme  or  melody  in  a 
given  key,  say  0  major ;  a  passage  leading  to 
another  key,  G  major,  the  most  closely  related 
to  the  first,  with  a  strong  assertion  of  the  chord 
of  the  seventh  or  the  fifth  of  G,  which  is  D,  be- 
fore the  second  theme  or  melody  is  taken ;  then 
follows  some  accessory  and  climacteric  matter, 
and  we  arrive  at  the  end  of  the  exposition  of 
the  primary  ideas.  The  second  part  is  taken 
up,  generally  after  the  first  is  repeated,  but 
without  stopping;  and  now  begins  what  is 
called  the  development  of  ideas,  in  which  the 
primary  ones  are  set  off  in  various  ways,  by 
new  harmonies  or  accessories  of  n^ody,  by 
double  counterpoints  (that  is  to  say,  placing 
phrases  indifferently  as  the  bass  or  treble),  by 
modulations,  by  instrumentation,  &c. ;  and 
this  runs  into  a  repetition  of  the  original  mel- 
ody, to  which  the  second  melody  is  added,  but 
this  time  in  the  same  key  with  the  original, 
and  the  whole  is  crowned  with  a  musical  pero- 
ration in  which  appear  the  most  ambitious 
flights  and  climaxes.  The  second  movement 
of  the  symphony  is  a  clear  melody,  with  acces- 
sory and  developed  matter,  ancl  the  melody  re- 
peated with  a  short  peroration.  The  third  is 
a  minuet,  measured  and  somewhat  developed. 
In  Beethoven's  symphonies  the  minuet  is  set 
aside  for  the  scherzo,  or  playful  movement,  in 
which  piquancy  is  aimed  at.  The  last  move- 
ment of  the  symphony  is  a  melody  or  theme 
with  accessories,  its  repetition,  and  a  perora- 
tion. Sometimes  the  last  movement  is  the 
most  important.  In  the  choral  symphony  of 
Beethoven  the  voices  are  added.  The  quartets 
and  sonatas  of  Haydn,  as  well  as  those  of  later 
composers,  are  on  the  same  plan  as  sympho- 
nies, but  generally  briefer,  as  the  variety  of 
instrumental  coloring  in  an  orchestra  warrants 
greater  length.  In  the  course  of  50  years 
Haydn  produced  more  than  500  instrumental 
compositions.  A  remarkable  trait  of  the  com- 
poser was  his  unerring  sense  of  orchestral 
color,  and  of  the  precise  instrument  or  combi- 
nation of  instruments  that  best  produced  the 
effects  he  had  in  mind.  While  Haydn  was  de- 
veloping the  instrumentation  of  his  time,  Gluck 
was  working  with  equal  zeal  and  success  in  the 
domain  of  opera.  He  was  a  great  reformer, 
and  was  the  first  to  announce  in  clear  and  un- 
mistakable language  the  true  principles  upon 
which  opera  should  be  composed.  Much  that 
he  then  said  has  since  been  reiterated  by  Rich- 
ard Wagner.  Even  now  the  world  is  slow  to 
accept  the  theories  then  advanced ;  what  won- 
der then  that  Gluck  in  his  day  excited  the  live- 
liest antagonism,  and  that  a  contention  arose 
between  his  adherents  and  those  of  Piccini  (the 
Gluckists  and  the  Piccinists)  which  enlisted  on 
one  side  or  the  other  all  the  literary  and  fash- 
ionable people  of  Paris  ?  In  the  preface  to  an 


edition  of  three  of  his  operas  (Paris,  1769) 
Gluck  expounded  his  theories  of  operatic  com- 
position, the  pith  of  which  is  that  the  legiti- 
mate purpose  of  music  is  to  second  poetry  in 
order  to  strengthen  the  expression  of  the  senti- 
ments and  the  interest  of  the  drama,  without 
interrupting  the  action  or  weakening  it  by 
superfluous  embellishments.  (See  GLUCK,  vol. 
viii.,  p.  43.)  These  maxims  the  composer  ex- 
emplified by  his  works.  The  subjects  were 
mostly  from  Greek  classical  literature,  as  the 
names  of  his  principal  operas  indicate,  such  as 
"Orpheus,"  "Alcestis,"  "Iphigenia  in  Aulis," 
"Paris  and  Helen,"  and  "Iphigenia  in  Tauris." 
In  spite  of  the  fierce  opposition  of  the  Piccini 
faction,  France  gave  its  adherence  with  enthu- 
siasm to  Gluck  and  his  works,  and  from  that 
day  the  false  and  artificial  methods  of  the  ear- 
lier composers  were  laid  aside,  and  a  new  era 
began  for  the  opera.  The  dramatic  and  poetic 
element  found  its  true  position  by  the  side  of 
melody  and  harmony.  The  next  great  com- 
poser to  exert  a  wide  influence  upon  operatic 
and  other  forms  of  composition  was  Mozart. 
He  was  a  man  of  universal  musical  genius,  and 
was  distinguished  as  a  writer  of  chamber  music 
and  symphonies  and  as  an  operatic  composer. 
His  pianoforte  compositions  were  also  nu- 
merous ;  but  his  influence  was  not  marked  in 
that  direction,  since  he  adhered  to  the  forms 
given  him  by  his  predecessors,  without  effect- 
ing in  them  any  great  change  or  improvement. 
To  this  generation  he  is  best  known  through 
his  operas.  He  was  a  thorough  master  of  the 
Italian  art  of  singing,  and  brought  to  the  sup- 
port of  the  voice  and  the  enriching  of  his 
scores  his  profound  knowledge  of  treatment. 
What  Gluck  had  begun  in  the  way  of  sweeping 
aside  the  formalism  and  artificiality  of  the 
earlier  Italian  operatic  composers,  Mozart  com- 
pleted. Their  works  together  gave  a  new  direc- 
tion to  art,  which  has  had  its  effect  on  all  sub- 
sequent composers  for  the  lyric  stage.  While 
the  "Orpheus,"  "Alcestis,"  and  "Iphigenia" 
of  Gluck,  and  the  Don  Giovanni,  "Marriage  of 
Figaro,"  and  "  Magic  Flute  "  of  Mozart  still  keep 
the  stage,  the  works  of  their  contemporaries 
have  mostly  passed  into  oblivion.  Cimarosa's 
Matrimonio  segreto  is  still  occasionally  heard, 
but  we  look  in  vain  in  the  modern  operatic 
repertoire  for  the  works  of  Paisiello,  Salieri, 
Sarti,  Paer,  Zingarelli,  Hasse,  or  Righini,  all 
prominent  composers  in  Mozart's  time.  But 
the  18th  century  was  distinguished  also  by  many 
illustrious  performers.  The  more  extended 
knowledge  of  harmony  and  the  constantly  in- 
creasing technical  ability  of  instrumental  play- 
ers pushed  on  the  musical  instrument  makers 
to  improvements  and  new  inventions.  The 
violins,  violas,  violoncellos,  and  double  basses, 
as  we  have  seen,  had  already  attained  their 
perfection  at  the  hands  of  the  Amati,  Stradi- 
varius,  the  Guarneri,  Stainer,  and  other  great 
makers.  Yet  much  remained  to  be  done  for 
keyed  instruments,  and  the  efforts  for  improve- 
ment made  in  this  direction  resulted  in  the 


92 


MUSIC 


substitution  of  hammers  for  the  quills  that 
were  used  in  the  harpsichord,  and  the  instru- 
ment so  constructed  took  the  name  of  forte 
piano.     The  invention  has  been   ascribed  ^to 
several  different  men,  and  by  some  authorities 
it  is  carried  back  to  Bartolommeo  Cristofali 
of  Padua,  harpsichord  player  to  the  court  of 
Tuscany.    Improvements  were  made  by  Schro- 
ter  of  Bohemia,  Silbermann  of  Strasburg,  and 
Stein  of  Augsburg;  but  the  progress  was  quite 
slow.     The  piano  used  by  Gluck  was  made  by 
Pohlmann  in  1772,  and  is  still  in  existence.    It 
is  a  small  square  instrument,  4£  ft.  long  and 
2  ft.  wide,  the  wires  being  little  more  than 
threads,  and  so  thin  that  a  moderately  hard 
blow  would  break  them.    The  action  is  imper- 
fect, and  the  hammers  are  a  few  thicknesses  of 
leather  glued  over  the  head  of  a  horizontal  jack 
working  on  a  hinge.    John  Broadwood  and 
sons  became  the  leading  English  makers  of 
pianofortes  in  the  latter  part  of  the  century, 
and  about  the  same  time  the  house  of  Erard 
was  founded  in  Paris;  and  Pleyel  soon  after 
established  himself  also  in  Paris  as  a  piano- 
forte maker.    John  Broadwood's  first  patent 
bears  date  July  17,  1773.     Among  the  cele- 
brated performers  of  this  time  were  Tartini, 
Farinelli,  and  Dragonetti. — Among  composers 
born  in  the  last  century  who  came  to  their 
maturity  and  exerted  their  influence  mainly  in 
the  present,  may  be  named  Oherubini,  Beet- 
hoven, Spontini,  Boieldieu,  Hummel,  Bishop, 
Auber,  Spohr,  Paganini,  Weber,  Herold,  Ros- 
sini, Moscheles,  Meyerbeer,  Schubert,  Merca- 
dante,  Donizetti,  and  Halevy.     Of  the  men 
born  within  the  present  century  who  have  dis- 
tinguished themselves  in  the  art,  either  as  com- 
posers or  executants,  are  Bellini,  Adam,  Berlioz, 
Herz,  Balfe,  Mendelssohn,  Chopin,  Schumann, 
David,  Ole  Bull,  Thomas,  Liszt,  Hiller,  Thalberg, 
Wagner,  Ernst,  Wallace,  Verdi,  Franz,  Bennett, 
Gade,  Gounod,  Vieuxtemps,  Raff,  Rubinstein, 
and  Joachim.    Among  these  Beethoven  beyond 
a  doubt  occupies  the  loftiest  position  in  the  art ; 
with  him  instrumental  music  reached  its  high- 
est point  of  development.     Whatever  form  of 
music  he  touched  he  enlarged  and  ennobled ; 
under  his  hand  the  sonata  was  perfected  and 
the  symphony  rose  to  its  grandest  proportions, 
culminating  in  the  ninth,  concerning  which 
Wagner  has  said  that  with  it  "  the  last  of  sym- 
phonies had  been  written  and  the  domain  of 
instrumental  music  exhausted."    His  two  mass- 
es and  his  single  opera  Fidelio  are  also  among 
the  noblest  accomplishments  of  German  art. 
A  few  years  later  than  Beethoven,  Spontini 
was  born.    Among  the  immediate  successors 
of  Mozart  he  holds  an  illustrious  place.    His 
style  was  noble  and  vigorous,  his  orchestral 
treatment  admirable,  and  his  dramatic  instincts 
correct.    In  his  Vestale  and  Fernando  Cortes 
are  many  passages  of  true  genius.     Cherubini 
may  be  cited  as  a  composer  who  particularly 
linked  the  styles  of  the  close  of  the  last  cen- 
tury with  those  of  this.    He  produced  operas 
which  are  still  represented,  and  he  was  equally 


successful  in  his  sublime  church  music.     He 
competed  with  Reicha,  moreover,  in  his  pro- 
found treatises  on  the  fugue.     In  brilliant  flu- 
ency Rossini  excels  all  others  who  have  written 
for  the  Italian  opera ;  but  then  it  must  be  re- 
membered that  he  was  preceded  by  Mozart, 
whose  operas  were  written  to  Italian  words, 
and  with  melodies  identical  in  shape,  in  csesu- 
ral  pauses,  in  syllabication,  and  in  relation  to 
the  chords,  with  the  Italian  school  of  Paisiello, 
Piccini,  and  Cimarosa.     Whatever  tendency 
there  may  have  been  to  avoid  excessive  orna- 
mentation in   singing,  and  to   maintain  the 
theory  of  Gluck,  was  set  aside  for  many  years 
by  Rossini.    Mozart,  who  indulged  occasion- 
ally in  ultra-florid  music,  or  several  notes  rap- 
idly sung  to  a  syllable,  was  not  brilliant  in 
that  department.    Rossini  was,  and  his  ornate 
arabesque  work  not  being  of  the  old  pattern, 
that  is  to  say,  merely  roulades  following  a 
plain  melody,  but  being  integrated  with  the 
melody  itself,  he  struck  the  secret  of  popu- 
larity,  and  swayed  Europe  musically.     The 
voices,  whether  bass,  tenor,  contralto,  or  so- 
prano, were  made  to  do  this  ornate  work,  lav- 
ished on  serious  and  comic  scenes  alike;  but 
with  all  this  profusion  of  notes,  there  are  ever 
present  touches  of  severe  simplicity.    This  was 
exemplified  when  he  wrote  for  the  French 
Grand  Opera,  and  produced  Guillaume  Tell. 
Among  Rossini's  Italian  contemporaries  were 
Bellini  and  Donizetti.    The  romantic,  tender, 
and  impassioned  strains  of  the  former  gave  a 
new  impulse  to  the  Italian  music,  and  estab- 
lished a  greater  popularity  for  it  than  it  had 
hitherto  enjoyed.    The  directness  of  his  melo- 
dies, and  his  use  of  a  few  notes  instead  of  many 
for  masculine  voices,  enabled  amateurs  to  seize 
hold  of  them  who  were  unable  to  cope  with 
the  floridities  of  Rossini.    In  this  new  school 
Donizetti  was  the  peer  of  Bellini,  and  the  au- 
thor of  Lucia  and  Lucrezia  Borgia,  with  all 
his  shortcomings,  has  never  been  surpassed  in 
popularity.    It  remains  only  to  speak  of  Verdi, 
and  all  the  Italian  composers  of  any  decided 
influence  in  the  art  will  have  been  referred  to. 
This  composer  exhibits  a  perfect  apprehension 
of  climax,  intuitive  knowledge  of  stage  busi- 
ness,  and  strong  dramatic  perception.      His 
melodies  are  clear,  strong,  and  well  defined. 
In  his  earlier  works  his  merits  stood  in  strong 
contrast  with  certain  vices  of  style,  such  ^  as 
overstraining  the  voice  for  effect,  and  noisy 
and  empty  unison  passages.    In  his  later  works, 
such  as  the  Alda  and  the  "  Requiem  Mass,"  he 
has  profited  by  the  example  of  more  painstaking 
composers,  and  produced  works  more  carefully 
considered  and  of  higher  merit  than  his  pre- 
vious compositions.    Many  of  the  operas  pro- 
duced by  composers  for  the  French  stage  com- 
bine grace,  brilliancy,  breadth,  and  grandeur. 
Among  these  the  works  of  Meyerbeer  are  con- 
spicuous.    The  Huguenots  contains  some  of 
the  finest  music  ever  written  for  the  operatic 
stage.    It  has  been  objected  to  Meyerbeer  that 
his  was  too  much  the  music  of  effect,  that  he 


MUSIC 


93 


sacrificed  the  higher  form  of  art  to  the  spec- 
tacle, that  years  of  labor  were  devoted  to  the 
careful  study  of  form,  and  that  the  soul  es- 
caped ;  in  a  word,  that  while  his  operas  evinced 
a  prodigious  talent  and  industry,  the  genius 
was  lacking.  However  this  may  be,  the  world 
has  had  reason  to  admire  the  splendid  results 
of  the  patient  labor  which  this  composer  be- 
stowed on  his  operas.  Among  the  French 
composers  HaleVy  holds  an  honorable  place. 
His  opera  La  Juive,  produced  40  years  ago, 
has  maintained  its  place  with  undiminished  ef- 
fect, though  in  his  later  compositions  he  was 
less  successful.  The  most  popular  of  recent 
French  composers  are  Gounod  and  Ambroise 
Thomas.  The  Faust  of  the  former  and  Mignon 
of  the  latter  are  performed  wherever  French 
or  Italian  opera  has  a  foothold.  In  Germany 
the  modern  composers  wielding  the  greatest 
influence  have  been  Von  Weber,  Mendelssohn, 
Schumann,  and  Wagner.  Von  Weber,  grasp- 
ing all  the  extensions  and  improvements  in  or- 
chestration, wrote  overtures  of  a  larger  tex- 
ture and  clearer  dramatic  form  than  any  pre- 
decessor, and  infused  into  his  operas  quali- 
ties which  placed  him  at  the  head  of  the  new 
school,  the  romantic.  His  vocal  writing  often 
wants  fluency,  though  this  is  less  apparent  in 
Der  Freischutz  than  in  EuryantJie ;  had  his 
metres  been  better,  his  music  would  not  have 
been  amenable  to  this  charge.  But  the  tran- 
scendentalism of  his  music  was  the  most  daring 
ever  attempted.  In  a  certain  class  of  passion- 
ate expression  he  was  without  a  rival ;  certain- 
ly no  such  intense  portraiture  of  womanly  love 
was  drawn  in  music  before  his  Agatha.  The 
influence  of  Mendelssohn  was  exercised  part- 
ly through  his  orchestral  works,  but  mainly 
through  his  two  great  oratorios  "  St.  Paul "  and 
"  Elijah."  Schumann  manifested  his  strength 
in  the  vigor  and  novel  form  of  his  pianoforte 
works,  and  in  the  intensely  poetic  feeling,  the 
dramatic  fervor,  and  the  variety  of  color  of  his 
compositions  for  orchestra ;  while  Wagner  has 
made  his  power  felt  through  the  earnestness 
with  which  he  has  put  forth  his  ideas  in  his 
critical  writings  and  through  his  great  works 
based  upon  those  ideas.  The  opposition  and 
discussion  that  have  been  aroused  by  the  the- 
ories broached  by  him  are  far  greater  even  than 
those  that  were  excited  when  Gluck  propound- 
ed somewhat  similar  ones  a  century  ago.  But 
Wagner  has  gone  much  further  than  Gluck 
dared  in  carrying  out  his  ideas.  As  briefly 
stated  by  himself,  his  objection  to  previous 
methods  upon  which  operatic  composition  has 
proceeded  is  this:  "The  error  of  opera  as  a 
form  of  art  has  consisted  in  the  fact  that  music, 
which  is  only  a  means  of  expression,  has  been 
made  the  end,  while  the  drama,  which  is  the 
true  end  of  expression,  has  been  made  the 
means;  and  thus  the  actual  lyric  drama  has 
been  made  to  rest  upon  the  basis  of  absolute 
music."  If  this  theory  is  accepted  and  acted 
upon  by  future  composers  in  the  same  spirit 
in  which  it  is  carried  out  by  its  promulgator, 


it  will  revolutionize  the  art  of  operatic  compo- 
sition. Among  its  immediate  consequences  is 
the  subordination  of  the  composer  to  the  poet. 
The  drama  is  the  thing  first  to  be  considered, 
the  music  being  only  a  means  through  which 
the  emotion  excited  by  the  dramatic  situation 
is  deepened  and  intensified.  In  the  opera  the 
aria  has  always  been  one  of  the  principal  means 
through  which  the  music  found  expression.; 
but  the  aria  being  a  formal  thing,  constructed 
according  to  certain  fixed  rules  and  centring 
attention  on  itself  and  its  own  melodic  beauty, 
this  retarded  the  action  and  distracted  the  au- 
ditor from  the  thing  sung  about  to  the  thing 
sung.  Accordingly,  this  could  find  no  place 
under  the  new.  theory,  and  Wagner  cast  it 
aside,  putting  in  its  place  the  melos  or  "  endless 
melody,"  a  kind  of  musical  declamation  spring- 
ing naturally  out  of  the  sentiment  of  the  words 
that  are  being  sung.  The  orchestra  also  ceases 
to  be  a  mere  instrument  of  accompaniment, 
and  is  made  by  Wagner  to  enter  into  the  dra- 
matic situation  and  express  it  with  every  va- 
riety of  tone  and  harmonic  combination.  The 
operas,  or  rather  musical  dramas  as  Wagner 
prefers  to  call  them,  written  upon  these  the- 
ories, he  avers  should  have  a  poetical  basis; 
and  he  finds  the  proper  subjects  in  the  myths 
of  his  own  country,  making  the  Nibelungenlied 
the  text  of  his  later  works.  He  has  deemed 
it  essential  for  the  true  exposition  of  his  ideas 
that  his  latest  operas  should  not  be  brought 
out  in  any  of  the  German  opera  houses,  but 
should  have  a  building  constructed  expressly 
with  a  view  to  their  fit  and  complete  presen- 
tation. Such  a  building  is  now  in  course  of 
erection  at  Baireuth,  Bavaria,  and  there  in 
the  spring  of  1876  Wagner  proposes  to  put  his 
theories  to  the  final  test.  The  four  dramas 
composing  the  tetralogy,  Der  Ring  der  Nibe- 
lungen,  will  there  be  produced,  each  on  a 
separate  day.  They  consist  of  Das  Rheingold, 
Die  Walkure,  Siegfried,,  and  Goiter dammerung. 
Upon  the  success  or  failure  of  the  magnificent 
and  costly  experiment  there  to  be  made,  the 
future  of  the  opera  will  in  a  measure  depend. 
— A  very  decided  influence  has  been  exercised 
upon  the  musical  art  of  our  own  day  by  the 
composers  for  the  pianoforte.  The  extensions 
and  improvements  of  that  instrument,  now 
carried  so  far  as  to  make  it  the  epitome  of  the 
orchestra,  have  been  of  great  use  to  composers 
of  every  class.  Through  the  grand  piano  and 
the  organ  the  intricacies  of  the  science  of  har- 
mony have  been  explored,  chords  analyzed,  the 
relations  of  keys  made  clear,  and  melody  de- 
veloped. About  1840  Thalberg  began  to  write 
dramatic  music  for  the  piano,  in  which  he  gave 
the  precise  vocal  pitch  of  the  airs,  and  at  the 
same  time  surrounded  and  embellished  them 
with  an  arabesque  of  brilliant  execution.  Then 
came  Liszt,  remarkable  as  a  conductor  and 
composer,  but  chiefly  as  a  pianist.  He  carried 
the  difficulties  of  pianoforte  playing  to  their 
utmost  limit,  and  placed  himself  by  his  aston- 
ishing powers  at  the  head  of  modern  pianists. 


94:  MUSICAL  BOX 

Chopin  was  a  composer  of  the  greatest  sensi- 
bility. Using  the  rhythms  'and  characteristic- 
traits  of  the  music  of  his  native  country,  he 
treated  his  themes  with  a  passionate  and  dra- 
matic fervor  and  grace  that  have  made  him 
the  poet  of  the  instrument.  Rubinstein,  Clara 
Schumann,  and  Von  Billow  are  also  to  be 
ranked  as  virtuosos  of  the  first  order.  The  pi- 
anists whom  we  have  named  have  seemingly 
thoroughly  explored  the  capacities  of  the  pi- 
anoforte as  it  at  present  exists,  both  as  an 
instrument  of  expression  and  of  execution. 
Every  technical  difficulty  has  been  presented 
and  every  form  of  sentiment  expressed,  and  in 
this  department  of  the  art  at  least  there  would 
seem  to  be  but  slight  room  for  further  pro- 
gress.—See  Hawkins,  "  A  General  History  of 
the  Science  and  Practice  of  Music"  (5  vols. 
4to,  London,  1776;  new  ed.,  2  vols.  4to,  1853); 
Burney's  "  General  History  of  Music  from  the 
Earliest  Ages  to  the  present  Period "  (4  vols. 
4to,  London,  l776-'89);  Forkel,  Allgemeine 
GescUcJite  der  Musilc  (2  vols.,  Leipsic,  1788) ; 
Hullah,  "  History  of  Modern  Music  "  (London, 
1862) ;  Fetis,  Histoire  generate  de  la  musique 
depuis  les  temps  les  plus  anciens  jusqu'd  nos 
jours  (4  vols.,  Paris,  unfinished) ;  Ritter,  "  His- 
tory of  Music,  in  the  Form  of  Lectures  "  (2  vols., 
Boston,  1871-'4) ;  and  Chappell,  "  The  History 
of  Music"  (4  vols.,  London,  1874  et  seq.}. 

MUSICAL  BOX,  a  case  enclosing  mechanism  so 
constructed  as  to  play  tunes  automatically. 
The  principle  of  the  mechanism  is  the  same  as 
that  of  the  barrel  or  hand  organ,  and  of  the 
machinery  which  is  used  for  the  chimes  of  bells 
in  church  towers.  The  use  of  machines  for 
making  mechanical  music  is  almost  coeval  with 
the  invention  of  clocks;  but  musical  boxes 
proper  were  not  introduced  much  before  the 
latter  half  of  the  18th  century.  Among  the 
earliest  made  were  small  ones  to  be  worn  as  a 
charm  or  seal,  pendent  from  the  watch  chain ; 
and  from  this  insignificant  beginning  has  grown 
the  modern  musical  box,  capable  of  almost 
every  musical  effect  and  of  playing  from  one 
to  more  than  100  tunes.  The  principal  parts 
of  the  mechanism  are  the  comb,  the  cylinder, 
and  the  fly  or  regulator.  The  comb  is  a  steel 
board  with  many  tongues,  arranged  like  the 
teeth  of  a  comb.  The  cylinder,  which  is  usu- 
ally brass,  is  fitted  with  small  steel  pins  or 
points,  representing  the  notes  of  the  tune  to 
be  played.  This  is  moved  forward  or  backr 
ward  by  mechanism  into  a  proper  position  to 
act  on  the  comb,  when  it  revolves  and  its  pins 
raise  and  let  fall  the  teeth,  producing  musical 
tones.  As  the  notes  must  necessarily  follow 
in  rapid  succession,  it  is  impossible  to  make 
one  tooth  of  the  comb  produce  the  requisite 
number  without  striking  on  the  following  pin ; 
therefore,  when  needed,  there  are  two,  three, 
or  four  teeth  of  the  comb  of  the  same  tone  or 
pitch  placed  beside  each  other,  which  are  struck 
by  pins  arranged  side  by  side  instead  of  behind 
each  other,  thus  permitting  the  rapid  recur- 
rence of  the  same  note.  The  time  in  which 


MUSK 

the  cylinder  makes  its  revolutions  depends  upon 
the  train  of  wheels  and  pinions  leading  to  the 
fly.  In  all  the  larger  music  boxes  the  fly  or 
regulator  is  adjustable,  the  wings  which  im- 
pinge against  the  air  being  capable  of  limited 
extension  and  contraction,  thus  retarding  or 
accelerating  the  rate  of  revolution  of  the  cylin- 
der. The  tones  of  the  tongues  are  regulated 
by  their  length  and  thickness ;  the  shorter  they 
are,  the  quicker  are  the  vibrations  and  the 
higher  in  the  scale  is  the  pitch.  The  vibrations 
of  the  long  teeth  are  retarded  by  masses  of  lead 
attached  to  them,  and  underneath  them  are 
placed  little  dampers  made  of  spring  wire  for 
the  purpose  of  checking  the  vibrations  when 
too  long.  Various  attachments  or  accompani- 
ments, such  as  bells,  drums,  and  castanets,  are 
often  applied  to  musical  boxes,  and  different 
effects  are  produced  according  to  the  arrange- 
ment of  the  music.  In  respect  to  these  effects 
musical  boxes  are  called  mandolines,  expres- 
sives,  quatuors,  organocleides,  piccolos,  &c. 
Some  have  a  combination  of  reeds  and  pipes, 
and  are  called  flutes,  celestial  voices,  or  harmo- 
niphones.  The  musical  clocks  of  the  Black 
Forest,  and  the  musical  boxes  of  Prague  and  of 
Ste.  Susanne  in  France,  are  largely  exported. 
The  centres  of  the  manufacture,  in  its  present 
state  of  mechanical  perfection,  are  Geneva  and 
Ste.  Croix,  in  the  Pays  de  Vaud,  Switzerland. 

MUSIMON.     See  SHEEP. 

MUSK,  a  concretionary  substance  of  peculiar 
and  most  powerful  odor,  which  is  secreted  in 
a  projecting  hairy  sac  or  bag  between  the  um- 
bilicus and  the  prepuce  of  the  male  of  a  small 
Asiatic  animal,  called  the  musk  deer,  and  named 
by  Linnaeus  moschus  moschiferus.  The  sac  is 
from  2  to  3  in.  long,  and  contains  two  or  three 
drachms  of  musk,  which  when  first  removed  is 
soft  and  almost  liquid,  but  afterward  hardens 
and  dries  into  a  substance  resembling  dark-col- 
ored snuff,  coarsely  granulated.  The  hunters 
cut  off,  tie  up,  and  dry  the  sac,  or,  as  it  is  called 
in  commerce,  the  pod ;  and  in  this  state  the  arti- 
cle is  transported.  In  China,  where  it  is  chiefly 
supplied  to  commerce,  the  pods  are  packed  for 
shipment  in  catty  boxes  holding  from  20  to  25 
each.  A  single  pod  being  worth  from  $15  to 
$18,  the  adulteration  of  the  article  is  a  profita- 
ble operation ;  and  the  Chinese  practise  it  with 
great  skill,  and  to  such  an  extent  that  genuine 
musk  is  scarcely  known  in  trade.  Dried  blood, 
having  the  appearance  of  musk,  is  introduced 
into  artificial  sacs  made  of  the  skin  of  the  ani- 
mal, and  a  variety  of  other  substances  are  add- 
ed, with  which  enough  musk  is  intermixed  to 
give  its  strong  odor  to  the  mass.  Musk  of  dif- 
ferent qualities  is  also  mixed  together  by  the 
Chinese  with  the  intention  of  passing  off  the 
whole  as  the  best.  That  of  Tonquin,  which  is 
obtained  only  from  China,  is  far  stronger  than 
that  of  southern  Siberia,  which  is  also  carried 
to  China  as  well  as  to  Russia.  The  Siberian 
article  is  received  to  some  extent  through  Eu- 
rope. The  pods  are  larger  and  more  elongated 
than  the  Chinese,  and  the  musk  is  in  finer 


MUSK  DEER 


95 


grains,  and  possesses  a  fetid  odor;  while  the 
Chinese  is  very  strongly  scented,  and  has  an 
odor  somewhat  ammoniacal.  A  variety  ex- 
ported from  Calcutta,  where  it  is  brought  from 
Thibet  and  the  Himalaya  mountains,  is  es- 
teemed better  than  the  Siberian,  but  inferior  to 
the  Chinese. — Musk  is  familiarly  known  as  a 
perfume  of  most  penetrating  and  lasting  odor. 
According  to  the  accounts  of  Tavernier,  Char- 
din,  and  other  travellers  in  Asia,  it  is  so  pow- 
erful when  first  taken  from  the  animal  that 
those  exposed  to  its  influence  are  in  danger  of 
haemorrhage  from  the  nostrils,  even  when  the 
nose  and  mouth  are  protected  by  coverings  of 
linen.  Headache  is  often  produced  by  ap- 
proaching the  sacs  even  in  the  open  air.  The 
substance  was  formerly  in  high  repute  as  a 
medicine,  and  is  still  largely  used  by  eastern 
nations  and  to  some  extent  in  civilized  coun- 
tries, being  administered  in  the  form  of  a  pill 
or  emulsion.  It  is  used  as  a  stimulant  and  anti- 
spasmodic,  and  has  been  employed  in  hysteri- 
cal and  other  convulsions,  hiccough,  and  low 
forms  of  fever.  Its  price,  the  uncertainty  of 
its  composition,  and  a  want  of  confidence  in 
the  efficiency  of  its  action,  render  it  by  no 
means  a  popular  drug  with  American  prac- 
titioners. Musk  is  however  chiefly  of  value 
as  a  perfume ;  and  it  is  the  most  remarkable 
of  substances  for  the  diffusiveness  and  perma- 
nence of  its  odor.  A  whole  room  has  been 
known  to  be  perfumed  with  it  for  30  years, 
and  no  perceptible  loss  of  weight  in  the  musk 
was  occasioned  thereby ;  and  specimens  known 
to  be  100  years  old  were  as  strong  as  the  fresh 
article.  One  part  communicates  its  smell  to 
more  than  3,000  parts  of  inodorous  powder. 
Its  taste  is  disagreeably  bitter  and  acrid.  Its 
chemical  composition  is  variable  and  exceed- 
ingly complicated.  A  volatile  compound,  prob- 
ably of  ammonia  and  a  volatile  oil,  has  been 
found  by  Guibert  and  Blondeau,  in  the  pro- 
portion of  47  per  cent.  Besides  this,  they 
separated  a  large  number  of  other  ingredients. 
MUSK  DEER  (moschidai),  a  family  of  small 
ruminants,  living  in  flocks  on  the  continent  of 
Asia  and  the  larger  islands  of  the  Indian  archi- 
pelago. They  have  no  horns  in  either  sex  and 
no  lachrymal  sinuses,  but  the  males  have  two 
elongated  canines  in  the  upper  jaw,  used  as  in- 
struments of  defence  and  offence ;  the  legs  in 
some  are  exceedingly  slender ;  the  name  is  de- 
rived from  the  presence  in  the  males  of  some 
of  the  species  of  a  bag  or  pouch  beneath  the 
abdomen,  which  secretes  the  powerfully  odor- 
iferous substance  known  as  musk.  The  true 
musk  deer  (moschus  moscliiferus,  Linn.)  is  of 
about  the  size  of  a  small  roebuck,  with  shorter 
legs  and  thicker  body;  the  color  is  reddish 
brown,  paler  below  and  on  the  inside  of  the 
limbs,  with  throat  and  streak  on  each  side  of 
the  neck  white,  and  sometimes  whitish  gray 
on  the  sides ;  the  hair  is  stiff,  long,  and  curled ; 
the  canines  project  an  inch  beyond  the  closed 
mouth;  the  hoofs  are  long  and  sharp,  well 
adapted  for  the  rocky  places  in  which  they  de- 
584  VOL.  xn. — 7 


light  to  dwell  in  the  manner  of  the  chamois ; 
the  ears  are  long  and  the  tail  short.  It  is  shy, 
very  active,  and  not  easily  taken;  it  is  pur- 
sued chiefly  for  the  odorous  secretion,  which  is 
strongest  and  most  abundant  during  the  rutting 
season.  This  species  is  distributed  over  the 


Musk  Deer  (Moschus  moschii'erus). 

mountainous  regions  of  central  Asia,  especially 
Thibet  and  China,  extending  even  into  northern 
Tartary.  The  flesh  is  sometimes  eaten,  and  the 
skins  are  prepared  as  articles  of  clothing  and  as 
leather.  A  species  is  said  to  exist  near  Sierra 
Leone,  on  the  west  coast  of  Africa. — In  tropi- 
cal Asia  and  its  islands  are  the  allied  genera, 
tragulus  (Briss.)  and  meminna  (Gray),  con- 
taining the  most  diminutive  of  ruminants,  some 
of  them  no  larger  in  the  body  than  a  hare. 
The  napu  musk  deer  (T.  Javanicus,  Briss.)  has 
shorter  ears,  smooth  hair,  very  slender  legs, 
with  the  supplementary  hoofs  at  a  greater  dis- 
tance from  the  ground;  like  the  rest  of  the 
genus  it  has  no  musk  sac ;  it  is  about  the  size 
of  a  full-grown  hare,  of  a  glossy  ferruginous 
brown  color,  lighter  along  the  back;  throat, 
chin,  under  parts,  and  inside  of  the  limbs  white ; 
on  the  fore  part  of  the  chest  are  three  broad, 
white,  radiating  stripes,  separated  anteriorly 
by  bands  of  blackish  brown ;  and  a  white  line 
passes  back  on  the  cheek  from  the  lower  lip. 
It  is  commonly  called  the  mouse  deer  in  the 
straits  of  Malacca.  It  inhabits  Java  and  Su- 
matra, frequenting  thickets  near  the  seashore, 
and  feeding  principally  on  berries  of  a  species 
of  ardisia ;  it  is  easily  tamed,  when  taken 
young.  The  kanchil  (T.  pygmceus,  Briss.)  is 
of  the  size  of  a  small  rabbit,  of  a  delicate  and 
elegant  shape,  and  very  active ;  this  is  the  spe- 
cies which  is  said  to  leap  to  the  branches  of 
a  tree  when  pursued,  hanging  suspended  by 
the  canines  until  its  enemy  has  passed  by ;  the 
flesh  is  excellent.  The  color  is  reddish  brown 
on  the  back,  bay  on  the  sides,  white  below, 
with  three  white  streaks  under  the  throat ;  it 
is  common  in  the  peninsula  of  Malacca  and  the 
neighboring  islands,  where  it  is  captured  in 
traps  or  by  throwing  sticks-  at  the  legs  when  it 


96 


MUSKEGON 


comes  to  feed  on  the  sweet  potatoes  at  night ; 
it  is  very  cunning,  feigning  death  when  caught 


Kanchil  (Tragulus  pygmaeus). 

in  a  noose. — The  Ceylon  musk  (meminna  In- 
dica,  Gray)  is  about  17  in.  high,  an  elegant, 
graceful,  and  gentle  animal,  whose  flesh  is  ex- 
cellent food;  the  ground  color  is  cinereous 
olive,  spotted,  striped,  and  barred  with  white ; 
it  lives  in  the  jungles  of  Ceylon  and  of  India. 

MUSKEGON,  a  S.  W.  county  of  the  S.  penin- 
sula of  Michigan,  bordering  on  Lake  Michigan, 
and  watered  by  White  and  Muskegon  rivers 
and  other  streams ;  area,  about  500  sq.  in. ; 
pop.  in  1870,  14,894.  The  surface  consists  of 
undulating  prairie  land ;  the  soil  is  fertile.  It 
is  traversed  by  the  Chicago  and  Michigan  Lake 
Shore  railroad.  The  chief  productions  in  1870 
were  28,920  bushels  of  wheat,  28,629  of  Indian 
corn,  24,028  of  oats,  72,335  of  potatoes,  55,- 
872  Ibs.  of  wool,  and  5,658  tons  of  hay.  There 
were  800  horses,  975  milch  cows,  1,037  other 
cattle,  2,530  sheep,  and  1,545  swine;  3  manu- 
factories of  carriages  and  wagons,  3  of  iron 
castings,  4  of  machinery,  3  of  sash,  doors,  and 
blinds,  5  of  tin,  copper,  and  sheet-iron  ware,  1 
tannery,  1  currying  establishment,  and  62  saw 
mills.  Capital,  Muskegon. 

MUSKEGOJV,  a  city  and  the  county  seat  of 
Muskegon  co.,  Michigan,  on  Muskegon  river, 
where  it  expands  into  a  lake  of  the  same  name, 
near  its  mouth  in  Lake  Michigan,  on  the  Chi- 
cago and  Michigan  Lake  Shore  railroad,  and  at 
the  terminus  of  the  Michigan  Lake  Shore,  the 
Muskegon  and  Big  Rapids,  and  the  Grand  River 
Valley  railroads,  90  m.  N".  W.  of  Lansing,  and 
175  m.  W.  K  W.  of  Detroit;  pop.  in  1870, 
6,002 ;  in  1874,  8,505.  It  is  a  stopping  place 
for  the  East  Shore  steamboat  line,  and  has  a 
daily  line  of  steamers  to  Chicago.  The  soil  in 
the  vicinity  is  well  adapted  to  fruit  growing, 
and  considerable  attention  has  lately  been  paid 
to  the  cultivation  of  peaches  and  grapes;  but 
the  chief  business  of  the  city  is  the  manufac- 
ture and  shipment  of  lumber.  The  logs  are 
floated  down  the  river  to  the  lake,  which  is 
5  m.  long  and  2  m.  wide.  The  annual  ship- 
ments amount  to  about  300,000,000  ft.  The 


MUSKET 

trade  employs  more  than  100  vessels,  and 
large  quantities  are  also  shipped  by  rail.  The 
principal  manufacturing  establishments  are  32 
saw  mills,  two  flouring  mills,  two  large  steam 
engine  works  and  f ounderies,  two  saw  factories, 
a  boiler  factory,  and  five  planing  mills  and  sash 
and  blind  factories.  The  city  contains  two  na- 
tional banks,  a  union  school,  five  ward  schools, 
three  weekly  newspapers,  and  ten  churches. 
Muskegon  was  first  settled  in  1836.  It  was 
laid  out  in  1853,  incorporated  as  a  village  in 
1861,  and  as  a  city  in  1870. 

MUSKET,  the  smooth-bored  firearm  with 
which  the  infantry  of  all  civilized  nations  has 
been  armed  from  the  beginning  of  the  18th 
century  until  nearly  the  present  time.  The 
best  authorities  give  the  derivation  of  the  name 
from  the  French  mouchet  or  the  Latin  muscetus, 
a  male  sparrow  hawk.  This  is  not  so  improb- 
able a  derivation  as  would  at  first  sight  appear, 
for  other  firearms  have  been  named  after  ani- 
mals, as  for  instance  the  falcon  and  the  dragon ; 
and  the  probable  reason  of  its  use  will  be  found 
further  on.  The  first  portable  firearm  of  which 
we  have  any  representation  is  exhibited  in  a 
French  translation  of  Quintus  Curtius,  written 
in  1468.  It  was  called  the  bombard  or  bom- 
bardelle,  and  was  a  heavy  weapon  made  in  the 
shape  of  a  blunderbuss,  and  fired  from  the 
shoulder,  or  from  a  wooden  frame  or  rampart, 


FIG.  1.— Bombard. 


with  a  live  coal  or  match.    There  is  some  evi- 
dence that  these  weapons  were  used  as  early  as 


MUSKET 


1346  by  the  English  at  the  battle  of  Crecy,  but 
it  is  not  definite.  They  were  certainly  used 
before  the  beginning  of  the  16th  century. 
When  gunpowder  was  first  applied  to  warlike 
purposes,  the  cannon  were  hooped,  and  ex- 
ternally were  not  unlike  boxes.  In  Germany 
they  were  therefore  called  Buchse,  and  an  ar- 
tillerist was  a  Buchsenmeister.  When  guns 
were  transported  on  wheels  they  were  called 
Kanonenbuchse.  The  portable  arm  which  fol- 
lowed the  bombardelle  was  called  in  German 
Hakenbiichse,  because  it  had  attached  to  the  for- 
ward part  of  the  stock  a  hook  {Hakeii}  which 
received  the  shock  of  the  recoil.  This  name 
was  corrupted  in  other  languages  to  arquebus, 
arquebuse,  archibuso,  &c.  The  arm  was  also 


FIG.  2. — Arquebus. 


used  with  a  forked  stick  upon  which  to  rest  the 
forward  end  in  the  act  of  firing,  and  was,  if 
not  the  earliest,  certainly  one  of  the  earliest 
portable  firearms.  About  the  same  time  the 
hammer  and  pan  for  priming  were  applied  to 
the  arm,  and  they  or  their  equivalents  have 
been  used  on  portable  firearms  ever  since. 
When  the  hammer  was  first  used,  it  was  merely 
a  piece  of  iron  bent  in  the  shape  of  the  letter 
S,  and  called  the  serpent,  one  end  of  which 
carried  the  live  coal  or  match,  and  the  other 
acted  as  a  trigger.  It  was  fastened  to  the 
piece  at  its  centre,  about  which  it  could  move ; 
when  the  piece  was  to  be  fired  the  trigger  end 
was  pulled,  and  the  match  end  was  brought 
down  on  the  priming.  Springs  were  soon  at- 
tached to  it,  causing  it  to  go  back  to  its  original 
position  after  it  had  done  its  work ;  and  this 
arrangement  was  the  first  gunlock.  Muskets 
with  the  serpent  attachment  were  captured 
from  the  Chinese  at  the  Peiho  forts  in  1860, 


-.  8. — Arquebus  and  Serpent. 

and  were  in  use  in  Japan  until  within  a  few 
years.  During  the  15th  and  16th  centuries  the 
use  of  the  arquebus  became  general  in  the  con- 
tinental nations  of  Europe ;  but  the  English 
still  retained  the  crossbow,  believing  that  it 
was  more  rapid  and  accurate  in  its  action,  and 
that  its  range  was  greater. — In  1517  the  wheel 
gunlock  was  invented  at  Nuremberg,  and  at 
this  time  the  portable  arm  took  the  name  of 
musket.  This  lock  consisted  of  a  heavy  iron 
plate  to  which  the  parts  were  fastened.  The 
parts  were  a  steel  wheel  about  an  inch  and  a 
half  in  diameter  and  a  quarter  of  an  inch  thick, 
the  circumference  of  which  was  channelled. 
To  the  arbor  of  the  wheel  was  attached  one  end 
of  a  short  iron  chain,  the  other  end  of  which 
was  fastened  to  a  heavy  spring.  By  means  of 


a  key,  about  three  fourths  of  a  turn  could  be 
given  to  the  wheel,  compressing  the  spring. 
When  the  wheel  was  turned  sufficiently,  a  dog 
engaged  in  a  corresponding  hole  in  the  wheel, 
fastening  it.  This  dog  could  be  lifted  out  of 
its  hole  by  the  action  of  a  lever  corresponding 
to  the  trigger  in  the  modern  lock,  and  when 
the  dog  was  so  lifted  the  wheel  moved  round 
with  some  rapidity.  Above  the  wheel  was 
fastened  the  pan,  a  piece  of  iron,  pan-shaped, 
in  the  bottom  of  which  was  cut  a  hole  through 
which  a  small  part  of  the  circumference  of  the 
wheel  projected,  filling  the  hole.  The  cock  or 
hammer  was  a  piece  of  iron  or  steel  so  ar- 
ranged that  one  of  its  ends  held  a  flint  or  piece 
of  iron  pyrites  between  jaws,  and  the  other 
end  was  fastened  to  the  lock  plate,  the  hammer 
being  free  to  move  around  the  fastening.  A 
spring  acted  upon  the  fastened  end,  so  that 
when  the  flint  end  of  the  hammer  rested  upon 
that  part  of  the  wheel  projecting  through  the 
pan,  the  spring  pressed  it  hard  on  the  wheel. 
To  discharge  the  piece  with  this  lock,  suppo-: 


FIG.  4— "Wheel  Lock  with  Serpent  attached,  front  view. 


FIG.  4  a.— Wheel  Lock  with  Serpent  attached,  rear  view. 

sing  the  priming  to  be  in  the  pan,  the  wheel 
was  turned  until  it  engaged  the  dog ;  the  cock 
was  then  turned  so  that  the  flint  pressed  on 
the  wheel;  then  by  pushing  the  trigger  or 
lever,  the  wheel  turned  quickly,  and  sparks 
were  thrown  off,  igniting  the  priming.  This 
was  an  exceedingly  ingenious  piece  of  mecha- 
nism, and  all  flint  locks  made  since  its  date  are 
modifications  of  it.  Many  locks  of  the  present 
day  contain  the  same  ideas  in  an  improved 
form.  The  flint  was  held  in  the  cock  or  ham- 
mer by  jaws  moved  by  a  screw.  In  some 
specimens  of  this  lock  these  jaws  are  engraved 
to  represent  the  head  of  a  bird  of  prey  holding 
the  flint  in  its  beak.  It  is  not  unlikely  that 
the  name  musket  originated  with  this  device. 
So  in  Germany  the  hammer  is  called  Hahn, 
«cock.  In  England  and  the  United  States  cock 
was  the  name  of  the  hammer  so  long  as  flint 
locks  were  used.  In  France  the  hammer  was 
called  chien,  dog.  As  the  flint  in  the  wheel 
lock  often  missed  fire,  in  some  cases  the  ser- 
pent was  also  attached  to  one  end  of  the 
lock  plate.  In  this  the  match  was  tept  lighted, 


98 


MUSKET 


so  that  the  musketeer  was  sure  that  by  some 
means  he  could  fire  his  piece.  During  the 
16th  century  muskets  with  wheel  locks  were 
introduced  into  all  the  continental  armies,  but 
pikes  were  also  used  by  foot  soldiers,  and 
the  proportion  of  muskets  to  pikes  was  about 
one  to  three.  The  musket  at  that  period  bore 
the  same  relation  to  the  infantry  that  the 
field  piece  does  in  armies  of  the  present  day. 
It  was  a  good  attacking  weapon,  but  in  close 
quarters  the  brunt  of  the  action  was  borne 
by  the  pikemen,  for  the  musketeers  had  as 
much  as  they  could  do  to  take  care  of  their 
unwieldy  weapons.  In  the  16th  century  the 
flint  lock  as  it  exists  at  present  was  also  invent- 
ed in  Spain,  and  it  was  merely  changed  in  de- 
tails of  construction,  and  by  some  subsidiary 
inventions,  until  it  was  in  general  superseded 
by  the  lock  for  percussion  caps  in  this  century. 
For  a  long  time  the  flint  lock  was  regarded 
with  disfavor  as  too  complicated,  and  likely 
to  fail,  and  for  nearly  100  years  its  use  did  not 
become  general.  It  was  adopted  in  France  in 
1630.  The  English  were  behind  continental 
nations  in  portable  firearms  in  the  16th  and 
17th  centuries.  As  late  as  1668  "The  Corn- 
pleat  Body  of  the  Art  Military,"  by  Lieut.  Col. 
Eichard  Elton,  which  gives  a  system  of  infantry 
tactics  and  manuals  for  the  pike  and  musket, 
recommends  that  two  thirds  of  each  company 
shall  be  armed  with  the  musket  and  one  third 
with  the  pike.  The  musket  manual  is  for  the 
arm  with  the  match  lock  or  serpent,  and  there 
is  nothing  in  the  book  to  indicate  that  its  au- 


FIG.  5. — Chenapan  or  Snaphaunce  Lock. 


carried  his  musket  and  its  rest,  and  a  large 
sword.  Over  his  left  shoulder  was  slung  a  broad 
leather  belt  called  a  bandolier,  the  ends  of  which 
were  fastened  on  the  right  side.  On  this  were 


FIG.  5  a.— Arab  Lock  of  same  construction. 

ihor  had  ever  heard  of  the  wheel  or  flint  lock 
The  latter  was  introduced  into  England  about 
the  year  1690.— The  musketeer  in  the  days  of 
matchlocks  was  a  very  unwieldy  soldier.  He 


FIG.  6.— Musketeer  of  16th  and  17th  centuries,  fully 
equipped,  showing  Schweinsfeder  and  Musket. 

hung  a  number  of  wooden,  leather,  or  tin  cylin- 
ders, each  containing  a  charge  of  powder  for  his 
musket.  The  balls  were  contained  in  a  leather 
bag,  and  the  priming  powder  in  a  flask  or  horn, 
and  both  were  slung  by  separate  slings  from 
the  left  shoulder  to  the  right  side.  He  was  a 
man  of  much  greater  consideration  than  is  the 
infantry  private  soldier  of  the  present  day,  and 
in  some  armies  was  allowed  a  servant  to  carry 
his  musket  on  the  march.  At  the  battle  of  Wit- 
tenweiler,  in  1638,  which  lasted  eight  hours, 
the  musketeers  of  the  duke  of  Weimar  fired 
seven  times  only.  This  account  shows  that 
the  use  of  the  musket  at  that  time  did  not  add 
greatly  to  the  destructiveness  of  wars. — The 
Schweinsfeder  (hog's  bristle)  was  the  imme- 
diate forerunner  of  the  bayonet.  It  was  a  long 
rapier  with  a  thin  handle,  and  its  sheath  was 
the  musket  rest,  which  was  an  iron  tube  forked 
at  the  upper  end.  When  the  rapier  was  to  be 
used,  the  handle  was  inserted  in  the  muzzle  of 
the  musket,  which  then  became  an  efficient 
pike.  As  the  arm  became  lighter,  the  musket 
rest  gradually  went  out  of  use,  and  in  order 
to  keep  up  the  use  of  the  arm  as  a  pike  as  well 
as  a  firearm,  some  new  weapon  had  to  be  de- 
vised. So  in  1640  the  bayonet  was  introduced, 
taking  its  name  from  Bayonne,  where  it  was 
first  made.  At  first  the  shank  or  handle  was 
made  of  wood,  and  was  inserted  in  the  muz- 


MUSKET 


99 


zle  of  the  piece.  Soon  afterward  it  was  made 
of  metal  in  the  shape  of  a  hollow  cylinder, 
and  was  secured  to  the  piece  by  slipping  the 
cylinder  over  the  end  of  the  barrel,  and  fixed 


FIG.  7.— First  Bayonets.  1.  Bayonet  of  1640,  triangular 
blade,  fastening  in  bore  of  inusket.  2.  Spanish  Bayonet, 
fastening  in  bore.  3.  French  Bayonet,  fastened  by  ring 
and  spring. 

in  place  by  a  stud  soldered  to  the  barrel.  This 
arrangement  permitted  the  piece  to  be  fired 
with  the  bayonet  fixed.  The  introduction  of 
the  bayonet  gradually  caused  the  pike  to  be 
thrown  aside  as  an  infantry  weapon,  and  cor- 
respondingly increased  the  importance  of  the 
musket.  About  this  time  sights  were  placed 
on  muskets,  and  their  accuracy  of  fire  was  con- 
sequently much  increased.  The  flint  lock  was 
improved,  and  the  barrel  and  stock  were  fast- 
ened to  each  other  in  a  more  mechanical  man- 
ner. Cartridge  boxes  were  introduced,  and 
during  the  second  half  of  the  17th  century  the 
musket  was  so  materially  improved  that  it 
may  be  considered  as  having  become  the  main 
arm  of  the  infantry  from  the  commencement 
of  the  18th  century.  The  ramrod  of  the  mus- 
ket, made  of  wood,  was  clumsy  and  easily  bro- 
ken until  about  lYSO-'SO,  when  the  iron  ram- 
rod was  introduced  into  the  Prussian  army  by 
Frederick  William  L,  father  of  Frederick  the 
Great ;  and  the  consequent  improvement  in  the 
rapidity  of  fire  of  the  musket  was  enormous. 
At  the  battle  of  Mollwitz,  in  1741,  between  the 
Austrians  and  Prussians,  the  Austrians  used 
wooden  and  the  Prussians  iron  ramrods.  The 
defeat  of  the  Austrians  was  at  the  time  imputed 


FIG.  8.— 1.  Old  Prussian  Musket  and  Bayonet,  with  wooden 
ramrod.  2  and  3.  French  Musket  and  Bayonet,  model 
of  1777-1SOO. 

to  the  superior  rapidity  of  fire  of  the  Prussian 
muskets,  due  entirely  to  the  use  of  iron  ram- 
rods. During  the  remainder  of  the  18th  cen- 
tury the  musket  gradually,  by  changes  in  form, 


took  on  the  continent  of  Europe  nearly  the 
shape  and  appearance  that  it  retained  until  the 
supersedure  of  the  muzzle-loader  by  the  breech- 
loader. Bands  were  substituted  for  the  pro- 
jections on  the  barrel  which  fastened  it  to  the 
stock,  the  ramrod  was  lightened,  the  leather 
strap  for  carrying  the  arm  on  the  march  was 
added,  and  the  weapon  was  made  simpler  and 
more  convenient,  so  that  the  soldier  was  sooner 
instructed.  France  led  in  these  improvements. 
Great  Britain  seems  to  have  retained  an  earlier 
model,  and  bands  were  not  there  applied  to 
muskets  until  the  present  century.  In  the  ear- 
ly part  of  the  19th  century,  on  account  of  the 
wars  of  the  French  republic  and  empire,  the 
number  of  muskets  manufactured  was  enor- 
mous. In  the  two  years  1809-' 10  Birmingham 
furnished  575,000  musket  barrels  and  470,000 
gun  locks.  In  1813  England  made  500,000 
muskets,  and  from  1814  to  1816  she  furnished 
for  her  allies  and  herself  3,000,000.  From 
1803  to  1814  there  were  made  in  France  about 
4,000,000  muskets.— In  1818  the  percussion  cap 
was  invented,  and  its  use  gradually  superseded 


FIG.  9.— 1.  Percussion  Musket  Lock, 
sion  Cap. 


2.  Military  Percus- 


that  of  the  flint  and  steel,  so  that  by  1850 
nearly  all  the  armies  of  the  civilized  world  were 
armed  with  muskets  using  the  percussion  locks. 
The  advantages  of  these  locks  are:  1,  the  lock 
is  simplified  ;  2,  the  operation  of  firing  is  short- 
ened ;  3,  the  sureness  of  fire  is  increased,  the 
presence  of  water  having  no  effect  upon  the 
explosion  of  a  good  percussion  cap.  The  ex- 
plosive substance  in  military  percussion  caps 
is  fulminate  of  mercury.  This  salt  is  mixed 
with  powdered  glass,  and  a  small  portion  of 
the  mixture  is  placed  in  the  botton  of  a  copper 
cup.  The  fulminate  is  covered  with  tin  foil, 
and  then  with  lacquer,  so  that  it  is  impervi- 
ous to  water.  With  the  percussion  lock  a  "  nip- 
ple "  or  cone  was  fastened  to  the  barrel  of  the 
musket  at  the  right  side  of  the  breech  instead 
of  the  pan  of  the  flint  lock,  and  a  hole  through 
the  cone  communicated  with  the  rear  of  the 
bore.  The  percussion  cap  was  placed  on  the 
cone,  which  it  fitted  closely;  the  hammer 
struck  the  cap,  exploded  the  fulminate,  and 
communicated  fire  to  the  gunpowder  in  the 
barrel. — The  calibres  of  muskets  were  until 
about  1850  '7  in.,  a  little  more  or  less.  The 


100 


MUSKET 


old  British  musket  "Brown  Bess"  had  a  bore 
•76  of  an  inch  in  diameter.  The  length  of  the 
barrel  was  42  in.,  the  weight  of  the  ball  1'06 
oz.,  and  the  weight  of  the  musket  12-25  Ibs. 
The  whole  length,  including  bayonet,  was  59 
in.  About  1853  in  Great  Britain  the  Enneld 
rifle  was  adopted,  the  bore  of  which  was  -577 
in.  Until  this  time  British  muskets  were  made 
without  bands,  the  barrel  being  fastened  to 
the  stock  by  pins.  The  Enfield  rifle  had  bands. 
The  weights  of  all  muskets  in  use  in  the  last 
century  were  from  10|  to  12£  Ibs.— In  the 


FIG.  10.— English  Musket,  "Brown  Bess." 

United  States  the  first  muskets  used  were  of 
course  of  English  manufacture.  The  Indian 
and  French  wars  had  caused  the  distribution 
of  large  numbers  of  these  arms  among  the  col- 
onies, and  the  war  of  the  revolution  was  com- 
menced with  them.  But  after  the  alliance 
with  France  was  perfected,  French  muskets 
were  obtained,  and  it  is  likely  that  by  the  end 
of  the  war,  in  1783,  the  troops  were  generally 
armed  with  French  arms.  The  United  States 
began  to  manufacture  muskets  at  Springfield, 
Mass.,  in  1795,  after  the  French  model,  and 
this  model  with  slight  variations  was  used  un- 
til the  adoption  of  the  Springfield  rifle,  mod- 
el of  1855.  New  models  were  introduced 
in  1799,  1822,  and  1840,  all  of  French  style, 
and  of  the  French  calibre,  '69  in.,  and  carry- 
ing a  ball  weighing  a  little  less  than  an  ounce. 


FIG.  11.— Musket  and  Bayonet,  Model  of  1841. 


In  fact  it  may  be  said  that  until  the  intro- 
duction of  the  needle  gun  in  Prussia,  France 
gave  the  model  for  the  musket  to  all  civilized 
nations.  About  1842  percussion-lock  muskets 
were  adopted,  and  when  the  Mexican  war  be- 
gan in  1846  there  were  enough  to  have  armed 
the  troops ;  but  Gen.  Scott  preferred  the  flint- 
lock musket,  considering  it  dangerous  to  cam- 
paign in  an  enemy's  country  with  so  untried  a 
weapon  as  the  percussion  musket.  After  that 
war  its  use  became  general  in  the  army.  In 
1855  the  Springfield  rifle  was  adopted,  and  it 
gradually  displaced  the  old  musket,  until  at 
the  commencement  of  the  civil  war  in  1861  the 
troops  of  the  regular  army  were  armed  with 
tbat  weapon.  Nearly  all  the  infantry  arms  at 
that  time  in  store  were  muskets  of  '69  in.  cal- 
ibre. The  whole  number  of  muskets  and  rifles 
manufactured  at  the  Springfield  armory  from 
1795  to  1865,  when  the  manufacture  of  muzzle- 
loading  arms  was  stopped,  was  1,517,464,  and 


the  expenditure  during  the  same  period  was 
$25,199,626  30.     Over  $2,000,000  reckoned  as 
expenditure  was  the  value  of  the  property  of 
the  United  States  in  lands,  buildings,  &c.,  be- 
longing to  the  armory,  and  about  $3,000,000 
was  the  value  of  the  parts  of  arms  unassembled 
when  the  manufacture  was  stopped.    The  num- 
ber made  at  the  other  United  States  armory,  that 
at  Harper's  Ferry,  Va.,  cannot  be  given.    At  the 
commencement  of  the  civil  war  this  armory 
was  dismantled,  and  all  the  records  and  mov- 
able property  were  carried  to  Richmond  by 
the  confederates.     Its  capacity  for  turning  out 
arms  was  then  about  equal  to  that  of  the 
Springfield  armory.— There  are  other  names  of 
muskets  besides  those  given  previously.     The 
hand  cannon  was  a  tube  on  a  straight  piece  of 
wood  about  3  ft.  long.     It  had  trunnions,  cas- 
cable,  and  vent  on  top  like  a  cannon.     After- 
ward the  vent  was  placed  at  the  side  and  the 
priming  was  held  in  a  pan.     Its  date  was  near- 
ly the  same  as  that  of  the  J)ombardelle.     The 
hand  gun  was  longer  in  barrel  than  the  hand 
cannon.     It    had  a  cover  for  the    pan,  and 
some  arrangement  for  taking  sight.     The  Eng- 
lish seem  to  have  used  it  in  1446.     The  snap- 
haunce  was  a  modification  of  the  wheel  lock. 
Instead  of  the  wheel  a  straight  piece  of  fur- 
rowed steel  was  used.    The  flint  pressed  against 
it,  and  when  the  steel  was  suddenly  moved  by 
the  spring,  fire  was  struck.     It  was  introduced 
into  England  in  Queen  Elizabeth's  time,  but 
did  not  get  into  general  use  until  the  time  of 
the  civil  wars.     The  name  is  derived  from  the 
Dutch.     The  caliver,  lighter  and  shorter  than 
the  musket,  had  a  match  lock.     The  carbine  was 
simply  a  horseman's  musket,  and  was  shorter 
and  lighter  than  the  in- 
fantry musket.    The  ori- 
^^£=3    gin  of  the  word  is  ob- 

o         scure.      It    was    intro- 

r^  duced  into  England  from 

France,  but  the  term 
came  from  Spain,  and 
from  Calabria,  where  it 
was  first  used.  It  has  been  surmised  that  the  Ca- 
labrians  used  it  on  board  of  small  vessels  called 
carabs.  The  term  fusil  applied  to  a  musket 
appears  to  have  been  taken  from  the  French, 
and  was  brought  into  England  when  locks  using 
flints  were  introduced.  It  is  technically  the 
steel  against  which  the  flint  is  struck  in  a  tin- 
der box  or  gun  lock.  The  term  fusiliers  for 
part  of  the  infantry  is  still  retained  in  some 
armies,  particularly  the  British,  and  was  origi- 
nally the  name  given  to  troops  using  the  flint- 
lock musket,  to  distinguish  them  from  those 
who  used  the  match-lock  or  wheel-lock  mus- 
kets. The  mousquetoon  was  of  French  origin, 
and  shorter  and  not  so  efficient  as  the  musket. 
The  petronel  was  a  short  musket  for  horse- 
men's use.  The  name  comes  from  pedernal, 
flint,  and  not,  as  is  generally  supposed,  from 
poitrine,  as  it  was  supported  against  the  breast 
when  it  was  fired.  The  blunderbuss  was  a 
short  piece  with  a  large  bore  and  funnel-shaped 


MUSKINGUM 


MUSK  OX 


101 


muzzle.  It  was  loaded  with  slugs,  nails,  &c. 
The  word  is  of  German  origin,  and  the  arm 
was  introduced  into  England  from  Holland. 
In  German  Donnerbuchse  would  be  the  term, 
which  after  corruption  by  the  Dutch  becomes 
blunderbuss  in  English.  The  escopette  is  the 
Spanish  or  Mexican  name  (escopeta)  for  a  car- 
bine. '  The  oldest  document  that  mentions  por- 
table firearms  is  an  inventory  at  Bologna  dated 
1397,  in  which  they  are  called  scolpos.  From 
this  term  were  derived  later  sclopeti,  esclopette, 
escopette.  (See  EIFLE.) 

MUSKIXGOI,  a  river  of  Ohio,  formed  by  the 
junction  of  the  Walhonding  and  Tuscarawas, 
which  rise  in  the  N.  part  of  the  state  and  unite 
at  Coshocton,  whence  it  flows  S.  E.  for  about 
110  m.  through  Muskingum,  Morgan,  and  Wash- 
ington counties,  and  enters  the  Ohio  river  at 
Marietta,  its  mouth  being  225  yards  wide.  At 
Zanesville  and  other  points  abundant  water 
power  is  afforded  by  falls.  It  is  navigable  for 
steamboats  to  Dresden,  95  m.  from  its  mouth. 

MIJSKDrGFM,  a  S.  E.  county  of  Ohio,  inter- 
sected by  the  Muskingum  river,  which  affords 
abundant  water  power,  and  drained  by  Licking 
river  and  other  branches ;  area,  665  sq.  m. ; 
pop.  in  1870,  44,886.  It  has  a  diversified  sur- 
face and  fertile  soil,  and  contains  bituminous 
coal,  iron  ore,  and  salt,  the  last  procured  by 
deep  boring  into  the  whitish  sandstone,  or 
salt  rock.  Large  quantities  of  salt  and  coal 
are  exported.  It  is  intersected  by  the  Ohio 
canal  and  the  Central  Ohio  division  of  the 
Baltimore  and  Ohio  railroad.  The  Muskingum 
Valley  railroad  terminates  at  Zanesville,  and 
the  Pittsburgh,  Cincinnati,  and  St.  Louis  passes 
through  the  S".  W.  corner ;  there  is  also  a  branch 
from  Dresden  to  Zanesville.  The  chief  pro- 
ductions in  1870  were  336,984  bushels  of  wheat, 
1,198,677 of  Indian  corn,  313,240  of  oats,  185,- 
130  of  potatoes,  605,194  Ibs.  of  wool,  815,562 
of  butter,  and  38,094  tons  of  hay.  There  were 
9,430  horses,  9,379  milch  cows,  15,480  other 
cattle,  145,954  sheep,  and  21,690  swine;  5 
manufactories  of  agricultural  implements,  8  of 
brick,  19  of  carriages  and  wagons,  1  of  railroad 
cars,  3  of  woollen  and  1  of  cotton  goods,  4  of 
furniture,  3  of  glass  ware,  2  of  iron,  7  of  cast- 
ings, 11  of  saddlery  and  harness,  8  of  salt,  31 
of  stone  and  earthen  ware,  18  tanneries,  5 
breweries,  13  flour  mills,  5  saw  mills,  and  2 
lime  kilns.  Capital,  Zanesville. 

MISROKEES.     See  CEEEKS. 

MISKOKA,  an  electoral  district  of  Ontario, 
Canada,  in  the  W.  part  of  the  province,  bound- 
ed W.  by  Georgian  bay ;  area,  5,307  sq.  m. ; 
pop.  in  1871,  6,919,  of  whom  2,541  were  of 
English,  2,092  of  Irish,  and  1,293  of  Scotch 
origin  or  descent.  It  is  bounded  S.  by  the 
Severn  river,  and  watered  by  Muskoka  river, 
by  the  outlet  of  Lake  Nipissing,  and  by  other 
streams  and  lakes.  Capital,  Bracebridge. 

MUSK  OX  (ovibos  moschatus,  De  Blainv.),  a 
ruminating  animal  found  in  the  arctic  regions 
of  America,  seeming  to  form,  as  its  generic 
name  imports,  the  connecting  link  between 


the  ox  and  the  sheep.  It  is  about  the  size 
of  a  two-year-old  cow,  5£  ft.  from  nose  to 
root  of  tail,  and  weighs  about  700  Ibs.,  two 
or  three  times  as  much  as  the  reindeer;  the 
head  is  large,  and  surmounted  by  broad  flat 
horns  in  both  sexes ;  in  the  males  the  horns 


Musk  Ox  (Ovibos  moschatus). 

meet  on  the  median  line  of  the  head,  from 
which  they  bend  down  on  the  cheeks,  and  then 
turn  outward  and  upward,  much  as  in  the  gnu ; 
dull  white  and  rough  on  the  basal  half,  they 
are  smooth  and  shining  beyond,  and  black  at 
the  point ;  the  horns  of  an  old  male  measured 
by  Dr.  Kane  were  2J  ft.  from  tip  to  tip,  and 
each  If  ft.  to  the  median  line  of  the  head.  The 
nose  is  very  obtuse,  with  only  the  small  space 
between  the  nostrils  naked ;  the  ears  not  per- 
ceptible, tail  concealed  by  the  hair,  the  legs 
short,  and  the  hoofs  broad  and  inflexed  at  the 
tips.  The  hair  is  so  long  that  it  almost  reaches 
the  ground,  so  that  the  animal  looks  more  like 
a  large  sheep  or  goat  than  an  ox ;  the  color  is 
brownish  black,  more  or  less  grizzled.  The 
musk  ox  frequents  arctic  America  from  lat. 
60°  to  79°  K,  and  from  Ion.  67°  30'  W.  to  the 
Pacific  coast ;  though  Dr.  Kane  saw  no  living 
specimens,  the  skeletons  and  probably  foot- 
marks were  so  numerous  that  he  was  inclined 
to  believe  the  statement  of  the  Esquimaux  that 
these  animals  had  been  recent  visitors,  and 

Erobably  migrated  from  America  to  Green- 
ind ;  they  are  generally  seen  in  herds  of  20 
or  30,  in  rocky  barren  lands,  and  feed  on  grass 
and  lichens ;  the  rutting  season  is  about  the 
end  of  August,  and  the  young  are  born  toward 
the  first  of  June.  Though  the  legs  are  short, 
they  run  very  fast,  and  climb  hills  and  rocks 
with  great  facility;  they  are  difficult  to  ap- 
proach ;  the  males  are  irascible,  and  often  dan- 
gerous when  slightly  wounded  ;  the  flesh,  when 
fat,  is  well  tasted,  but  when  lean  smells  strong- 
ly of  musk,  as  does  the  whole  animal,  whence 
its  name ;  the  hair  is  long  and  fine,  and,  if  it 
could  be  obtained  in  sufficient  quantity,  would 
be  useful  in  the  arts ;  the  skin  is  made  into 
articles  of  dress  by  the  Esquimaux.  The  tracks 
made  by  this  animal  in  the  snow  are  much  like 
those  of  the  reindeer,  somewhat  larger,  and 


102 


MUSKRAT 


can  be  distinguished  only  by  the  skilful  hunter. 
Only  one  living  species  is  known,  and  the  geo- 
graphical distribution  of  this  is  not  precisely 
ascertained.  It  is  very  rare  in  collections,  the 
only  specimen  in  the  United  States  being  in 
the  museum  of  the  Philadelphia  academy  of 
natural  sciences,  a  stuffed  skin  presented  by 
Dr.  Kane.  It  is  said  to  occur  fossil  at  Esch- 
scholtz  bay  on  the  N.  W.  coast.  The  bos  Pal- 
lasii  (De  Kay)  of  North  America  and  the  fos- 
sil oxen  found  in  various  parts  of  the  United 
States,  coming  near  the  musk  ox,  have  been 
described  by  Dr.  Leidy,  under  the  name  of 
bootherium,  in  vol.  v.  of  the  "Smithsonian 
Contributions  to  Knowledge"  (1853),  as  the 
B.  camfrons  and  B.  bombifrons  ;  these  proba- 
bly, he  says,  were  clothed  in  a  long  fleece,  and 
inhabited  the  great  valley  of  the  Mississippi 
just  anterior  to  the  drift  period.  The  Sibe- 
rian and  northern  European  fossils  probably 
belong  to  the  genus  ombos. 

MUSKRAT  (fiber  zibethicm,  Cuv.),  an  Ameri- 
can rodent,  the  only  species  of  its  genus,  well 
known  for  its  aquatic  habits ;  it  is  also  called 
musquash,  musk  beaver,  and  ondatra.  The 
dentition  is :  incisors  f- ,  and  molars  f i-f,  in  all 
16  teeth.  The  body  is  rat-like,  the  head  and 
neck  short ;  the  eyes  and  ears  very  small,  the 
latter  having  no  special  arrangement  except 
their  dense  fur  to  exclude  the  water ;  the  up- 
per lip  not  cleft,  and  hairy  between  the  teeth 
and  nose ;  lips  thick  and  fleshy ;  nose  thick  and 
obtuse ;  six  horizontal  rows  of  whiskers,  with 
some  over  the  eye  and  under  the  chin;  the 
legs  short,  and  the  thighs  hid  in  the  body ;  the 
claws  compressed  and  incurved,  the  third  toe 
the  longest  on  the  fore  feet  and  the  fourth  on 
the  hind  feet;  the  hind  feet  appear  slightly 
twisted,  the  inner  edge  posterior  to  the  outer, 
by  which  the  animal  can  "feather  the  oar" 
when  the  foot  is  brought  forward  in  swim- 
ming; all  the  feet  are  partly  webbed,  naked 
below,  covered  with  short  hairs  above,  and 


Muskrat  (Fiber  zibethicus). 


have  their  edges  more  or  less  margined  with 
bristly  fringes ;  the  tail  is  two  thirds  as  long 
as  the  body,  compressed,  two-edged  at  the 
end,  scaly,  with  short  thin  hair ;  the  fore  feet 
are  four-toed,  with  a  wart-like  thumb,  and  the 
hind  feet  five-toed.  The  head  and  body  are 


MUSONIUS 

from  13  to  15  in.  long,  and  the  tail  9  or  10  in. ; 
the  general  color  is  ruddy  brown  above,  dark- 
er on  the  back,  and  cinereous  beneath ;  some 
specimens  are  very  dark  brown ;  the  long  hair 
is  fine,  compact,  and  silky,  with  coarser  hairs 
intermingled,  especially  above.  It  is  more  ex- 
tensively distributed  over  North  America  than 
the  beaver,  and  unlike  the  latter  does  not  dis- 
appear at  the  approach  of  civilization;  it  is 
found  from  the  Atlantic  to  the  Pacific,  and 
from  the  Rio  Grande  to  arctic  America,  even 
on  the  N.  W.  coast ;  it  occurs  nowhere  in  the 
old  world.  Fortunately  for  the  rice  planter,  it 
is  not  found  in  the  alluvial  lands  of  the  Caro- 
linas,  Georgia,  Alabama,  and  Florida,  though  it 
extends  much  further  south.  Its  favorite  local- 
ity is  a  grassy  marsh  or  bank  of  a  lake  or  .slug- 
gish stream ;  nocturnal  in  habit,  it  is  occasion- 
ally seen  in  the  daytime  swimming  a  stream 
or  diving  into  the  mouth  of  its  hole ;  awkward 
on  land,  it  is  an  excellent  swimmer  and  diver, 
and  very  lively  and  playful  in  the  water;  it 
often  swims  15  or  20  yards  under  water.  The 
burrows  are  made  in  banks  skirting  streams, 
the  entrances  being  under  water,  thence  lead- 
ing upward  above  the  highest  freshets ;  their 
winter  galleries  often  extend  40  or  50  ft.  from 
the  water,  the  central  part  containing  the  nests, 
made  of  dried  reeds  and  grasses;  in  swamps 
and  marshy  lands  they  sometimes  raise  mounds 
of  sticks,  twigs,  and  leaves  from  2  to  4  ft. 
above  the  surface,  in  which  are  their  grassy 
beds  large  enough  to  accommodate  several  ani- 
mals ;  the  entrance  to  these  is  also  under  wa- 
ter, the  surface  of  which  they  take  care  shall 
not  be  entirely  frozen.  The  fur  was  once 
in  great  demand  for  hats,  and  hundreds  of 
thousands  of  skins  were  annually  exported  for 
this  purpose  to  Europe;  their  value  is  now 
very  small,  as  they  are  used  chiefly  for  cheap 
furs;  the  animal,  however,  is  generally  killed 
when  possible,  to  prevent  the  destruction  of 
dams  and  embankments.  They  are  not  at  all 
cunning,  and  may  be  caught  in  ordinary  box 
traps,  or  in  steel  traps  placed  just  under  water 
and  baited  with  sweet  apples  or  parsnips  ;  they 
are  often  dug  out  of  their  holes,  hunted  by 
dogs,  and  speared  in  their  nests.  Great  num- 
bers are  killed  by  lynxes,  foxes,  owls,  and  oth- 
er rapacious  mammals  and  birds.  Like  the 
common  rat,  they  are  omnivorous,  feeding  on 
grasses,  roots,  vegetables,  mussels  and  other 
mollusks,  fruits,  and  even  flesh ;  they  are  in- 
jurious rather  from  digging  under  embank- 
ments and  undermining  meadows  than  from 
destroying  vegetation  either  in  field  or  garden. 
They  are  very  prolific,  bringing  forth  four  to 
six  young  at  a  time,  three  times  a  year.  They 
have  a  strong  musky  odor,  -which  to  most  per- 
sons is  less  offensive  than  that  of  the  mink, 
and  far  less  so  than  that  of  the  skunk;  the 
flesh  is  considered  palatable  in  some  localities. 

MUSK  TURTLE.     See  TORTOISE. 

MUSOMUS,  Cains  Rnfns,  a  Roman  stoic  of  the 
1st  century  A.  D.  Nero  banished  him  to  Gya- 
rus  in  66,  under  pretence  of  his  having  been 


MUSPEATT 


MUSSEL 


103 


a  party  to  the  conspiracy  of  Piso.  On  the 
death  of  Nero  he  returned  from  exile,  and 
when  Antonius  Primus,  the  general  of  Vespa- 
sian, was  advancing  against  Eome,  he  joined 
the  embassy  sent  by  Vitellius  to  make  terms 
with  his  enemies.  After  the  downfall  of  Vi- 
tellius he  became  reconciled  to  Vespasian,  who 
suffered  him  to  remain  in  Kome.  The  only 
edition  of  the  extant  fragments  of  his  works 
is  that  of  Peerlkamp  (Haarlem,  1822). 

MUSPRATT,  James  Sheridan,  a  British  chemist, 
born  in  Dublin,  March  8,  1821,  died  in  Liver- 
pool in  November,  1871.  He  removed  at  an 
early  age  to  Liverpool,  where  his  father  estab- 
lished a  large  chemical  manufactory.  At  the 
age  of  13  he  travelled  through  France  and  Ger- 
many, and  subsequently  studied  in  the  labora- 
tory of  Prof.  Graham  of  Glasgow,  whom  he 
accompanied  to  London.  Before  reaching  the 
age  of  17  he  was  sufficiently  advanced  to  be 
intrusted  with  the  chemical  department  in  a 
large  manufacturing  establishment  in  Manches- 
ter, and  he  also  published  a  lecture  on  chloride 
of  lime.  After  an  attempt  to  embark  in  busi- 
ness in  America,  by  which  he  lost  money,  he 
went  in  1843  to  Giessen  and  studied  chemistry 
for  two  years  under  Liebig.  His  first  impor- 
tant original  paper  was  one  on  the  sulphites, 
published  in  Liebig  and  Wohler's  Annalen,  in 
which  he  proved  the  analogy  between  the  sul- 
phites and  the  carbonates,  and  which  procured 
him  the  degree  of  doctor  of  philosophy.  While 
at  Giessen  he  edited  Plattner's  "Treatise  on 
the  Blowpipe,"  with  many  valuable  additions. 
Between  1845  and  1847  he  travelled  over  Eu- 
rope, returning  in  the  latter  year  to  Giessen, 
where  he  discovered  several  remarkable  bodies 
produced  from  the  sulpho-cyanides  of  ethyle 
and  methyle.  In  1848  he  returned  to  England, 
married  the  American  actress  Susan  Cushman, 
and  soon  after  founded  a  college  of  chemistry 
in  Liverpool,  of  which  he  was  appointed  direc- 
tor. In  1854  he  commenced  a  dictionary  of 
chemistry,  published  in  Europe  and  America 
in  parts,  which  was  completed  in  1860  in  2 
vols.  royal  8vo.  It  was  translated  into  Ger- 
man and  French,  and  reached  a  large  circu- 
lation. He  has  also  published  "Outlines  of 
Quantitative  Analysis  for  Students." 

MUSQUASH.     See  MUSKRAT. 

MUSSCHENBROEK,  Pieter  van,  a  Dutch  mathe- 
matician, born  in  Leyden,  March  14, 1692,  died 
there,  Sept.  19,  1761.  He  was  educated  at 
Leyden,  and  in  1717  formed  an  intimacy  with 
'sGravesande,  who  subsequently  cooperated 
with  him  in  introducing  the  Newtonian  sys- 
tem of  philosophy  into  Holland.  In  1718  he 
took  his  degree  of  doctor  of  medicine,  and 
soon  afterward  visited  England  for  the  pur- 
pose of  seeing  Newton  and  making  himself 
acquainted  with  his  system.  In  1719  he  was 
appointed  professor  of  philosophy  and  mathe- 
matics and  professor  extraordinary  of  medi- 
cine in  the  university  of  Duisburg,  which  he 
resigned  in  1723  for  the  chair  of  philosophy 
and  mathematics  at  Utrecht.  Here  he  re- 


mained till  1739,  and  about  1740  he  accepted 
the  chair  of  mathematics  at  Leyden,  which  he 
filled  during  the  remainder  of  his  life.  His 
works  contain  many  original  researches  in  ex- 
perimental physics,  and  are  among  the  earliest 
expositions  of  the  Newtonian  philosophy ;  the 
cohesion  of  bodies,  the  phosphorescent  prop- 
erties which  many  bodies  acquire  from  expo- 
sure to  light,  magnetism,  capillary  attraction, 
and  the  size  of  the  earth  being  among  the  sub- 
jects most  successfully  treated. 

MUSSEL,  or  Muscle  (Lat.  musculus  ;  Ger.  Mu- 
schel),  a  well  known  lamellibranchiate  mollusk 
of  the  genus  mytilus  (Linn.).  It  belongs  to  the 
dimyarian  group,  or  those  having  two  adduc- 
tor muscles,  the  anterior  being  small;  the 
mantle  has  a  distinct  anal  orifice ;  the  foot  is 
small,  cylindrical,  grooved,  with  many  retrac- 
tile muscles  and  a  large  silky  byssus  divided  to 
its  base;  the  shell  is  longitudinal  and  subtri- 
angular,  with  the  beaks  terminal  and  pointed, 
dark-colored  and  shining.  The  common  salt- 
water mussel  (M.  edulis,  Linn.)  is  from  1  to 
2£  in.  long  and  1  in.  broad,  of  a  greenish  black 


Common  Salt-water  Mussel  (Mytilus  edulis). 

color  externally  and  purplish  and  bluish  white 
within.  This  species  is  esteemed  as  food  in 
Europe ;  they  lie  together  in  large  beds  uncov- 
ered at  low  water,  and  are  more  easily  obtained 
than  the  oyster;  they  are  most  esteemed  in 
autumn,  as  in  the  spring  or  spawning  season 
they  are  apt  to  disarrange  delicate  stomachs  and 
to  produce  a  cutaneous  eruption ;  thousands 
of  bushels  are  annually  obtained  for  food  and 
bait  for  deep-sea  fisheries,  affording  employ- 
ment for  hundreds  of  women  and  children,x 
especially  along  the  frith  of  Forth ;  they  an- 
chor themselves  very  firmly  to  rocks  and 
stones  by  the  horny  threads  of  the  byssus, 
directed  by  means  of  the  foot,  and  attached 
by  their  broad  disk-shaped  extremities.  The 
common  mussel  of  New  England  (M.  lorealis, 
Lam.),  by  some  considered  the  same  as  the  last 
species,  is  eaten,  fresh  and  pickled,  in  some 
parts  of  the  country,  but  is  more  commonly 
used  for  bait  or  manure.  The  forms  of  their 
shells  are  very  various,  from  accidental  distor- 
tions or  from  the  shape  of  the  cavities  and 
crevices  in  which  they  are  commonly  wedged. 
Several  other  species  are  described. — Anoth- 
er shell,  commonly  called  mussel  by  the  fisher- 
men, is  the  allied  genus  modiola  (Lam.),  known 
in  Europe  as  the  horse  mussel.  Our  common 
species  (M.  modiolus,  Turton)  is  from  4£  to  6 
in.  long  and  from  2£  to  3  in.  wide ;  the  shell  is 


104: 


MUSSET 


thick,  coarse,  and  rough,  with  the  beaks  sub- 
terminal;  the  color  externally  is  chestnut  or 
dark  brown,  pearly  within.  It  inhabits  deep 
water,  attaching  itself  very  firmly  to  rocks, 
from  which  it  is  torn  in  great  numbers  during 
violent  storms;  it  is  almost  always  more  or 
less  distorted,  and  has  seaweed  or  some  para- 
site attached  to  it ;  though  too  tough  for  food, 
it  makes  excellent  bait  for  cod  and  other  deep- 
sea  fishes,  but  is  very  difficult  to  obtain  when 
wanted.  Other  species  live  in  brackish  wa- 
ter; some  in  Europe  are  said  to  burrow  and 
make  a  nest  of  sand  and  fragments  of ^  shells.— 
The  fresh-water  mussel  (anodon)  and  river  mus- 
sel (unio)  are  dimyarians,  with  a  large  foot  not 
byssiferous  in  the  adult ;  the  hinge  is  toothed. 
The  A.  flumatilis  (Gould)  has  a  thin,  inequi- 
lateral shell,  grassy  green  externally  and  lilac- 
tinted  white  within,  and  attains  a  length  of  4J- 
in. ;  it  is  common  in  mill  ponds  and  sluggish 
streams.  Many  other  species  of  this  genus, 
and  of  unio  and  allied  genera  in  North  Ameri- 
ca, have  been  specially  described  by  Mr.  Isaac 
Lea.  Some  of  the  unios,  both  in  this  country 
and  in  Europe,  produce  very  fine  pearls,  and 
about  20  years  ago  there  was  a  general  pearl 
hunting  in  many  parts  of  the  United  States, 
which  resulted  in  the  finding  of  a  few  valuable 
specimens  after  an  immense  amount  of  gen- 
erally unprofitable  labor.  The  pearl  mussel  of 
Europe  (U.  margaritifera,  Linn.)  has  long  been 
famous  for  the  ornamental  excretions  found  in 
its  shell,  some  of  which  are  of  rare  beauty. 

MUSSET,  Louis  Charles  Alfred  de,  popularly 
known  as  Alfred  de  Musset,  a  French  poet, 
born  in  Paris,  Nov.  11,  1810,  died  there,  May 
2, 1857.  He  was  a  son  of  VICTOR  DONATIEN  DE 
MUSSET  (1768-1832),  better  known  under  the 
name  of  Musset-Pathay,  a  cousin  of  the  mar- 
quis Musset  de  Cogners,  and,  like  the  latter,  of 
literary  distinction,  especially  for  his  writings 
about  Rousseau.  Alfred  is  said  to  have  writ- 
ten a  tragedy  as  early  as  1826,  and  in  1828  he 
received  a  prize  for  a  Latin  dissertation.  He 
alternated  for  some  time  between  the  studies 
of  medicine,  law,  and  art,  and  was  for  a  short 
period  attached  to  a  banking  house,  but  was 
encouraged  in  his  predilection  for  literature  by 
intercourse  with  Charles  Nodier  and  Victor 
Hugo.  His  first  work,  Les  contes  d/Espagne 
et  cPItalie  (1830),  revealed  his  poetic  talent, 
and  excited  much  attention  and  comment  on 
account  of  the  unbridled  utterances  of  a  fan- 
tastic and  erotic  imagination.  His  next  im- 
portant production,  Le  spectacle  dans  un  fau- 
teuil  (1833),  consisted  of  a  tragical  poem  {La 
coupe  et  lea  levres),  a  graceful  comedy  or  im- 
broglio (A  quoi  revent  les  jeunes  filles  ?),  and  a 
kind  of  Byronic  narrative  in  verse  (Namouno), 
containing  eloquent  lines  addressed  to  the  Ty- 
rolese,  which  were  regarded  by  his  admirers  as 
the  most  classical  production  of  the  romantic 
school.  More  perhaps  than  any  of  his  con- 
temporaries he  embodied  in  his  effusions  mor- 
bid and  skeptical  views  of  life,  which  mar  to 
some  extent  the  beauty  of  his  exquisite  poem 


MUSSEY 

Eolla  (1835),  and  of  his  Confession  tfun  en- 
fant du  sitcle  (1836 ;  new  ed.,  1859).  In  the 
latter  work  he  describes  under  fictitious  names 
his  journey  to  Italy  with  George  Sand,  and  his 
relations  with  that  authoress,  which  led  her  to 
publish  in  1859  Elle  et  lui,  and  to  the  appear- 
ance in  the  same  year  of  Lui  et  elle  by  Al- 
fred's brother,  PAUL  EDME  DE  MUSSET  (born  in 
Paris,  Nov.  7,  1804,  and  known  as  the  author 
of  Lesfemmes  de  la  regence,  2  vols.,  1841,  and 
other  works),  and  to  George  Sand's  refutation 
of  the  latter 's  allegation  against  her,  in  the 
preface  to  her  novel  Jean  de  la  Roche,  also  in 
1859.  Alfred  became  in  1836  as  devoted  to 
Mme.  Malibran  as  he  had  previously  been  to 
Mme.  Dudevant.  His  Poesies  nouvelles  (latest 
ed.,  1862)  contain  his  Strophes  a  la  Malibran, 
and  his  Nuit  de  mai,  de  decembre,  d'octobre  et 
d'aout;  these  Nuits  are  regarded  as  the  most 
beautiful  of  his  lyrics,  and  as  most  deeply  re- 
flecting the  conflicting  emotions  of  his  inner 
life.  Among  other  fine  effusions  are  his  Let- 
tre  a  Lamartine  and  VEspoir  en  Dieu.  Du- 
ring the  political  complications  in  1840  he  an- 
swered Becker's  German  war  song  in  regard 
to  the  Rhine  with  a  poem  entitled  Nous  I1  awns 
eu,  votre  JKhin  allemand.  The  influence  of 
the  duke  of  Orleans,  who  had  been  his  college 
classmate,  had  procured  for  him  the  office  of 
librarian  in  the  ministry  of  the  interior ;  and 
he  commemorated  the  death  of  that  prince  in 
1842  in  one  of  his  most  eloquent  poems.  He 
was  deprived  of  his  office  at  the  revolution 
of  1848,  but  was  restored  to  it  after  the  estab- 
lishment of  the  empire  (1852),  with  the  title 
of  reader  to  the  empress.  His  finest  poetry 
was  written  before  his  30th  year,  which  made 
Heine  say:  (Test  un  jeune  homme  d^un  beau 
'passe.  His  Contes  comprise  Mimi  Perison,  His- 
toire  d'un  merle  blanc,  and  La  mouche  (1854). 
Among  his  best  novelettes  are  Emmeline  and 
Margot.  He  was  less  successful  as  a  dra- 
matist, though  his  Un  caprice  (3d  ed.,  Paris, 
1848),  II  ne  faut  jurer  de  rien  (1848),  and 
//  faut  qu'une  porte  soit  ouverte  ou  fermee 
(1851),  were  received  with  great  favor.  A 
complete  edition  of  his  Comedies  et  proverbes, 
revised  by  himself,  was  published  in  2  vols.  in 
1856.  His  complete  works,  with  illustrations, 
and  a  biographical  notice  by  his  brother,  ap- 
peared in  10  vols.  in  1865-'6.  His  (Euvres 
posthumes  (1867)A  include  Faustine,  an  unfin- 
ished drama,  DAne  et  le  ruisseau,  a  graceful 
comedy,  and  poems  and  letters,  one  of  the 
latter  containing  a  picturesque  account  of  Ra- 
chel's reading  Phedre  to  him  in  her  house. 

MUSSEY,  Renben  Dimond,  an  American  sur- 
geon, born  in  New  Hampshire  in  1780,  died  in 
Boston,  June  28,  1866.  He  practised  his  pro- 
fession during  the  earlier  part  of  his  life  with 
great  success  in  his  native  state,  and  from  1814 
to  1838  was  connected  with  various  medical 
professorships  in  Dartmouth  college.  He  af- 
terward removed  to  Cincinnati,  where  he  ^*as 
professor  of  surgery  in  the  Cincinnati  college 
of  medicine  and  surgery  from  1838  to  1852, 


MUSTAED 


105 


when  he  took  the  same  chair  in  the  Miami 
medical  college,  resigning  in  1860  and  remov- 
ing to  Boston.  His  surgical  practice  in  Cin- 
cinnati and  the  neighboring  country  was  large, 
and  he  was  widely  known  and  resorted  to  as 
a  consulting  surgeon.  He  was  a  prominent 
temperance  lecturer,  and  advocated  temper- 
ance in  eating  as  well  as  drinking.  He  pub- 
lished "  Health,  its  Friends  and  its  Foes " 
(12mo.  Boston,  1862). 

MUSTARD,  the  name  of  a  well  known  condi- 
ment as  well  as  of  the  plants  which  produce  it. 
In  commerce  two  sorts  of  mustard  seed  are 
known,  the  white  and  the  black,  which  are 
produced  by  plants  formerly  called  sinapis  alba 
and  8.  nigra  ;  but  in  the  most  recent  revision 
of  the  cruciferce,  the  family  to  which  they  be- 
long, sinapis  is  reduced  to  brassica,  the  genus 
which  includes  the  cabbage  and  the  turnip, 
and  according  to  this  view  the  mustard  plants 
are  Irassica  alba  and  B.  nigra.  White  mustard 


Mustard. 

is  an  annual,  with  a  stem  1  to  2  ft.  high,  smooth 
or  with  a  few  spreading  hairs ;  its  leaves  are 
pinnately  lobed,  more  or  less  rough,  the  lobes 
coarsely  toothed,  with  the  terminal  one  the 
largest ;  the  yellow  flowers  in  a  raceme,  suc- 
ceeded by  pods  three  f  oiirths  of  an  inch  to  an 
inch  long,  bristly,  upon  spreading  stalks  and 
terminated  by  a  stout  flattened  beak  which 
forms  more  than  one  half  of  the  pod  and  is 
one-seeded,  while  the  lower  part  of  the  pod  is 
turgid  and  contains  several  seeds ;  the  seeds  are 
pale  brown  or  brownish  yellow.  Black  mus- 
tard is  a  somewhat  taller  and  smoother  plant, 
and  has  less  divided  leaves ;  the  pods  are  erect, 
smooth,  about  half  an  inch  long,  and  somewhat 
four-sided,  without  the  long  beak,  but  tipped 
with  the  style,  with  much  smaller  and  very 
dark  brown  seeds.  Both  species  are  natives 
of  Europe,  and  are  found  in  the  older  portions 
of  this  country  as  naturalized  weeds.  The 
seeds  of  both  are  sold  by  druggists ;  a  portion 
of  the  supply  is  of  home  growth,  the  rest  being 


imported.  White  mustard  is  much  used  in 
England  as  a  salad ;  the  seeds  are  sown  very 
thickly,  and  the  young  plants  are  cut  while 
still  in  the  seed  leaf ;  cress  (lepidium  sativutri) 
is  usually  sown  with  the  mustard,  and  the 
product  of  the  two  together  is  known  as  "  small 
salading."  This  species  is  sometimes  culti- 
vated in  gardens  as  a  pot  herb  or  greens,  the 
leaves  being  cooked  while  yet  tender.  In  Eng- 
land mustard  is  much  sown  as  a  crop  for  for- 
age and  for  green  manuring,  and  the  few  ex- 
periments that  have  been  made  with  it  here 
have  been  favorable;  sowed  at  the  rate  of 
about  12  Ibs.  to  the  acre,  it  gives  an  abundant 
crop  of  succulent  forage,  which  is  cut  before 
the  seeds  begin  to  mature  anci  fed  to  cattle, 
sheep,  and  swine.  When  either  kind  is  raised 
for  seed,  it  is  cut  with  a  sickle  before  it  begins 
to  drop  its  seed,  and  when  dry  threshed  with  a 
flail.  The  great  consumption  of  mustard  seed 
is  in  the  preparation  of  the  "  flour  of  mustard  " 
for  table  use;  the  black  seeds  are  the  most 
pungent,  but  both  kinds  are  used  together ;  the 
seeds  are  crushed  between  rollers,  then  pound- 
ed in  mortars,  and  the  finer  portions  sifted  from 
the  husks.  This  was  first  prepared  in  Durham, 
England,  by  a  woman  who  kept  her  process 
a  secret,  and  the  name  "  Durham  mustard  " 
is  used  as  a  trade  mark  by  manufacturers  at 
the  present  day.  There  is  probably  no  article 
of  domestic  consumption  more  generally  adul- 
terated than  flour  of  mustard;  wheat  flour  to 
increase  the  weight,  turmeric  to  give  color,  and 
cayenne  to  add  pungency,  are  the  most  com- 
mon adulterations ;  sometimes  gypsum  or  white 
clay  is  used  with  chrome  yellow  (chromate  of 
lead)  to  increase  the  color.  The  microscope 
readily  shows  the  presence  of  flour,  turmeric, 
and  other  vegetable  admixtures ;  but  to  detect 
the  inorganic  impurities  recourse  must  be  had 
to  chemical  analysis.  The  husks,  separated  by 
the  sieves  in  the  manufacture  of  mustard,  yield 
by  expression  a  bland  fixed  oil  which  is  used 
for  burning  and  other  purposes ;  the  cake  left 
after  expressing  is  used  as  a  manure,  it  being 
too  pungent  for  cattle  food. — The  two  kmds  of 
mustard  seed  differ  in  their  chemical  constitu- 
ents, which  in  both  are  rather  complex.  The 
activity  of  black  mustard  seeds  depends  upon  a 
volatile  oil  which  does  not  exist  ready  formed 
in  the  seeds,  but  is  developed  only  by  the  con- 
tact of  water.  The  seeds  contain  myronio 
acid,  in  which  sulphur  is  found  in  combination 
with  oxygen,  hydrogen,  carbon,  and  nitrogen. 
Another  principle  is  my  rosin  e,  an  albuminoid 
which  is  affected  by  heat,  alcohol,  and  other 
agents  in  the  same  manner  as  albumen.  In 
the  presence  of  water,  myrosine  and  myronic 
acid  react  upon  one  another,  and  produce  the 
volatile  oil  of  mustard,  or  sulpho-cyanide  of 
allyle,  an  exceedingly  acrid  and  pungent  liquid, 
which  promptly  blisters  when  applied  to  the 
skin.  White  mustard  produces  no  volatile  oil, 
but  its  activity  depends  upon  a  non-volatile 
acrid  principle,  which  results  from  the  action 
of  myrosine  upon  sulpho-sinapisine,  a  con- 


106 


MUSTARD 


stituent  of  the  white  mustard  seed  only.    An- 
other respect  in  which  white  mustard  seed  dif- 
fers from  the  black  is  the  mucilage  contained  in 
the  husks,  which  is  readily  imparted  to  boiling 
water.— Mustard  has  been  employed  in  medi- 
cine from  very  early  times,  and  is  mentioned 
by  Theophrastus  and  Galen,  and  it    is  still 
much  used  in  domestic  and  professional  prac- 
tice.    The  whole  seeds  of  the  white  mustard 
were  at  one  time  a  popular  remedy  in  dyspep- 
sia ;  given  in  the  dose  of  a  tablespoonf  ul,  they 
probably  served  as  a  mechanical  stimulus  to 
torpid  bowels.     Serious  inflammation  has  fol- 
lowed their  use,  and  it  should  not  be  under- 
taken without  advice.     The  flour  of  mustard  is 
a  useful  emetic  always  at  hand  in  case  of  poi- 
soning or  other  emergency ;  the  dose  is  from  a 
teaspoonful  to  a  tablespoonful  stirred  in  a  tum- 
bler of  water.    As  a  topical  stimulant,  in  the 
form  of  a  mustard  poultice  or  sinapism,  itia 
in  frequent  use  ;  when  the  mustard  is  pure,  its 
action  is  sufficiently  prompt  if  mixed  with  an 
equal  bulk  of  rye  meal  or  wheat  flour;   but 
much  of  that  found  in  the  shops  is  already  so 
far  diluted  as  to  be  nearly  inert.     For  this  or 
any  other  use  the  mustard  should  be  mixed 
with  cold  or  tepid  water,  as  hot  water  coagu- 
lates the  myrosine  and  prevents  the  develop- 
ment of  the  active  principle.     The  ready-made 
mustard  plaster  sold  by  druggists  consists  of 
the  black  seeds  reduced  to  a  coarse  powder, 
which  is  sprinkled  upon  paper  or  stiff  cloth  on 
which  a  coat  of  thick  mucilage  has  been  spread ; 
when  dry  this  will  keep  well,  and  when  re- 
quired for  use  is  rendered  active  by  dipping 
it  in  tepid  water  and  bound  upon  the  desired 
spot;   this  is  more  certain  in  its  action  and 
more  cleanly  in  use  than  any  other  form  of 
sinapism.      As  mustard  varies  so    much    in 
strength,  and  the  skin  of  individuals  in  sus- 
ceptibility, the  action  of  mustard  when  applied 
should  be  closely  watched,  else  a  troublesome 
ulcer  may  be  produced ;  this  is  especially  ne- 
cessary when  the  patient  is  unconscious. — As 
a  condiment  the  uses  of  mustard  are  well 
known;    it  is  mentioned  by  Shakespeare   in 
"  Taming  of  the  Shrew,"  act  4,  scene  3,  though 
it  did  not  become  common  until  the  time  of 
George  I.    The  English  and  Americans  usually 
mix  mustard  with  water  and  a  little  salt,  but 
the  French  and  Germans  prepare  it  with  va- 
rious flavoring  articles  and  usually  cook  it,  de- 
priving it  of  much  of  its  pungency.     The  im- 
ported French  mustard  is  of  various  flavors, 
that  containing  tarragon  being  much  esteemed ; 
celery  seed,  garlic,  cloves,  anchovies,  and  other 
things  are  used,  and  in  some  cases  a  peculiar 
flavor  is  given  by  stirring  the  mixture  with  a 
hot  poker.      German  mustard  is  mixed  with 
vinegar  in  which  black  pepper,  cinnamon  anc 
other  spices,  and  onions  have  been  boiled,  with 
salt  and  sugar  added ;  the  vinegar  is  used  boil- 
ing, hence  the  mustard  is  very  mild;  it  im- 
proves by  keeping. — Wild  mustard,  the  char- 
lock of  English  farmers,  is  brassica  sinapis- 
trum  (formerly  sinapis  arvensis),  a  troublesome 


MUTINY 

weed  in  European  agriculture,  and  equally  so 
n  the  grain  fields  of  some  of  the  older  parts 
of  the  United  States ;  it  bears  a  general  resem- 
jlance  to  the  two  species  already  noticed,  but 
ts  leaves  are  less  divided,  and  the  nearly 
smooth  pods  have  their  seed-bearing  portion 
onger  than  the  stout  two-edged  beak,  which 
.s  either  empty  or  one-seeded.  The  seeds  of 
this,  if  buried  so  low  that  they  will  not  germi- 
nate, retain  their  vitality  for  a  long  time,  and 
aave  been  known  to  vegetate  when  brought 
to  the  surface  after  having  been  buried  more 
khan  40  years.  Sheep  are  exceedingly  fond  of 
it,  and  are  sometimes  used  to  clear  a  field  of 
charlock.  In  Japan,  India,  and  other  countries 
related  species  are  cultivated  for  their  leaves 
as  food,  or  for  their  seeds  to  furnish  oil. — The 
attempts  to  identify  the  plant  mentioned  as 
mustard  in  the  New  Testament  have  given 
rise  to  much  discussion ;  some  still  hold  that 
the  black  mustard,  which  in  Palestine  grows 
10  or  12  ft.  high,  is  the  plant,  while  others  re- 
fer it  to  Salvadora  Indica,  which  according  to 
Boyle  was  the  mustard  tree  of  the  Jews.  The 
order  Salvadoracew  is  a  small  one  closely  re- 
lated to  the  jasmine  family.— Hedge  mustard 
is  sisymbrium  officinale,  a  common,  much- 
branched,  unsightly  weed,  of  the  same  family ; 
it  is  the  Jierb  au  chantre  of  the  French,  who 
formerly  held  it  in  esteem  as  a  remedy  for  the 
hoarseness  of  singers.  Tansy  mustard  is  S.. 
canescem,  with  finely  divided  leaves,  common 
from  New  York  southward. 

MCTINA.     See  MODENA. 

MUTINY  (Fr.  mutin,  refractory,  stubborn; 
mutiner,  to  rise  in  arms).  A  century  ago  the 
word  mutiny  was,  as  we  learn  from  lexicog- 
raphers, often  used  in  describing  insurrec- 
tion or  sedition  in  civil  society;  but  it  is 
now  applied  exclusively  to  certain  offences  by 
sailors  and  soldiers.  Properly  it  is  the  act  of 
numbers  in  resistance  of  authority;  but  by 
statutes  certain  acts  of  individuals  are  declared 
to  be  mutiny.  The  act  of  congress  of  March 
3,  1835,  defines  mutiny  or  revolt  in  the  follow- 
ing language:  "If  any  one  or  more  (^f  the 
crew  of  any  American  ship  or  vessel  on  the 
high  seas,  or  any  other  waters  within  the  mari- 
time and  admiralty  jurisdiction  of  the  United 
States,  shall  unlawfully,  wilfully,  and  with 
force  or  by  fraud,  threats,  or  other  intimida- 
tions, usurp  the  command  of  such  ship  or  ves- 
sel from  the  master  or  other  lawful  command- 
ing officer  thereof ;  or  deprive  him  of  his  au- 
thority and  command  on  board  thereof;  or 
resist  or  prevent  him  in  the  free  and  lawful 
exercise  thereof;  or  transfer  such  authority 
and  comman.d  to  any  other  person  not  legally 
entitled  thereto ;  every  such  person  so  offend- 
ing, his  aiders  and  abettors,  shall  be  deemed 
guilty  of  a  revolt  or  mutiny  and  felony."  The 
same  statute  provides  for  endeavors  and  con- 
spiracies to  excite  mutiny.  In  construction  of 
the  act  it  has  been  held  that  mere  disobedience 
of  orders  by  one  or  two  of  the  seamen,  with- 
out any  attempt  to  excite  a  general  resistance 


MUTTEA 


MUYSCAS 


107 


or  disobedience,  and  insolent  conduct  or  lan- 
guage toward  the  master  or  violence  to  his  per- 
son, if  unaccompanied  by  other  acts  showing 
an  intention  to  subvert  his  authority  as  master, 
are  not  sufficient  to  constitute  the  offence  of 
endeavoring  to  excite  mutiny.  An  indictment 
for  this  crime,  it  is  said,  must  set  forth  a  con- 
federacy of  at  least  two  of  the  men  to  refuse 
to  do  further  duty,  and  to  resist  the  lawful 
commands  of  the  officers.  The  offence  of 
making  a  revolt  was  by  the  act  of  April,  1790, 
punishable  by  death.  By  the  act  of  1835, 
now  in  force,  it  is  punished  by  fine  not  exceed- 
ing $2,000,  and  by  imprisonment  and  confine- 
ment at  hard  labor  for  not  more  than  10  years, 
according  to  the  nature  and  aggravation  of  the 
offence ;  while  attempts  to  excite  mutiny  are 
punishable  by  fine  not  exceeding  $1,000,  or  by 
imprisonment  not  exceeding  five  years,  or  by 
both.  Sailors  refusing  to  go  to  sea  from  rea- 
sonable apprehension  of  the  unseaworthiness 
of  the  vessel  are  not  punishable  as  for  a  revolt 
under  the  act;  neither  are  those  who  refuse 
to  do  duty  after  a  deviation  from  the  voyage 
named  in  the  shipping  articles.  Mutinous  con- 
duct in  the  army  and  navy  is  provided  for  by 
the  acts  of  April  10,  1806,  and  of  April  23, 
1800.  In  the  navy  it  is  punishable  with  death ; 
in  the  army  with  death  or  such  other  punish- 
ment as  a  court  martial  may  inflict. 

MUTTRA,  a  city  of  British  India,  in  the 
Northwestern  Provinces,  capital  of  a  district  of 
the  same  name,  on  the  W.  bank  of  the  Jumna, 
30  m.  N.  N.  W.  of  Agra;  pop.  in  1872,  51,540. 
It  is  picturesquely  built  on  high  ground  in  the 
form  of  a  crescent,  and  was  once  well  forti- 
fied. Flights  of  stone  steps,  or  ghauts,  adorned 
with  temples,  lead  down  to  the  river,  which  is 
accounted  sacred  by  the  Hindoos,  and  every 
day  crowds  of  devotees  frequent  its  banks  to 
perform  their  religious  rites.  The  streets  are 
steep,  narrow,  and  dirty,  and  rendered  more 
difficult  by  deep  ravines  which  run  through 
the  town.  There  are  some  striking  ruined 
buildings,  among  which  is  a  fort,  having  on  its 
roof  an  observatory  with  astronomical  instru- 
ments. One  of  the  most  beautiful  edifices  is  a 
temple  and  dwelling  house  together,  built  by  a 
former  treasurer  of  the  state  of  Gwalior,  and 
approached  through  a  richly  carved  gateway. 
The  British  have  extensive  cantonments  about 
a  mile  distant.  Muttra  is  held  in  great  rev- 
erence by  the  Hindoos  as  the  birthplace  of 
Krishna,  and  is  overrun  with  sacred  monkeys, 
bulls,  paroquets,  and  peacocks,  which  are  fed 
and  protected,  but  allowed  to  go  at  large  in  the 
streets.  The  wealth  and  importance  of  the 
place  were  formerly  much  greater  than  at 
present.  Mahmoud  of  Ghuzni  sacked  it  in 
1017,  and  carried  off  or  destroyed  an  enormous 
amount  of  treasure.  Among  other  rich  speci- 
mens of  handicraft,  he  found  five  idols  of  gold 
with  eyes  of  rubies,  and  100  idols  of  silver, 
each  as  large  as  a  camel  could  carry.  At  the 
commencement  of  the  present  century  the 
town  was  taken  by  Sindia,  who  bestowed  it 


on  the  French  adventurer  Perron;  and  in  1803 
it  was  occupied  by  the  British  troops,  and 
soon  afterward  ceded  to  the  East  India  com- 
pany. A  detachment  of  sepoys  mutinied  at 
Muttra  in  the  latter  part  of  May,  1857,  shot 
their  British  officers,  and  marched  to  Delhi. 

MCTTRA,  or  Matara,  Arabia.     See  MUSCAT. 

MU1SCAS,  or  Chibchas,  a  nation  of  South 
American  Indians  in  what  is  now  the  United 
States  of  Colombia.  They  were  highly  ad- 
vanced in  civilization,  founded  an  empire,  and 
reduced  all  the  tribes  between  Serinza,  lat.  6° 
N".,  and  Suina  Paz,  4°  S.,  including  the  table 
lands  of  Bogota  and  Tunja.  At  the  time  of 
the  Spanish  conquest  the  Muysca  or  Chibcha 
empire,  including  the  less  civilized  conquered 
tribes,  had  a  population  estimated  by  Acosta 
and  Uricoechea  at  1,200,000,  and  by  others  at 
2,000,000.  They  were  divided  into  three  inde- 
pendent nations,  governed  by  the  zipa  residing 
at  Funza,  the  zaqui  at  Tunja,  and  ihejeque,  an 
ecclesiastical  chief  residing  at  Sogamoso.  The 
greatest  of  the  line  of  zipas  was  Sagnanma- 
chica.  They  honored  Nemterequeteba  as  the 
great  mythical  civilizer  of  the  race.  They 
worshipped  the  sun  and  a  number  of  inferior 
deities,  but  offered  human  sacrifices  only  to 
the  sun.  They  had  two  great  temples  at  Sua- 
moz  and  Leiva.  Their  priests  were  called 
jeques.  They  made  offerings  by  throwing  pre- 
cious objects  into  the  lakes.  They  had  a  kind 
of  week  of  3  days,  10  making  a  month;  20 
months  were  a  year,  and  20  years  an  age.  Suc- 
cession was  in  the  female  line.  They  cultivated 
maize,  potatoes,  and  quinoa,  and  made  a  spir- 
ituous liquor  of  maize;  used  rafts  and  balsas 
in  fishing ;  raised  cotton,  and  spun  and  wove 
cloth,  in  which  they  were  decently  dressed. 
They  wore  square  mantles,  some  of  them 
dyed  and  painted.  They  were  ingenious  car- 
vers of  bone,  wood,  and  stone,  and  worked  in 
precious  metals.  They  were  a  commercial  peo- 
ple, had  a  rude  kind  of  money,  and  carried  on 
a  trade  in  painted  mantles,  gold  ornaments, 
salt,  and  emeralds.  They  taught  parro.ts  to 
talk,  and  sacrificed  them  instead  of  human  be- 
ings. Their  houses  were  of  wood  and  clay, 
with  conical  roofs,  surrounded  by  a  palisade. 
The  floor  was  covered  with  mats,  and  benches 
were  ranged  around  as  seats.  They  buried  in 
caverns.  Chibcha  seems  to  have  been  their 
real  name,  Chibchacum  being  the  national  dei- 
ty. Muysca  means  men. — The  Chibcha  lan- 
guage was  cultivated  by  Gonzalo  Bermudez, 
Jose"  Dadei,  and  Bernardo  de  Lugo  (Oramdti- 
ca  mosca,  Madrid,  1619).  There  is  a  recent 
Gramdtica,  vocabulario,  catecismo  i  confesio- 
nario  de  la  lengua  Chibcha,  by  E.  Uricoechea 
(Paris,  1871).  There  is  no  d,  I,  or  r.  There 
are  two  conjugations,  and  inseparable  pro- 
nouns; there  is  no  variation  in  tense  for  per- 
son or  number,  and  no  gender,  case,  or  num- 
ber in  nouns.  The  language  is  generally  rep- 
resented as  having  been  lost  about  1765,  but  it 
is  still  spoken  by  some  bands  on  the  Meta,  &c., 
who  represent  this  ancient  civilized  race. 


108 


MUZIANO 


MUZIANO,  Girolamo,  an  Italian  artist,  born  at 
Acquafredda,  near  Brescia,  in  1528,  died  in 
Rome  in  1590  or  1592.  He  established  him- 
self in  Rome  about  the  middle  of  the  cen- 
tury, and  became  known  both  as  a  landscape 
and  historical  painter.  The  churches  of  Rome 
and  other  Italian  cities  contain  many  fine 
works  by  him  in  oil  and  fresco ;  and  there  is 
also  a  celebrated  "Christ  Washing  the  Feet  of 
his  Disciples"  in  the  cathedral  of  Rheims, 
which  has  been  engraved  by  Desplaces.  He 
was  almost  equally  celebrated  as  a  mosaic 
worker.  His  chief  architectural  work  is  the 
chapel  of  Gregory  XIII.  in  St.  Peter's.  He 
was  instrumental  in  founding  the  academy  of 
St.  Luke  at  Rome,  the  brief  for  the  establish- 
ment of  which  he  procured  from  Gregory  XIII. 
Many  of  his  pictures  have  been  engraved. 

MUZZEY,  Artemas  Bowers,  an  American  clergy- 
man, born  in  Lexington,  Mass.,  Sept.  21,  1802. 
He  graduated  at  Harvard  college  in  1824,  and 
at  the  Cambridge  divinity  school  in  1828,  and 
was  ordained  pastor  of  the  Unitarian  society 
in  Framingham,  Mass.,  June  10,  1830.  He 
resigned  this  post  in  May,  1833,  and  became 
pastor  successively  of  the  Unitarian  churches 
in  Cambridgeport,  Jan.  1,  1834;  Lee  street, 
Cambridge,  in  July,  1846 ;  Concord,  N".  H.,  in 
March,  1854;  and  Newburyport,  Mass.,  Sept. 
3,  1857,  from  which  he  retired  in  May,  1865. 
He  has  published  "  The  Young  Man's  Friend" 
(1836) ;  "  Sunday  School  Guide  "  (1837) ;  "  Mor- 
al Teacher"  (1839);  "The  Young  Maiden" 
(1840),  which  has  passed  through  many  edi- 
tions; "Man  a  Soul "(1842);  "  The  Fireside  " 
(1849) ;  "  The  Sabbath  School  Hymn  and  Tune 
Book  "  (1855) ;  "  Christ  in  the  "Will,  the  Heart, 
and  the  Life,"  a  volume  of  sermons  (1861); 
"  The  Blade  and  the  Ear,  Thoughts  for  a  Young 
Man"  (1864);  "Value  of  the  Study  of  Intel- 
lectual Philosophy  to  the  Minister"  (1869); 
"  Leaves  from  an  Autobiography,"  in  the  "  Re- 
ligious Magazine"  (1870-72);  "The  Higher 
Education."  (1871);  and  numerous  tracts,  ser- 
mons, and  essays,  and  reports  on  common 
schools  and  Sunday  schools. 

MYCALE  (now  Samsuri),  a  mountain  in  the 
south  of  Ionia  in  Asia  Minor.  It  is  the  "W.  ex- 
tremity of  Mt.  Mesogis,  and  runs  out  into  the 
sea  in  a  promontory  called  Mycale  or  Trogyli- 
um  (now  Cape  Santa  Maria),  directly  opposite 
Samos,  from  which  it  is  separated  by  a  strait 
three  fourths  of  a  mile  wide.  This  strait  was 
the  scene  of  the  great  naval  victory  of  the 
Greeks  under  Leotychides  and  Xanthippus  over 
the  Persian  fleet  in  September,  479  B.  0.  On 
the  N.  side  of  the  promontory  was  the  temple 
of  Neptune,  where  the  Panionic  festival  of  the 
Ionian  confederacy  was  held.  On  or  near  the 
promontory  there  appears  to  have  been  a  city 
of  the  same  name. 

MYCENJE,  or  Mycene,  a  city  of  ancient  Greece, 
situated  on  a  rocky  hill  at  the  N.  E.  extremity 
of  the  plain  of  Argos.  It  is  said  to  have  been 
founded  by  Perseus,  and  its  massive  walls  were 
deemed  the  work  of  the  Cyclops.  It  is  spoken 


MYCONI 

of  as  the  favorite  residence  of  the  Pelopidae, 
and  as  the  principal  city  of  Greece  during  the 
reign  of  Agamemnon.  From  the  period  of 
the  Dorian  conquest  its  importance  declined ; 
but  it  still  maintained  its  independence,  and  in 
the  Persian  war  contributed  its  quota  of  troops. 
This  brought  upon  it  the  enmity  of  the  other 
Argives,  who  about  468  B.  C.  laid  siege  to  My- 
cense,  reduced  it  by  famine,  and  destroyed  it. 
It  was  never  rebuilt,  but  its  remains,  near  the 
modern  village  of  Kharvati,  are  among  the 
grandest  and  most  interesting  of  the  antiqui- 
ties of  Greece.  Part  of  the  walls  of  the  acropo- 
lis to  the  height  in  some  places  of  15  or  20  ft., 
are  still  standing,  and  at  the  N.  W.  angle  may 
yet  be  seen  the  great  entrance  to  the  citadel, 
styled  the  "  gate  of  lions  "  from  the  two  beasts, 
considered  lions,  sculptured  in  a  triangular 
block  of  gray  limestone,  supported  by  two 
massive  uprights.  Some  suppose  that  it  repre- 
sented the  altar  of  the  deity  of  the  sun,  wor- 
shipped at  Mycenae.  The  most  remarkable  of 


Gate  of  Lions,  Mycenae. 

its  other  antiquities  is  the  subterranean  vault 
commonly  called  "the  treasury  of  Atreus," 
consisting  of  two  chambers,  the  larger  of 
which  is  of  circular  form,  40  ft.  high  and  50  ft. 
broad.  The  lintel  of  the  entrance  is  formed 
by  two  huge  blocks,  the  lower  of  which  is  25 
ft.  long,  20  ft.  wide,  and  4  ft.  thick,  and  the 
other,  still  covered  with  earth,  is  probably  of 
the  same  dimensions.  Except  in  the  ruins  of 
Baalbek,  these  are  the  largest  blocks  found 
in  the  walls  of  buildings.  The  circular  room 
consists  of  numerous  horizontal  rows  of  stones 
placed  above  each  other  in  circles  gradually 
diminishing  in  diameter.  Several  archaeologi- 
cal societies  and  private  persons,  among  them 
Schliemann,  have  recently  entered  upon  nego- 
tiations with  the  Greek  government  for  the 
disinterment  of  the  entire  acropolis. 

MYCONI,  or  Mycono  (anc.  Myconus),  an  island 
of  Greece,  in  the  JEgean  sea,  one  of  the  Cy- 
clades,  lying  E.  of  Delos  and  N.  of  Naxos, 


MYEE 


MYLODON 


109 


about  10  m.  long  and  6  m.  wide;  pop.  about 
6,000.  Its  highest  summit  has  two  peaks, 
whence  Pliny  calls  it  dimastus.  Corn,  wine, 
cotton,  and  figs  are  produced.  In  ancient 
times  it  was  famous  for  the  number  of  bald 
persons  among  its  inhabitants. 

JHYER,  Albert  J.,  an  American  meteorologist, 
born  in  Newburgh,  N.  Y.,  Sept.  20,  1828.  He 
graduated  at  Geneva  college  in  1847,  took  the 
degree  of  M.  D.  at  the  university  of  Buffalo  in 
1851,  and  in  1854  was  appointed  assistant  sur- 
geon in  the  United  States  army.  From  1858 
to  1860  he  was  on  special  duty  in  the  signal 
service,  and  in  the  latter  year  was  made  major 
and  chief  signal  officer  in  the  army,  serving 
in  New  Mexico  and  the  Eocky  mountains  till 
May,  1861.  In  June  he  was  made  signal  officer 
on  the  staff  of  Gen.  Butler  at  Fortress  Monroe, 
and  afterward  of  Gen.  McOlellan,  and  took 
part  as  chief  signal  officer  in  nearly  all  the 
engagements  during  the  peninsular  campaign. 
In  November,  1862,  he  took  charge  of  the  sig- 
nal office  at  Washington.  He  was  successively 
brevetted  as  lieutenant  colonel,  colonel,  and 
brigadier  general,  the  last  being  for  "  distin- 
guished services  in  organizing,  instructing,  and 
commanding  the  signal  corps  of  the  army,  and 
for  its  especial  service  Oct.  5,  1864,"  at  Al- 
latoona,  Ga.  He  was  made  colonel  and  chief 
signal  officer  in  the  army  in  July,  1866,  and 
introduced  a  full  course  of  study  of  signals 
at  West  Point  and  Annapolis.  By  virtue  of 
an  act  approved  Feb.  9,  1870,  he  was  charged 
with  the  special  duties  of  the  observation  and 
giving  notice  by  telegraph  and  signals  of  the 
approach  and  force  of  storms  on  the  northern 
lakes  and  seacoast,  at  the  military  posts  in  the 
interior,  and  at  other  points  in  the  states  and 
territories.  He  organized  the  meteorological 
division  of  the  signal  office,  being  assigned  to 
duty  according  to  his  commission  as  brevet 
brigadier  general  in  June,  1871.  By  an  act 
approved  March  3,  1873,  he  was  placed  in 
charge  of  the  special  duties  of  telegraphy, 
&c.,  being  authorized  to  establish  signal  sta- 
tions at  lighthouses  and  at  such  of  the  life- 
saving  stations  as  are  suitable  for  the  purpose, 
and  to  connect  these  stations  by  telegraph  with 
such  points  as  may  be  necessary.  In  1873  he 
was  a  delegate  to  the  international  meteorolo- 
gical congress  at  Vienna.  He  has  published 
a  "Manual  of  Signals  for  the  United  States 
Army  and  Navy"  (1868). 

MYERS,  Peter  Hamilton,  an  American  novelist, 
born  in  Herkimer,  N.  Y.,  in  August,  1812.  He 
has  published  "  The  First  of  the  Knickerbock- 
ers, a  Tale  of  1673 "•  (New  York,  1848) ;  "The 
Young  Patroon,  or  Christmas  in  1690  "  (1849); 
^  The  King  of  the  Hurons  "  (1850),  republished 
in  England  under  the  title  of  "  Blanche  Mon- 
taigne;" and  "The  Prisoner  of  the  Border,  a 
Tale  of  1838"  (1857).  He  has  also  written 
several  tales,  and  "Ensenore,  a  Eomance  of 
Owasco  Lake,"  and  other  poems.  He  now 
(1875)  resides  in  Auburn,  N.  f. 

MYGALE.     See  SPIDER. 


MYLITTA,  the  Greek  name  of  the  Babylonian 
goddess  Beltis  or  Bilit,  "the  Lady."  She  is 
commonly  represented  as  the  wife  of  Bel-Nim- 
rod  (Belus),  and  the  mother  of  his  son  Nin, 
though  she  is  also  called  the  wife  of  her  son 
Nin.  She  united  the  characteristics  of  the  Ju- 
no, Venus,  and  Diana  of  classical  mythology, 
but  was  chiefly  the  goddess  of  birth  and  fertil- 
ity. She  had  temples  at  Nineveh,  Ur,  Erech, 
Nipur,  and  Babylon.  The  Baaltis  of  the  Pho3- 
nicians  was  the  same  in  name  and  character. 
The  young  women  of  Byblos,  like  those  of 
Babylon,  sacrificed  in  her  service  their  virgin- 
ity, and  gave  the  price  they  received  to  the 
temple  of  the  goddess.  The  Derceto  of  Asca- 
lon,  the  Ashera  of  the  Hebrews,  and  the  Ish- 
tar  of  the  Babylonians  were  kindred  divinities. 

MYLODOtf  (Gr.  //a?,  mill,  and  bdobs,  tooth), 
a  genus  of  gigantic  fossil  edentates  established 
by  Prof.  Owen,  and  closely  allied  to  the  sloth, 
resembling  megalonyx  and  megatherium.  The 
mylodon  has  the  heavy  form  of  the  megathe- 
rium, with  a  dentition  resembling  that  of  the 
megalonyx ;  the  molars  are  |c£,  and  are  worn 
into  flat  surfaces ;  in  the  upper  jaw,  the  first 
is  subelliptical  and  separated  from  the  rest,  the 
second  elliptical,  and  the  others  triangular,  with 
the  internal  surface  grooved ;  in  the  lower  jaw, 
the  first  is  elliptical,  the  third  quadrangular, 
and  the  last  the  largest  and  bilobed,  and  the 
symphysis  stronger  than  in  the  megalonyx.  The 
head  resembles  that  of  the  megatherium  in  its 
form,  and  has  a  strong  descending  process  of 
the  zygomatic  arch  ;  the  extremities  are  equal, 
the  anterior  five-toed,  and  the  posterior  four- 
toed ;  the  two  external  fingers  are  without 
nails,  and  the  others  have  large  semi-conical 
and  unequal  claws ;  the  acromion  and  coracoid 
are  united,  the  radius  turns  around  the  ulna, 
the  tibia  and  fibula  are  distinct,  the  heel  bone 
long  and  large  as  in  the  other  megatherioids. 
(See  MEGALONYX,  and  MEGATHEKIUM.)  The 
M.  Darwinii  (Owen)  was  discovered  by  Mr. 
Darwin  in  northern  Patagonia ;  the  symphysis 
of  the  lower  jaw  is  long  and  narrow,  with  the 
second  molar  subelliptical,  and  the  last  with 
two  furrows,  of  which  the  internal  is  angular ; 
it  is  found  from  the  pampas  of  Brazil  south- 
ward. The  M.  Harlani  (Owen)  has  the  symphy- 
sis shorter  and  wider,  the  second  molar  square, 
and  the  last  with  three  grooves,  the  internal 
one  biangular ;  this  has  been  found  in  Ken- 
tucky, Mississippi,  Missouri,  South  Carolina, 
and  Oregon.  The  M.  robustus  (Owen)  is  char- 
acterized by  a  short  and  wide  symphysis,  with 
the  second  molar  subtriangular,  and  the  last 
with  three  grooves,  of  which  the  internal  is 
rounded.  A  fine  and  nearly  complete  skeleton 
of  this  species  is  now  in  the  museum  of  the 
London  college  of  surgeons ;  it  was  discovered 
in  1841  in  the  fluviatile  deposits  about  20  m. 
north  of  Buenos  Ayres,  recently  elevated  above 
the  level  of  the  sea.  The  skeleton  is  very  ro- 
bust; the  trunk,  shorter  than  that  of  the  hip- 
popotamus, ends  in  a  pelvis  as  wide  as  and 
deeper  than  that  of  the  elephant;  the  hind 


110 


MYLODON 


limbs  short  and  massive,  with  feet  as  long  as 
the  thigh  bones,  set  at  right  angles  to  the  leg, 
and  with  the  sole  turned  slightly  inward ;  the 
tail  as  long  as  the  hind  limbs,  very  thick,  and 
affording  a  firm  support  in  the  semi-erect  po- 
sition ;  the  chest  long  and  large,  protected  by 


Mylodon  robustus  (restored). 

16  pairs  of  ribs,  broad  and  strongly  attached 
to  a  well  developed  sternum;  the  scapulae 
unusually  broad ;  arm  bones  thick  and  short, 
with  strong  processes  for  muscles ;  the  bones 
of  the  forearm  longer  than  those  of  the  leg ; 
the  skull  smaller  than  that  of  the  ox,  but  long, 
narrow,  with  a  truncated  muzzle,  and  support- 
ed by  a  short  neck  of  seven  vertebrae  ;  dorsal 
vertebrae  16,  with  broad  and  high  spinous  pro- 
cesses nearly  equal  and  having  a  uniform  back- 
ward inclination.  Such  proportions  are  found 
in  no  living  animals,  and  only  in  the  megathe- 
rioids  among  fossils.  The  skull  presented  two 
extensive  fractures,  from  which  the  animal  had 
recovered ;  the  air  cells  extend  from  the  fron- 
tal and  ethmoidal  sinuses  into  the  cranial  bones, 
separating  the  two  tables  of  the  skull  some- 
times for  the  extent  of  2  in.,  forming  a  great 
protection  against  injury  from  falling  limbs 
of  trees.  They  were  probably  peaceful  ani- 
mals like  the  existing  sloths,  though  able  to 
inflict  severe  wounds  by  their  sharp  and  heavy 
claws ;  the  muscular  strength  of  the  edentates  is 
very  great,  and  must  have  been  immense  in  all 
the  megatherioids.  While  presenting  the  closest 
affinity  to  the  small  arboreal  sloths,  the  mylo- 
don, with  its  claw-armed  inner  toes,  had  the 
outer  thick  and  stunted,  and  evidently  envel- 
oped in  a  kind  of  hoof,  giving  the  power  of 
standing  and  walking  firmly  as  well  as  digging 
and  seizing — in  this  respect  marking  a  tran- 
sition between  edentates  and  pachyderms.  It 
is  now  generally  admitted  that  this  animal  com- 
menced the  process  of  .prostrating  trees  by 
scratching  away  the  soil  from  their  roots,  and 
loosening  them  from  their  attachments ;  then, 
seizing  the  branches  or  trunk,  and  supported 
on  the  hind  limbs  and  tail,  it  swayed  the  tree 


MYKMECOBIUS 

to  and  fro,  and  soon  brought  it  to  the  ground 
;o  be  stripped  at  its  leisure ;  in  case  of  meeting 
a  tree  too  large  to  be  uprooted,  it  is  probable 
;hat  some  of  the  smaller  species,  as  indicated 
3y  the  inward  turning  of  the  soles,  possessed 
;he  faculty  of  climbing  to  the  larger  branches 
within  reach  of  the  foliage.     In  regard  to  the 
means  of  stripping  off  leaves,  Prof.  Owen,  from 
;he  cavity  in  the  mastoid  process  for  the  articu- 
.ation  of  the  hyoid  bone,  and  the  large  size  of 
the  anterior  condyloid  foramina  whence  issue 
the  motor  nerves,  maintains  that  there  was  a 
remarkable  development  of  the  tongue ;  this  is 
also  indicated  by  the  broad,  smooth,  concave 
surface  of  the  symphysis  of  the  lower  jaw, 
which,  with  the  absence  of  incisors,  offered  no 
obstacle  to  its  free  motions,  and  provided  space 
for  it  when  retracted ;  the  megatherium  had  a 
short  proboscis,  prehensile  lips,  and  a  smaller 
tongue  in  a  narrower  mouth  ;  the  elephant  has 
a  maximum  proboscis,  the  giraffe  a  maximum 
tongue,  the  megatherium  being  intermediate; 
the  mylodon,  having  no  proboscis,  had  a  largely 
developed  tongue  for  stripping  off  foliage,  con- 
trasting in  this  respect  with  the  almost  tongue- 
less  elephant.     While  the  megatherium  may 
have  measured  18  ft.  from  the  fore  part  of  the 
skull  to  the  end  of  the  tail,  following  the  curve 
f  the  spine,  the  mylodon  measured  only  11  ft. ; 
other  measurements  in  these  animals  respec- 
tively were :  circumference  at  pelvis  14£  and 
9f  ft. ;  length  of  skull  2£  and  H  ft.,  greatest 
width  1|  and  |£  ft. ;  length  of  lower  jaw  25£ 
and  15^  in.,  width  at  symphysis  5f-  and  5^  in. ; 
length  of  anterior  limb  10  and  4%  ft. ;  clavicle 
15  and  8|  in.,  humerus  2£  and  l|  ft.,  ulna  25£ 
and  14%  in.,  radius  26  and  11  in. ;  fore  foot 
31J  and  14  in.  long,  and  14£  and  8£  wide ;  mid- 
dle and  longest  claw  10£  and  5£  in. ;  width  of 
pelvis  61  and  41  in. ;  length  of  femur  28£  and 
19  in.,  circumference  over  great  trochanter  3£ 
and  2|  ft.,  and  width  at  same  point  16  and  9 
in. ;  tibia  22  and  8|-  in. ;  length  of  hind  foot  34^ 
and  19  in.,  width  12  and  6| ;  heel  bone  IT  and 
7|-  in. ;  middle  and  largest  claw  9£  and  5£  in. ; 
and  width  of  largest  vertebra  of  tail  21  and 
10$-  in. — The  scelidotherium  (Gr.  a/ce^tf,  hind 
leg,  and  dqpiov,  animal)  is  another  extinct  me- 
gatherioid,  remarkable  for  the  size  of  the  hind 
limbs ;  a  nearly  entire  cranium  shows  the  es- 
sential characters  of  the  sloth's  skull,  with  the 
mylodontal  modifications  of  the  complete  zy- 
goma and  shape  of  the  lower  jaw ;  the  teeth 
were  f  if ,  the  upper  triangular ;  the  form  was 
massive.     Pictet  mentions  seven  species,  vary- 
ing in  size  from  a  hog  to  an  ox,  which  lived 
in  South  America  during  the  diluvial  epoch. 
Some  other  genera  have  been  described  by 
Owen,  Pictet,  and  Leidy. 

MYRIAPOD.     See  CENTIPEDE. 

MYRMECOBIUS,  a  genus  of  marsupial  animals, 
established  by  Waterhouse,  of  which  the  typ- 
ical species  is  the  M.  fascia  tus  of  southern 
and  western  Australia.  The  teeth  are  very 
numerous,  being  incisors  £,  canines  |l|,  pre- 
molars  -|i|,  molars  |zf =52.  The  fore  feet  are 


MYRMELEON 


MYERH 


111 


five-toed,  with  sharp  nails  for  climbing  and 
digging;  hind  feet  four-toed,  all  free;  head 
elongated,  and  snout  acute ;  body  slender ;  tail 
moderate  and  bushy.  Length  10  in.,  tail  7  in. 
additional.  The  general  color  of  the  fore  part 
of  the  body  is  reddish,  gradually  shading  into 
the  black  of  the  posterior  half,  which  has  seven 
to  nine  white  transverse  bands;  fur  coarse 
above  and  finer  underneath,  below  fulvous 


Mynuecobius  fasciatus. 

white.  They  have  no  pouch,  the  young,  five 
to  eight  in  number,  being  protected  by  the  long 
hairs  of  the  under  side  of  the  body.  They  are 
gentle,  active,  and  squirrel-like  animals,  feed- 
ing on  insects,  especially  ants,  which  they 
obtain  by  their  long  and  extensile  tongue,  and 
on  sweet  vegetable  juices ;  they  are  seen  gen- 
erally on  trees,  in  whose  hollows  they  live. 
The  fossil  ampMtJierium  or  tJiylacotherium,  of 
the  lower  oolite  of  Stonesfield,  England,  re- 
sembled the  myrmecobius,  as  also  did  the  dro- 
matherium  of  the  trias  of  North  Carolina,  and 
the  microlestes  of  the  trias  of  central  Europe. 

MYRMELEON.    See  ANT  LION. 

MYRMIDONES,  an  ancient  Achaean  race  of 
Phthiotis  in  Thessaly.  According  to  the  le- 
gendary account,  they  originally  came  from 
^Egina,  where,  at  the  request  of  ^Eacus,  Jupi- 
ter changed  all  the  ants  (//%^/cef)  of  the  island 
into  men,  who  from  their  origin  received  the 
name  of  Myrmidones.  They  subsequently  fol- 
lowed Peleus  into  Thessaly,  and  accompanied 
his  son  Achilles  in  the  expedition  against  Troy. 
Other  legends  make  them  the  descendants  of 
Myrmidon,  a  son  of  Jupiter  and  Eurymedusa, 
whom  the  god  deceived  in  the  disguise  of  an 
ant.  They  dp  not  appear  in  authentic  history. 
From  them  is  derived  the  word  myrmidons, 
designating  a  band  of  rough  soldiers  or  ruffian- 
ly marauders  devoted  to  the  will  of  a  leader. 

MYRON,  a  Greek  sculptor,  born  in  Eleuthe- 
rse,  Boeotia,  about  480  B.  0.  Besides  represent- 
ing the  human  figure  in  difficult  attitudes,  he 
modelled  animals  with  success.  His  master- 
pieces were  nearly  all  in  bronze.  The  most 
celebrated  were  his  Discobolus,  or  quoit  player, 
and  his  "Cow."  There  are  several  marble 
Discoboli  still  extant,  copies  of  the  original. 
Of  his  other  works,  perhaps  the  most  famous 
were  his  colossal  statues  of  Jupiter,  Minerva, 
and  Hercules  at  Samos,  which  were  carried  off 
by  Mark  Antony.  Augustus  restored  Minerva 
585  VOL.  xii. — 8 


and  Hercules  to  the  Samians,  retaining  only 
Jupiter,  which  he  placed  in  the  capitol. 

MYRRH  (Heb.  mor\  a  gum  resin  mentioned 
in  the  Old  Testament  as  an  article  of  commerce, 
and  one  of  the  oldest  medicinal  articles  of 
which  we  have  any  record.  Though  the  drug 
has  been  well  known  for  many  centuries,  its. 
origin  was  long  obscure ;  it  was  once  supposed 
to  be  produced  by  an  acacia,  and 'it  has  been 
attributed  to  other  genera.  Nees  von  Esen- 
beck  in  1826  described  the  myrrh-yielding  tree 
from  specimens  brought  home  by  Ehrenberg 
as  balsamodendron  myrrha,  and  this  was  ac- 
cepted as  the  plant  till  1863,  when  Berg  in 
studying  the  specimens  found  that  the  one 
indicated  by  Ehrenberg  as  furnishing  myrrh 
was  quite  different,  and  he  described  it  as  JB. 
EJirenbergianum,  in  honor  of  the  collector. 
The  genus  fialsamodendron,  by  some  referred 
to  terebinthacece,  is  now  placed  in  Burseracew, 
a  small  family  of  plants  which  have  aromatic 
resinous  juices,  and  are  nearly  related  to  the 
orange  and  rue  families.  About  six  species  of 
the  genus  are  recognized,  all  shrubs  or  small 
trees  inhabiting  Africa,  Arabia,  and  other  parts 
of  Asia;  the  general  character  of  their  foli- 
age and  flowers  is  shown  in  the  illustration. 
The  drug,  which  is  probably  the  product  of 
more  than  one  species,  is  a  natural  exudation, 
which  may  be  increased  by  wounding  the  bark 
of  the  tree ;  it  is  at  first  light  yellow  and 
soft,  but  becomes  darker  and  harder  as  it  dries. 
Like  many  other  eastern  drugs,  myrrh  is  known 
in  commerce  by  the  names  of  the  places  whence 
it  is  exported  rather  than  those  which  produce 
it,  and  we  have  Turkey  or  Smyrna,  and  East 


Myrrh  (Balsamodendron  EhrenbergianmB). 

Indian  or  Bombay  myrrhs,  though  they  are 
collected  in  Arabia  and  Abyssinia.  Myrrh 
occurs  in  lumps  or  tears  of  variable  size,  which 
are  whitish  upon  the  exterior  from  the  powder 
produced  by  attrition  ;  it  is  brittle,  reddish 
yellow  or  reddish  brown,  semi-transparent, 


112 


MYRTLE 


and  with  a  dull  oily  kind  of  fracture;  its 
odor  is  aromatic,  characteristic,  and  pleasant 
to  most  persons ;  it  has  an  aromatic  and  bit- 
ter taste.  Though  known  in  commerce  as  gum 
myrrh,  it  is  a  true  gum  resin,  containing  nearly 
28  per  cent,  of  two  kinds  of  resin,  about  64 
per  cent,  of  gum,  some  volatile  oil,  &c.  It  is 
imported  in  chest's  of  about  200  Ibs.,  which 
contain  lumps  of  various  qualities ;  it  is  sorted 
by  the  dealers  into  myrrh  of  two  or  three 
grades.  The  chests  often  contain  inferior 
gums  added  accidentally  or  intentionally;  one 
of  the  most  frequent  is  a  gum  resembling  Sene- 
gal, which  is  readily  recognized  by  its  shining 
fracture  and  lack  of  proper  taste ;  bdellium,  also 
found  as  an  impurity,  is  distinguished  by  being 
softer  and  darker  colored.  Alcohol  dissolves 
the  resin  and  volatile  oil  of  myrrh,  leaving  the 
gum,  and  a  tincture  represents  the  active  por- 
tions of  the  drug.  "When  triturated  with  water 
the  gurn  dissolves,  and  the  finely  divided  resin 
and  oil  are  held  in  suspension  and  form  a 
milky  emulsion,  one  of  the  forms  in  which 
myrrh  is  administered.  The  Hebrews  employ- 
ed myrrh  in  preparing  the  ointment  for  the 
rite  of  consecration,  and  it  is  mentioned  as  one 
of  the  articles  used  in  the  purification  of  women, 
in  embalming,  and  as  a  perfume.  It  is  now 
employed  in  medicine  as  a  stimulant  and  tonic ; 
it  is  seldom  prescribed  alone,  but  with  prep- 
arations of  iron  and  vegetable  bitters;  it  is 
given  in  doses  of  from  5  to  20  grains  or  more. 
Externally  myrrh  is  employed  to  stimulate  in- 
dolent ulcers  and  to  dress  wounds  that  are 
slow  of  healing,  and  is  a  popular  remedy  for 
soft  and  spongy  gums,  for  which  purpose  the 
tincture  largely  diluted  with  water  is  used.  It 
has  been  proposed  to  utilize  the  residue  after 
the  preparation  of  the  tincture  for  the  manu- 
facture of  a  coarse  mucilage. 

MYRTLE,  a  name  which,  with  or  without  a 
prefix,  is  given  to  several  widely  different 
plants,  but  properly  belonging  to  myrtus  corn- 
munis,  an  evergreen  shrub  of  the  Mediterra- 
nean region,  which  is  the  type  of  a  very  large 
and  important  order,  the  myrtacece.  The  myr- 
tle family  consists  of  trees  or  shrubs,  with 
simple,  entire,  mostly  aromatic  leaves,  which 
are  marked  by  pellucid  or  resinous  dots,  and  are 
without  stipules ;  the  flowers  are  perfect,  the 
calyx  tube  adherent  to  the  ovary,  and  the  petals 
and  numerous  stamens  borne  upon  the  throat 
of  the  calyx  tube  or  upon  a  disk  which  bor- 
ders it ;  the  fruit  a  berry  or  capsule ;  seeds 
without  albumen.  This  family  abounds  in  the 
tropics  and  the  southern  hemisphere;  a  few 
species  belonging  to  the  genera  are  found  in 
southern  Florida.  Among  the  important  plants 
and  products  of  this  family  are  the  clove,  all- 
spice, guava,  cajeput,  rose  apple,  Brazil  and 
Sapucaya  nuts,  and  the  gigantic  and  useful 
eucalyptus  trees  of  Australia.  The  common 
myrtle  is  a  shrub,  which  even  in  favorable 
situations  does  not  exceed  20  ft.  in  height,  with 
opposite  shining  leaves  and  axillary  peduncles, 
each  bearing  a  single  white  or  rose-tinged  flow- 


er, which  is  succeeded  by  a  several-seeded  berry. 
The  plant,  having  been  so  long  in  cultivation, 
presents  numerous  varieties  differing  in  the  size 
and  shape  of  their  leaves  and  color  of  the 
fruit ;  the  latter  is  naturally  black,  but  there 
are  white-berried  varieties,  as  well  as  those 


Common  Myrtle  (Myrtus  communia). 

with  their  leaves  striped  and  spotted  with 
white  or  yellow  markings.  In  England  the 
myrtle  is  barely  hardy  in  the  southern  counties, 
and  in  our  northern  states  it  is  only  seen  as  a 
pot  plant,  or  grown  in  tubs  to  decorate  the 
grounds  in  summer,  and  removed  to  the  cellar 
or  a  pit  for  the  winter.  In  those  southern 
localities  where  the  camellia  and  Cape  jas- 
mine live  without  protection  the  myrtle  is 
hardy.  As  with  many  other  plants  known  to 
the  ancients,  there  are  numerous  legends  at- 
taching to  the  myrtle ;  it  was  sacred  to  Venus, 
and  the  temples  of  that  goddess  were  sur- 
rounded by  groves  of  myrtle;  wreaths  of  it 
were  worn  by  the  Athenian  magistrates  as 
symbols  of  authority,  and  the  victors  in  the 
Olympic  games  were  crowned  with  it.  The 
buds  and  berries  were  formerly  used  to  flavor 
many  dishes,  and  they  had  a  reputation  for 
medicinal  properties,  the  aromatic  berries  and 
other  portions  of  the  plant  being  tonic  and 
stimulant.  The  Tuscans  used  the  plant  in 
the  preparation  of  a  wine  called  myrtidanum. 
At  present  the  chief  use  of  the  myrtle  is  in 
perfumery.  Eau  flange  is  a  very  fragrant 
astringent  water,  distilled  from  the  flowers; 
the  leaves  mixed  with  other  aromatics  are 
used  for  sachet  powders.  The  wood  is  hard 
and  handsomely  mottled,  but  its  use  is  con- 
fined to  small  articles  of  turnery.  Bay  rum 
owes  its  peculiar  fragrance  to  a  volatile  oil 
obtained  from  the  leaves  of  myrcia  acris,  a 
West  Indian  plant  of  this  family.  The  myr- 
tle is  readily  propagated  from  cuttings  of 
the  just  hardening  young  shoots. — The  plant 
known  in  this  country  as  myrtle  or  running 
myrtle  belongs  to  a  very  different  family.  (See 


MYSIA 


MYSOEE 


113 


PERIWINKLE.)  The  candleberry  or  wax  myrtle 
is  myrica  cerifera.  (See  BATBEEEY.)  Sand 
myrtle  is  leiophyllum  \uxifolium,  a  pretty  low 
shrub  of  the  heath  family,  found  in  the  pine 
barrens  of  New  Jersey  and  southward. — Crape 
myrtle  is  the  common  name  for  Lagerstrcemia 
Indica,  a  shrub  largely  planted  for  ornament 
in  Virginia  and  southward.  It  does  not  belong 
to  the  myrtles  proper,  but  to  the  loosestrife 
family  (lythracecv).  It  is  a  much-branched 
shrub,  6  to  10  ft.  or  more  high,  with  smooth, 
oval,  opposite  leaves,  and  large  panicles  of 
showy  flowers;  the  petals  are  upon  slender 
claws,  and  are  waved  and  crimped  in  such  a 
manner  as  to  give  them  an  exceedingly  beauti- 
ful appearance,  and  to  suggest  the  fabric  known 
as  crape ;  the  stamens,  which  are  in  long 
silky  tufts,  add  to  the  beauty  of  the  flowers. 
The  usual  color  of  the  flowers  is  a  pale  rose, 
but  recently  a  white  and  several  very  dark- 
colored  varieties  have  been  introduced.  The 
plant  is  a  natiye  of  the  East  Indies,  and  the 
genus  was  named  in  honor  of  Lagerstrom,  a 


Crape  Myrtle  (Lagerstroemia  Indica). 

Swedish  naturalist.  In  northern  localities  it 
may  be  grown  as  a  tub  plant  with  a  treatment 
like  that  of  the  oleander. 
t  MYSIA,  in  ancient  geography,  a  •  N".  W.  divi- 
sion of  Asia  Minor,  the  boundaries  of  which 
greatly  varied  at  different  periods.  In  the 
time  of  the  early  Roman  emperors  it  was 
bounded  N.  by  the  Propontis  (sea  of  Marmora), 
N.  E.  in  part  by  the  Bithynian  Olympus,  S.  E. 
by  Phrygia,  S.  by  Lydia,  W.  by  the  ^Egean,  and 


N".  W.  by  the  Hellespont  (strait  of  Dardanelles). 
It  thus  included,  among  other  territories,  those 
of  Troas  in  the  northwest,  and  Teuthrania 
(which  included  Pergamus),  as  well  as  the 
Grecian  coast  land  of  ^Eolis,  in  the  southwest. 
Mysia  was  for  the  most  part  mountainous,  the 
principal  ranges  within  its  boundaries  being 
Mt.  Ida  in  Troas,  Mt.  Temnus,  which  extended 
from  the  former  to  the  borders  of  Phrygia, 
dividing  the  country  into  two  unequal  parts, 
and  Mt.  Olympus  on  the  northeastern  or 
Bithynian  border.  Of  the  principal  rivers,  the 
Caicus  and  Evenus  flowed  into  the  Elaitic  gulf, 
on  the  S.  "W.  corner;  the  Satniois  into  the 
^Egean,  N.  of  Cape  Lectum;  the  Scamander 
and  Simois,  renowned  in  Trojan  legends,  into 
the  Hellespont,  near  Cape  Sigeum  ;  the  Grani- 
cus,  on  the  banks  of  which  Alexander  the 
Great  achieved  his  first  victory  over  the  Per- 
sians (334  B.  0.),  the  ^Esepus,  Tarsius,  Maces- 
tus,  and  Rhyndacus,  into  the  Propontis.  The 
largest  gulf  was  that  of  Adramyttium  (now 
Adramyti)  on  the  ^Egean,  opposite  the  island 
of  Lesbos.  Mysia  is  more  renowned  in  legen- 
dary traditions  than  in  history,  the  chief  in- 
terest attaching  to  the  territories  of  Troas,  Per- 
gamus, and  the  .ZEolian  confederacy.  Some 
suppose  the  Mysians  to  have  been  of  Thracian 
race  and  immigrants  from  the  countries  south 
of  the  Danube  afterward  known  as  Moesia,  and 
others  make  them  offshoots  of  the  Lydians. 
Egyptologists  think  they  can  recognize  their 
name  in  inscriptions  of  very  ancient  date. 
Having  been  successively  under  the  dominion 
of  Croesus,  the  Persian  kings,  Alexander  of 
Macedon,  his  general  Lysimachus,  and  the  Se- 
Ieucida3,  Mysia  was  assigned  by  the  Romans, 
after  their  victory  over  Antiochus  the  Great 
(190),  to  the  new  kingdom  of  Pergamus,  which 
had  previously  been  formed  from  one  of  its 
parts,  and  with  the  whole  of  that  kingdom  was 
bequeathed  to  the  Roman  republic  by  King 
Attalus  III.,  thus  becoming  a  part  of  the  pro- 
consular province  of  Asia  (133). 

MYSORE.  I.  A  native  state  of  India,  under 
British  protection,  situated  between  lat.  11°  30' 
and  15°  N.  and  Ion.  74°  45'  and  78°  45'  E.,  and 
surrounded  on  all  sides  by  the  province  of  Ma- 
dras, except  where  bordered  by  Coorg  on  the 
west  and  Bombay  on  the  north ;  area,  27,717 
sq.  m.,  of  which  about  9,000  are  under  cultiva- 
tion; pop.  in  1872,  5,055,412.  The  state  com- 
prises three  divisions  for  governmental  pur- 
poses, ISTandidroog,  Ashtagram,  and  Nagar ;  the 
chief  towns  are  Bangalore,  Mysore,  and  Se- 
ringapatam.  The  country  consists  of  an  inte- 
rior table  land  elevated  from  2,000  to  3,000  ft. 
above  the  sea,  rising  westward  to  the  Western 
Ghauts,  which  separate  it  from  the  seaboard. 
The  principal  rivers  are  the  Cavery,  Tungabu- 
dra,  and  the  N.  and  S.  Pennar.  There  are  no 
natural  lakes,  but  many  large  tanks  and  arti- 
ficial reservoirs  in  the  high  grounds.  The  level 
of  the  table  land  is  interrupted  in  places  by 
large  masses  of  granite,  rounded  in  their  out- 
lines, standing  singly  or  in  clusters.  The  cli- 


114 


MYSORE 


mate  is  healthful.  The  average  annual  rainfall 
is  about  30  inches.  Mysore  not  only  produces 
the  grains,  vegetables,  and  fruits  common  to 
southern  India,  but  also  many  of  those  belong- 
ing to  the  temperate  regions.  A  considerable 
portion  of  the  surface  is  covered  with  jungle. 
Rice,  sugar  cane,  ragi,  a  species  of  coarse  grain, 
and  wheat  are  the  chief  crops  raised.  The 
betelnut  palm  and  the  castor  oil  plant  thrive 
well.  Carbonate  of  soda,  salt,  and  iron  are 
found.  The  inhabitants  are  principally  Hin- 
doos ;  in  1872  there  were  230,518  Mohamme- 
dans, 15,241  Christians,  14,600  Buddhists,  and 
2,843  of  other  creeds.  The  Roman  Catholics 
claim  about  20,000  converts.  Coarse  blankets, 
carpets,  shawls,  and  cotton  cloths  are  manu- 
factured. There  are  3,072  m.  of  roads  in  the 
country,  and  48£  m.  of  railway.  The  total 
number  of  schools  during  1871-'2  was  2,683, 
of  which  603  were  government  institutions. — 
Mysore  is  mentioned  in  the  Hindoo  mythologi- 
cal writings ;  but  the  authentic  history  of  the 
country  commences,  with  the  Mohammedan  in- 
vasion in  1326,  when  it  was  incorporated  with 
the  empire  of  Delhi.  The  affairs  of  that  em- 
pire soon  afterward  falling  into  confusion,  My- 
sore was  lost,  and  some  Hindoos  escaping  from 
Mohammedan  persecution  in  the  north  founded 
a  city  on  the  banks  of  the  Tungabudra,  which 
became  the  capital  of  a  new  state  comprising 
nearly  the  whole  of  Mysore  and  part  of  the 
Carnatic;  but  in  1565  its  ruler,  Ram  Rajah, 
was  defeated  and  slain  by  the  army  of  a  Mo- 
hammedan confederation,  and  his  capital  taken 
and  depopulated.  A  Mysorean  chief,  named 
Rajah  Wadeyar,  acquired  possession  of  the  fort 
and  island  of  Seringapatam,  and  his  successors, 
by  a  career  of  aggression,  toward  the  close  of 
the  17th  century  had  extended  their  authority 
over  the  whole  table  land  of  Mysore.  In  1731 
the  minister  deposed  the  rajah,  and  in  1749 
Hyder  Ali  made  his  appearance  as  a  volunteer 
in  the  army  of  Mysore,  and  ultimately  rose  to 
be  sovereign  of  the  country.  Upon  the  death 
of  his  son  Tippoo  Sahib  in  1799,  the  British 
annexed  a  considerable  portion  of  his  domin-- 
ions  to  their  Indian  possessions,  and  allotted 
the  territory  now  known  as  Mysore  to  the  de- 
scendant of  the  rajah  who  had  been  supplanted 
by  Hyder  Ali ;  but  the  country  having  fallen 
into  a  deplorable  condition  under  his  govern- 
ment, Lord  W.  Bentinck,  the  governor  general 
of  India,  placed  the  civil  and  military  admin- 
istration in  the  hands  of  a  British  commission, 
though  the  rajah  still  nominally  retained  au- 
thority. The  rajah  died  childless  in  1868,  and 
a  chief  commissioner,  who  is  directly  respon- 
sible to  the  governor  general  of  India,  now 
administers  the  government  in  the  name  of 
the  rajah's  adopted  son,  who  is  a  minor.  (See 
HYDEE  ALI,  TIPPOO  SAHIB,  and  SERINGAPATAM.} 
II.  A  city,  capital  of  the  state,  7  m.  S.  S.  W. 
of  Seringapatam,  and  250  m.  W.  S.  W.  of  Ma- 
dras, in  lat.  12°  19'  N.,  Ion.  76°  42'  E.;  pop.  in 
1872,  57,765.  The  town  is  built  upon  two 
small  hills  or  parallel  elevated  ridges,  2,450  ft. 


MYSTERIES 

above  the  sea,  and  is  fortified  by  a  wall  of 
earth  with  a  moat,  and  by  a  quadrangular  fort, 
within  which  stands  the  palace  of  the  titular 
rajah.  The  buildings  of  the  town  are  generally 
good,  and  the  streets  regular  and  well  kept. 
The  want  of  a  sufficient  supply  of  good  drink- 
ing water  is  severely  felt,  and  is  the  main 
cause  of  the  unhealthiness  of  the  place.  Car- 
pet making  is  the  chief  industry.  Mysore  has 
always  been  the  nominal  and  historic  capital 
of  the  district;  but  it  was  neglected  in  favor 
of  Seringapatam  by  Hyder  Ali  and  his  son,  and 
has  only  recovered  from  its  position  of  secon- 
dary importance  within  the  present  century. 

MYSTERIES  (Gr.  [tvarfpta,  from  nvelv,  to  shut 
the  lips),  ceremonies  in  ancient  religions  to 
which  only  the  initiated  were  admitted.  They 
may  be  obscurely  traced  in  the  early  Orient,  in 
the  rites  of  Isis  and  Osiris  in  Egypt,  in  the  Per- 
sian Mithraic  solemnities,  and  in  the  festivals  in- 
troduced into  Greece  with  the  worship  of  Bac- 
chus and  Cybele ;  and  they  lingered  through 
the  decline  of  Rome,  and  perhaps  left  their 
traces  in  the  ceremonies  of  freemasonry.  They 
consisted,  in  general,  of  rites  of  purification 
and  expiation,  of  sacrifices  and  processions,  of 
ecstatic  or  orgiastic  songs  and  dances,  of  noc- 
turnal festivals  fit  to  impress  the  imagination, 
and  of  spectacles  designed  to  excite  the  most 
diverse  emotions,  terror  and  trust,  sorrow  and 
joy,  hope  and  despair.  The  celebration  was 
chiefly  by  symbolical  acts  and  spectacles;  yet 
sacred  mystical  words,  formulas,  fragments 
of  liturgies,  or  hymns  were  also  employed. 
There  were  likewise  certain  objects  with  which 
occult  meanings  that  were  imparted  to  the  ini- 
tiated were  associated,  or  which  were  used  in 
the  various  ceremonies  in  the  ascending  scale 
of  initiation.  The  sacred  phrases,  the  cnrdpfara, 
concerning  which  silence  was  imposed,  were 
themselves  symbolical  legends,  and  probably 
not  statements  of  speculative  truths.  The 
most  diverse  theories  have  been  suggested 
concerning  the  origin,  nature,  and  significance 
of  the  Hellenic  mysteries.  As  Schumann  re- 
marks (GriecJiiscJie  Alterthumer,  3d  ed.,  Ber- 
lin, 1873),  the  very  fact  that  it  was  not  per- 
mitted to  reveal  to  the  uninitiated  wherein 
these  cults  consisted,  what  were  the  rites  pe- 
culiar to  them,  for  what  the  gods  were  in- 
voked, or  what  were  the  names  of  the  divini- 
ties worshipped,  has  been  the  cause  of  our  ex- 
tremely incomplete  information  in  regard  to 
them. — The  oldest  of  the  Hellenic  mysteries  are 
believed  to  be  those  of  the  Cabiri  in  Samothrace 
and  Lemnos,  which  were  renowned  through 
the  whole  period  of  pagan  antiquity.  Though 
they  were  only  less  august  than  the  Eleusinian, 
nothing  is  certain  concerning  them,  and  even 
the  names  of  the  divinities  are  known  to  us 
only  by  the  profanation  of  Mnaseas.  (See 
CABIRI.)  The  Eleusinian  were  the  most  ven- 
erable of  the  mysteries.  "Happy,"  says  Pin- 
dar, "is  he  who  has  beheld  them,  and  de- 
scends beneath  the  hollow  earth;  he  knows 
the  end,  he  knows  the  divine  origin  of  life." 


MYSTERIES 


MYTHOLOGY 


115 


They  comprised  a  long  series  of  ceremonies, 
concluding  with  complete  initiation  or  perfec- 
tion. The  fundamental  legend  on  which  the 
ritual  seems  to  have  been  based  was  the  search 
of  the  goddess  Demeter  or  Ceres  for  her  daugh- 
ter Proserpine,  her  sorrows  and  her  joys,  her 
descent  into  Hades,  and  her  return  into  the 
realm  of  light.  The  rites  were  thought  to 
prefigure  the  scenes  of  a  future  life.  The 
same  symbol  was  the  foundation  of  the  Thes- 
mophoria,  which  were  celebrated  exclusively 
by  married  women,  rendering  it  probable  that 
initiation  into  it  was  designed  to  protect 
against  the  dangers  of  childbirth.  .  The  Orphic 
and  Dionysiac  mysteries  seem  to  have  de- 
signed a  reformation  of  the  popular  religion. 
Founded  upon  the  worship  of  the  Thracian  Di- 
onysus or  Bacchus,  they  tended  to  ascetic  rather 
than  orgiastic  practices.  Other  mysteries  were 
those  of  Zeus  or  Jupiter  in  Crete,  of  Hera  or 
Juno  in  Argolis,  of  Athena  or  Minerva  in  Ath- 
ens, of  Artemis  or  Diana  in  Arcadia,  of  Hec- 
ate in  JEgina,  and  of  Rhea  in  Phrygia.  The 
worship  of  the  last  under  different  names  pre- 
vailed in  divers  forms  and  places  in  Greece 
and  the  East,  and  was  associated  with  the  or- 
giastic rites  of  the  Corybantes. — More  impor- 
tant were  the  Persian  mysteries  of  Mithra, 
which  appeared  in  Rome  about  the  beginning 
of  the  2d  Christian  century.  They  were  prop- 
agated by  Chaldean  and  Syrian  priests.  The 
austerity  of  the  doctrine,  the  real  perils  of  ini- 
tiation which  neophytes  were  obliged  to  en- 
counter, the  title  of  soldier  of  Mithra  which 
was  bestowed  upon  them,  and  the  crowns 
which  were  offered  to  them  after  the  combats 
preceding  every  grade  of  advancement,  were 
among  the  peculiarities  which  gave  to  these 
rites  a  military  and  bellicose  character;  and 
Roman  soldiers  eagerly  sought  initiation  into 
them.  The  fundamental  dogma  of  the  Mithraic 
doctrine  was  the  transmigration  of  souls  under 
the  influence  of  the  seven  planets,  over  whose 
operations  Mithra  presided.  The  whole  fra- 
ternity of  the  initiated  was  divided  into  seven 
classes  or  grades,  which  were  named  succes- 
sively soldiers,  lions,  hysenas,  &c.,  after  animals 
sacred  to  Mithra.  The  sacrifice  of  the  bull 
was  characteristic  of  his  worship.  On  the 
monuments  which  have  been  found  in  Italy, 
the  Tyrol,  and  other  parts  of  Europe,  inscribed 
Deo  Mithra  Soli  Invicto,  Mithra  is  usually  rep- 
resented as  a  young  man  in  a  flowing  robe, 
surrounded  with  mystical  figures,  seated  on  a 
bull,  which  he  is  pressing  down,  or  into  which 
he  is  plunging  the  sacrificial  knife.  A  dog,  a 
serpent,  a  scorpion,  and  a  lion  are  arranged 
near  him.  Nothing  is  certain  concerning  the 
signification  of  this  scene.  After  the  adoption 
of  some  of  the  ideas  connected  with  other 
religious  systems,  as  those  of  the  Alexandrian 
Serapis,  the  Syrian  Baal,  and  the  Greek  Apollo, 
the  Mithra  worship  disappeared  in  the  5th  or 
6th  century.— See  Creuzer,  Synibolik  und  My- 
thologie (1810-'12),  translated  into  French  with 
elaborate  annotations  by  Guigniaut  and  others 


(1825-'36) ;  Sainte-Croix,  Recherches  historiques 
et  critiques  sur  les  mysteres  du  paganisme, 
edited  by  Sylvestre  de  Sacy  (1817) ;  Seel,  Die 
Mithra- Geheimnisse  wdhrend  der  vor-  und  ur- 
christlichen  Zeit  (1823);  Limbourg-Brouwer, 
Histoire  de  la  civilisation  morale  et  religieuse 
des  Grecs  (1833-'41) ;  Lajard,  Recherches  sur  le 
culte  public  et  les  mysteres  de  Mithra  (1847-'8) ; 
Maury,  Eistoire  des  religions  de  la  Grece  an- 
tique (1857) ;  and  Preller,  Romische  Mythologie 
(2d  ed.,  1865),  and  Griechische  Mythologie  (3d 
ed.,  1872). 

MYSTERIES,  mediaeval  dramas.  See  MIEA- 
CLES  AND  MORALITIES. 

MYTHOLOGY  (Gr.  (iWo^  a  saying,  and  Tfyog, 
discourse),  the  science  of  myths.  The  ancient 
Greeks  applied  the  term  pvdoi  to  all  classes  of 
narratives,  but  especially  to  their  religious  and 
poetic  traditions  of  gods,  heroes,  and  remark- 
able events,  and  hence  pvdokoyia,  mythology, 
came  to  be  a  synonyme  of  apxaioXoyia,  archae- 
ology. Though  mythology  is  still  understood 
to  embrace  all  the  traditions  and  legends  of  a 
people,  especially  of  ancient  peoples,  yet  it  is 
more  commonly  confined  to  accounts  of  and 
researches  into  primitive  polytheistic  religions. 
There  are  myths  of  all  nations,  and  among 
uncivilized  races  they  are  still  current  and  in 
course  of  formation.  Max  Mtiller's  recent  work 
on  comparative  religion  and  mythology  ("  In- 
troduction to  the  Science  of  Religion,"  Lon- 
don, 1873),  with  an  essay  on  the  philosophy  of 
mythology,  is  the  first  successful  attempt  at 
laying  before  the  English  public  the  results  of 
the  speculations  of  German  scholars  on  this 
subject.  German  literature  has  of  late  pro- 
duced an  extensive  array  of  works  which  under- 
take to  describe  the  probable  processes  of  the 
evolution  of  mythology,  or  religion,  or  moral 
and  religious  sentiments  in  general.  Such  are 
Caspari's  Urgeschichte  der  Menschheit  (Leipsic, 
1873),  Hellwald's  Culturgeschichte  in  Hirer  na- 
turlicJien  Entwickelung  (Augsburg,  1874  et 
seq.),  and  Peschel's  Volkerlcunde  (Leipsic,  1874). 
Max  Miiller  says  :  "  There  is  this  common  fea- 
ture in  all  who  have  thought  or  written  on 
mythology,  that  they  look  upon  it  as  some- 
thing which,  whatever  it  may  mean,  does  cer- 
tainly not  mean  what  it  seems  to  mean ;  as 
something  that  requires  an  explanation,  wheth- 
er it  be  a  system  of  religion,  or  a  phase  in  the 
development  of  the  human  mind,  or  an  inevi- 
table catastrophe  in  the  life  of  language."  Ac- 
cording to  some,  mythology  is  history  changed 
into  fable ;  according  to  others,  fable  changed 
into  history.  Some  discover  in  it  the  precepts 
of  moral  philosophy  enunciated  in  the  poetical 
language  of  antiquity ;  others,  a  picture  of  the 
great  forms  and  forces  of  nature,  particularly 
the  sun,  the  moon,  and  the  stars,  the  changes 
of  day  and  night,  the  succession  of  the  seasons, 
and  the  return  of  the  years.  According  to  this 
last  theory,  to  understand  the  origin  and  sig- 
nificance of  myths,  one  must  enter  into  the 
childlike  spirit  of  those  who  conceived  them. 
Man  instinctively  turns  to  the  light.  In  the 


116 


MYTHOLOGY 


second  half  of  the  day  he  sees  the  sun  gradu- 
ally sink  and  disappear,  and  feels  the  pleasant 
warmth  depart.  His  own  body  loses  strength, 
and  sleep  overpowers  him.  At  his  waking  he 
sees  the  light  gradually  return,  the  sun  rise,  the 
plants  revive,  and  the  animals  come  forth  from 
their  retreats.  He  perceives  his  powerlessness 
in  these  ever-recurring  scenes,  and  he  conceives 
a  fear  for  the  invisible  forces  which  every  day 
rob  him  of  light,  warmth,  and  life.  Summer 
is  followed  by  winter,  and  darkness  and  cold 
seem  to  gain  daily  in  strength.  Then  comes 
spring ;  the  powers  of  light  and  warmth  regain 
the  ascendant,  and  everything  is  rejuvenated 
and  renewed.  In  tropical  climes  this  change 
of  season  is  ushered  in  by  dreadful  thunder 
storms  and  great  floods  of  rain.  Primitive 
races,  the  children  of  humanity,  do  not  know 
what  causes  the  warring  of  the  elements.  To 
explain  it,  they  have  to  draw  upon  their  ima- 
gination, and  to  believe  what  their  fancy  can 
supply.  They  consider  themselves  to  be  the 
centre  of  a  great  contest  between  beings  who 
hate  or  love  them,  persecute  or  shield  them. 
They  give  to  these  beings  forms  with  which 
they  are  acquainted,  and  conceive  them  either 
as  men  or  as  animals.  The  earth  is  peopled 
from  above,  and  hence  there  are  in  the  heavens 
beings  like  those  here  below.  As  the  chief 
interest  of  the  transmundane  powers  rests  in 
man,  the  good  and  evil  spirits  are  often  in  the 
midst  of  human  habitations.  They  are  difficult 
to  distinguish  from  ordinary  men  and  animals, 
but  as  they  must  be  adored  or  propitiated,  it 
is  to  be  presumed  that  they  bear  some  distinc- 
tive sign  by  which  man  may  recognize  them. 
Though  it  is  possible  thus  plausibly  to  elaborate 
theories  of  the  origin  of  myths,  the  earliest 
records  of  ancient  peoples  exhibit  mythological 
conceptions  far  beyond  these  primitive  ideas. 
Even  Egyptian  inscriptions,  of  which  some  are 
perhaps  from  5,000  to  V,000  years  old,  bear 
witness  to  the  existence  of  an  already  highly 
developed  mythological  system,  unfolded  by 
some  sacerdotal  class. — The  inhabitants  of  Low- 
er Egypt  differed  in  religious  ideas  and  prac^ 
tices  from  those  of  the  upper  Nile.  At  Mem- 
phis Ptah  was  the  object  of  the  highest  adora- 
tion. He  is  the  father  of  the  god  of  the  sun, 
and  presumably  the  ruler  of  the  region  of  light 
and  the  god  of  fire.  He  is  symbolized  by  the 
scarabcBus  sacer,  an  insect  believed  to  propagate 
without  bearing.  Ra  was  the  supreme  divinity 
at  On  or  Heliopolis,  near  Memphis.  Manetho 
names  him  second  to  Ptah.  The  solar  disk 
supported  by  two  rings  is  his  symbol,  and  the 
male  cat,  the  light-colored  bull,  and  the  hawk 
are  sacred  to  him.  He  is  the  god  of  the  sun, 
rejuvenating  every  morning  and  creating  all 
that  exists  below  the  heavens.  Eight  children 
of  Ptah  were  worshipped  at  Ashmunein  or 
Hermopolis.  They  are  the  gods  of  the  ele- 
ments, on  whom  the  various  forms  of  created 
beings  depend.  Female  deities  were  wor- 
shipped at  Sais,  Buto,  and  Bubastis.  Neith, 
adored  at  Sais,  is  the  cow  which  bore  the  sun, 


the  mother  of  the  gods,  who  represents  the 
creative  power  of  nature.  The  goddess  of 
Buto  the  Greeks  compared  to  their  own  Leto, 
the  parent  of  Apollo,  the  solar  deity.  Bast  or 
Pasht,  the  Greek  Artemis,  had  her  temple  at 
Bubastis.  She  is  represented  either  with  a 
solar  disk  on  her  head,  or  as  having  the  head 
of  a  cat,  the  animal  sacred  to  her,  and  the  fes- 
tivities connected  with  her  worship  resembled 
those  of  Venus  in  Greece  and  Rome.  In  Up- 
per Egypt  Amun,  the  Greek  Ammon,  or  "the 
hidden,"  is  the  creating,  sovereign  god,  rep- 
resented by  Ptah  at  Memphis.  He  is  a  phallic 
god,  sitting  upon  a  throne,  and  having  upon  his 
head  the  two  plumes,  symbolizing  dominion 
over  the  upper  and  the  lower  country.  The 
goddess  Maut  or  Mut,  who  bears  the  crown 
of  Upper  Egypt,  is  the  mother  and  mistress 
of  darkness.  Shu,  Sos,  or  Sosis,  the  son  of 
Amun  and  Maut,  was  worshipped  principally 
at  This  or  Thinis  and  Abydos,  as  the  spirit  of 
the  air  and  the  bearer  of  the  heavens.  Turn 
or  Atmu  represents  the  sun  in  his  nocturnal 
course,  and  Mentu  or  Mandu  the  setting  sun. 
Turn,  in  some  respects  the  equal  of  Amun  and 
Ptah,  generated  himself,  and  is  the  father  of 
the  gods.  Khem,  whom  the  Greeks  likened  to 
Pan,  is  a  phallic  god.  Khnum,  Num,  Kim- 
phis,  or  Kneph  regulates  the  overflowing  of 
the  Nile.  The  goddess  Hathor  received  ado- 
ration both  in  Upper  and  Lower  Egypt,  espe- 
cially at  Aphroditopolis,  near  Memphis,  and  at 
Edfoo  and  Denderah.  To  her  are  consecrated 
mirth,  orgies,  and  the  dance.  She  is  generally 
represented  as  holdiug  a  tambourine  in  her 
hand,  but  sometimes  merely  as  a  cow.  The 
mythological  conceptions  in  regard  to  Isis, 
Osiris,  and  Horus  have  been  given  at  length  in 
separate  articles.  Seb  and  Nut,  the  Greek 
Cronos  and  Rhea,  are  the  spirits  of  the  earth 
and  the  firmament.  Typhon,  says  Plutarch, 
was  called  Set  by  the  Egyptians ;  the  ass  was 
sacred  to  him,  and  his  symbol  is  an  unknown, 
strange-looking  animal.  It  is  remarkable  that 
even  in  their  higher  civilization  the  Egyptians 
continued  to  look  upon  animals  as  incarnations 
or  representatives  of  their  gods.  The  bull  rep- 
resented the  gods  who  created  life ;  the  cow, 
the  goddesses  of  conception  and  birth;  the 
hawk  and  the  cat,  gods  of  light  or  of  the  sun ; 
the  scarabaeus,  Ptah;  the  vulture,  Nut  and 
Isis ;  a  sort  of  ibis,  Thoth ;  and  the  crocodile, 
Seb.  The  priest  recognized  the  incarnated 
gods  among  these  animals  by  various  signs, 
and  introduced  them  into  the  temples.  The 
holiest  of  the  chosen  animals  was  the  bull  in 
the  temple  of  Ptah  at  Memphis.  He  was  the 
famous  Apis,  born  of  a  cow  which  conceived 
him  by  a  spark  from  heaven,  or  by  a  moon- 
beam. (See  APIS.)  The  ardea  purpurea,  a 
species  of  heron  with  two  long  plumes  on  its 
head,  generally  appears  at  the  time  of  the 
overflow  of  the  Nile,  which  is  the  fertile  sea- 
son in  Egypt;  and  hence  also  these  birds, 
called  bennu  by  the  Egyptians,  were  regarded 
as  manifestations  of  the  god  of  life.  With  this 


MYTHOLOGY 


117 


bird  are  connected  the  well  known  legends  of 
the  phoenix.  Herodotus  says  the  Egyptians 
were  the  first  who  believed  in  the  immortality 
of  the  soul.  For  the  general  character  of  their 
ritual,  the  "Book  of  the  Dead,"  see  EGYPT, 
LANGUAGE  AND  LITEHATUEE  OF. — The  Acca- 
dians,  who  inhabited  the  lower  regions  of  the 
Tigris  and  Euphrates  before  the  time  of  Baby- 
lonia and  Assyria,  divided  the  universe  into 
heaven,  the  earth  and  atmosphere,  and  the 
lower  regions,  ruled  respectively  by  Anu,  Ea, 
and  Mulghe,  probably  corresponding  to  the  sub- 
sequent first  Chaldean  triad  of  Anu,  Nua,  and 
Bel.  Ea  had  a  consort  in  Daokina.  Mnghe 
and  Ninghel  seem  to  have  been  chthonian 
goddesses.  The  Accadian  hell  seems  to  have 
borne  some  resemblance  to  the  Chaldean  hell. 
As  both  demons  and  good  spirits  were  to  be 
found  there,  it  is  to  be  supposed  that  it  was 
conceived  of  as  a  general  tarrying  place  until 
the  coming  of  the  day  when,  as  they  believed, 
all  the  dead  would  assemble  and  live  again.  In 
regard  to  the  subsequent  Babylonian  mythol- 
ogy, Diodorus  says  there  were  12  gods  of  the 
heavens,  each  personified  by  one  of  the  signs 
of  the  zodiac  and  worshipped  in  a  certain 
month  of  the  year.  El  or  II  was  the  highest 
of  these  gods,  and  Babel,  meaning  the  gate  of 
El,  was  named  after  him.  It  seems  that  all 
the  gods  were  local,  or  that  each  city  and  its 
neighborhood  was  supposed  to  be  under  the 
special  protection  of  a  particular  deity.  The 
importance  of  the  various  gods  hence  depended 
on  the  political  rank  of  their  districts.  The 
gods  of  the  Babylonian  pantheon  were  asso- 
ciated also  with  appropriate  goddesses.  It  is 
difficult  to  distinguish  the  attributes  of  El  from 
those  of  Bel,  whose  name,  meaning  lord,  is 
equally  applicable  to  all  the  gods.  That  Bel 
and  El  were  distinct  gods  appears  from  in- 
scriptions which  speak  of  them  as  being  both 
lords  of  Sumir  and  Accad.  Bel  was  the  presi- 
ding god  of  Nipur,  and  retained  his  position 
.  as  the  national  god  of  the  Chaldeans  until  the 
rise  of  Babylon.  Anu,  Bel,  Hea,  Sin,  Shamas, 
Bin,  and  the  planetary  divinities  Adar,  Me- 
rodach,  Nergal,  Ishtar,  and  Nebo  (the  divinities 
of  the  planets  Saturn,  Jupiter,  Mars,  Venus, 
and  Mercury),  were  the  principal  of  the  nu- 
merous gods  mentioned  in  the  inscriptions. 
Anu,  who  often  has  the  epithet  of  malik  or 
king,  appears  to  have  been  the  Anu-malik 
or  Anamelech  of  the  Scriptures.  Hea  appears 
as  the  lord  of  the  earth  and  king  of  the 
rivers;  and  Anu  and  Bel  formed  with  him 
at  an  early  period  a  sort  of  triad,  presiding 
over  the  other  gods.  The  mythological  ideas 
attached  to  Sin,  Shamas,  and  Bin  are  clearer. 
Sin,  the  moon  god,  came  into  importance 
when  the  seat  of  government  was  removed 
to  Ur,  his  special  seat.  He  had  the  symbol 
of  the  new  moon,  and  was  called  the  eldest 
son  of  Bel.  Shamas,  whose  sign  was  the  circle, 
came  into  prominence  with  the  city  of  Lar- 
.  sa.  He  was  god  of  the  sun  and  ruler  of  the 
day.  Bin  is  spoken  of  as  the  god  who  thun- 


ders in  the  midst  of  the  heavens,  in  whose  hand 
there  is  a  flaming  sword,  and  who  is  the  giver 
of  abundance  and  wealth. — The  Himyarites  of 
southern  Arabia  are  said  to  have  worshipped 
the  sun,  the  moon,  and  minor  demons.  There 
are  many  indications  that  the  Sabseans  gave 
to  the  sun  a  prominent  place  in  their  worship. 
Himyaritic  inscriptions  mention  the  name  of 
Almakah,  a  moon  goddess,  and  of  Athtar,  the 
Babylonian  Ishtar.  The  Nabatheans  are  said 
to  have  worshipped  the  sun,  and  also  Dusares, 
a  god  of  war.  The  Arab  tribes  commonly  sym- 
bolized their  deities  by  white  and  black  stones. 
The  highest  god  of  the  Midianites  and  Amalek- 
ites,  who  occupied  the  Sinaitic  peninsula  and 
the  neighboring  districts,  was  Baal,  whom  also 
the  Moabites  adored.  Thus  the  religious  con- 
ceptions of  the  Arabs  did  not  vary  greatly 
from  those  of  Babylon  and  Nineveh.  Still 
more  marked  are  the  similarities  between  the 
worship  of  the  Phoenicians  (and  the  Canaan- 
ites  in  general)  and  that  of  the  Chaldeans  and 
Assyrians.  But  the  former  is  more  lasciv- 
ious and  cruel,  and  does  not  put  the  same 
emphasis  on  the  worship  of  the  stars.  The 
Phoenicians  ascribed  the  authorship  of  •  their 
sacred  books,  which  were  said  to  be  of  high 
antiquity,  to  Esmun,  one  of  their  gods,  and  a 
series  of  hierophants,  including  Thabion,  Isiris, 
Sanchuniathon,  and  Mochus.  Philo  of  Byblos 
is  considered  to  have  given  a  Greek  translation 
of  the  books  ascribed  to  Sanchuniathon  in  his 
history  of  the  Phoenicians,  and  the  extant  frag- 
ments indicate  that  he  looked  upon  many  of 
the  gods  as  deified  rulers  and  heroes.  Ampli- 
fying and  correcting  his  account  from  other 
sources.  Max  Duncker  concludes  that  El  was 
the  principal  god  of  the  Canaanites  also,  and 
that  Saturn  was  his  planet.  Above  him,  how- 
ever, was  Baal-Samin,  the  lord  of  the  heavens, 
representing  probably  the  beneficent  effects  of 
the  sun.  Springs  and  rivers  also  entered  into 
the  worship  of  the  Phoenicians,  and  specially 
sacred  was  the  Nahr  Damur,  north  of  Sidon,  the 
Tamyras  of  the  Greeks.  The  goddess  Baaltis, 
mentioned  by  Greek  authors  as  the  Derceto  of 
Ascalon  and  the  Atargatis  of  Hierapolis,  and 
compared  by  them  to  Aphrodite  Urania,  re- 
sembled the  Bilit  or  Mylitta  of  the  Babylonians, 
and  the  Ashera  of  the  Hebrews.  She  was  the 
goddess  of  birth  and  fertility,  and  symbolized 
the  beneficent  effects  of  moisture  and  water. 
Her  worship  was  often  held  at  the  seashore 
and  on  the  banks  of  rivers,  and  her  images 
sometimes  represent  her  with  a  body  merging 
at  the  waist  in  that  of  a  fish.  Many  Phoeni- 
cian colonies  adored  a  Venus  of  the  sea,  and  the 
goddess  of  Berytus  was  said  to  have  come  out 
of  the  sea.  Dagon,  the  fish  god  of  the  Babylo- 
nians, was  also  regarded  by  the  Phoenicians  as  a 
god  of  fertility,  and  connected  with  the  water, 
though  his  province  seems  to  have  been  the 
land ;  he  was  the  inventor  of  the  plough  and 
the  giver  of  crops.  Moloch  symbolized  the 
parching  heat  of  the  sun.  He  was  the  god  of 
fire,  purifying  as  well  as  devouring.  He  was 


118 


MYTHOLOGY 


the  god  of  war,  and  before  a  battle  and  after  a 
victory  he  received  large  sacrifices  of  human 
beings.  It  is  said  that  he  was  represented  as  a 
bull,  or  had  the  head  of  one ;  and  as  Adar,  to 
whom  the  Babylonians  gave  the  form  of  a  bull, 
was  the  spirit  of  Saturn,  it  is  probable  that 
Moloch  also  was  connected  with  that  planet. 
Astarte,  the  divinity  of  Sidon,  who  as  goddess 
of  war  held  a  spear  and  was  represented  in 
Carthage  as  riding  on  a  lion,  bore  some  rela- 
tion to  the  moon,  and  was  called  the  horned 
Astarte  (Ashteroth  Karnaim  in  the  Scriptu- 
ral form),  probably  in  reference  to  the  horns 
of  the  moon  on  her  head.  She  was  the  god- 
dess of  fire,  and  human  sacrifices  were  made 
to  her.  She  represented  chastity;  to  serve 
her  was  to  subdue  all  passion ;  and  emascula- 
tion and  other  self-mutilations  were  highly 
pleasing  to  her.  The  attributes  of  both  Baal 
and  Moloch  were  united  in  Melkart,  "  king  of 
the  city,"'whom  the  inhabitants  of  Tyre  con- 
sidered their  special  patron.  The  Greeks  called 
him  Melicertes,  and  identified  him  with  Her- 
cules. By  his  great  strength  and  power  he 
turned  evil  into  good,  brought  life  out  of  de- 
struction, pulled  back  the  sun  to  the  earth  at 
the  time  of  the  solstices,  lessened  excessive 
heat  and  cold,  and  rectified  the  evil  signs  of 
the  zodiac.  In  Phoenician  legends  he  conquers 
the  savage  races  of  distant  coasts,  founds  the 
ancient  settlements  on  the  Mediterranean,  and 
plants  the  rocks  at  the  strait  of  Gibraltar,  the 
end  of  the  world,  as  landmarks  of  the  ex- 
tent of  his  journeyings.  As  goddess  of  the 
moon  Astarte  was  brought  into  connection 
with  Melkart,  the  god  of  the  sun,  becoming 
his  spouse,  assuming  the  name  of  Milkath,  and 
changing  from  the  severe  and  cruel  goddess 
of  war  and  chastity  into  a  gentle  patron  of 
love  and  fruitfulness.  Under  the  names  of 
Dido  and  Anna  the  two  sides  of  her  worship 
reappear  especially  in  Carthage.  As  Dido  she 
was  the  wandering  goddess  of  the  moon,  paral- 
lel to  Europa,  and  possessed  the  attributes  of 
Astarte  only.  Melkart  finding  and  espousing 
her,  she  changed  into  Anna,  the  graceful.  In 
like  manner  Astarte  became  an  Asherah,  and 
Artemis  or  Athena  an  Atargatis.  The  people 
of  Byblos  worshipped  an  addon  (lord)  Tammuz, 
who  is  generally  identified  with  the  Greek 
Adonis.  The  Phosnicians  combined  the  deities 
of  their  cities  into  a  sort  of  system,  forming  a 
circle  of  seven  gods,  called  Kabirim  (Cabiri), 
the  powerful  or  the  great,  and  children  of 
Sydyk,  the  just.  Among  these  gods  were 
Khusor  or  Vulcan,  the  worker  of  iron;  the 
female  Khusarthis,  or  Thuro,  the  law,  whom 
the  Greeks  call  Harmonia,  and  who  in  many 
respects  resembles  Astarte ;  and  Baal-Melkart, 
the  patron  of  Tyre.  An  eighth  god  of  this 
series  seems  to  have  been  Esmun,  "  the  eighth," 
who  appears  as  a  saving  and  pardoning  di- 
vinity, and  somewhat  like  the  Thoth  of  the 
Egyptians  and  Hermes  of  the  Greeks.  The 
images  of  these  eight  patron  gods  were  often 
carved  on  the  bows  of  Phoenician  vessels. 


Next  to  the  Kabirim  were  demons,  and  by 
degrees  was  formed  a  system  of  divinities  of 
three  times  seven,  or,  with  Esmun,  22  gods, 
arranged  according  to  the  Phoenician  alphabet, 
and  often  put  into  fanciful  relations  to  each 
other. — The  mythological  conceptions  entering 
into  the  religious  systems  of  other  races  of 
the  East  will  be  found  treated  in  the  articles 
BUDDHISM;  INDIA,  RELIGIONS  AND  RELIGIOUS 
LITERATURE  OF  ;  KORAN  ;  ZEND  AVESTA  ;  and 
ZOROASTER. — The  principal  divinities  of  the 
ancient  Greeks  and  Romans  are  treated  under 
their  own  titles ;  but  the  prominence  of  these 
in  modern  culture  calls  for  a  synthetical  survey 
of  the  entire  theogony  and  body  of  myths,  and 
also  for  the  characteristic  features  of  the  wor- 
ship. Numerous  systems  of  classification  have 
been  devised,  but  the  most  serviceable  for  or- 
dinary purposes  is  a  simple  grouping  accord- 
ing to  the  abodes  and  the  spheres  of  activity 
attributed  to  the  principal  gods  and  godlike 
beings.  The  divinities  of  heaven  are  Uranus, 
Zeus,  Hera,  Helios,  Selene,  Eos,  Iris,  and 
JSolus;  of  the  water,  Poseidon,  Amphitrite, 
tritons,  sirens,  Nereids,  naiads,  Scylla,  and 
Charybdis;  of  the  earth,  Ge  or  Gsea  and  Rhea; 
of  the  fields,  woods,  and  gardens,  Demeter, 
Pan,  Faunus,  Terminus,  Flora,  Pomona,  Pales, 
Vertumnus,  and  nymphs ;  of  the  house  and 
domestic  life,  Hestia,  lares,  and  penates;  of 
time,  the  Horse  and  Cronos ;  of  the  arts,  trades, 
and  sciences,  Hephaestus,  Athena,  Apollo,  Arte- 
mis, Hermes,  and  the  muses ;  of  love  and  joy, 
Aphrodite,  Eros,  the  Graces,  Hebe,  Ganymede, 
Dionysus,  satyrs,  and  Silenus;  of  health,  vEs- 
culapius  and  Hygiea ;  of  war  and  peace,  Ares, 
Bellona,  Eris,  and  Janus;  of  fate,  justice,  and 
retribution,  Fatum,  Nemesis,  Ate,  Moirse  or  the 
Fates,  Themis,  Erinnyes  or  Eumenidae,  Harpies, 
Thanatos,  and  genii;  and  of  the  lower  or  in- 
fernal world,  Pluto,  Persephone,  Grseee,  Gor- 
gons,  Manes,  Nyx,  and  Hypnus.  Exclusively 
Roman  divinities  among  these  are  Janus, 
Faunus,  Terminus,  Vertumnus,  Pales,  Flora, 
genii,  lares,  penates,  and  manes.  In  adopting 
the  Greek  mythology  the  Romans  transferred 
to  it  the  names  of  their  own  divinities  and 
their  own  legends,  or  gave  to  the  Greek  names 
a  Latinized  form.  Thus  Cronos  they  called 
Saturnus ;  Uranus,  Coelus ;  Gsea,  Terra ;  Helios, 
Sol ;  Zeus,  Jupiter ;  Poseidon,  Neptunus ;  Ares, 
Mars ;  Hephaestus,  Vulcanus ;  Hermes,  Mercu- 
rius;  Hera,  Juno;  Athena,  Minerva;  Artemis, 
Diana ;  Aphrodite,  Venus ;  Eros,  Amor ;  Hestia, 
Vesta;  Demeter,  Ceres;  Dionysus,  Bacchus; 
Persephone,  Proserpina;  Selene,  Luna;  Eos, 
Aurora ;  Hypnus,  Somnus ;  and  the  Moires, 
Parcse ;  and  these  Latin  names  have  prevailed 
in  modern  literature.  The  Greeks  considered 
their  gods  as  possessed  of  human  form,  some- 
times rather  gigantic  and  superhuman,  and  of 
great  beauty.  They  needed  to  eat  and  drink 
and  sleep.  They  were  subject  to  suffering, 
for  they  could  be  wounded,  and  though  called 
blessed  they  were  not  free  from  sorrows  and 
tribulations.  They  were  holy  and  just,  but 


MYTHOLOGY 


119 


irascible  and  hard-hearted,  and  at  times  sedu- 
cers of  human  beings.  They  were  truly  divine, 
for  they  knew  no  age,  and  were  immortal. 
They  could  foretell  what  would  befall  a  per- 
son; but  otherwise  much  must  have  been 
hidden  from  them,  for  even  Jupiter  could  be 
deceived,  and  the  other  gods  could  deceive 
each  other.  They  sometimes  moved  among 
men  in  any  form  they  chose,  and  visibly  or  in- 
visibly. They  could  send  signs  and  messages, 
such  as  were  announced  by  the  oracles  of  Dodo- 
na,  Delos,  and  Delphi,  or  by  the  cries,  chirping, 
eating,  or  flight  of  birds,  or  by  thunder  and 
lightning,  or  by  the  peculiar  formation  of  the 
entrails  of  certain  animals.  They  maintained 
their  bodily  and  spiritual  faculties  in  their  ori- 
ginal youth  and  strength  by  living  on  ambrosia 
and  nectar.  Certain  animals  and  plants  were 
their  emblems  or  sacred  to  them.  They  were 
worshipped  in  images  of  wood,  bronze,  or  mar- 
ble, placed  on  hills  and  mountains,  or  in  groves 
and  forests,  and  generally  removed  from  the 
thoroughfares  of  daily  life.  Only  the  lares 
and  penates  were  household  gods.  The  wor- 
ship consisted  in  prayer,  vows,  or  sacrifices. 
Prayer  was  commonly  offered  standing,  the 
head  covered,  and  the  hands  extended  upward, 
or  laid  on  the  mouth,  or  touching  the  altars  of 
the  gods  or  the  knees  of  their  images.  When 
the  gods  of  the  upper  region  were  to  be  propi- 
tiated, the  people  dressed  in  white,  and  the  cere- 
monial consisted  partly  in  bathing  and  wash- 
ing, and  raising  the  hands  toward  heaven. 
When  the  divinities  of  the  lower  regions  were 
invoked,  the  dress  was  black,  the  hands  were 
pointed  downward,  and  only  black  animals 
were  sacrificed.  Bloody  sacrifices,  which  took 
place  in  the  earliest  times  of  Greek  history,  were 
resorted  to  only  in  propitiation  for  a  whole  tribe 
or  people.  They  consisted  sometimes  of  hu- 
man beings,  and  in  such  cases  one  commonly 
suffered  death  for  all ;  but  generally  they  con- 
sisted of  eatable  domestic  animals.  The  blood 
of  the  slaughtered  animal  was  poured  upon 
the  altar,  the  portion  designed  for  the  god  was 
burned  upon  it,  and  the  remainder  was  dis- 
tributed among  the  priests  and  sacrificers. 
Other  sacrifices  consisted  mainly  in  libations, 
as  wine,  honey,  milk,  and  oil,  and  the  burning 
of  frankincense,  and  fruits  and  sweets.  The 
myths  or  mythical  traditions,  and  the  heroes 
or  demigods  who  figure  in  them,  are  an  im- 
portant element  in  the  mythology  of  the 
Greeks  and  Romans.  The  myths  may  be  di- 
vided into  three  groups :  those  with  one  hero, 
those  with  entire  generations  of  heroes,  and 
those  which  recount  tribal  or  national  expedi- 
tions. The  principal  myths  relating  to  single 
heroes  are  those  of  Prometheus,  Deucalion,  and 
Tantalus.  Among  those  of  heroic  races  or  fam- 
ilies are  the  Corinthian  myths  of  Sisyphus  and 
Bellerophon;  the  Argive  myths  of  Inachus, 
Danatis,  Danae,  Perseus,  and  Hercules;  the  At- 
tic myths  of  Cecrops  and  Theseus;  and  the 
Theban  myths  of  Cadmus  and  (Edipus.  The 
myths  of  national  expeditions  are  the  Argonau- 


tic,  the  two  Theban  wars,  and  the  Trojan  war. 
The  myths  of  Evander,  JEneas,  and  Romulus 
are  Roman.  The  heroes  or  demigods  were  of 
both  divine  and  human  descent,  or  rather  hu- 
man beings  elevated  to  the  rank  and  honor  of 
gods.  The  masses  generally  looked  upon  them 
as  having  been  the  great  men  of  primitive 
times,  and  paid  homage  to  them  only  as  such. 
In  order  to  facilitate  the  understanding  of  the 
great  deeds  which  the  myths  ascribed  to  them, 
they  were  imagined  as  having  been  persons  of 
superhuman  strength.  They  all  differ  from 
the  gods  in  that  they  were  mortal,  though  a 
few  were  permitted  to  continue  for  a  while 
their  existence  in  Elysium.  Hercules  is  the 
only  one  who  becomes  immortal.  The  wor- 
ship of  heroes  consisted  in  offerings  of  hon- 
ey, wine,  oil,  and  milk.  Animals  also  were 
sacrificed  to  them,  but  with  the  caution  of 
twisting  the  heads  downward,  and  making  the 
blood  flow  into  a  ditch.  Further,  the  meat 
was  not  eaten,  but  burned ;  and  only  the 
tombs  of  the  heroes  could  be  used  for  their 
worship. — The  mythology  of  the  Scandina- 
vian or  Norse  races,  preserved  mainly  in  the 
literature  of  Iceland,  accounts  for  the  exis- 
tence of  the  world  by  placing  in  the  begin- 
ning a  Ginungagap,  an  empty  space,  with  a 
Niflheim,  a  region  of  mist,  ice,  and  snow,  to 
the  north,  and  a  Muspelheim,  a  region  of 
warmth  and  sunlight,  to  the  south.  The  ice 
melting  and  dropping  into  Ginungagap,  there 
came  to  be  an  accumulation  of  matter,  out 
of  which  arose  Ymir,  the  giant,  who  brought 
forth  Reimthursen,  the  frost.  His  nurse  was 
Audhumla,  the  cow,  which  lived  by  licking 
the  ice,  and  in  consequence  of  her  licking  ap- 
peared the  form  of  Buri,  the  father  of  Burr,  the 
father  of  Odin.  Yili  and  Ve,  Odin's  brothers, 
overthrew  the  dynasty  of  Ymir  and  Reim- 
thursen. Ymir's  flesh,  blood,  and  bones  be- 
came the  earth,  sea,  and  mountains,  and  his 
skull  and  brains  the  heavens  and  the  clouds. 
In  Jotunheim  were  the  giants,  and  Ymir's  eye- 
brows served  as  a  wall  between  them  and 
the  inhabitants  of  the  earth.  The  clouds 
and  the  wind  were  subject  to  Odin,  the  god 
of  war,  and  the  father  of  Saga,  the  goddess 
of  poetry.  On  his  shoulders  sat  the  ravens 
Herginn  and  Muninn,  which  he  sent  out  to 
bring  him  news  of  passing  events.  At  his 
side  sat  Frigga,  his  favorite,  who  controls  all 
nature.  Freyja,  the  custodian  of  the  dead, 
claimed  half  the  heroes  slain  in  battle^  Both 
were  also  goddesses  of  love,  and  at  different 
times  the  one  or  the  other  was  considered  the 
wife  of  Odin.  Thor,  Odin's  son,  the  god  of 
thunder  and  lightning,  held  a  hammer  as  a 
symbol  of  his  authority,  and  threw  down  from 
his  abode  in  heaven  thunderbolts  made  by  the 
black  elves  that  dwelt  in  the  interior  of  the 
earth.  He .  presided  also  over  the  domestic 
hearth  and  the  fruitfulness  of  wedlock.  Bal- 
dur  or  Baldr,  the  sun,  the  father  of  daylight, 
had  been  made  invulnerable  except  by  the  mis- 
tletoe, and  Loki,  son  of  the  giant  Farbauti  and 


120 


MYTHOLOGY 


god  of  mischief,  ordered  Hodr,  the  blind  god  of 
winter,  to  slay  Baldur  with  a  twig  of  it.     Loki 
thought  to  escape  by  plunging  into  the  sea  and 
changing  into  a  salmon,  but  was  caught  in  a 
net,  and  bound  till  the  judgment  day.     Hodr 
was  killed  by  Bali,  Odin's  son.      The  wolf 
Fenris,  the  progeny  of  Loki,  bit  off  the  hand 
of  Tyr,  the  god  of  war  and  athletic  sports,  and 
was  also  bound,  and  on  the  judgment  day  he 
will  be  slain  by  Vidarr,  the  god  of  twilight, 
next  in  strength  to  Thor.    The  serpent  of  Mid- 
gard  (which  is  the  middle  world,  between  Mus- 
pelheim  and  Niflheim,  and  formed  from  Ymir's 
body)  was  thrown  by  Odin  into  the  sea,  where 
it  grew  so  large  as  to  encircle  the  whole  world ; 
as  was  also  Hel,  a  goddess  half  black  and  half 
blue,  who  lived  upon  the  brains  and  marrow  of 
men'.     On  Midgard  was  Asgard,  the  dwelling 
of  the  Asa  race,  namely,  Odin  and  the  twelve 
^Esir:  Thor,  Baldur,  Freyr,  Tyr,  Bragi,  Hodr, 
Heimdalr,  Vidar,  Vali,  Ullr,  Ve,  and  Forseti. 
The  gods  and  goddesses  lived  apart,  the  former 
in  the  mansion  called  Gladsheim  and  the  lat- 
ter in  Vingolf .    In  Valhalla  Odin  caroused  with 
dead  heroes,  and  was  waited  upon  by  Oskmey- 
jar  or  Valkyries.    Freyr,  whose  attributes  are 
not  clearly  defined,  is  called  by  Dasent  the  god 
of  rain,  sunshine,  and  fruits,  whom  Gridr  cap- 
tivated with  her  beauty.    Iduna,  the  wife  of 
Bragi,  the  god  of  poetry  and  eloquence,  dwelt 
iii  the  lower  world,  where  she  was  custodian 
of  the  golden  apples  with  which  the  gods  re- 
juvenated themselves.     Ullr  was  god  of  the 
chase,  and  Mimir  of  wisdom  and  knowledge. 
Heimdalr  is  the  watchman  of  the  bridge  Bi- 
frasta,  that  leads  to  the  lower  world,  and  his 
horn  will  give  the  signal  for  the  great  battle  of 
the  gods  at  the  end  of  time.     In  the  article 
EDDA  are  some  additional  details  of  the  my- 
thological conceptions  of  the  Scandinavians. — 
The  mythology  of  the  Germans  is  built  upon 
the  same  foundation  as  that  of  the  Scandinavi- 
ans, and  many  portions  of  it  are  identical.    The 
principal  deities  are  the  same.   Wuotan,  or  Wo- 
tan  according  to  the  Low  Germans,  is  the  Odin 
of  the  North.    The  atmosphere  and  the  heavens 
are  subject  to  him,  and  on  him  depends  the 
f ruitfulness  of  the  earth.     He  takes  pleasure  in 
the  brunt  of  battle  and  in  the  excitement  of  the 
chase.     He  rides  upon  a  white  horse,  and  his 
gigantic  form  is  robed  in  a  large  dark  mantle. 
Donar,   the  Scandinavian  Thor,   the    god  of 
storms,  swings  a  heavy  hammer  or  a  thunder- 
bolt.    He  is  the  giver  of  increase,  and  the 
fruits  of  the  field,  the  cattle,  and  wedlock  are 
under  his  protection.     The  Tyr  of  the  Norse 
finds  a  counterpart  in  the  Tui  or  Saxnot  of  the 
Saxons,  the  Ziu  of  the  Swabians,  and  the  Eru 
of  the  Bavarians.    His  symbol  is  the  sword ;  he 
is  the  god  of  war,  but  originally  he  was  a  god 
of  heaven.     Fro,  who  seems  to  have  answered 
to  Freyr,  unites  various  not  well  defined  mytho- 
logical attributes.     Baldur  or  Phol,  who  was 
principally  worshipped  in  Thuringia,  is  a  youth- 
ful warrior,  and  somewhat  connected  with  the 
blessings  of  the  season  of  spring.    The  Frisians 


MYTILENE 

gave  him  a  son  named  Fosite,  the  Forseti  of 
Norse  mythology.     The  goddess  called  Ner- 
thus  by  Tacitus,  which  name  was  subsequently 
corrupted  into  Hertha,  whom  the  Franks  wor- 
shipped as  Holda  or  Holle,  the  Bavarians  as 
Perchta,  and  the  Low  Germans  as  Fria  or  Frigg, 
appears  to  have  been  known  first  to  the  early 
inhabitants  of  the  island  of  Kiigen  in  the  Bal- 
tic.    Her  attributes  are  those  of  kindness  and 
motherly  care.    She  presides  over  the  blessings 
of  wedded  life,  house,  and  field,  and  rules  the 
and  of  the  dead.     For  the  minor  deities  of 
;he  Germanic  races,  rather  of  a  legendary  than 
of  a  mythical  character,  see  FAIRIES.     See  also 
DEMONOLOGY. — See  Creuzer,  SymboliTc  und  My- 
thologie der  alten  Voider  (3d  ed.,  Leipsic,  1837- 
'44) ;  Keightley,  "  Mythology  of  Ancient  Greece 
and  Italy"  (2d  ed.,  London,  1865) ;  Preller,  Ro- 
mische  Mythologie  (2d  ed.  by  Kohler,  Berlin, 
1865) ;  Leitschuh,  Die  EntsteJiung  der  Mytho- 
logie und  die  Entwickelung  der  griechischen 
Religion    (Wiirzburg,    1867)  ;    Baring-Gould, 
"  Origin  and  Development  of  Religious  Belief  " 
(London,  1869-'70) ;    George  W.  Cox,   "  The 
Mythology  of  the  Aryan  Nations"  (London, 
1870);    Schomann,    GriecMsche    AltertMmer 
(3d  ed.,  Berlin,  1871-'3) ;  Preller,  Griechische 
Mythologie  (3d  ed.  by  Plew,  Berlin,  1872  et 
seq.} ;   Kirchner,    Grundrisse  der  Mythologie 
und  Sagengeschichte  der  Griechen  und  Romer 
(Gera,   1872);    Gubernatis,    "Zoological  My- 
thology" (London,  1873);  Murray,  "Manual 
of  Mythology  "  (London,  1873)  ;  Petiscus,  Der 
Olymp,  oder  Mythologie  der  Griechen  und  Ro- 
mer (Leipsic,  1873) ;  Delaunay,  Moines  et  Si- 
~bylles  dans   Vantiquite  judeo-grecque  (Paris, 
1874) ;  Kroon,  Mythologisch  woordenboek  (Arn- 
heim,  1874  et  seq.*)  ;  Holtzmann,  Deutsche  My- 
thologie (Leipsic,  1874) ;  Lenormant,  La  magie 
chez  les    Chaldeens  (Paris,  1874);    Schrader, 
Ishtar  (Berlin,  1874)  ;   "Records  of  the  Past: 
Translations  of  Assyrian  and  Egyptian  Monu- 
ments" (London,  1874  et  seq.}  ;  and  Duncker, 
Geschichte  des  Alterthums  (4th  ed.,  Leipsic, 
1874). 

MYTILME,  or  Mitylene  (anc.  Leslos),  an  island 
of  the  Grecian  archipelago,  belonging  to  Tur- 
key, separated  from  the  coast  of  Asia  Minor 
by  a  strait  from  7  to  10  m.  broad ;  area,  276 
sq.  m. ;  pop.  previous  to  the  Greek  revolution, 
60,000,  since  reduced  to  less  than  40,000.  On 
the  south  it  is  indented  by  two  deep  bays  called 
Ports  Oaloni  and  lero,  the  former  extending 
to  the  centre  of  the  island.  Both  have  very 
narrow  mouths,  and  expand  as  they  stretch 
inland.  The  surface  is  diversified  by  wooded 
hills  and  beautiful  plains ;  the  soil  is  fruitful, 
and  the  climate  salubrious,  but  the  means  of 
irrigation  are  imperfect.  The  principal  prod- 
ucts are  olives,  wine,  fruit,  silk,  cotton,  and 
pitch.  The  chief  town  is  Castro,  or  Mytilene, 
on  the  E.  coast,  which  receives  considerable 
business  as  a  port  on  the  steamboat  route  to 
Constantinople.  The  principal  merchants  are 
Greeks.  The  town  was  considerably  damaged 
by  an  earthquake  in  1867. — The  ancient  Lesbos 


MYXINOIDS 


121 


was  one  of  the  islands  of  the  ^Eolians,  and  at 
a  very  early  period  contained  several  rich  and 
populous  cities,  of  which  Mytilene  and  Methym- 
na  were  the  most  important,  on  account  of  their 
fine  harbors  for  the  coasting  trade.  After 
the  island  had  undergone  several  revolutionary 
changes,  Pittacus  about  600  B.  0.  usurped  the 
dictatorship,  restored  order,  and  laid  the  foun- 
dation for  the  future  greatness  of  the  city 
of  Mytilene.  While  continental  ^Eolis  became 


subject  to  Persia  about  550  B.  0.,  Lesbos  main- 
tained her  independence  several  years  longer. 
About  500  it  joined  the  revolt  of  the  lonians, 
but  without  success.  After  regaining  its  in- 
dependence it  became  a  member  of  the  Athe- 
nian confederacy  in  477,  but  revolted  in  the 
beginning  of  the  Peloponnesian  war,  428,  and 
once  more  in  412,  both  times  suffering  severely. 
With  the  exception  of  a  short  period  during 
which  it  was  under  Spartan  sway,  Lesbos  con- 


Mytilene. 


tinned  subject  to  Athens  till  387.  In  334  it 
submitted  to  Alexander.  In  the  1st  century 
B.  0.  the  island  was  under  the  dominion  of 
Mithridates,  and  after  his  defeat  it  was  annexed 
to  the  possessions  of  Rome.  In  the  13th  cen- 
tury one  of  the  Byzantine  emperors  ceded  it 
to  the  Venetian  family  of  Gateluzzi  as  the 
dowry  of  his  sister ;  it  was  taken  from  them 
in  1462  by  Mohammed  II.,  who  besieged  the 
chief  city  and  captured  it  through  treachery. 
It  was  the  birthplace  of  the  poets  Terpan- 
der,  Arion,  Alcseus,  and  Sappho,  of  the  philoso- 
phers Pittacus,  Cratippus,  and  Theophrastus, 
and  the  historians  Hellanicus  and  Theophanes. 
MYXINOIDS,  an  order  of  fishes,  which,  with 
the  cyclostomes  or  lampreys,  form  the  class 
of  myzonts  of  Agassiz,  containing  the  lowest 
of  the  vertebrates.  They  form  the  family  Jiy- 
perotreta  (Mall. ;  marsipobrancMi  of  Huxley), 


Organs  of  Eespiration  in  the  Myxiiie:  a,  single  hooked 
tooth;  &&&&,  double  rows  of  lingual  teeth;  c,  branchial 
cells ;  d  d  d  d,  tentacula ;  e,  mucous  glands. 

and  are  characterized  by  a  cylindrical  body, 
obliquely  truncated  anteriorly;  the  mouth  is 
furnished  with  cirri  or  tentacles,  the  palate  is 


perforated,  and  the  cavities  of  the  nose  and 
mouth  communicate  (as  in  no  other  fish)  ;  the 
upper  margin  of  the  mouth  has  a  single  tooth, 
and  the  tongue  has  a  double  recurved  row  on 
each  side ;  the  jaws  are  absent,  and  the  inferior 
margin  of  the  mouth  is  formed  by  the  anterior 
extremity  of  the  tongue  bone;  the  eyes  are 
concealed ;  the  branchia}  are  on  each  side,  with 
internal  ducts  leading  to  the  oesophagus.  For 
full  details  see  the  papers  of  J.  Muller  in  the 
"  Transactions  of  the  Berlin  Academy "  for 
1834,  1838,  1839,  and  1842,  and  papers  by  F. 
W.  Putnam  in  "Proceedings  of  the  Boston 
Society  of  Natural  History,"  vol.  xvi.,  1874. 
In  the  genus  myxine  (Linn.)  two  spiracles  ap- 
proximate on  the  lower  surface  behind  the 
branchia3,  each  receiving  the  external  ducts  of 
the  six  branchire  of  its  own  side.  The  com- 
mon myxine  or  glutinous  hag  (M.  glutinosa, 
Linn.)  has  a  smooth  eel-like  body,  wjth  a  very 


Common  Myxine  (Myxine  glutinosa). 

long  dorsal  fin  continued  round  the  tail  to  the 
vent,  a  single  spiracle  on  the  head,  and  eight 
barbules  around  the  mouth ;  the  color  is  bluish 


122  N 

brown  above  and  whitish  below  ;  the  length  is 
from  6  to  15  in.  Linnaeus  placed  this  animal 
among  worms,  regarding  the  two  lateral  parts 
of  the  tongue  as  transverse  jaws,  which  do  not 
occur  in  vertebrates.  It  is  the  lowest  of  verte- 
brates, except  the  lancelet.  The  specific  name 
is  derived  from  the  great  quantity  of  viscid 
mucus  secreted  by  the  cutaneous  glands  whose 
pores  open  along  the  under  surface  of  the 
body ;  the  spinal  column  is  a  soft  and  flexible 
cartilaginous  tube,  with  no  division  into  rudi- 
mentary vertebrae.  It  is  called  borer  from  its 
habit  of  eating  into  the  bodies  of  other  fish 
which  have  been  caught  on  hooks,  entering  the 
mouth  or  other  part  of  the  surface,  and  in  this 
way  is  often  annoying  to  fishermen  during 
spring  and  summer.  It  is  found  along  the 


NABLUS 

coasts  of  Great  Britain  and  in  the  northern 
seas,  on  the  N.  E.  coast  of  North  America,  and 
the  S.  coast  of  South  America.  In  the  genus 
heptatrema  (Dum.)  or  bdellostoma  (Mtill.)  there 
are  six  or  seven  branchiae  on  each  side,  each 
with  an  external  spiracle;  the  eyes  are  very 
small,  conspicuous  through  the  skin.  It  re- 
sembles the  preceding  genus  in  internal  struc- 
ture, and  attains  a  larger  size ;  it  is  found  in 
the  southern  seas,  preferring  rocky  bottoms, 
where  it  lies  in  wait  for  fishes;  it  is  active, 
and  has  remarkable  powers  of  emitting  mucus 
from  the  skin.  The  species  described  as  bdel- 
lostoma  Forsteri  by  Miiller  and  as  B.  cirrha- 
tum  by  Giinther  is  roasted  and  eaten  by  the 
natives  of  New  Zealand. 
MYZOKTS.  See  MYXINOIDS. 


N 


NTHE  14th  letter  and  the  llth  conso- 
nant of  the  English  alphabet,  corre- 
sponding to  the  14th  letter  of  the  Phoanician 
alphabet,  the  nun,  the  name  of  which  in  the 
Semitic  languages  signifies  fish.  The  usual 
sound  of  the  English  N,  or  that  which  it 
naturally  has  when  not  affected  by  the  neigh- 
boring consonants,  is  that  of  a  lingual  nasal. 
This  is  in  the  English  language  an  original 
sound,  derived  without  change  from  the  earlier 
languages.  There  is  an  epenthetic  n  in  bring 
(comp.  brought),  think  (comp.  thought)-,  also 
in  some  words  of  Latin  origin,  as  frangible 
(comp.  fracture),  tangent  (comp.  tact).  The 
letter  n  final,  after  I  or  m,  is  silent  in  English, 
as  condemn,  kiln,  column,  hymn;  but  this  n 
was  originally  sounded.  The  omission  of  an  n 
is  sometimes  indicated  merely  by  the  length- 
ening of  the  preceding  vowel,  as  goose  (Ger. 
Gam),  tooth  (Lat.  dens,  genit.  dentis ;  Moeso- 
Gothic,  tunthus),  tithe  (comp.  tenth).  The 
English  n,  when  it  comes  immediately  before 
a  palatal  mute,  as  c,  ch  (when  pronounced  like 
k),  g,  k,  q,  or  x,  is  a  palatal  nasal,  or  has  the 
sound  of  ng  final.  In  ng  final,  the  palatal 
sound  has  arisen  in  the  same  way,  although 
the  sound  of  g  has  been  dropped  in  English. 
But  the  suffix  ing  appears  to  have  arisen  from 
the  infinitive  termination  an  in  the  earlier 
language.  The  Anglo-Saxon  and  Latin  have 
the  same  two  nasal  sounds  of  n  as  the  English. 
The  Moeso-Gothic  and  the  Greek  have  the  two 
nasal  sounds,  but  express  the  palatal  nasal  by 
g.  The  Latin  of  the  earliest  authors  had  some- 
times g  and  sometimes  n  for  the  palatal  nasal. 
The  Sanskrit  language  has  a  great  variety  of  n 
sounds. — In  numeration,  the  Greek  N  signified 
50.  Among  the  Romans,  according  to  some 
authors,  N  signified  90 ;  according  to  others  900, 
and  with  a  horizontal  line  above  it,  90,000. 

NABATHEANS.     See  EDOM. 

NABIS,  a  Spartan  tyrant  who  raised  himself 
to  supreme  power  on  the  death  of  Machanidas 


in  207  B.  0.  He  caused  the  young  son  of  the 
deceased  king  Lycurgus  to  be  assassinated ; 
the  most  influential  citizens  were  put  to  death 
or  banished;  the  wealthy  were  subjected  to 
incessant  exactions  enforced  by  torture,  and 
one  of  the  tyrant's  favorite  engines  of  punish- 
ment was  the  figure  of  a  woman  which  he 
called  after  his  wife  Apega,  and  which  being 
made  to  embrace  the  victim  pierced  him  with 
spikes  projecting  from  its  breast  and  arms. 
The  money  thus  obtained  enabled  him  to  sup- 
port a  mercenary  force  to  crush  the  spirit  of 
Sparta,  attempt  the  restoration  of  the  Lacedae- 
monian ascendancy  in  the  Peloponnesus,  and 
seize  the  city  of  Messene.  He  was  forced^  to 
withdraw  by  the  Megalopolitan  general  Philo- 
poamen,  but  in  the  next  year  he  returned  and 
reduced  the  territory  of  Megalopolis  to  great 
distress.  On  the  conclusion  of  the  first  Mace- 
donian war,  Flamininus,  the  Roman  consul, 
invaded  Laconia  with  a  powerful  force,  and 
laid  siege  to  Sparta.  Nabis  made  an  obstinate 
defence,  but  was  ultimately  constrained  to  pur- 
chase peace  (195).  In  192,  having  again  in- 
volved himself  in  hostilities  with  the  Achaeans, 
he  applied  to  the  JEtolians  for  succor.  They 
sent  a  small  force,  ostensibly  to  assist  but  in 
reality  to  overthrow  him,  and  he  was  soon  as- 
sassinated by  their  general  Alexamenus. 

NABLUS,  or  Nabulns,  a  town  of  Palestine,  30 
m.  N.  of  Jerusalem;  pop.  estimated  at  from 
10,000  to  20,000,  among  whom  are  about  1,000 
Christians  and  200  Samaritans.  It  is  situated 
in  a  valley  at  the  base  of  Mt.  Gerizim,  and  is 
supposed  to  occupy  the  site  of  the  ancient  She- 
chem.  When  restored  by  the  Romans  in  the 
reign  of  Vespasian,  it  received  the  name  of 
Neapolis,  of  which  its  modern  name  is  a  cor- 
ruption. In  the  Samaritan  synagogue  are  sev- 
eral valuable  manuscripts,  the  most  important 
of  which  is  the  copy  of  the  Pentateuch  known 
as  the  Samaritan  codex.  Nablus  has  important 
manufactures,  especially  of  soap. 


NABOB 


NADIR  SHAH 


123 


NABOB  (Hind,  nawaufy,  a  title  of  office  in 
India,  applied  during  the  Mogul  empire  to  the 
imperial  lieutenant  or  viceroy  of  a  province. 
The  word  is  the  plural  of  naib,  prince,  it  being 
a  custom  of  the  natives  to  address  all  great 
men  in  the  plural  number.  As  the  power  of 
ihe  emperors  declined,  their  deputies  became 
independent.  They  made  war  upon  each  other, 
and  the  country  was  perpetually  disturbed  by 
their  contentions.  The  English,  availing  thein- 
selves  of  these  dissensions,  reduced  them  in  de- 
tail to  mere  pensioners  on  their  bounty. — In  the 
English  language  the  word  nabob  signifies  a 
man  who  has  acquired  great  wealth  in  the  East. 

NACHTIGAL,  Gustav,  a  German  traveller,  born 
at  Eichstedt,  Prussian  Saxony,  Feb.  23,  1834. 
He  practised  medicine  in  Algeria  from  1859  to 
1863,  when  he  entered  the  service  of  the  bey 
of  Tunis  as  a  military  doctor,  and  eventually 
became  his  body  physician.  In  1869  he  vol- 
unteered to  accompany  a  caravan  to  Kuka,  to 
convey  presents  from  the  king  of  Prussia  to 
the  sheikh  of  Bornoo  in  return  for  his  kind- 
ness to  various  German  travellers.  He  left 
Tripoli  Feb.  18,  1869,  and  reached  Moorzook 
March  27.  While  the  expedition  was  delayed 
he  explored  Tibesti,  the  country  of  the  Tib- 
boos,  and  finally  left  Moorzook  April  18, 1870, 
reaching  Kuka  July  6.  He  collected  geograph- 
ical materials  about  Bornoo,  visited  Kanem 
and  Lake  Tchad,  acquiring  much  valuable  in- 
formation concerning  the  southern  Sahara,  and 
went  to  Baghirmi,  where  he  explored  the 
Shari  and  its  many  branches,  returning  several 
times  to  Kuka.  In  the  beginning  of  March, 
1873,  he  set  out  on  his  return  through  Waday, 
passing  S.  of  Lake  Tchad  to  Abeshr,  the  present 
capital  of  Waday.  While  there  he  visited  Bar 
Runga,  a  vassal  state,  which  stretches  south- 
ward to  about  lat.  8°  N.  He  arrived  at  the 
capital  of  Darfoor  on  March  17,  1874,  and 
reached  Cairo  in  November,  no  European  hav- 
ing ever  before  succeeded  in  making  the  jour- 
ney through  from  Waday.  Petermann  pub- 
lished in  1874  his  Die  trilutaren  Heidenlander 
JSaghirmis.  For  an  account  of  his  late  explo- 
rations see  the  London  "  Geographical  Maga- 
zine" for  October,  1874. 

NACOGDOCHES,  an  E.  county  of  Texas,  bound- 
ed S.  W.  by  the  Angelina  river  and  E.  by  the 
Attoyac,  which  unite  at  the  S.  E.  corner ;  area, 
886  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  9,614,  of  whom  3,275 
were  colored.  It  has  an  undulating  surface, 
occasionally  hilly  and  broken,  and  generally 
well  timbered.  The  soil  varies  greatly,  but  is 
mostly  fertile,  cotton  and  corn  being  the  prin- 
cipal crops.  Good  iron  ore  exists.  The  chief 
productions  in  1870  were  217,861  bushels  of 
Indian  corn,  16,515  of  barley,  35,113  of  sweet 
potatoes,  4,531  bales  of  cotton,  62,334  Ibs.  of 
butter,  and  5,490  gallons  of  sorghum  molas- 
ses. There  were  1,971  horses,  3,607  milch 
cows,  9,563  other  cattle,  2,470  sheep,  and 
16,089  swine.  Capital,  Nacogdoches. 

NADIR  SHAH,  or  Ruli  Khan,  a  king  of  Persia, 
born  in  Khorasan  in  1688,  assassinated  June  19 


or  20, 1747.  His  father  was  a  maker  of  sheep- 
skin caps  and  coats4  For  four  years  Nadir 
was  held  in  captivity  by  the  Uzbecks,  from 
which  at  the  age  of  21  he  escaped,  and  after- 
ward entered  the  service  of  the  governor  of 
Khorasan.  Here  he  attained  high  rank,  but 
was  degraded  and  punished,  whereupon  he 
placed  himself  at  the  head  of  a  band  of  rob- 
bers. The  invading  Afghans  had  dethroned 
the  Persian  monarch  early  in  the  18th  century. 
Nadir  joined  Tarn  asp,  son  of  the  shah,  with 
5,000  men,  in  1727,  was  given  the  supreme 
command,  drove  the  Afghan  king  out  of  Kho- 
rasan, overtook  the  retreating  army  at  Per- 
sepolis,  and  cut  it  to  pieces.  For  these  ser- 
vices he  received  in  1730  the  provinces  of  Kho- 
rasan, Mazanderan,  Seistan,  and  Kerman,  and 
took  the  title  of  Tamasp  Kuli  (Tamasp's  slave), 
to  which  Khan  was  added  by  the  king.  In 
1731  he  defeated  the  Turks  on  the  plains  of 
Hamadan,  and  then  marched  against  the  Af- 
ghans. In  his  absence  Tamasp  was  defeated 
by  the  Turks  and  signed  a  treaty  ceding  them 
several  provinces.  Nadir,  taking  advantage 
of  the  popular  discontent,  proclaimed  that  he 
would  carry  on  the  war,  and  in  August,  1732, 
dethroned  the  sovereign,  who  was  afterward 
put  to  death.  The  infant  son  of  Tamasp  was 
made  nominal  ruler  as  Abbas  III.,  but  died  early 
in  1736;  and  at  an  assembly  called  to  consider 
the  state  of  the  kingdom,  Nadir  accepted  the 
crown.  He  had  already  recovered  from  the 
Turks  the  ceded  provinces,  and  he  now  moved 
against  the  Afghans.  He  captured  the  city 
of  Candahar  in  1738,  and  his  son  Riza  Kuli 
crossed  the  Oxus  and  overthrew  the  ruler  of 
Bokhara  and  the  Uzbecks.  Afghanistan  was 
conquered,  and  Nadir,  marching  into  Hindo- 
stan  in  1739,  defeated  the  Mogul  army,  and 
entered  Delhi.  The  inhabitants  of  that  city 
rose  against  their  conquerors,  and  Nadir  there- 
upon ordered  a  general  massacre  of  Hindoos 
in  every  house  in  which  a  dead  Persian  was 
found.  He  returned  to  Persia  with  plunder 
amounting  to  $100,000,000,  including  the  Koh- 
i-noor  diamond,  having  also  taken  from  the 
Mogul  emperor  the  provinces  west  of  the  In- 
dus. In  1740  he  subjugated  the  sovereign  of 
Bokhara,  and  defeated  .and  put  to  death  the 
khan  of  Khiva.  In  his  latter  years  he  became 
capricious  and  cruel,  finally  putting  whole 
cities  to  the  sword  on  the  slightest  pretext. 
He  had  also  grown  so  avaricious  that  the  taxes 
levied  upon  the  empire  were  intolerable.  At 
length  four  noblemen,  who  learned  that  their 
names  were  in  a  proscribed  list,  broke  into  his 
tent  at  night  and  despatched  him.  His  life  was 
written  in  Persian  by  Mirza  Mohammed  Ma- 
hadi  Khan,  his  secretary,  and  translated  into 
French  by  Sir  W.  Jones  (London,  1770 ;  Eng- 
lish, 1773).  A  detailed  account  of  his  career 
is  given  by  Malcolm  in  the  second  volume  of 
the  "History  of  Persia"  (1815),  and  of  his  ear- 
lier life  and  conquests  by  Fraser,  whose  author- 
ities were  Persian  manuscripts,  in  his  "  TTio- 
tory  of  Nadir  Shah"  (1742). 


His- 


124: 


N^EVIUS 


NffiVIUS,  Cneins,  a  Koraan  poet,  born  probably 
in  Campania  between  274  and  264  B.  0.,  died 
in  Utica,  Africa,  about  204.  He  served  in 
the  first  Punic  war,  settled  in  Rome,  and 
produced  his  earliest  play  in  235,  making  the 
stage  a  vehicle  for  assailing  the  aristocracy. 
For  a  libel  on  Q.  Csecilius  Metellus  he  was  cast 
into  prison,  and  obtained  his  release  by  two 
plays,  the  Hariolus  and  Leon,  in  which  he  re- 
canted his  calumnies.  Having  again  offended, 
he  went  into  exile  at  Utica,  and  employed  his 
latter  days  upon  his  epic  poem  on  the  "Punic 
War  "  a  few  fragments  of  which  are  extant. 
Fragments  of  Naevius  may  be  found  in  several 
collections  of  the  Latin  poets,  and  in  Her- 
mann's Elementa  Doctrines  Metric®  (Leipsic, 
1852);  the  most  complete  and  convenient  edi- 
tion is  that  of  Klussmann  (Jena,  1843). 

NAGASAKI  (i.  e.,  Long  Cape),  a  seaport  town 
of  Japan,  in  the  province  of  Hizen,  in  the 
west  of  the  island  of  Kiushiu,  the  seat  of  gov- 
ernment of  the  Teen  or  prefecture  of  the  same 
name ; ,  pop.  about  80,000.  The  city  is  sur- 


NAGOYA 

rounded  by  hills  on  every  side  except  toward 
the  harbor.  It  is  laid  out  in  rectangles,  and  a 
stream  of  water  crossed  by  21  bridges  flows 
through  it.  The  hills  are  covered  with  temples 
and  groves.  The  foreign  concession  is  sepa- 
rated from  the  native  town  by  an  arm  of  the 
bay.  The  historic  isle  of  Deshima  (outer  iaU 
and)  lies  in  front  of  the  native  town,  shaped 
like  an  open  fan,  the  handle  toward  the  shore. 
The  harbor  is  landlocked,  deep,  spacious,  and 
one  of  the  finest  in  the  world.  The  surround- 
ing scenery  is  of  exquisite  beauty.  The  city 
contains  a  Chinese  quarter,  in  which  live  nearly 
1,000  Chinamen,  who  carry  on  a  large  trade 
with  their  own  country  in  medicines,  dried 
fish,  isinglass,  seaweed,  and  mushrooms.  The 
exports  to  Europe  and  America  are  tea,  tobac- 
co, coal,  camphor,  and  porcelain.  Nagasaki  is 
the  terminus  of  two  telegraph  cables,  one  to 
Shanghai,  the  other  to  Vladivostok ;  it  is  also 
connected  by  telegraph  with  Tokio  and  Hako- 
date. It  contains  a  government  hospital  and 
college,  a  patent  slip,  and  dry  dock.  The  sur- 


Nagasaki. 


rounding  country  is  rich  in  metallic  wealth, 
and  its  vicinity  to  the  collieries  of  Takashima, 
Karatsu,  and  Matsushima  makes  it  a  good  coal- 
ing station  for  the  many  steamers  that  ply  in 
the  Inland  sea  and  Pacific  ocean.  It  is  the 
chief  depot  of  the  trade  with  China,  and  the 
mart  for  the  potteries  of  Hizen  ;  but  the  lack 
of  good  land  approaches  hinders  its  growth. 
The  value  of  the  exports  in  1873  was  $1,899,- 
793,  and  of  the  imports  $1,626,775,  carried  in 
328  vessels,  of  280,972  tons.— Until  1568  Na- 
gasaki was  a  mere  fishing  village.  The  daimio 
of  Omura  invited  the  Portuguese  merchants 
and  missionaries  to  reside  here,  and  conversions 
and  trade  multiplied  until  the  village  grew  into 
a  large  city.  During  the  100  years  of  Jesuit 
proselytizing  in  Japan  Nagasaki  was  the  eccle- 
siastical centre  of  the  new  faith,  and  the  an- 
nals of  missionary  zeal,  persecution,  and  mas- 
sacre have  given  it  great  historical  prominence. 
After  the  expulsion  of  the  Portuguese,  the 
Dutch  were  ordered  to  leave  their  factory  at 
Hirado,  and  come  to  Deshima,  in  which  they 


lived  under  surveillance,  only  one  Dutch  ship 
being  allowed  to  come  annually  to  Nagasaki 
for  more  than  two  centuries.  In  1854,  by 
the  Perry  treaty,  the  harbor  was  specified  as 
a  place  of  anchorage  and  supplies  for  foreign 
vessels.  By  the  Harris  treaty  it  was  opened  to 
foreign  commerce.  Although  S.  of  the  usual 
course  of  the  typhoons  which  ravage  the  coasts 
of  Japan,  a  cyclone  of  unusual  violence  visit- 
ed Nagasaki  in  August,  1874,  sinking  more 
than  100  junks,  damaging  steamers,  and  caus- 
ing great  destruction  of  life  and  property  in 
the  city.  Pappenberg,  the  precipitous  rocky 
island  from  which  thousands  of  the  native 
Christians  were  driven  into  the  sea  in  1643, 
lies  in  the  bay  in  sight  of  the  city. 

NAGOYA,  the  fourth  largest  city  of  Japan,  on 
the  main  island,  in  the  province  of  Owari, 
capital  of  the  Aichi  Teen  or  prefecture,  near 
the  head  of  Owari  bay,  about  170  m.  W.  S.  W. 
of  Tokio ;  pop.  about  400,000.  The  city  lies 
on  the  great  plain  of  Owari,  forming  nearly 
a  right-angled  triangle,  with  the  river  which 


NAGPORE 


NAIL 


125 


drains  the  castle  moats  as  one  of  the  sides.  It 
is  regularly  laid  out  in  squares,  and  the  com- 
mercial, ecclesiastical,  and  official  quarters  are 
separate.  The  castle,  now  containing  the  gov- 
ernment buildings,  is  one  of  the  largest  and 
strongest  in  Japan.  The  temples  and  monas- 
teries are  numerous,  wealthy,  and  occupy  much 
ground.  The  Tokaido,  or  main  highway  of 
the  empire,  passes  through  the  city,  which  has 
a  large  inland  trade,  chiefly  by  carts  and  pack 
horses,  and  a  still  larger  business  by  junks  and 
steamers.  It  is  noted  for  its  manufactures  of 
decorated  porcelain,  lacquered  work,  wood  car- 
ving, and  fans.  It  contains  a  telegraph  station 
and  a  government  college.  Seven  miles  distant 
is  the  seaport  of  Miya. 

NAGPORE,  or  Nagpoor,  a  city  of  central  India, 
capital  of  the  province  of  Berar  or  Nagpore, 
situated  in  lat.  21°  9'  N.,  Ion.  79°  11'  E.,  420 
m.  E.  N.  E.  of  Bombay,  with  which  city  it  is 
connected  by  a  branch  of  the  Great  Indian 
Peninsula  railway;  pop.  about  115,000.  It  is 
7  m.  in  circumference,  but  the  houses  are  gen- 
erally inferior.  There  are  important  manu- 
factories of  cotton,  and  silk  and  cutlery  are 
also  made.  Two  great  trunk  roads  in  addition 
to  the  railway  lead  out  of  Nagpore :  one  160 
m.  to  Jubbulpore,  the  other  180  m.  to  Raipur 
in  Chaltisghar. — In  1740  Nagpore  became  the 
seat  of  an  independent  Mahratta  sovereignty. 
On  Nov.  26, 1816,  the  English  garrison  of  1,400 
men  were  suddenly  attacked  at  Seetabuldee, 
the  heights  in  the  vicinity  of  the  residency,  by 
the  rajah's  army  of  18,000  troops,  who  were 
finally  repulsed,  although  with  a  loss  to  the 
British  of  333  killed  and  wounded.  The  city 
was  annexed  to  the  British  dominions  with 
the  state  of  Berar  in  1853.  A  partial  mutiny 
of  the  Madras  sepoys  stationed  at  Nagpore,  on 
Jan.  18,  1858,  was  successfully  repressed. 

NAHANT,  a  town  of  Essex  co.,  Massachusetts, 
10  m.  N.  E.  of  Boston  by  water ;  pop.  in  1870, 
475.  It  consists  of  a  peninsula,  projecting 
about  3£  m.  into  Massachusetts  bay,  and  con- 
nected with  Lynn  by  a  narrow  beach  of  sand 
and  gravel  so  hard  that  a  horse's  footsteps 
scarcely  leave  a  trace.  The  extremity,  called 
Great  Nahant,  is  2  m.  long  and  £  m.  broad, 
and  contains  463  acres.  In  many  places  the 
shore  is  lined  by  rocks  rising  20  to  60  ft. 
above  the  tide ;  and  there  are  many  singular 
caves  and  fissures,  the  most  noted  of  which 
are  the  Swallow's  cave  and  the  Spouting  Horn. 
A  large  hotel,  erected  on  the  E.  extremity  in 
1824,  was  burned  in  1858,  and  there  are  now 
only  three  small  hotels.  The  peninsula  is  chiefly 
occupied  by  handsome  cottages,  used  as  sum- 
mer residences  by  the  citizens  of  Boston.  Ma- 
olis  garden,  a  public  picnic  ground,  occupies 
about  20  acres  along  the  shore  on  the  N.  side, 
and  is  adorned  with  fountains  and  shell  work. 
Between  Great  Nahant  and  the  mainland,  and 
about  |-  m.  from  the  former,  a  rocky  ridge, 
called  Little  Nahant,  crosses  the  beach,  rising 
80  ft.  above  the  sea,  and  comprising  about  40 
acres.  A  mile  E,  of  Nahant  is  Egg  Rock, 


rising  abruptly  to  the  height  of  86  ft.,  and 
crowned  by  a  lighthouse.  The  town  was  sepa- 
rated from  Lynn  in  1853. 

NAHE,  a  river  of  Germany,  one  of  the  afflu- 
ents of  the  Rhine.  It  rises  on  the  confines  of 
Rhenish  Prussia  and  the  detached  portion  of 
Oldenburg  enclosed  by  that  province,  and  after 
a  tortuous  course,  first  N.  E.  and  then  E.,  of 
about  60  m.,  25  m.  of  which  is  navigable,  it 
empties  through  a  portal  formed  by  the  Ro- 
chusberg  on  the  right  and  the  Rupertsberg  on 
the  left  into  the  Rhine  at  Bingen.  There  is 
some  fine  scenery  in  the  vicinity  of  Creuznach 
and  Oberstein. 

IV AUDI,  the  seventh  of  the  Hebrew  minor 
prophets  in  order  of  arrangement.  He  is  des- 
ignated the  Elkoshite,  probably  from  the  place 
of  his  birth,  the  location  of  which  is  however 
unknown,  contradictory  traditions  placing  it  in 
Galilee  and  on  the  banks  of  the  Tigris.  He 
prophesied  probably  in  Judah  toward  the  close 
of  the  reign  of  Hezekiah  (about  700  B.  0.), 
after  the  deportation  of  the  ten  tribes,  and 
predicted  the  destruction  of  Nineveh  and  the 
relief  of  Judah.  His  pictures  of  the  wicked- 
ness and  fall  of  Nineveh  are  vivid  and  power- 
ful, and  his  diction  clear  and  sonorous.  Re- 
cent explorations  in  the  East  have  given  fresh 
interest  to  the  study  of  this  book.  There  are 
many  commentaries  upon  it  and  works  illustra- 
ting its  connections  with  history.  See  espe- 
cially O.  Strauss,  Nahumi  de  Nino  Vaticinium 
(1853) ;  M.  von  Niebuhr,  Geschickte  Assures  und 
Babel's  (1857);  Vance  Smith,  "The  Prophe- 
cies relating  to  Nineveh "  (1857) ;  and  Paul 
Kleinert  in  Lange's  BibelwerTc,  part  xix.  (1868). 

NAIADS  (Gr.  vdeiv,  to  swim),  in  Grecian  and 
Roman  mythology,  nymphs  who  presided  over 
fresh  waters,  and  were  supposed  to  inspire 
those  who  drank  of  them  with  oracular  powers 
and  the  gift  of  poetry.  They  could  also  restore 
sick  persons  to  health.  They  are  represented 
in  works  of  art  as  beautiful  maidens,  half 
draped,  and  with  long  hair. 

NAIL  (Sax.  ncegel;  Ger.  Nagel),  a  piece  of 
metal,  more  or  less  sharp  at  one  end  with  a 
head  at  the  other,  used  to  fasten  together  pieces 
of  wood  or  other  material  by  being  driven 
into  or  through  them.  The  principal  division 
is  into  wrought  and  cut  nails,  the  former  be- 
ing made  from  tough  wrought  iron,  the  lat- 
ter from  rolled  plates.  The  different  sorts  are 
named  from  the  use  to  which  they  are  applied 
or  from  their  shape,  as  shingle,  floor,  or  horse- 
shoe nails,  tacks,  brads,  or  spikes.  The  term 
penny,  when  used  to  mark  the  size  of  nails,  is 
supposed  to  be  a  corruption  of  pound.  Thus, 
a  four-penny  nail  was  such  that  1,000  of 
them  weighed  4  Ibs.,  a  ten-penny  such  that 
1,000  weighed  10  Ibs.  Originally,  the  "hun- 
dred "  when  applied  to  nails  was  6  score  or 
120;  consequently  the  thousand  was  1,200. — 
The  making  of  nails  is  one  of  the  oldest  of  the 
handicraft  arts,  probably  dating  as  far  back  as 
the  art  of  working  metals.  Before  the  inven- 
tion of  machinery  an  immense  number  of  per- 


126 


NAIL 


sons  were  employed  in  making  nails,  there 
having  been  no  fewer  than  60,000  nailers  in 
the  neighborhood  of  Birmingham  alone.  It  is 
only  within  the  last  80  years  that  machinery 
has  been  employed  to  supersede  to  any  extent 
hand  labor  in  nail  making.  It  appears,  how- 
ever, that  as  early  as  1606  Sir  Davis  Bulmer 
obtained  a  patent  for  cutting  nail  rods  by 
water  power.  The  details  of  the  invention 
are  unknown,  and  there  are  no  records  of  Eng- 
lish patents  prior  to  1617.  In  1618  a  patent 
was  issued  in  England  to  Clement  Dawbeny 
for  an  improvement  on  Buhner's  machine. 
But  machinery  was  not  put  into  actual  use  in 
England  till  1790,  when  Thomas  Clifford  of 
the  city  of  Bristol  patented  a  nail  machine. 
His  machines  were  used  in  French's  factory 
at  Wineburn,  Staffordshire,  in  1792.  He  used 
two  iron  rollers,  faced  with  steel,  in  which  were 
sunk  impressions,  or  forms  of  the  nails,  half 
of  the  form  being  in  each  roller,  and  arranged 
circumferentially,  so  that  a  bar  of  iron,  being 
passed  between  the  rollers,  came  through  a 
string  of  nails,  the  head  of  one  nail  being 
slightly  joined  to  the  point  of  the  next.  In 
the  United  States,  where  so  many  wooden 
structures  had  to  be  erected  by  the  settlers,  the 
obtaining  of  cheap  nails  was  of  the  utmost 
importance.  In  1775  Jeremiah  Wilkinson  of 
Cumberland,  R.  I.,  cut  tacks  from  sheet  iron, 
and  afterward  nails  and  spikes,  forming  the 
heads  in  a  vice.  The  first  patent  issued  for  a 
machine  for  cutting  nails  is  said  to  have  been 
given  to  Josiah  G.  Person,  or  Pearson,  of 
New  York,  March  23,  1794.  On  Jan.  16, 
1795,  Jacob  Perkins  of  Boston  obtained  a  pat- 
ent for  a  cutting  machine  said  to  have  been 
invented  about  1790,  and  to  have  been  capable 
of  making  200,000  nails  a  day.  The  follow- 
ing year  patents  were  issued  to  Peter  Cliff 
and  to  Amos  Whittemore  of  Massachusetts, 
and  to  Daniel  French  of  Connecticut.  It  is 
said  that  the  first  patent  for  a  cutting  and 
heading  machine  (Nov.  11,  1796)  was  granted 
to  Isaac  Garretson  of  Pennsylvania;  and  on 
Dec.  12,  1796,  a  patent  for  a  similar  machine 
to  George  Chandler  of  Maryland.  Ezekiel 
Reed  of  Bridgewater,  Mass.,  is  also  said  to 
have  invented  a  machine  for  cutting  and  head- 
ing nails  at  one  operation.  Afterward  several 
patents  were  granted  to  Jesse  Reed,  Samuel 
Rogers,  and  Melville  Otis  of  Massachusetts,  to 
Mark  and  Richard  Reeve  of  Philadelphia,  to 
Roswell  Noble  of  Baltimore,  and  others.  The 
machine  invented  by  Jesse  Reed,  with  some 
later  improvements,  is  that  still  most  largely 
used.  The  manufacture  of  cut  nails  was  soon 
established  in  Massachusetts,  Connecticut,  New 
York,  New  Jersey,  Pennsylvania,  and  Mary- 
land. In  1810  Joseph  C.Dyer  of  Boston,  but 
then  a  merchant  in  London,  took  out  patents 
in  England  for  the  nail  machinery  invented  in 
Massachusetts,  and  large  manufacturing  estab- 
lishments were  soon  put  in  operation.  Some 
in  the  neighborhood  of  Birmingham  are  able 
to  make  over  40,000,000  nails  a  week.  Mr. 


NAKHITCHEVAN 

Edward  Hancorne,  a  nail  maker  of  London, 
in  1828  obtained  a  patent  for  a  nail  machine, 
by  which  the  nail  was  pointed  by  swedging  it 
between  two  oscillating  snail  pieces  or  spirals, 
the  rod  being  cut  off  by  shears  and  headed  by 
a  piece  working  in  a  slide  propelled  by  a  cam 
attached  to  a  shaft.  In  1834  Mr.  Henry  Bur- 
den obtained  a  patent  for  a  machine,  which 
with  several  improvements  has  been  for  many 
years  in  successful  operation  at  his  exten- 
sive nail  works  in  Troy,  N.  Y.  Many  of  the 
first  inventors  spent  large  sums  of  money  on 
their  machines.  It  has  been  estimated  that  it 
cost  more  than  $1,000,000  to  bring  them  to 
the  perfection  arrived  at  in  1810,  when  a  ma- 
chine made  about  100  nails  per  minute.  It 
was  at  this  time  that  the  full  value  of  the 
invention  was  brought  prominently  before  the 
world  in  the  well  known  report  of  Albert 
Gallatin,  then  secretary  of  the  treasury.  Large 
nail  factories  were  early  established  in  differ- 
ent parts  of  Massachusetts,  and  at  Ellicott's 
Mills,  near  Baltimore.  At  the  present  day  the 
business  is  carried  on  very  extensively  in  the 
Schuylkill  iron  region.  There  the  pigs  from 
the  furnace  go  immediately  to  the  bloomary, 
thence  to  the  rolling  mill,  and  so  on  through 
the  slitting  and  nail-cutting  machines,  so  that 
all  the  operations  from  the  crude  ore  to  the 
finished  nail  are  carried  on  at  the  same  place. 

JfADf,  a  town  of  Palestine,  in  Galilee,  men- 
tioned in  the  New  Testament  (Luke  vii.)  as  the 
place  where  Jesus  raised  the  widow's  son  to 
life.  It  was  situated  between  the  Little  Her- 
mon  and  Mt.  Tabor,  about  6  m.  S.  E.  of  Naz- 
areth, and  60  m.  N.  of  Jerusalem.  It  is  now 
an  insignificant  hamlet,  and  is  called  Nein. 
The  rock  near  by  is  full  of  sepulchral  caves. 

NAIRNE,  Baroness.    See  OLIPHANT,  CAROLINA. 

3  A  Ht  \SIII  RE.  a  maritime  county  of  Scotland, 
bordering  on  the  Moray  frith,  Elginshire,  and 
Inverness- shire ;  area,  215  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in 
1871,  10,225.  The  coast,  about  10  m.  in  ex- 
tent, is  low,  sandy,  and  dangerous.  The  in- 
land districts  are  hilly  and  wooded ;  those  on 
the  sea  are  well  cultivated  and  productive. 
The  chief  rivers  are  the  Nairn  and  Findhorn. 
The  climate  is  severe  but  healthful.  Nairn, 
the  capital  (pop.  in  1871,  4,207),  is  a  favorite 
watering  place.  About  5  m.  distant  are  the  re- 
mains of  Cawdor  castle,  where  Macbeth  is  said 
to  have  murdered  Duncan.  The  room  which 
was  pointed  out  as  the  scene  of  the  deed  was 
destroyed  by  fire  in  1815 ;  but  no  part  of  the 
castle  is  really  older  than  the  15th  century. 

RAJA.     See  COBRA  DE  CAPELLO. 

NARHITCHEVAN.  I.  A  town  of  European 
Russia,  in  the  government  of  Yekaterinoslav, 
on  the  right  bank  of  the  Don,  about  30  from 
its  mouth,  and  7  m.  E.  N.  E.  of  Rostov ;  pop. 
in  1871,  16,584,  mostly  Armenians.  It  stands 
on  an  eminence,  has  manufactures  of  cotton 
and  silk,  and  maintains  an  extensive  traffic  with 
Circassia,  Astrakhan,  Turkistan,  and  Constanti- 
nople, especially  in  pearls  and  precious  stones. 
The  town  was  founded  in  1780  by  a  colony  of 


NAMAQUA 


NAMES 


127 


Armenians,  and  is  the  seat  of  the  Armenian 
patriarch  of  Russia.  II.  A  city  (anc.  Naxuana) 
of  Russian  Armenia,  on  a  plateau  near  the  left 
bank  of  the  Aras,  83  m.  S.  E.  of  Erivan,  and 
175  m.  S.  by  E.  of  Tiflis;  pop.  in  1871,  5,356. 
The  Armenians  regard  it  as  the  most  ancient 
city  in  the  world,  and  as  the  spot  where  Noah 
settled  after  the  deluge ;  and  it  formerly  con- 
tained, according  to  the  Persian  annalists, 
40,000  houses.  In  antiquity  it  belonged  to 
Media,  and  subsequently  it  became  important 
in  Armenia.  It  was  destroyed  in  the  4th 
century  by  the  Persians,  in  the  13th  by  the 
Tartars,  and  in  the  17th  again  by  the  Persians. 
Shah  Nadir  wrested  it  from  Turkey,  and  the 
Russians  in  1827  from  Persia.  In  1840  it  was 
partly  destroyed  by  an  earthquake. 

NAMAQUA,  a  tribe  of  S.  Africa,  inhabiting 
both  banks  of  the  Orange  river  near  the 
mouth.  Their  country  is  divided  into  Great 
and  Little  Namaqualand,  and  the  latter,  lying 
S.  of  the  Orange  river,  is  now  absorbed  in 
Cape  Colony.  The  tribe  is  small,  and  has 
been  much  diminished  by  disease  and  famine. 
They  dwell  in  huts  of  the  old  Hottentot  style, 
and  speak  the  Nama,  the  oldest  and  purest  of 
the  Hottentot  dialects.  (See  HOTTENTOTS.) 

NAMES,  words  by  which  particular  objects  are 
indicated.  Names  of  persons  were  originally 
usually  of  a  single  word,  as  in  the  Hebrew 
genealogies,  Terah,  Levi,  Aaron.  The  same  is 
true  of  the  earlier  names  in  Egypt,  Syria,  Per- 
sia, Greece,  and  Italy,  and  in  the  Celtic  and 
Germanic  nations.  All  names  were  originally 
significant.  Among  the  Hebrews  the  name 
given  a  child  originated  in  some  circumstance 
of  its  birth,  or  expressed  some  religious  senti- 
ment; as  Jacob,  the  supplanter;  Samuel,  God 
hath  hearkened.  Sometimes  a  new  name  was 
taken  upon  some  important  change  in  life,  as 
Abraham  for  Abram.  The  Greeks  bore  a  sin- 

fle  name  given  the  tenth  day  after  birth  by  the 
ither,  and  expressing  generally  some  admira- 
ble quality  ;  as  Pherecrates,  strength-bringer  ; 
Sophron,  wise.  The  Roman  names  were  in 
their  origin  less  dignified  than  those  of  the 
Greeks.  Some  were  derived  from  ordinary 
employments,  as  Porcius,  swineherd;  some 
from  personal  peculiarities,  as  Naso,  long- 
nosed.  Many  of  the  Celtic  and  Teutonic 
names  were  derived  from  "God,"  as  Gott- 
fried, Godwin ;  others  from  spirits  or  elves,  as 
Elfric,  elf  king. — The  Jews  after  accumulating 
a  considerable  stock  of  names  began  to  repeat 
them,  and  in  the  New  Testament  we  find  few 
new  names.  Among  the  later  Greeks  the  eldest 
son  generally  bore  the  name  of  his  paternal 
grandfather,  and  the  confusion  arising  from 
the  repetition  of  the  same  name  was  relieved  by 
appending  the  father's  name,  either  simply  or 
turned  into  a  patronymic,  the  occupation,  the 
place  of  birth,  or  a  nickname.  This  did  not 
however  amount  to  a  regular  system  of  sur- 
names. The  Romans  had  a  very  complete  sys- 
tem of  nomenclature.  The  commonwealth  was 
divided  into  clans  called  gentes,  each  of  which 
586  VOL.  xii. — 9 


was  subdivided  into  families.  Thus  in  the 
gens  Cornelia  were  included  the  families  of  the 
Scipiones,  Lentuli,  Cethegi,  Dolabellse,  Cinna3, 
Sulla3,  and  others.  Each  citizen  bore  three 
names,  viz. :  the  prcenomen,  which  marked  the 
individual;  the  nomen,  which  marked  the 
gens ;  and  the  cognomen,  which  marked  the 
family.  Thus  Publius  Cornelius  Scipio  be- 
longed to  the  Cornelian  gens  and  the  family 
of  the  Scipiones,  while  Publius  was  his  indi- 
vidual, or  what  we  now  call  Christian  name. 
Sometimes  a  fourth  name,  or  agnomen,  was 
given,  generally  in  honor  of  some  military 
success;  as  Publius  Cornelius  Scipio  Africa- 
nus,  and  La3lius  Cornelius  Scipio  Asiaticus,  his 
brother.  The  agnomen,  being  a  distinction  of 
honor,  was  carefully  preserved  by  the  chil- 
dren, and  a  decree  of  the  senate  granted  to  the 
elder  Drusus  the  title  Germanicus,  and  also  to 
his  posterity.  The  pra3nomen,  like  all  given 
names,  was  commonly  indicated  by  an  initial ; 
but  the  Roman  initial  indicated  one  name  in- 
variably :  C.  always  meant  Caius ;  M.,  Marcus. 
Cneius  was  indicated  by  Cn.  There  were 
only  about  30  recognized  prasnomens.  In 
common  intercourse  the  prsenomen  and  cogno- 
men were  used  without  the  nomen,  as  C.  Cae- 
sar for  C.  Julius  Ca3sar. — The  ruder  popula- 
tions of  northern  Europe  continued  to  use  a 
single  name.  There  were  few  surnames  in 
England  before  the  Norman  invasion,  although 
some  appear  in  the  Saxon  records.  Many  in- 
fluences united  to  introduce  them.  Names 
once  significant  lost  their  meaning  and  were 
repeated  in  memory  of  those  who  had  borne 
them;  and  as  many  persons  bore  the  same 
name,  some  further  distinction  became  neces- 
sary. As  Christianity  prevailed  it  displaced 
the  old  heathen  names  by  names  from  the 
Bible ;  new  names  were  taken  in  baptism,  and 
sometimes  whole  companies  were  baptized,  to 
save  trouble,  with  the  same  name.  Many  sur- 
names appear  in  Domesday  Book,  but  it  was 
not  at  first  common  to  transmit  the  surname 
from  father  to  son.  In  the  middle  of  the  12th 
century  it  was  thought  essential  that  persons 
of  rank  should  bear  a  surname.  Robert  of 
Gloucester  says  that  in  the  reign  of  Henry  I. 
a  lady  objected  to  marrying  a  natural  son  of 
that  king  because  he  had  no  surname,  upon 
which  the  monarch  gave  him  the  surname  of 
Fitz-Roy,  fitz  being  a  corruption  of  fits,  son ; 
the  Russian  vitch,  as  in  Petrovitch,  Ivanovitch, 
has  the  same  value.  After  the  reformation 
in  England  the  introduction  of  parish  registers 
contributed  to  give  permanence  to  surnames. 
Yet  in  the  beginning  of  the  18th  century  many 
families  in  Yorkshire  had  none,  and  it  is  said 
that  even  now  few  Staffordshire  miners  bear 
their  fathers'  names,  but  are  known  by  some 
personal  sobriquet.  Sons  took  their  fathers' 
names  first  in  the  modified  form  of  patronym- 
ics ;  thus,  Priamides,  son  of  Priam.  Heraclides 
meant  not  only  a  son  of  Hercules,  but  a  de- 
scendant. During  the  middle  ages  the  Jews 
formed  surnames  with  the  Hebrew  ben  or 


128 


NAMES 


Arabic  ibn,  meaning  son,  as  Solomon  ben  Ga- 
birol,  and  Abraham  ibn  Ezra.  Among  the 
Saxons  we  find  in  A.  D.  804  Egbert  Edgaring, 
ing  denoting  descent;  and  to  this  origin  are 
attributed  such  names  as  Browning,  Dering, 
Whiting.  In  Wales  the  surnominal  adjunct  ap 
was  used  in  the  same  sense,  as  David  ap  Howell ; 
and  even  in  the  17th  century  combinations 
were  carried  up  through  several  generations, 
so  that  a  man  carried  his  pedigree  in  his 
name,  as  Evan  ap  Griffith  ap  David  ap  Jenkin 
ap  Hugh  ap  Morgan  ap  Owen.  Sometimes,  in- 
stead of  any  patronymic  syllable,  the  father's 
name  was  taken  in  the  possessive  case,  as 
Griffith  William's,  or  as  now  written  Williams ; 
to  which  origin  may  be  traced  many  names 
ending  in  s.  The  prefix  mac  was  used  in  a 
similar  manner  by  the  Gaelic  inhabitants  of 
Scotland  and  Ireland.  The  Irish  also  used  for 
the  same  purpose  oy  or  0,  signifying  grand- 
son, as  O'Hara,  O'Sullivan.  The  use  of  fitz, 
son,  has  already  been  mentioned;  while  the 
word  "son"  added  to  the  father's  name  gave 
rise  to  a  great  number  of  names,  as  Adamson, 
Johnson.  Subsequently  convenience  dropped 
the  patronymic  syllable,  or  prevented  its  repe- 
tition, and  the  father's  name  was  taken  with- 
out alteration  as  a  surname.  Thus  many  origi- 
nally Christian  names  have  become  surnames. 
The  general  European  system  by  which  the  son 
inherits  the  father's  name  still  has  its  excep- 
tions. The  present  royal  family  of  England 
has  never  adopted  an  unchangeable  surname. 
The  same  thing  is  true  of  many  other  distin- 
guished houses,  as  those  of  Saxe,  Nassau,  Bour- 
bon, and  Orleans.  In  Spain  the  wife  does  not 
change  her  surname  on  marriage,  and  the  son 
calls  himself  by  the  names  of  both  parents, 
connecting  them  with  the  conjunction  y,  and, 
as  Pi  y  Margall,  or  chooses  either  of  them 
alone.  Surnames,  having  been  first  an  indi- 
vidual distinction,  were  retained  by  the  chil- 
dren for  the  sake  of  retaining  the  honor  which 
they  marked.  That  which  was  originally  a 
mark  of  rank  was  soon  imitated  and  became 
general.  The  use  of  hereditary  surnames  was 
established  in  England  by  the  middle  of  the 
14th  century,  the  system  being  consolidated 
by  a  statute  of  Henry  V.  requiring  that  the 
name  and  description  of  the  party  should  be 
exactly  set  forth  in  any  writ  or  indenture.  It 
was  formerly  usual  in  England  to  obtain  a  spe- 
cial act  of  parliament  to  authorize  a  change 
of  name,  and  subsequently  to  obtain  a  royal 
license ;  but  legal  authorities  have  decided  that 
there  is  nothing  in  the  law  to  prevent  any  one 
from  changing  his  name  as  he  may  choose. — 
The  origin  and  signification  of  surnames  can  be 
traced  in  very  many  cases,  although  some  mean- 
ings have  become  obscure,  being  derived  from 
words  now  obsolete.  Many  are  local.  To  this 
class  belong  most  English  names  beginning 
with  the  French  de,  which  retain  the  name  of 
the  old  home  in  Normandy ;  such  names  as 
Burgoyne,  from  Burgundy;  Attemoor,  from 
at  and  moor;  Byfield;  Underbill;  Barrow,  a 


NAMUR 

hill ;  Applegate,  from  garth,  an  orchard.  With 
these  should  be  classed  names  from  the  signs 
of  houses,  as  Thomas  at  the  Dolphin,  Will  at 
the  Bull,  George  at  the  Whitehorse,  &c.,  after- 
ward becoming  hereditary,  and  dropping  for 
convenience  the  connecting  words.  Such 
names  as  Lyon,  Hawke,  Raven,  and  Heron 
are  either  local  like  the  above,  or  have  been 
taken  from  devices  on  shields.  Many  names 
originated  in  office  or  occupation.  In  Domes- 
day Book  occur  Guilielmus  Oamerarius  (Wil- 
liam the  Chamberlain)  and  Radulphus  Venator 
(Rodolph  the  Hunter).  The  most  notable  name 
of  occupation  is  Smith,  from  the  Anglo-Saxon 
smitan,  to  smite,  and  originally  of  much  wider 
meaning  than  now,  including  wheelwrights, 
carpenters,  masons,  and  smiters  in  general. 
The  "Saxon  Chronicle"  speaks  of  "mighty 
war  smiths  who  overcame  the  Welsh."  Many 
names  of  this  class  have  the  Anglo-Saxon  femi- 
nine termination,  as  Baxter  or  Bagster,  the 
feminine  of  baker;  Webster,  of  Webber  or 
weaver.  It  is  said  that  the  trade  of  weaving 
has  been  carried  on  by  a  Sussex  family  named 
Webb  since  the  13th  or  14th  century.  Spencer 
is  from  dispensator  or  steward;  Grosvenor 
from  gros  veneur,  grand  huntsman.  The  ter- 
mination ward  indicates  a  keeper,  as  Durward, 
doorkeeper;  Hay  ward  or  Hereward,  keeper 
of  the  town  cattle ;  Woodward,  forest  keeper. 
Various  personal  characteristics  often  gave  ori- 
gin to  names  ;  as  Paulus,  little ;  Calvus,  bald ; 
White,  Black,  Brown,  Gray;  Read,  Reed,  or 
Reid,  old  spellings  of  red;  Lightfoot;  Duff, 
Welsh  for  black ;  Vaughan,  little ;  Gough,  red. 
The  names  of  the  ancient  Saxon  population  of 
England  were  nearly  all  descriptive  of  some 
quality  of  mind  or  body.  Thus  Edward  is 
truth-keeper ;  Edmund,  truth -mouth ;  Alfred, 
all-peace.  Some  names  have  become  great  fa- 
vorites, and  some  much  used  at  particular  pe- 
riods have  afterward  become  very  unusual ;  as 
Patience,  Prudence,  Faithful,  Thankful.  There 
are  only  about  53  Christian  names  of  men 
that  can  be  used  without  appearance  of  sin- 
gularity, of  which  32  are  taken  from  the  Bible. 
The  number  of  surnames  now  extant  in  Eng- 
land is  about  40,000.  In  Scotland  there  are 
fewer  in  proportion  to  the  population,  certain 
names  being  remarkably  frequent  in  particular 
localities,  from  the  clansmen  having  taken  the 
name  of  their  chief. — See  Salverte,  Essai  his- 
torique  et  philosophique  sur  les  noms  (Paris, 
1824:  English  translation,  London,  1862); 
Lower,  "English  Surnames"  (London,  1842); 
Pott,  Die  Personennamen  (Leipsic,  1853) ;  and 
Ferguson,  "English  Surnames"  (London, 
1858),  Patronymica  Britannica  (1860),  and 
"  The  Teutonic  Name  System  "  (1864). 

NAMIR.  I.  A  province  of  Belgium,  bound- 
ed N.  by  Brabant,  N.  E.  by  Liege,  E.  by  Lux- 
emburg, S.  by  France,  and  W.  by  Hainaut; 
area,  1,413  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1872,  314,718.  The 
principal  rivers  are  the  Meuse,  Sambre,  and 
Lesse.  The  surface  is  very  much  diversified, 
and  the  soil  is  in  general  fertile.  Iron,  lead, 


NANA   SAHIB 


129 


coal,  and  marble  are  mined.  The  province  is 
divided  into  the  arrondissements  of  Namur, 
Dinant,  and  Philippeville.  II.  A  city,  capital 
of  the  province,  at  the  confluence  of  the  Sam- 


Namur. 

bre  and  Meuse,  35  m.  S.  E.  of  Brussels;  pop. 
in  1871,  25,600.  It  is  the  seat  of  a  bishop, 
and  has  a  cathedral,  16  other  churches,  a 
theological  seminary,  a  royal  Athenaeum,  an 
academy  of  design,  a  conservatory  of  music, 
and  two  museums.  The  cathedral,  a  modern 
structure,  is  ornamented  in  front  with  20  Co- 
rinthian columns,  and  beside  the  great  altar 
stand  colossal  statues  of  the  apostles  Peter  and 
Paul.  The  staple  manufactures  are  cutlery,  for 
which  Namur  is  famous,  and  leather,  which 
gives  employment  to  one  tenth  of  the  popula- 
tion. The  town  was  taken  by  Louis  XIV.  in 
1692,  and  by  William  III.  of  England  in  1695. 
The  emperor  Joseph  II.  demolished  its  fortifi- 
cations, which  in  1817  were  restored  by  the 
king  of  the  Netherlands ;  but  they  were  again 
demolished,  except  the  citadel,  in  1866. 

MNA  SAHIB,  the  title  of  Dhundoo  Punt,  a 
Hindoo  chieftain  and  a  leader  of  the  sepoy 
mutiny  in  1857,  born  in  1824  or  1825.  He 
was  the  son  of  a  Brahman  of  the  Deccan,  and 
when  a  little  more  than  a  year  old  was  brought 
to  Bithoor,  where  Bajee  Row,  the  peishwa  or 
chief  of  the  Mahrattas,  adopted  him.  On  the 
death  of  Bajee  in  1851,  without  heir  of  his 
body,  an  estate  in  the  neighborhood  which 
had  been  bestowed  upon  him  by  the  Brit- 
ish during  pleasure  was  declared  lapsed  to  the 
East  India  company,  as  they  had  previously 
refused  to  recognize  inheritance  of  lands  by 
adoption,  and  a  pension  of  $450,000  a  year 
granted  to  him  and  his  family  in  1818  was  also 
stopped.  The  Nana  sent  an  agent  to  England 


to  advocate  his  claims,  but  without  success, 
and  this  supposed  wrong  he  never  forgave. 
He  lived  however  in  great  apparent  friendship 
with  the  English,  imitating  their  customs  as 
far  as  he  could,  and  was  permitted  to  occupy 
the  town  of  Bithoor,  where  he  possessed  much 
wealth  and  influence.  When  the  sepoy  mu- 
tiny broke  out  in  1857,  he  was  universally 
trusted  by  the  English,  who  applied  to  him 
for  a  body  of  soldiers  to  guard  the  treasury  at 
Cawnpore,  which  he  immediately  granted  ;  but 
no  sooner  had  the  insurrection  occurred  at  the 
latter  place  than  he  put  himself  at  the  head  of 
the  rebels  (June  5),  and  killed  all  the  Euro- 
peans that  fell  into  his  hands,  among  whom 
were  two  large  parties,  principally  of  women 
and  children,  who  were  endeavoring  to  escape 
down  the  Ganges  from  Futtehgurh.  The  Eng- 
lish at  Cawnpore  in  the  mean  time  defend- 
ed themselves  until  June  27,  when  they  sur- 
rendered on  the  Nana  promising  to  send  them 
safe  to  Allahabad.  They  were  permitted  to 
embark,  but  immediately  afterward  fired  upon, 
many  being  killed  and  the  rest  brought  back 
to  land.  The  men  were  put  to  death  at  once ; 
the  women  and  children,  after  surviving  name- 
less outrages,  were  massacred  July  15,  the  day 
before  Havelock  arrived  at  Cawnpore,  and  their 
bodies  were  thrown  into  a  well.  The  Nana 
retreated  to  Bithoor  on  the  17th,  whither  Have- 
lock  pursued  him,  driving  him  out  of  the  town 
and  dispersing  his  army.  He  soon  collected 
another  force,  with  which  he  followed  Have- 
lock  into  Oude,  but  afterward  returned  toward 
Cawnpore  with  the  intention  of  attacking  Gen. 
Neill,  who  was  in  garrison  there  with  a  small 
force.  Reoccupying  Bithoor,  he  threw  out  his 
left  wing  in  the  direction  of  Cawnpore,  but  it 
was  driven  back  in  confusion  by  Gen.  Neill, 
Aug.  15  ;  and  on  the  next  day  Havelock,  who 
had  returned  from  Oude,  defeated  his  whole 
force  in  a  sharp  engagement.  Owing  to  the 
exhaustion  of  the  victors  and  their  want  of 
cavalry,  the  Nana  escaped,  and,  without  com- 
ing directly  in  contact  with  the  British,,  except 
once  more  at  Cawnpore,  where  Sir  Colin  Camp- 
bell defeated  him,  Dec.  6,  he  continued  an  ac- 
tive and  harassing  warfare.  On  the  occupa- 
tion of  Gwalior  by  the  rebels  in  June,  1858, 
he  was  chosen  peishwa  of  the  Mahrattas,  and 
his  nephew  Row  Sahib  was  placed  in  command 
of  the  city.  His  subsequent  career  it  is  diffi- 
cult to  trace,  for  his  energies  were  bent  rather 
upon  escaping  pursuit  than  conducting  offen- 
sive operations.  Long  after  the  other  leaders 
had  submitted  or  been  captured,  he  continued, 
with  the  begum  of  Oude  and  about  10,000 
rebels,  to  infest  the  northern  parts  of  central 
India  and  the  frontiers  of  Nepaul.  There  was 
a  report  that  he  died  of  fever  in  the  latter  part 
of  1859,  but  it  was  generally  discredited;  an- 
other that  he  crossed  the  Himalaya  in  disguise 
in  1860  into  Thibet,  and  encamped  near  the  N. 
base  of  the  mountains  with  about  10,000  men. 
In  November,  1874,  a  man  was  arrested  in  the 
north  of  India,  supposed  to  be  Nana  Sahib. 


130 


NANCY 


Great  excitement  was  caused  by  the  arrest,  and 
he  was  taken  to  Cawnpore  for  identification ; 
the  result  of  such  inquiry  is  not  yet  known 
(January,  1875). 

NANCY,  a  city  of  France,  capital  of  the  de- 
partment of  Meurthe-et-Moselle  on  the  left 
bank  of  the  river  Meurthe,  1TO  m.  E.  of  Paris ; 
pop.  in  1872,  52,978.  It  stands  in  a  beautiful 
and  fertile  plain,  and  consists  of  an  old  and  a 
new  town.  The  many  fine  edifices,  squares, 
and  promenades  render  Nancy  one  of  the  hand- 
somest of  French  cities.  It  is  the  seat  of  a 
bishop,  and  has  faculties  of  law,  medicine, 
sciences  and  literature,  a  lyceum,  a  school  of 
forestry,  8  Catholic  churches,  6  religious  com- 
munities of  men  and  15  of  women,  and  a  num 
her  of  learned  societies.  The  chief  edifices  are 
the  cathedral,  a  handsome  modern  structure, 
with  two  towers  more  than  250  ft.  high ;  the 
church  of  St.  Epvre,  which  contains  several 
fine  paintings,  and  a  fresco  attributed  to  Leo- 
nardo da  Vinci ;  the  church  of  the  Cordeliers, 
in  which  is  the  mausoleum  of  the  dukes  of 
Lorraine ;  an  ancient  Gothic  castle,  which  was 
nearly  destroyed  by  fire  on  the  withdrawal  of 
the  German  troops  in  July,  1871 ;  the  museum, 
with  pictures  by  Isabey,  a  native  of  Nancy, 
and  other  works  of  art;  and  hospitals.  Ho- 
siery, muslin,  cotton  yarn,  woollen  cloth,  cal- 
ico, lace,  &c.,  are  manufactured.  There  are 
three  fairs  yearly,  one  of  which  lasts  20  days. 
— Nancy  was  the  capital  of  the  duchy  of  Lor- 
raine from  the  13th  century  till  its  absorption 
by  France;  and  under  its  walls  Charles  the 
Bold,  duke  of  Burgundy,  was  defeated  and  slain, 
Jan.  5,  1477,  by  Rene  II.,  duke  of  Lorraine. 

NANDOU.     See  OSTRICH. 

NANKING,  or  Nankin  (i.  e.,  the  "  southern 
capital,"  in  distinction  from  Peking,  the  "  north- 
ern capital "),  called  also  KIANGNING-FU,  a  city 
of  China,  the  chief  town  of  the  province  of 
Kiangsu,  and  the  residence  of  the  governor 
general  of  the  three  provinces  of  Kiangsu, 
Nganhwui,  and  Kiangsi,  about  3  m.  S.  of  the 
Yangtse-kiang  river,  about  200  m.  from  its 
mouth,  560  m.  S.  by  E.  of  Peking,  and  on  the 
grand  canal  connecting  Canton  and  Peking,  in 
lat.  32°  2'  N.,  Ion.  118°  49'  E. ;  pop.  estima- 
ted before  the  Taiping  rebellion  at  400,000  or 
more,  but  now  probably  much  less.  The  river 
opposite  the  city  is  1%  m.  broad  and  25  fathoms 
deep,  with  a  rocky  bottom,  and  a  current  of 
from  3  to  5  m.  an  hour.  The  region  about  the 
city  is  very  marshy,  and  the  excessive  moisture 
makes  it  unhealthy  for  Europeans  and  natives 
of  other  provinces.  The  remains  of  ancient 
walls  have  been  traced  for  a  circuit  of  about 
35  m.  The  modern  walls  are  about  40  ft. 
high  and  18  m.  in  circumference,  and  enclose 
a  space  of  which  not  more  than  one  eighth  is 
occupied  by  the  town.  On  the  W.  side  they 
are  strengthened  by  a  deep  ditch  from  the 
river.  The  great  extent  of  the  walls  makes 
them  difficult  to  defend,  and  the  city  is  over- 
looked by  the  hills  on  the  east.  The  eastern 
part  of  the  city  is  irregular  and  thinly  inhabit- 


NANKING 

ed,  but  in  other  parts  the  houses  are  so  closely 
packed  that  one  looking  from  a  high  building 
over  the  tent-like  roofs  of  the  temples  can 
scarcely  trace  the  streets.  The  Mantchoo  and 
Chinese  parts  are  separated  by  a  cross  wall. 
The  principal  streets  are  of  moderate  width, 
and  were  formerly  lined  with  handsome  shops. 
Most  of  the  buildings  of  former  note  have 
been  destroyed.  There  is  a  curious  square 
tower  50  ft.  high,  on  the  top  of  which  is  a 
finely  sculptured  figure  of  a  turtle,  carved  from 
a  single  block  of  marble.  Not  far  from  the 
walls  is  an  ancient  cemetery,  which  travellers 
have  called  the  tombs  of  the  kings,  approached 


Porcelain  Tower  (destroyed  by  the  Taipings). 

by  an  avenue  of  colossal  figures.  At  some  dis- 
tance from  these  statues  are  rude  colossi  of 
horses,  elephants,  and  other  animals,  without 
regular  arrangement,  and  perhaps  removed  from 
their  original  places.  The  celebrated  porcelain 
tower  was  destroyed  by  the  rebels.  It  was 
built  in  1413-'32,  and  was  of  an  octagonal 
form,  260  ft.  high,  in  nine  stories,  each  adorned 
with  a  cornice  and  gallery,  and  covered  with  a 
roof  of  green  tiles,  with  a  bell  suspended  at 
each  corner,  which  sounded  when  moved  by 
the  wind.  On  the  top  was  a  pinnacle  in  the 
shape  of  a  pineapple,  surmounted  by  a  gilded 
ball.  A  spiral  staircase  led  to  the  summit. — 
Before  the  accession  of  the  Mongol  dynasty  the 
court  sometimes  resided  at  Nanking.  The  first 


NANSEMOND 


NANTES 


131 


two  emperors  of  the  Ming  dynasty  also  resi- 
ded in  it.  It  was  taken  by  the  Mantchoos 
in  1645,  and  continued  to  be  a  very  impor- 
tant city,  famous  for  various  manufactures, 
especially  for  the  cloth  called  from  it  nan- 
keen. It  was  invested  by  Sir  H.  Pottinger 
Aug.  14,  1842,  and  the  treaty  with  England  was 
signed  there  Aug.  26.  It  was  taken  March  19, 
1853,  by  the  Taiping  rebels,  who  tried  to  es- 
tablish there  the  ancient  "  heavenly  empire." 
They  held  it  for  11  years.  During  this  occu- 
pation a  collision  with  the  British  ships  under 
Lord  Elgin  led  to  a  bombardment  of  the  city, 
which  ruined  the  Chinese  batteries.  On  July 
19,  1864,  it  was  taken  by  the  imperialists,  who 
sprung  a  mine  of  68,000  Ibs.  of  gunpowder 
under  the  wall,  and  entered  through  the  breach. 
They  found  the  rebel  emperor  dead  by  suicide, 
with  most  of  his  higher  officials.  More  than 
£2,000,000  of  treasure  was  found  concealed  in 
the  palace.  Since  the  imperialist  occupation 
there  has  been  some 
attempt  to  restore  the 
former  manufactures, 
but  with  little  success. 
The  governor  gene- 
ral has  established  a 
manufactory  of  shot 
and  shell.  The  busi- 
ness part  of  the  city 
is  being  gradually  re- 
stored. There  is  little 
or  no  foreign  trade ; 
and  though  the  city 
is  a  free  port,  few  for- 
eigners reside  there. 

XANSEMOKD,  a  S.  E. 
county  of  Virginia, 
bordering  on  North 
Carolina  and  the  Dis- 
mal Swamp,  and 
drained  by  branches 
of  the  Nansemond 
river;  area,  444  sq. 
m.  ;  pop.  in  1870, 

11,576,  of  whom  5,517  were  colored.  It  has  a 
level  surface  and  sandy  soil.  Lumber,  tar,  and 
turpentine  are  exported  in  considerable  quan- 
tities. The  Seaboard  and  Roanoke,  and  the 
Atlantic,  Mississippi,  and  Ohio  railroads  pass 
through  it.  The  chief  productions  in  1870 
were  5,405  bushels  of  wheat,  228,057  of  Indian 
corn,  22,466  of  oats,  22,169  of  Irish  and  57,594 
of  sweet  potatoes.  There  were  1,017  horses, 
1,392  milch  cows,  2,192  other  cattle,  1,381 
sheep,  and  11,044  swine.  Capital,  Suffolk. 

NANTASKET,  a  narrow  peninsula  about  5  m. 
long,  extending  into  Massachusetts  bay,  in 
Plymouth  co.,  Mass.,  about  22  m.  from  Boston 
by  railroad  and  9  m.  by  water.  It  is  a  favorite 
summer  resort  on  account  of  its  facilities  for 
sea  bathing.  This  peninsula  comprises  the 
town  of  Hull,  which  was  settled  about  1625; 
pop.  in  1870,  261.  (See  COHASSET.) 

NANTERRE,  a  town  of  France,  in  the  depart- 
ment of  the  Seine,  at  the  foot  of  Mont  Vale- 


rien,  6  m.  W.  N.  W.  of  Paris  ;  pop.  about  4,000. 
It  is  celebrated  as  the  birthplace  of  St.  Gene- 
vieve,  and  also  for  its  pastry.  It  is  a  place  of 
great  antiquity,  and  the  Gauls  here  celebrated 
druidical  rites.  It  was  formerly  fortified,  but 
the  ramparts  have  been  converted  into  prome- 
nades. Clotaire  II.,  son  of  Chilperic,  was  bap- 
tized here  in  591.  In  the  14th  and  15th  cen- 
turies it  endured  many  vicissitudes. 

NANTES  (anc.  Condimcnum),  a  city  of  France, 
capital  of  the  department  of  Loire-Inf6rieure, 
on  the  right  bank  of  the  Loire,  at  its  junction 
with  the  Erdre,  210  m.  W.  S.  W.  of  Paris  ;  pop. 
in  1872,  118,517.  The  old  town  W.  of  the 
Erdre  was  walled  until  the  end  of  the  17th 
century.  In  the  new  quarter  the  houses  are 
handsomely  built  of  white  stone,  although  the 
streets  are  narrow.  There  are  however  some 
fine  boulevards,  and  the  quays  extending  for 
nearly  2  m.  along  the  Loire  and  Erdre  former- 
ly composed  a  famous  promenade,  lined  with 


Nantes  Castle  and  Cathedral. 

trees,  which  have  been  sacrificed  to  the  rail- 
way. The  cathedral  of  St.  Pierre,  built  in  the 
15th  century,  is  unsightly  externally,  the  tow- 
ers scarcely  rising  above  the  roof,  but  has  a 
finely  sculptured  triple  portal,  and  contains  the 
mausoleum  of  the  last  duke  of  Brittany  and 
his  duchess.  The  castle  is  an  irregular  Gothic 
pile  flanked  with  round  towers.  Its  chapel 
was  used  as  a  powder  magazine,  and  was  blown 
up  in  1800,  destroying  much  of  the  building. 
i  In  this  castle  Henry  IV.  signed  the  edict  of 
j  Nantes,  April  13,  1598,  which  secured  liberty 
I  of  religion  to  the  French  Protestants,  until  its 
revocation  by  Louis  XIV.,  Oct.  22,  1685.  In 
1654  it  was  the  prison  of  the  cardinal  de  Retz. 
Most  of  the  kings  of  France  from  Charles  VIII. 
have  resided  in  it  at  some  time.  The  museum 
contains  more  than  1,000  paintings  and  300 
sculptures.  The  building  docks  are  of  great 
extent,  and  one  fourth  of  the  trading  vessels 
of  France  are  built  at  Nantes.  The  most  im- 


132 


NANTEUIL 


portant  industry  is  sugar  refining,  and  there 
are  considerable  cotton  and  woollen  manufac- 
tories. The  town  communicates  by  canal  with 
Brest.  It  has  a  large  foreign  and  internal 
trade,  and  much  wheat  and  Hour  is  exported  to 
England. — Nantes  was  the  stronghold  of  the 
ancient  Nannetes.  In  the  middle  ages  it  was 
the  capital  of  the  duchy  of  Brittany.  It  was 
three  times  taken  by  the  Normans  and  nearly 
ruined.  During  the  English  wars  in  France  it 
fell  repeatedly  into  the  hands  of  the  opposite 
parties.  During  the  revolution,  it  was  unsuc- 
cessfully besieged  by  the  Vendean  army  in  1793, 
and  subsequently  was  the  scene  of  the  noyades 
and  "  republican  marriages."  (See  CARRIER.) 

NANTEUIL,  Celestin,  a  French  artist,  born  in 
Rome  in  1813,  died  in  Paris  in  1873.  He  stud- 
ied under  Langlois  and  Ingres,  and  exhibited 
his  first  work,  a  "  Holy  Family,"  in  1833,  fol- 
lowed by  "A  Beggar"  (1834),  and  "Christ 
Healing  the  Sick"  (1837).  But  he  was  mainly 
employed  as  a  lithographer,  and  in  the  course 
of  about  30  years  executed  more  than  2,000 
vignettes  for  literary  and  musical  publications. 
Among  his  more  recent  paintings  are  "The 
Temptation "(1851),  "The Vine "(1853),  "Sou- 
venirs of  the  Past"  and  "The  Kiss  of  Judas" 
(1858),  the  latter  after  Van  Dyck,  of  which  he 
also  produced  an  admirable  engraving. 

NAXTUCK.ET,  a  town  and  county  of  Massa- 
chusetts, coextensive  with  each  other,  com- 
prising the  island  of  Nantucket,  the  islets  of 
Tuckernuck  and  Muskeget,  and  the  Gravelly 
and  Swyle  islands  adjacent  to  it  on  the  west ; 
aggregate  area,  48  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1775, 
4,500;  in  1840,  9,012;  in  1860,6,094;  in  1870, 
4,123.  Nan  tucket  island  is  situated  in  the  At- 
lantic ocean,  18  m.  S.  of  Cape  Cod,  85  m.  S. 
E.  of  Boston,  and  is  separated  from  Martha's 
Vineyard  on  the  west  by  a  channel  8  in.  wide. 
It  is  of  an  irregular  triangular  form,  about  16 
m.  long  from  E.  to  W.,  and  for  the  most  part 
from  3  to  4  m.  wide,  with  an  area  of  about  45 
sq.  m.  It  has  a  level  surface  in  the  south,  and 
is  slightly  hilly  in  the  north.  The  soil  is  light, 
and  with  the  exception  of  some  low  pines  the 
island  is  treeless.  There  are  several  ponds 
containing  fine  fish.  Farming  and  fishing  are 
the  chief  occupations  of  the  people,  the  sur- 
rounding waters  abounding  in  fish  of  various 
kinds.  The  climate  is  mild  in  winter  and  cool 
in  summer,  and  the  island  is  becoming  a  fa- 
vorite summer  resort.  It  constitutes  a  cus- 
toms district,  but  has  little  commerce.  There 
is  a  lighthouse  on  Sankaty  head  (lat.  41°  17' 
N.,  Ion.  69°  57'  35"  W.),  near  the  S.  E.  ex- 
tremity of  the  island ;  another,  known  as  Nan- 
tucket  light,  on  Sandy  or  Great  point  (lat.  41° 
23'  22",  Ion.  70°  2'  25"),  at  the  N.  E.  extremi- 
ty; and  several  W.  of  the  entrance  to  Nan-  ! 
tucket  harbor.  Wrecks  are  not  infrequent.  ! 
Nantucket  shoals,  about  50  m.  long  and  45  m.  \ 
wide,  are  S.  E.  of  the  island,  and  are  danger- 
ous to  navigation.  There  are  two  post  vil- 
lages, Nantucket  on  the  N.  side  of  the  island, 
and  Siasconset  on  the  S.  E.  Nantucket  har- 


NAPA 

bor  is  deep  and  secure,  though  the  entrance  is 
obstructed  by  a  bar  with  only  7|  ft.  of  water  at 
low  tide.  Steamers  run  daily  to  Wood's  Hole 
on  Cape  Cod,  connecting  with  railroad  for 
Boston.  The  town  contains  a  national  bank, 
with  a  capital  of  $200,000 ;  a  savings  bank ; 
five  public  halls,  including  the  town  hall; 
several  public  schools;  a  semi- weekly  and  a 
weekly  newspaper;  and  nine  churches,  viz.: 
Baptist  (2),  Congregational,  Episcopal,  Friends' 
(2),  Methodist,  Koman  Catholic,  and  Unita- 
rian. The  Coffin  school  is  an  incorporated 
endowed  institution,  including  a  grammar  and 
a  high  school  department.  The  Athenaeum 
has  a  library  of  4,000  volumes,  and  there  is  a 
circulating  library. — Nantucket  was  first  set- 
tled in  1659  by  Thomas  Macy,  who  emigrated 
from  Salisbury,  Mass.  It  was  then  partially 
wooded  with  oaks  and  other  deciduous  trees 
and  conifers ;  but  the  destruction  of  the  trees 
ultimately  made  the  island  almost  a  desert. 
It  was  included  in  the  grant  to  the  Plymouth 
company  in  1620,  in  1664  annexed  to  New 
York,  and  in  1693  ceded  to  Massachusetts. 
The  town  was  incorporated  as  Sherburne  in 
1673,  and  in  1795  the  name  was  changed  to 
Nantucket.  When  it  was  first  settled  there  were 
about  1,500  Indians  on  the  island.  They  de- 
creased to  358  in  1763,  in  which  year  a  pesti- 
lence carried  off  222  of  them.  The  last  one  of 
full  blood  died  in  1821,  and  the  last  half-breed 
in  1854.  Nantucket  has  been  chiefly  noted  as 
a  seat  of  the  whale  fishery,  having  been  at  one 
time  the  chief  whaling  port  in  the  world.  The 
fishery  from  the  shore  commenced  about  1670, 
and  was  continued  till  1760.  The  first  sperm 
whale  was  captured  in  1712,  and  immediately 
after  small  vessels  were  fitted  out  for  short 
cruises.  The  size  of  the  vessels  and  the  length 
of  the  cruises  were  gradually  increased,  until 
in  1775  150  vessels  were  engaged  in  the  busi- 
ness, extending  their  voyages  as  far  as  Davis 
strait  and  the  coast  of  Brazil.  The  war  of  the 
revolution  destroyed  this  business,  but  after  its 
.close  it  was  revived.  The  first  ship  was  des- 
patched to  the  Pacific  in  1791.  The  town  in- 
creased in  size  and  prosperity  till  1846,  when 
it  was  visited  by  a  severe  conflagration,  de- 
stroying property  to  the  value  of  nearly  $1,- 
000,000.  After  this  the  whale  fishery  and 
with  it  the  prosperity  of  the  town  rapidly  de- 
clined. The  fishery  began  to  revive  before  the 
breaking  out  of  the  civil  war,  but  afterward 
became  extinct.  (See  WHALE  FISHERY.) 

NAPA,  a  N.  W.  county  of  California,  drained 
by  Napa  and  Las  Putas  rivers ;  area,  828  sq. 
m.;  pop.  in  1870,  7,163,  of  whom  263  were 
Chinese.  The  surface  is  diversified,  but  gen- 
erally fertile  and  well  adapted  for  cultivation. 
The  Coast  range  of  mountains  extends  along 
the  S.  W.  border,  and  Mount  St.  Helena,  at  the 
head  of  the  Napa  valley,  attains  an  elevation 
of  3,700  ft.  It  contains  numerous  medicinal 
springs,  constantly  increasing  deposits  of  sul- 
phur, two  lakes  yielding  large  quantities  of 
borax,  geysers  or  hot  springs  about  60  m.  N. 


NAPHTALI 


NAPHTHALINE 


133 


of  Napa  City,  and  quicksilver.  The  Napa 
branch  of  the  California  Pacific  railroad  trav- 
erses it.  The  chief  productions  in  1870  were 
264,240  bushels  of  wheat,  34,890  of  barley, 
20,789  Ibs.  of  wool,  56,860  of  butter,  46,745 
gallons  of  wine,  and  4,555  tons  of  hay.  There 
were  1,755  horses,  1,128  milch  cows,  2,703 
other  cattle,  6,006  sheep,  and  6,243  swine. 
Capital,  Napa  City. 

NAPHTALI,  the  sixth  son  of  Jacob,  the  second 
child  borne  to  him  by  Bilhah,  the  handmaid  of 
Rachel.  In  the  census  before  Sinai  the  tribe 
of  Naphtali  numbered  53,400  fighting  men,  and 
at  the  entrance  into  Canaan  45,400,  occupying 
a  middle  position  among  the  tribes.  It  received 
as  its  allotment  a  part  of  upper  Galilee,  ex- 
tending from  Lake  Gennesaret  to  the  sources 
of  the  Jordan.  The  only  famous  hero  of  the 
tribe  was  Barak.  It  is  distinguished  in  the 
song  of  Deborah  for  the  alacrity  with  which  it 
obeyed  the  call  to  arms  against  the  oppressors 
of  the  Hebrews.  The  principal  town  in  its 
territory  was  Kedesh,  the  city  of  refuge. 

NAPHTHA,  a  term  originally  applied  to  a 
variety  of  pungent,  volatile,  inflammable  liquids, 
chiefly  belonging  to  the  class  of  ethers ;  it  was 
then  extended  to  oils  of  natural  origin,  rock 
oil,  petroleum,  &c.  Subsequently  the  light  oil 
of  coal  tar,  owing  to  its  resemblance  to  mineral 
oil,  was  termed  naphtha ;  more  recently  it  has 
been  again  extended  so  as  to  include  most  of 
the  inflammable  liquids  produced  by  the  dry 
distillation  of  organic  substances.  In  the  Uni- 
ted States  it  is  applied  to  a  series  of  hydrocar- 
bons obtained  from  petroleum,  and  having  spe- 
cific gravities  ranging  from  0-625  (rhigolene) 
to  0*742,  and  boiling  points  varying  with  the 
densities  from  65°  to  300°  F.  The  following 
are  some  of  the  naphthas  known  in  commerce  : 
1,  boghead  naphtha,  obtained  by  distilling  the 
Torbane  hill  mineral  or  boghead  coal  at  as  low 
a  temperature  as  possible;  2,  bone  naphtha, 
Dippel's  animal  oil;  3,  coal  naphtha,  obtained 
by  the  distillation  of  coal  tar,  and  often  con- 
founded with  benzole;  4,  mineral  naphtha, 
from  petroleum.  According  to  S.  Dana  Hayes, 
the  petroleum  naphthas  have  distinguishing 
characteristics  by  which  they  are  easily  recog- 
nized, and  which  place  them  in  a  class  by 
themselves;  and  aside  from  their  odors,  den- 
sities, boiling  points,  volatilities,  and  solvent 
powers,  a  noticeable  peculiarity  is  the  absence 
of  oily  bodies ;  they  do  not  leave  any  perma- 
nent stain  on  common  writing  paper,  as  do 
all  the  heavier  oils  obtained  from  petroleum. 
The  commercial  products  are  : 


Specific 
gravity. 

Beaume 
scale. 

Boiling 
point. 

C.    Naphtha  

0-706 

70 

180°  F. 

B.     Naphtha... 

0-724 

67 

220°  " 

A.    Naphtha...  

0-742 

65 

300°   " 

5.  Wood  naphtha,  pyroligneous  ether,  pyrox- 
ylic  spirit,  or  methylic  alcohol,  is  a  colorless, 
mobile,  indifferent,  inflammable  liquid,  which 


burns  with  a  faintly  illuminating,  bluish  flame ; 
it  is  miscible  in  all  proportions  with  water, 
alcohol,  ether,  and  ethereal  oils;  specific  grav- 
ity 0-796,  boiling  point  149°  F.  When  pure  it 
has  been  prescribed  in  medicine  for  diseases  of 
the  lungs,  and  owing  to  its  cheapness  it  is  often 
substituted  for  alcohol,  and  sometimes  used  to 
adulterate  brandy. — As  commonly  described, 
naphtha  is  a  very  inflammable  colorless  liquid, 
of  bituminous  odor,  tasteless,  soluble  in  all  pro- 
portions in  absolute  alcohol  and  in  ether,  insol- 
j  uble  in  water,  of  specific  gravity  0'700  to  0'847. 
It  dissolves  the  fixed  and  essential  oils  in  all 
proportions,  and  is  hence  advantageously  used 
for  removing  grease  from  fabrics,  and  for  the 
extraction  of  oils  from  seeds.  It  also  dissolves 
sulphur,  phosphorus,  iodine,  gum  lac  and  copal, 
camphor,  caoutchouc,  the  resins,  &c. ;  a  quality 
that  adapts  it  for  the  preparation  of  varnishes, 
and  for  other  similar  uses  in  the  arts.  In  its 
preparation  from  artificial  coal  oils  it  is  found 
that  those  which  produce  paraffine  yield  in 
general  naphtha,  while  the  product  of  those 
which  contain  naphthaline  is  rather  limited  to 
the  hydrocarbons  of  the  benzole  series.  It  is 
manufactured  into  gas,  is  used  to  increase  the 
illuminating  power  of  coal  gas  in  the  place  of 
benzole,  and  is  sold  for  combustion  in  gas 
stoves  and  in  lamps.  There  is  probably  no 
chemical  product  which  has  occasioned  the  loss 
of  so  many  lives  and  the  destruction  of  so  much 
property  as  naphtha.  Since  its  cheap  manu- 
facture as  an  incidental  product  in  the  distil- 
lation of  petroleum,  it  has  been  thrown  upon 
the  market  in  enormous  quantities,  and  owing 
to  its  cheapness  has  been  mixed  with  petro- 
leum or  sold  under  a  great  variety  of  names 
for  heating  and  illuminating  purposes;  and 
from  its  highly  explosive  and  inflammable  na- 
ture, it  has  proved  little  better  in  the  hands 
of  ignorant  people  than  so  much  gunpowder. 
Its  sale  is  now  everywhere  prohibited  except 
for  legitimate  purposes. 

NAPHTHALINE  (Ci0H8),  a  hydrocarbon  ob- 
tained from  the  distillation  of  numerous  or- 
ganic bodies,  such  as  coal,  wood,  resin,  oils, 
and  animal  substances;  also  by  conducting  the 
vapor  of  acetic  acid,  alcohol,  ether,  volatile 
oils,  and  camphor  through  red-hot  tubes.  It 
has  been  prepared  by  the  passage  through  hot 
tubes  of  ethylene,  marsh  gas,  and  other  hydro- 
carbons, as  well  as  of  a  mixture  of  benzole  and 
ethylene,  sulphuretted  hydrogen  and  disulphide 
of  carbon,  hydrogen,  and  the  vapors  of  chlo- 
ride of  carbon.  In  general  we  can  say  that 
naphthaline  is  the  product  of  the  decomposi- 
tion of  organic  matter  at  a  red  heat,  just  as 
the  oxidation  of  the  same  bodies  yields  oxalic 
acid.  Warren  and  Storer  found  naphthaline 
as  a  native  product  in  the  petroleum  of  Bur- 
mah.  It  was  first  noticed  by  Garden  in  1820, 
was  observed  about  the  same  time  by  Reichen- 
bach,  and  fully  analyzed  and  its  true  chemical 
composition  determined  by  Faraday.  The  most 
laborious  researches  upon  it  were  made  by 
Laurent,  who  was  engaged  for  20  years  in  the 


134 


NAPHTHALINE 


study  of  the  substitution  products  of  this  in- 
teresting body.— The  raw  material  usually  em- 
ployed in  the  preparation  of  naphthaline  is 
coal  tar,  and  the  method  recommended  by 
Vohl  is  as  follows:  The  dead  oil  is  run  into 
vats,  and  left  in  a  cool  place  for  six  to  eight 
days,  when  crystals  of  naphthaline  are  formed. 
The  liquid  portion  is  then  drawn  off,  the  crys- 
talline mass  stirred  up  to  a  pap  by  a  pestle,  the 
adhering  oil  removed  in  a  centrifugal  machine, 
and  the  mass  finally  placed  under  a  hydraulic 
press.  The  press  cake  is  then  transferred  to 
an  iron  vessel  provided  with  a  steam  coil  and 
a  stirrer,  so  arranged  that  it  can  be  operated 
when  the  vessel  is  closed.  The  fused  mass  is 
then  well  mixed  with  a  few  per  cent,  of  caus- 
tic soda,  the  lye  run  off,  and  the  operation 
repeated  three  times,  and  finally  washed  with 
hot  water  until  no  further  reaction  can  be  per- 
ceived. In  this  manner  all  of  the  carbolic 
acid,  creosote,  resinous  matter,  and  other  im- 
purities are  removed.  The  still  fluid  naphtha- 
line is  then  intimately  mixed  with  a  few  per 
cent,  of  sulphuric  acid  of  45°  B.,  the  acid  let 
off,  washed  out  with  water,  and  the  contents 
of  the  vessel  agitated  with  strong  caustic  soda 
and  left  for  two  or  three  hours  to  subside,  at  a 
temperature  of  100°  C.  The  naphthaline  thus 
treated-  is  further  purified  by  distillation  over 
a  free  fire  from  cast-iron  stills  capable  of  hold- 
ing a  ton.  At  first  naphthaline  mixed  with 
water  passes  over,  but  at  210°  C.  pure  naph- 
thaline distils,  and  so  rapidly  that  100  Ibs.  can 
be  obtained  in  20  minutes.  The  naphthaline 
vapors  are  condensed  in  water  at  80°  C.  in  closed 
vessels  placed  in  water  baths,  also  kept  at  80°. 
The  pure  naphthaline  obtained  in  this  way 
is  run  into  conical  glass,  metal,  or  moistened 
wooden  moulds,  from  the  sides  of  which  it 
separates  by  contraction  on  cooling,  and  is  in- 
troduced into  commerce  in  sticks  like  brim- 
stone. Naphthaline,  when  pure,  has  the  form 
of  brilliant  white,  scaly,  rhombic  plates  of  pe- 
culiar odor,  having  a  specific  gravity  of  1-151, 
according  to  Vohl ;  a  melting  point,  according 
to  Kopp,  of  V9-2°  0. ;  and  a  boiling  point  of 
216-4°  to  216-8°  0.  It  is  in  small  quantities 
volatile  at  lower  temperatures,  and  goes  over 
copiously  with  steam.  It  possesses  at  first  a 
weak,  subsequently  a  burning  taste ;  is  insolu- 
ble in  cold,  very  slightly  in  hot  water ;  easily 
soluble  in  warm  alcohol,  ether,  benzole,  tur- 
pentine, volatile  and  fatty  oils,  and  in  acetic 
and  oxalic  acids.  According  to  Vohl,  the 
fused  naphthaline  absorbs  air  in  the  same 
manner  as  molten  silver,  which  is  richer  in 
oxygen  than  the  atmosphere,  and  gives  it  up 
again  on  cooling.  Naphthaline  dissolves  indi- 
go, phosphorus,  sulphur,  succinic,  benzoic,  and 
oxalic  acids,  chloride  of  mercury,  and  the  sul- 
phides of  arsenic,  tin,  and  antimony,  which 
on  cooling  usually  separate  in  a  crystalline 
condition.  Caustic  potash  and  dilute  sulphu- 
ric acid  do  not  act  on  naphthaline,  but  chlo- 
rine, bromine,  nitric  acid,  and  concentrated 
sulphuric  acid  readily  attack  it.  It  crackles  in 


NAPIER 

the  hand  like  sulphur,  and  becomes  negatively 
electric  when  rubbed  with  silk.  It  is  destruc- 
tive to  moths,  and  is  used  as  a  substitute  for 
camphor  in  the  protection  of  woollens,  plants, 
and  objects  of  natural  history.  When  burned 
in  its  pure  state  it  gives  rise  to  copious  clouds 
of  fine  lampblack.— The  researches  of  Laurent 
have  shown  the  existence  of  a  numerous  series 
of  substitution  compounds,  in  which  chlorine 
and  bromine  take  the  place  of  the  hydrogen 
element,  and  sometimes  replace  each  other. 
The  bodies  so  formed  are  not  of  much  practi- 
cal importance,  but  their  investigation  has  had 
a  remarkable  influence  upon  the  recent  pro- 
gress of  organic  chemistry.  A  table  of  a  few 
of  these  compounds  will  serve  to  illustrate  the 
manner  of  substitution : 

Naphthaline ^10^8 

Chlonaphtase C10H7C1 

Bronaphtase C10H7Br 

Chloraphtese C,0H6C12 

Bronaphtese Ci0H6Br2 

Chlonaphtise C10H6C13 

Bronaphtise C10H8Br3 

Chlorobronaphtise C10H6Cl2Br 

Chlonaphtose C10H4C14 

Chlorobronaphtcse C10H4ClaBr2 

Chloribronaphtose C,0H4Cl3Br 

Bronaphtose C10H4Br4 

Bromechlonaphtuse C10H38r2Cl3 

Chlonaphthalase C10H2C16 

Chlonaphthalise C10C18 

— Naphthalic  or  phthalic  acid,  made  by  the 
oxidation  of  naphthaline  by  sulphuric  acid  and 
black  oxide  of  manganese,  can  be  converted 
into  benzoic  acid,  benzole,  nitro-benzole,  and 
finally  into  aniline ;  and  in  this  way  naphtha- 
line is  one  of  the  sources  of  aniline  colors. 
Magdala  red  is  a  dye  prepared  by  the  action  of 
nitrous  acid  on  naphthylamine,  which  in  turn 
is  derived  from  naphthaline.  Naphthaline 
yellow  is  made  by  digesting  100  parts  of  naph- 
thaline for  a  few  hours  in  a  mixture  of  200 
parts  of  water  and  20  parts  of  nitric  acid,  and 
dissolving  the  resulting  crystals  in  ammoniacal 
water.  Kopp's  brown  is  produced  by  boiling- 
nitro-naphtnaline  with  sulphuric  acid.  Other 
compounds  are  naphthazarine,  similar  to  aliza- 
rine, called  also  dianthine;  naphthylamine, 
one  of  the  most  interesting ;  Perkins's  vio- 
let; naphthaline  alcohol,  or  naphthole;  Hoff- 
mann's naphthaline  red;  naphthyl-rosaniline ; 
and  numerous  others. 

NAPIER,  Sir  Charles,  a  British  admiral,  born 
at  Merchiston  hall,  Stirlingshire,  March  6,  1786, 
died  Nov.  6,  1860.  He  was  a  grandson  of  the 
fifth  Lord  Napier  and  a  descendant  of  the  in- 
ventor of  logarithms. '  He  entered  the  navy  in 
1V99  ;  in  1805  was  appointed  lieutenant ;  in 
1808  commanded  the  brig  Recruit  of  18  guns; 
and  in  April,  1809,  for  gallant  service  against 
the  French,  was  made  a  post  captain.  He 
subsequently  served  with  the  army  in  Portu- 
gal; and  between  November,  1811,  and  June, 
1815,  he  participated  in  numerous  exploits  on 
the  coast  of  southern  Italy  and  the  North 
American  station.  After  a  long  period  of  in- 
activity he  was  in  1829  employed  in  special 
service  on  the  coast  of  Portugal,  and  in  1835 


NAPIER 


135 


was  appointed  by  Dom  Pedro  to  command  the 
Portuguese  fleet  destined  to  operate  against 
Dom  Miguel.  On  July  5,  1833,  he  gained  a 
signal  victory  off  Cape  St.  Vincent,  and  was 
created  Viscount  Cape  St.  Vincent,  grand 
cross  of  the  tower  and  sword,  and  a  grandee 
of  the  first  class  in  Portugal.  In  1839  he  re- 
entered  the  English  navy,  and  in  1840  became 
commodore  under  Admiral  Stopford  of  the 
fleet  employed  on  the  coast  of  Syria,  where  he 
participated  in  the  storming  of  Sidon  and  the 
capture  of  Beyrout  and  Acre.  In  the  same 
year  he  was  created  a  K.  C.  B.,  besides  receiv- 
ing several  continental  decorations;  and  in 
1846  he  was  appointed  rear  admiral  of  the 
blue,  and  given  command  of  the  channel  fleet. 
In  1849  he  was  superseded,  but  upon  the 
breaking  out  of  war  with  Russia  he  was  put  in 
command  of  the  fleet  destined  to  act  against 
Cronstadt  and  other  Russian  ports  in  the  Bal- 
tic, with  the  rank  of  vice  admiral  of  the  blue. 
He  sailed  from  Spithead,  March  11,  1854,  with 
the  most  magnificent  fleet  ever  equipped  by 
Great  Britain,  promising  to  take  Cronstadt  in 
a  month.  His  return  to  England  in  Decem- 
ber, without  having  accomplished  anything  of 
importance  beyond  the  capture  of  Bomarsund. 
subjected  him  to  considerable  ridicule,  and  led 
to  recriminations  between  himself  and  the 
ministry.  In  1858  he  was  made  admiral  of 
the  blue.  He  was  member  of  parliament  for 
Marylebone  from  1841  to  1847,  and  after  1855 
for  Southwark.  He  published  a  series  of  let- 
ters on  naval  reform,  and  in  1851  "  The  Navy, 
its  Past  and  Present  State."  He  also  wrote 
"Account  of  the  War  in  Portugal"  (2  vols., 
1836),  and  "  The  War  in  Syria  "  (2  vols.,  1842). 
A  "History  of  the  Baltic  Campaign  of  1854" 
was  prepared  from  materials  furnished  by  him 
(1857).  His  "  Life  and  Correspondence  "  was 
published  by  Maj.  Gen.  E.  Napier  (2  vols.,  1862). 
NAPIER,  Sir  Charles  James,  a  British  soldier, 
cousin  of  the  preceding,  born  in  Whitehall, 
London,  Aug.  10,  1782,  died  at  Oaklands,  near 
Portsmouth,  Aug.  29,  1853.  At  an  early  age 
he  received  an  ensign's  commission  in  the  4th 
regiment  of  foot,  with  which  he  served  during 
the  Irish  rebellion  of  1798,  and  again  in  1803. 
He  commanded  the  50th  regiment  of  foot  in 
the  retreat  of  Sir  John  Moore,  and  in  the  bat- 
tle of  Corunna  (Jan.  16,  1809)  .received  five 
severe  wounds,  and  was  left  for  dead  in  the 
hands  of  the  enemy.  He  returned  to  England 
on  parole  some  months  later,  to  the  astonish- 
ment of  his  friends,  who  had  already  adminis- 
tered upon  his  estate.  Before  procuring  em- 
ployment he  occupied  his  leisure  by  writing 
pamphlets  on  a  variety  of  subjects.  He  finally 
went  to  the  Peninsula  as  a  volunteer,  had  two 
lorses  shot  under  him  at  Coa,  and  was  se- 
verely wounded  at  Busaco.  In  1811  he  pro- 
cured a  regular  command,  and  served  until  the 
close  of  the  war.  Immediately  afterward  he 
was  sent  to  Bermuda  as  lieutenant  colonel  of 
the  102d  regiment,  and  for  some  months  par- 
ticipated in  expeditions  which  harassed  the 


!  coast  of  the  United  States.  The  return  of  Na- 
poleon to  France  recalled  him  to  Europe,  but 
he  arrived  too  late  to  participate  in  the  battle 
of  Waterloo.  In  1824  he  was  appointed  gov- 
ernor of  Cephalonia,  where  he  remained  five 
years,  and  was  active  in  promoting  the  cause 
of  Greek  independence.  After  along  period 
of  inactivity,  he  was  appointed  commander  of 
the  forces  in  the  northern  district  of  England, 
whence  in  1841  he  was  transferred  to  the  com- 
mand of  the  army  in  Bombay.  He  commenced 
his  Indian  career  by  a  number  of  sweeping  re- 
forms in  the  service,  which  gained  him  the  dis- 
like of  his  officers.  Upon  the  arrival  of  Lord 
Ellenborough  in  India  in  February,  1842,  as 
governor  general,  Napier  sketched  out  for  him 
the  plan  of  a  second  Afghan  campaign  ;  and  in 
the  early  part  of  the  succeeding  year  he  took 
the  field  against  the  ameers  of  Sinde.  He 
made  a  rapid  march  across  a  desert  to  the  for- 
tress of  Emaun  Ghur,  one  of  the  chief  strong- 
holds and  magazines  of  the  ameers,  which  he 
blew  up.  On  Feb.  .17,  1843,  with  a  force  of 
less  than  2,000  men,  he  overcame  an  army  of 
35,000  Belooches  at  Meeanee,  compelling  the 
surrender  of  the  important  fortress  of  Hydra- 
bad.  On  March  24  he  defeated  Shere  Mo- 
hammed, who  had  collected  an  army  of  about 
25,000  men  at  Dubba,  near  Hydrabad.  The 
war  being  ended,  Napier  set  to  work  to  im- 
prove the  condition  of  the  conquered  prov- 
ince, of  which  he  had  been  appointed  gover- 
nor. He  protected  the  Hindoo  and  Sindian 
population,  who  had  long  been  subjected  to 
the  military  despotism  ot  the  Belooches,  en- 
couraged native  industry,  and  abolished  slavery 
and  the  slave  trade,  sutteeism,  infanticide,  the 
military  tenure  of  lands,  and  other  barbarous 
customs.  At  the  breaking  out  of  the  first 
Sikh  war  in  1845  he  organized  a  force  of 
15,000  men  to  operate  against  the  enemy,  but 
was  ordered  elsewhere  before  the  commence- 
ment of  the  campaign.  In  1847  he  returned 
to  England.  In  March,  1849,  he  was  again 
sent  to  India,  as  commander-in-chief  of  the 
British  forces  in  the  second  Sikh  war,  super- 
seding Lord  Gough.  He  found  the  war  virtu- 
ally ended  before  his  arrival,  and  coming  into 
collision  with  the  governor  general,  Lord  Dal- 
housie,  on  some  points  of  prerogative,  he  re- 
turned to  England  in  1850.  His  health  rapid- 
ly failed  after  this,  his  last  public  appearance 
being  at  the  funeral  of  the  duke  of  Wellington 
in  November,  1852.  Among  his  numerous 
publications  those  of  most  permanent  impor- 
tance are:  "Lights  and  Shadows  of  Military 
Life"  (1840),  a  free  imitation  of  Alfred  de 
Vigny's  Grandeur  et  servitude  militaire  ; 
"History  of  the  Colonies:  Ionian  Islands" 
(1853) ;  "and  "  Indian  Misgovernment  and  Lord 
Dalhousie"  (1853).  His  career  in  India  has 
been  described  by  his  brother  Sir  William  F. 
P.  Napier,  who  also  published  his  "Life  and 
Opinions"  (4  vols.,  London,  1857).  Monu- 
ments to  him  have  been  placed  in  Trafalgar 
square  and  St.  Paul's  church,  London. 


136 


NAPIER 


NAPIER,  Henry  Edward,  an  English  author, 
born  March  5,  1789,  died  Oct.  13,  1853.  He 
was  the  youngest  brother  of  Sir  Charles  James 
Napier,  and  was  a  captain  in  the  navy.  He  is 
the  author  of  "Florentine  History  from  the 
earliest  Authentic  Records  to  the  Accession  of 
Ferdinand  III.,  Grand  Duke  of  Tuscany"  (6 
vols.  12mo,  London,  1846-"T). 

NAPIER,  John,  laird  of  Merchiston,  the  in- 
ventor of  logarithms,  born  at  Merchiston  cas- 
tle, near  Edinburgh,  in  1550,  died  there,  April 
4,  1617.  In  1562  he  entered  St.  Salvator's 
college  in  the  university  of  St.  Andrews,  and 
subsequently  passed  several  years  in  travel- 
ling in  France,  Italy,  and  Spain.  On  his  re- 
turn to  his  native  country  he  did  not  mingle  in 
active  life,  and  but  little  is  known  of  him  until 
he  had  arrived  at  the  age  of  40.  In  1593  he 
published  "A  Plain  Discovery  of  the  Revela- 
tion of  St.  John  "  (4to,  Edinburgh),  and  in  the 
dedication  gave  King  James  some  advice  in 
regard  to  religious  matters,  and  the  propriety 
of  reformation  in  his  own  "house,  family,  and 
court."  A  letter  of  his  to  Anthony  Bacon, 
concerning  secret  inventions  for  national  de- 
fence, written  in  1596,  still  exists  in  the  arch- 
bishop's library,  Lambeth.  One  of  these  was 
for  a  burning  mirror  to  set  fire  to  ships  by  re- 
flecting the  rays  of  the  sun;  another  was  a 
device  to  accomplish  the  same  purpose  by  re- 
flecting "the  beams  of  any  material  fire  or 
flame;"  another  an  instrument  which  should 
scatter  such  an  amount  of  shot  in  all  quar- 
ters as  to  destroy  everything  near  it.  Noth- 
ing is  heard  of  him  after  this  until  in  1614  he 
brought  out  his  system  of  logarithms,  entitled 
Mirifici  Logarithmorum  Canonis  Descriptio 
(4to,  Edinburgh).  Although  published  then, 
it  is  evident  that  Napier  had  begun  the  inves- 
tigation of  this  subject  before  1594,  from  a 
letter  written  by  Kepler  to  Orugerus  in  1624, 
in  which  he  says :  Nihil  autem  Nepierianam 
rationem  esse  puto  ;  etsi  Scotus  quidem  literis 
ad  Tychonem,  anno  1594,  scriptis  jam  spem 
fecit  canonis  illius  mirifici.  No  sooner  was 
the  work  published  than  Henry  Briggs,  then 
professor  of  mathematics  in  Gresham  college, 
London,  began  the  application  of  the  rules  in 
his  Imitatio  Nepierea,  and  the  system  pro- 
posed by  him  is  now  commonly  used.  Napier's 
last  work  was  his  Raldologice  sen  Numeratio- 
nis  per  Virgulas  Libri  duo  (12mo,  Edinburgh, 
1617),  in  which  he  explained  a  contrivance  to 
facilitate  multiplication  and  division  by  means 
of  small  rods,  which  invention  goes  under  the 
name  of  Napier's  bones.  After  his  death  was 
published  his  Mirifici  Logarithmorum  Canonis 
Constructio  (12mo,.  1619),  in  which  he  ex- 
plained the  principle  of  the  construction  of 
logarithms.  Napier  also  enriched  the  science 
of  trigonometry  by  the  general  theorem  for 
the  resolution  of  all  the  cases  of  right-angled 
spherical  triangles.  There  are  two  lives  of 
Napier:  one  by  the  earl  of  Buchan,  with  an 
analysis  of  his  works  by  Dr.  Walter  Minto 
(1787),  and  another  by  Mark  Napier  (1834). 


NAPIER,  Macvey,  a  Scottish  writer,  born  in 
1776,  died  in  Edinburgh,  Feb.  11,  1847.  He 
studied  law,  was  chosen  librarian  of  the  so- 
ciety of  writers  for  the  signet,  and  in  1825  was 
selected  for  a  lectureship  on  conveyancing, 

|  which  was  soon  afterward  made  a  professor- 
ship in  the  university  of  Edinburgh,  a  post 
which  he  occupied  till  his  death.  In  1817  he 
published  an  essay  on  the  writings  of  Lord  Ba- 
con, which  was  subsequently  incorporated  with 
a  work  entitled  "Lord  Bacon  and  Sir  Walter 
Raleigh"  (8vo,  Cambridge,  1853).  He  edited 
the  "  Supplement  to  the  Encyclopaedia  Bri- 
tannica"  (6  vols.  4to,  Edinburgh,  1815-'24), 
and  afterward  superintended  the  seventh  edi- 
tion of  the  entire  work  (1830-'42),  to  which 
he  contributed  many  important  articles.  He 
succeeded  Mr.  Jeffrey  as  editor  of  the  "  Edin- 
burgh Review  "  in  1829,  and  conducted  it  for 
17  years.  In  1837  he  resigned  his  office  of  libra- 
rian, being  made  one  of  the  principal  clerks 
of  the  court  of  session. 

NAPIER,  Robert,  a  Scottish  engineer,  born  in 
Dumbarton,  June  18,  1791.  The  son  of  a 
blacksmith,  he  preferred  serving  an  appren- 
ticeship to  that  trade  to  going  to  college.  In 
1811  he  went  to  Edinburgh,  but  had  little  suc- 
cess, and  afterward  to  Glasgow,  where  he  was 
employed  a  short  time  with  Mr.  W.  Lang,  who 
manufactured  jacks  and  machinery  for  calen- 
dar works.  In  1815  he  purchased  with  the 
help  of  his  father  a  blacksmith's  establishment 
at  the  Gallowgate  of  Glasgow,  and  set  up  busi- 
ness for  himself.  In  1823  he  constructed  his 
first  marine  engine,  the  forerunner  of  a  large 
number  of  works  of  a  similar  character.  In 
1830,  in  conjunction  with  the  city  of  Glasgow 
steam  packet  company,  he  established  a  line  of 
vessels  which  remained  unsurpassed  till  super- 
seded by  railways.  In  1834  he  furnished  the 
Dundee  and  London  shipping  company  with 
the  Dundee  and  Perth  steamships ;  in  1836  the 
East  India  company  with  the  Berenice ;  and, 
in  addition  to  several  other  works,  in  1840 
supplied  Samuel  Cunard  with  his  first  four 
steamers.  He  built  in  1856  the  iron  steam- 
ship Persia,  of  3,600  tons.  In  1859  the  firm 
of  Robert  Napier  and  son  undertook  the  con- 
struction for  the  British  navy  of  the  Black 
Prince,  of  6,100  tons,  in  1860  of  the  Hector, 
of  4,060  tons;  and  they  have  constructed 
steam  rams  and  iron-clad  ships  of  war  for 
foreign  governments.  Mr.  Napier  received 
the  great  gold  medal  of  honor  at  the  Paris 
exposition  of  1855,  and  the  decoration  of  the 

|  legion  of  honor. 

NAPIER,  Sir  William  Francis  Patrick,  a  British 
author,  brother  of  Sir  Charles  James  Napier, 
born  in  Castletown,  county  Kildare,  Ireland, 
in  1785,  died  at  Clapham  Park,  near  London, 
Feb.  12,  1860.  He  entered  the  army  at  15 

i  years  of  age,  and  became  a  captain  in  1804. 
After  serving  in  the  expedition  to  Copenhagen 
in  1807,  he  accompanied  Sir  John  Moore  to 
Portugal  in  1808,  and  during  the  next  six  years 
was  an  active  participant  in  the  peninsular 


NAPIER   OF  MAGDALA 


NAPLES 


137 


war.  In  1811  he  became  major  and  in  1813 
lieutenant  colonel.  He  was  repeatedly  wounded 
during  the  war,  particularly  at  Almeida,  and 
in  following  the  retreat  of  Massena  from  Por- 
tugal in  1811.  He  became  major  general  in 
1841.  Between  1842  and  1848  he  was  lieu-  | 
tenant  governor  of  Guernsey,  and  in  1848  he  j 
was  created  knight  commander  of  the  bath,  i 
In  1851  he  became  lieutenant  general,  and  in  j 
1859  general.  He  is  best  known  as  a  writer  J 
of  military  history.  His  principal  work  is 
"The  History  of  the  War  in  the  Peninsula 
and  in  the  South  of  France  from  1807  to 
1814"  (6  vols.,  London,  1828-'40).  In  the 
preparation  of  this  eminent  work  he  was  sup- 
plied with  materials  and  documents  by  the 
duke  of  Wellington,  Marshal  Soult,  and  other 
officers,  English  and  French.  His  wife,  a  niece 
of  Charles  James  Fox,  deciphered  for  him  the 
secret  correspondence  of  Joseph  Bonaparte. 
The  critical  and  positive  character  of  this  work 
subjected  it  to  much  animadversion,  calling  out 
several  replies  from  the  author,  which  were 
appended  to  the  later  editions  under  the  title 
of  "  Justificative  Pieces."  In  1855  he  published 
a  volume  entitled  "English  Battles  and  Sieges 
in  the  Peninsula,"  consisting  principally  of 
extracts  from  his  large  work,  with  portions 
rewritten.  He  also  published  "  The  Conquest 
of  Scinde  "  (1845),  and  "  The  Life  and  Opinions 
of  the  late  Sir  Charles  Napier  "  (185V). 

NAPIER  OF  MAGDALA,  Robert  Cornells  Napier, 
baron,  a  British  general,  born  in  Ceylon,  Dec. 
6,  1810.  His  father  was  a  major  in  the  royal 
artillery,  and  he  was  educated  in  the  royal 
military  academy  at  Addiscombe,  and  in  1826 
entered  the  Bengal  engineers.  In  the  Sutlej 
campaign  of  1845-'6,  during  which  he  held  the 
rank  of  brigade  major,  he  served  with  distinc- 
tion, and  was  severely  wounded.  He  was 
wounded  a  second  time  at  the  siege  of  Mool- 
tan,  where  for  some  time  he  acted  as  chief 
engineer  officer.  In  1849  he  was  made  a 
lieutenant  colonel  for  meritorious  conduct  at 
Guzerat.  He  was  engaged  in  active  service 
throughout  the  sepoy  mutiny,  distinguishing 
himself  by  the  engineering  operations  which 
he  conducted  against  Lucknow,  and  subse- 
quently as  a  brigade  commander,  particularly 
at  the  siege  of  Gwalior  and  the  battle  of  Pow- 
ree.  In  1858  he  was  made  a  knight  command-  j 
er  of  the  bath.  Two  years  later  he  took  part 
in  the  Anglo-French  expedition  against  China, 
with  the  local  rank  of  major  general,  and  , 
achieved  special  distinction  in  the  operations  | 
preceding  the  capture  of  Peking.  He  became  | 
a  colonel  of  the  royal  engineers  in  1862  ;  and 
from  1861  until  his  appointment  to  the  com- 
mand of  the  Bombay  army  with  the  local  rank 
of  general  in  1865,  he  was  a  member  of  the 
council  of  the  governor  general  of  India.  In 

t October,  1867,  having  been  promoted  to  the 
full  rank  of  lieutenant  general,  he  was  select- 
ed by  the  home  government  to  command  the 
expedition  to  Abyssinia  for  the  release  of  the 
British  prisoners  held  by  King  Theodore  at 


Magdala.  He  landed  at  Annesley  bay  on  Jan. 
7,  1868,  and  in  a  brief  and  brilliant  campaign 
defeated  the  Abyssinian  army,  and  on  April 
13  assaulted  and  captured  Magdala,  the  Brit- 
ish prisoners  having  previously  been  released. 
(See  ABYSSINIA.)  For  this  achievement  Sir 
Robert  Napier  received  the  grand  cross  of 
the  bath,  and  was  raised  to  the  peerage  July 
17,  1868.  In  1870  he  was  appointed  com- 
mander-in-chief  of  the  forces  in  India,  with 
local  rank  as  general,  and  in  this  capacity  he 
is  a  member  of  the  viceroy's  council.  He  has 
a  parliamentary  annuity  of  £2,000  voted  in 
1868,  and  has  thrice  received  the  thanks  of 
parliament:  in  1859,  for  his  services  during 
the  Indian  mutiny ;  in  1861,  for  his  skill  and 
intrepidity  at  Peking ;  and  in  1868,  for  his 
conduct  of  the  Abyssinian  expedition. 

NAPIERVILLE,  a  S.  W.  county  of  Quebec, 
Canada;  area,  152  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1871, 
11,688,  of  whom  10,815  were  of  French  ori- 
gin. It  is  traversed  by  a  division  of  the  Grand 
Trunk  railway.  Capital,  Napierville. 

NAPLES.  I.  Kingdom  of.  See  SICILIES,  THE 
Two.  II*  A  province  of  the  kingdom  of  Italy, 
bordering  on  Caserta,  Salerno,  and  the  Tyr- 
rhenian sea ;  area,  412  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1872, 
907,752.  It  is  the  most  beautiful  and  most 
fertile  of  all  the  Italian  provinces,  producing 
olives  and  wines  of  the  best  quality.  The  east- 
ern part  is  mountainous,  being  traversed  by 
ramifications  of  the  Apennines.  The  principal 
rivers  are  the  Sarno  and  Sebeto.  There  are 
many  lakes,  none  of  them  large ;  the  most 
important  are  Lakes  Fusaro,  Averno,  and  Lu- 
crino  (the  Acherusia,  Avernus,  and  Lucrinus 
of  ancient  Campania).  It  is  divided  into 
the  districts  of  Casoria,  Castellamare  di  Sta- 
bia,  Naples,  and  Pozzuoli. 

NAPLES  (Ital.  Napoli ;  anc.  Neapolis),  the 
largest  city  of  Italy,  in  the  province  of  the 
same  name,  on  the  N.  coast  of  the  bay  of 
Naples,  and  on  the  river  Sebeto,  in  the  im- 
mediate vicinity  of  Mt.  Vesuvius,  and  not  far 
from  the  sites  of  Herculaneum  and  Pompeii, 
118  m.  S.  E.  of  Rome,  with  which  it  is  con- 
nected by  railway;  lat.  40°  51'  N.,  Ion.  14° 
15'  E. ;  pop.  in  1872,  448,335.  The  approach 
to  Naples  from  the  sea  is  famous  for  its  loveli- 
ness. The  entrance  of  the  bay,  from  Cape 
Miceno  on  the  N.  W.  to  Cape  Campanella  on 
the  S.  E.,  has  a  width  of  about  20  m.,  with  a 
circuit  of  about  35  m.,  and  an  indentation  of 
about  15m.  It  is  well  sheltered,  and  has  good 
anchorage  with  seven  fathoms  of  water.  At 
the  N.  W.  entrance  are  the  islands  of  Ischia 
and  Procida,  and  at  the  S.  E.  the  island  of 
.Capri,  while  on  the  N.  shore  the  city  rises  in 
an  amphitheatre.  On  the  E.  side  Mt.  Vesuvius 
is  in  full  view,  and  numerous  towns  and  vil- 
lages line  the  shore.  The  beauty  of  the  bay 
has  been  celebrated  by  ancient  and  modern 
writers,  and  it  is  the  subject  of  numerous  fine 
paintings.  The  city  has  five  principal  land 
entrances,  but  it  is  open  like  London  and  New 
York,  provided  only  at  the  leading  avenues 


138 


NAPLES 


with  barriers  for  the  purpose  of  collecting  the 
gdbelle  or  duties  on  provisions.  It  retains 
only  a  few  fragments  of  its  mediaeval  fortifica- 
tions. Its  three  castles  and  modernized  gates 
are  surrounded  by  streets  and  houses,  and  are 
now  within  the  city.  It  is  divided  into  two 
amphitheatre-like  crescents  by  a  ridge,  running 
N.  and  S.,  which  forms  the  hills  of  Capodi- 
monte,  Sant'  Elmo,  and  Pizzofalcone,  termina- 
ting on  the  south  in  a  small  island  occupied 
by  the  castel  dell'  Ovo,  and  joined  by  a  cause- 
way to  the  mainland.  The  crescent  E.  of  this 
ridge  includes  the  bulk  of  the  population,  the 
most  ancient  part  of  the  city,  and  the  principal 
edifices  and  public  institutions,  extending  E. 
to  the  river  Sebeto,  and  intersected  from  N.  to 
S.  by  a  long  thoroughfare,  the  lower  portion 
of  which  forms  the  strada  di  Toledo.  On  a  de- 
pression between  the  Oapodimonte  and  Sant' 
Elmo  hills  are  the  suburbs  La  Sanita  and  L'ln- 
frascata,  and  on  the  slopes  of  the  former  the 
suburbs  Dei  Miracoli  and  Le  Vergini.  The 
crescent  W.  of  Sant'  Elmo  is  the  modern  city, 
known  as  the  Ohiaia  or  quay,  connected  with 
the  E.  portion  by  the  streets  occupying  the 
depression  between  Sant'  Elmo  and  Pizzofal- 
cone, and  by  a  broad  avenue  which  bears  suc- 
cessively the  names  of  Gigante,  Santa  Lucia, 
Ohiatamone,  and  Victoria,  and  which  runs 
along  the  shore  at  the  foot  of  Pizzofalcone 
from  the  palazzo  TCeale  on  the  east  to  the 


villa  Nazionale,  formerly  villa  Reale,  on  the 
west.  Another  broad  street,  Riviera  di  Chiaia, 
passes  along  the  whole  length  of  the  Chiaia ; 
and  at  its  W.  extremity  are  the  suburbs  of 
Piedigrotta  and  Mergellina.  The  length  of 
Naples,  from  the  Sebeto  bridge  on  the  east  to 
the  Mergellina  suburb  on  the  west,  is  4  m. ; 
the  breadth,  from  the  Capodimonte  hill  on  the 
north  to  the  castel  dell'  Ovo  on  the  south, 
is  2-J  m.  The  streets  are  generally  straight, 
and  paved  with  square  blocks  of  lava;  the 
large  thoroughfares  are  lighted  with  gas,  but 
only  the  principal  of  them  have  a  sidewalk. 
The  majority  of  the  houses  are  divided  into 
separate  tenements.  The  ground  story  consists 
of  a  series  of  arched  cells,  all  of  the  same  shape 
and  size,  occupied  generally  by  tradesmen  or 
for  cafes  or  restaurants ;  and  on  the  upper 
floors  lodge  numbers  of  families.  The  Neapol- 
itans live  much  out  of  doors,  and  it  is  nothing 
unusual  to  see  the  children  washed  and  dressed, 
and  other  domestic  scenes  of  a  more  or  less 
delicate  nature  enacted,  in  the  open  street. 
The  strada  di  Toledo,  the  main  artery  of 
Naples,  was  built  in  the  1 6th  century  by  Pedro 
de  Toledo,  on  what  was  the  western  fosse  or 
ditch  of  mediaeval  Naples,  which  it  separates 
from  the  modern  city.  It  runs  N.  and  S. 
for  about  1^-  m.,  from  the  end  of  the  strada 
di  Santa  Lucia,  near  the  royal  palace,  to  the 
museum,  but  is  hardly  60  ft.  in  width,  while  it 


Naples. 


is  bordered  by  houses  five  to  seven  stories 
high.  The  strada  del  Duomo,  nearly  parallel 
to  the  Toledo,  was  commenced  in  1870,  lead- 
ing directly  to  the  sea,  and  promising  to  be  one 
of  the  finest  streets  in  the  city.  Few  of  the 
other  streets  exceed  30  ft.  in  width,  and  many 


are  not  above  15  to  20  ft.,  while  some  are  still 
narrower.  The  balconies  of  most  of  the  houses 
and  the  booths  and  stalls  give  the  streets  an 
appearance  of  being  still  more  contracted  than 
they  really  are.  The  Santa  Lucia  was  rebuilt 
and  enlarged  in  1846,  and  contains  one  of  the 


NAPLES 


139 


markets  for  fish,  especially  for  shell  fish  and 
oysters,  which  are  in  great  demand.  In  January, 
1868,  a  land  slide  destroyed  a  number  of  houses 
at  the  foot  of  Pizzofalcone. — Naples  possesses 
hardly  any  squares.  There  are  a  few  public 
places  called  until  recently  larghi,  but  now 
designated  as  piazze, 
some  of  which  are  dec- 
orated with  fountains 
and  statuary.  Of  these 
the  piazza  del  Mercato 
is  occupied  by  a  great 
market  twice  a  week. 
It  was  the  scene  of  the 
insurrection  of  Masa- 
niello.  The  piazza  del 
Plebiscito,  called  before 
1860  the  largo  del  Pa- 
lazzo, occupies  the  site 
of  four  monasteries  re- 
moved in  1810  ;  it  con- 
tains equestrian  statues 
of  Ferdinand  IV.  (I.) 
of  Bourbon  and  Charles 
III.,  the  latter  having 
been  originally  modelled 
for  a  likeness  of  Napo- 
leon, then  altered  to 
Murat,  and  finally  to 
Charles  III.  The  piazza 
del  Municipio,  formerly  the  largo  del  Castello,  is 
the  largest  in  Naples,  and  contains  a  celebrated 
fountain  erected  by  the  duke  of  Medina  Celi. 
The  villa  Nazionale  is  the  fashionable  prome- 
nade, and  may  be  said  to  form  part  of  the  Ri- 
viera di  Chiaia.  It  is  5,000  ft.  long  and  200 
ft.  wide,  planted  with  evergreens,  oaks,  and 
acacias.  It  was  laid  out  in  1T80,  and  enlarged 
in  1807  and  1834.  The  early  part  of  it  is  in 
the  Italian  style,  and  the  additions  are  in  the 
Egyptian,  and  contain  two  temples  dedicated 
to  Virgil  and  Tasso,  winding  paths,  grottoes, 
and  a  terrace  extending  into  the  sea.  The 
sea  air  proved  so  injurious  to  the  statuary, 
that  the  famous  Farnese  bull  was  removed  to 
the  museum,  and  replaced  in  1825  by  the  large 
granite  basin  from  Pa3stum  which  forms  the 
central  fountain.  Other  remarkable  statues 
have  also  since  been  taken  away,  and  replaced 
by  mediocre  copies  of  celebrated  works  of  an- 
tiquity. The  Molo  is  a  favorite  resort  of  the 
seafaring  classes.  The  popular  minstrels,  or 
cantatori,  who  formerly  frequented  it,  have 
removed  to  the  Marinella,  a  long  open  beach, 
once  the  resort  of  the  lazzaroni.  The  latter 
class  has  lost  its  ancient  characteristic  fea- 
tures, being  composed  mainly  of  industrious 
boatmen  and  fishermen,  though  they  still  pre- 
serve their  fondness  for  lying  on  the  beach 
and  basking  in  the  sun. — Prominent  among 
the  public  buildings  of  Naples  are  the  castles. 
The  castel  Nuovo,  with  its  massive  towers 
and  fosses,  is  situated  near  the  port.  The 
triumphal  arch,  erected  in  honor  of  the  entry 
of  Alfonso  of  Aragon  into  the  city  in  the 
15th  century,  is  remarkable  for  its  classical 


style,  and  stands  between  two  of  the  old  broad 
and  massive  Anjou  towers.  It  is  entered  by 
bronze  gates,  sculptured  in  compartments  rep- 
resenting the  victories  of  Ferdinand  I. ;  they 
are  the  work  of  the  monk  Guglielmo.  Within 
are  the  barracks  and  a  magnificent  hall,  now 


Castel  Nuovo. 

used  as  an  armory,  but  formerly  for  a  royal  re- 
ception room,  and  for  state  festivals.  A  cov- 
ered gallery  connects  the  fort  with  the  palace. 
Adjoining  the  castle  and  the  royal  palace  are 
the  dockyard  and  arsenal.  Iron-clad  and  other 
vessels  of  the  Italian  navy  are  frequently  sta- 
tioned here.  The  castel  dell'  Ovo,  in  the  south- 
ernmost part  of  the  city,  is  of  oval  form,  and 
defended  by  bastions  and  outworks.  It  was 
much  enlarged  by  Charles  I.,  and  is  now  chiefly 
used  as  a  prison.  The  castel  Sant'  Elmo,  the 
most  commanding  point  in  the  city,  was  built 
in  its  present  form  by  Pedro  de  Toledo,  and  is 
said  to  abound  with  mines  and  subterranean 
passages,  which,  together  with  the  counterscarp 
and  fosses  cut  in  the  solid  tufa,  and  its  formi- 
dable walls,  made  it  of  great  strategical  impor- 
tance. It  has  been  dismantled  under  the  new 
regime,  and  is  used  as  a  military  prison.  Its 
ramparts  afford  a  splendid  prospect  of  the  city 
and  bay.  The  castel  Capuano  was  once  the 
residence  of  the  Swabian  and  occasionally  of 
the  Anjou  dynasty ;  it  is  now  the  seat  of  the 
tribunal  of  commerce,  and  of  the  principal 
courts  of  criminal  and  civil  law,  and  contains  a 
prison  on  the  ground  floor,  unhappily  celebrated 
under  the  Bourbons.  The  castel  del  Carmine 
was  fortified  after  the  revolt  of  Masaniello, 
when  it  was  the  stronghold  of  the  insurgents, 
and  is  now  used  as  a  military  prison  and  bar- 
racks. The  palazzo  del  municipio  was  begun 
in  1819  and  completed  in  1825  for  the  purpose 
of  conducting  all  the  public  business  in  one 
building.  It  contains  6  courts,  846  apartments, 
and  40  corridors,  covering  200,000  sq.  ft.  of 
ground.  There  are  many  fountains,  some  of 


140 


NAPLES 


which  are  highly  adorned.  The  chief  aqueduct, 
which  supplies  them  with  water,  is  the  Acqua 
di  Carmignano.  The  Acqua  della  Bolla  supplies 
the  lower  quarters  of  the  city.  The  supply 
is,  however,  limited.  Two  artesian  wells  have 
been  sunk,  but  without  success ;  and  an  English 
firm  secured  a  concession  for  supplying  the  city 
with  water  in  1873.  There  are  two  mineral 
springs  in  the  city  of  great  celebrity. — The  num- 
ber of  churches  is  over  300.  The  most  impor- 
tant is  the  cathedral,  which  retains  little  of  its 
original  Gothic  character  excepting  in  the  tow- 
ers. It  was  commenced  at  the  end  of  the  13th 
century  and  completed  at  the  beginning  of  the 
14th;  was  injured  by  an  earthquake  in  the 
middle  of  the  15th,  and  was  rebuilt  by  Alfonso 
I. ;  and  has  since  undergone  frequent  restora- 
tions, the  last  in  1837.  Over  the  great  entrance 
are  the  tombs  of  Charles  I.  of  Anjou,  Charles 
Martel,  and  his  wife  Clementia  of  Hapsburg. 
It  also  contains  the  tombs  of  King  Andrew,  of 
Pope  Innocent  IV.,  and  of  other  noted  person- 
ages. Opposite  to  the  entrance  of  the  basilica 
of  Santa  Restituta,  on  the  site  of  a  temple  of 
Apollo,  and  once  the  place  of  worship  for  the 
Greek  ritual,  but  now  part  of  the  cathedral,  is 
the  cappella  del  Tesoro,  or  chapel  of  San  Gen- 
naro  (St.  Januarius),  with  the  two  celebrated 
vials  said  to  contain  the  blood  of  that  saint,  the 
liquefaction  of  which  gives  occasion  for  the 
greatest  religious  festivals  of  Naples.  (See 
JANUARIUS,  SAINT.)  The  "Tomb  of  San  Gen- 
naro,"  with  the  sick  waiting  to  be  cured,  and 
several  other  paintings  and  frescoes  in  the 
chapel,  are  by  Domenichino.  The  tomb  is  un- 
der the  high  altar  in  the  richly  ornamented  sub- 
terranean chapel  called  the  "confessional  of 
San  Gennaro,"  near  the  kneeling  statue  of  Car- 
dinal Carafa,  which  is  said  to  have  been  exe- 
cuted by  Michel  Angelo.  The  church  of  Sant' 
Aniello  a  Capo  Napoli,  or  Sant'  Agnello  Mag- 
giore,  in  the  piazza  Sant'  Agnello,  has  a  painting 
of  San  Carlo  by  Caracciolo,  said  to  be  one  of 
the  most  masterly  imitations  of  Annibale  Car- 
racci.  Beneath  the  richly  decorated  church  de' 
Santi  Apostoli,  said  to  have  been  founded  by 
Constantine  on  the  ruins  of  a  temple  of  Mer- 
cury, is  a  cemetery  containing  the  tomb  of  the 
poet  Marini.  Among  the  other  churches  are 
Santa  Chiara,  with  a  Latin  inscription  over  the 
Gothic  tomb  of  King  Robert  the  Wise,  attrib- 
uted to  Petrarch,  designed  like  many  other 
monuments  by  Masuccio  II. ;  and  the  church  of 
San  Lorenzo,  associated  with  one  of  the  stories 
of  Boccaccio,  with  Petrarch,  who  resided  for 
some  time  in  the  cloister  attached  to  it,  and 
with  Alfonso  I.,  who  in  the  chapter  house  of 
ihis  church  proclaimed  his  natural  son  Ferdi- 
nand heir  to  the  throne  by  the  title  of  duke  of 
Calabria.  The  convent  and  church  of  San  Mar- 
tino  is  celebrated  for  the  magnificence  of  the 
view  from  it,  as  well  as  for  the  beauty  of  its 
architecture.  Santa  Maria  del  Parto,  in  the 
Mergellina  suburb,  called  by  the  common  peo- 
ple il  diavolo  di  Mergellina,  derives  its  name 
from  Sannazzaro's  poem  De  Partu  Virginis,  and 


contains  that  poet's  tomb. — Beggars  abound  in 
Naples  in  spite  of  the  law.  There  are  about 
60  institutions  devoted  to  charitable  purposes. 
The  most  celebrated  of  them  is  the  albergo  de1 
poveri  or  reclusorio,  an  immense  institution, 
which  with  its  dependencies  accommodates 
more  than  5,000  persons.  It  is  over  1,000  ft. 
long,  but  was  intended  by  its  founder  Charles 
III.  to  cover  a  still  larger  ground,  to  serve  as  an 
asylum  and  an  educational  establishment  for  all 
the  poor  of  the  kingdom.  To  some  extent  it 
is  made  to  answer  this  purpose ;  boys  and  girls 
are  educated  there  and  brought  up  to  trades, 
and  the  boys  generally  enlist  in  the  army.  The 
greatest  among  the  other  hospitals  is  the  santa 
casa  degV  incurabili,  or  hospital  for  incurable 
diseases,  but  open  to  the  sick  of  all  descriptions ; 
it  is  in  high  repute  as  a  medical  school,  and  ac- 
commodates about  2,000  patients.  The  hospital 
dell'  Annunziata  is  chiefly  intended  for  the  re- 
ception of  foundlings.  There  are  annually  about 
2,000  foundlings  out  of  15,000  births,  and  they 
are  better  cared  for  in  Naples  than  in  other 
parts  of  Italy.  The  new  hospital  di  Gesu  Maria 
is  the  great  clinical  school  attached  to  the  uni- 
versity. The  latter  in  1873  contained  74  pro- 
fessorships and  1,500  students,  and  has  a  library 
of  about  25,000  volumes.  The  Chinese  college, 
founded  by  Father  Ripa,  a  missionary  in  China, 
is  intended  for  the  training  of  young  Chinese, 
who,  after  having  completed  their  education, 
are  employed  as  missionaries  in  their  native 
country.  The  college  of  music,  in  which  Bel- 
lini was  educated,  enjoys  a  high  reputation,  and 
has  had  for  its  directors  Zingarelli  and  Merca- 
dante.  It  gives  free  instruction  to  100  pupils, 
and  admits  others  at  a  small  remuneration.  The 
national  school  of  medicine  and  surgery  is  at- 
tended by  upward  of  120  students,  contains  a 
pathological  museum,  and  communicates  by  a 
subterranean  passage  with  the  practical  medi- 
cal school  at  the  hospital  for  incurables.  The 
public  primary  schools  are  still  in  a  very  un- 
satisfactory condition,  numbering  in  1872  only 
about  15,000  pupils. — The  societd  reale  com- 
prises academies  of  science,  of  archaeology,  and 
of  the  fine  arts,  and  the  two  former  publish 
their  transactions.  The  observatory  of  Naples, 
situated  on  the  Capodimonte  hill,  about  500 
ft.  above  the  sea,  is  an  elegant  building,  com- 
pleted in  1820,  after  the  plans  of  Piazzi,  un- 
der whose  direction  it  achieved  great  celeb- 
rity. The  botanic  garden  was  completed  in 
1818,  and  is  remarkable  for  its  collection  of 
trees.  The  most  notable  new  institution  is 
the  zoological  garden,  established  in  1873,  with 
one  of  the  finest  aquariums  in  the  world.  Na- 
ples possesses  five  public  libraries:  the  Na- 
zionale,  of  200,000  volumes  and  5,000  manu- 
scripts; the  Brancacciana,  of  75,000  volumes; 
the  university  library;  the  Girolomini;  and 
the  biblioteca  del  municipio.  The  glory  of 
Naples,  however,  is  the  museum,  situated  in  a 
building  originally  intended  for  cavalry  bar- 
racks, afterward  remodelled  from  the  designs 
of  Fontana  for  the  use  of  the  university,  and 


NAPLES 


141 


for  some  time  the  seat  of  the  academy  of  sci- 
ence. It  is  still  called  palazzo  degli  studii  pub- 
~blici,  or  simply  studii.  The  name  museo  reale 
borbonico  was  given  to  it  by  Ferdinand  IV.  (I.), 
who,  after  its  enlargement  in  1790  for  the  pur- 
pose of  receiving  the  royal  collection  of  art, 
caused  all  the  antiquities  and  pictures  in  the 
royal  palaces  of  Portici  and  Capodimonte  to  be 
brought  into  it  in  1820.  After  the  annexation 
of  Naples  to  the  Italian  kingdom  it  was  named 
museo  nazionale.  It  contains  collections  of 
ancient  frescoes,  mosaics,  and  mural  inscrip- 
tions, Egyptian  antiquities,  ancient  sculptures, 
inscriptions,  bronzes,  glasses,  pottery,  cinque- 
cento  objects,  papyri,  gems,  medals  and  coins, 
vases,  paintings,  and  the  national  library. 
Among  the  ancient  frescoes  are  more  than  1,600 
specimens  found  at  Herculaneum  and  Pompeii. 
The  collection  of  ancient  sculpture  contains  the 
statues  of  the  Roman  emperors  and  a  colossal 
bust  of  Julius  Caesar.  The  "  room  of  the  papy- 
ri" includes  more  than  1,700  rolls  of  writings 
from  Herculaneum,  disfigured  by  the  effects  of 
the  fire,  of  which  about  500  have  been  success- 
fully unrolled.  Several  volumes  of  transcrip- 
tions from  them  have  been  published.  The 
gallery  of  paintings  was  rearranged  in  1866-'7. 
It  contains  500  works,  many  of  them  master- 
pieces of  the  old  painters ;  while  the  Neapol- 
itan school  can  nowhere  be  studied  so  well  as 
here.  The  best  paintings  are  arranged  in  four 
rooms,  apart  from  the  main  collections  of  the 
several  schools,  with  some  remarkable  engra- 
vings, and  drawings  by  the  great  masters. — 
The  private  palaces  of  Naples  are  far  inferior 
in  architectural  beauty  to  those  of  Florence 
and  other  cities  of  upper  Italy,  but  almost 
all  of  them  contain  museums  of  works  of  art. 
The  most  beautiful  private  palace  is  the  palazzo 
Gravina,  in  the  strada  di  Monte  Oliveto,  built 
at  the  end  of  the  15th  century  by  Ferdinando 
Orsini,  duke  of  Gravina,  after  the  design  of 
Gabriele  d'Agnolo ;  it  is  now  the  property  of 
the  government,  and  used  by  the  general  post 
office  and  telegraph  offices.  The  palazzo  Pia- 
nura,  near  the  church  of  San  Paolo,  was  the 
residence  of  the  poet  Marini.  The  palazzo 
Santangelo  is  remarkable  for  its  fine  statuary 
and  collection  of  coins  and  medals,  illustra- 
tive of  the  numismatic  history  of  the  Two 
Sicilies.  The  palazzo  Monticelli,  a  fine  spe- 
cimen of  the  domestic  architecture  of  the 
15th  century,  was  long  the  residence  of  the 
mineralogist  Monticelli,  whose  collection  of 
Vesuvian  productions  was  purchased  by  the 
university  and  the  British  museum  after  his 
death.  Naples  abounds  with  fine  villas,  some 
of  them  commanding  superb  views  on  the 
bay.  In  its  immediate  environs  are  the  grotta 
di  Pozzuoli  or  di  Posilippo,  consisting  of  a 
tunnel  about  2,250  ft.  long  and  21£  ft.  wide, 
excavated  in  the  older  volcanic  tufa,  and  con- 
taining near  the  top  of  the  entrance  the 
celebrated  Roman  columbarium  known  as  the 
tomb  of  Virgil.  The  environs  abound  with 
many  other  remarkable  sights,  interesting  to 


the  classical  scholar,  archaeologist,  and  natu- 
ralist, as  well  as  to  the  admirers  of  the  beauti- 
ful and  picturesque  in  nature,  the  vicinity  of 
Vesuvius  and  other  volcanic  localities  present- 
ing scenes  of  matchless  grandeur. — The  prin- 
cipal places  of  amusement  are  the  theatres. 
The  San  Carlo,  adjoining  the  royal  palace,  was 
long  the  largest  Italian  opera  house  in  the 
world.  It  was  designed,  by  order  of  Charles 
III.,  by  Medrano,  a  Sicilian  artist,  built  in  the 
short  space  of  eight  months  by  Angelo  Cara- 
sale,  a  Neapolitan  architect,  and  opened  in 
1737.  It  was  burned  down  in  1816,  but  re- 
built after  seven  months  without  altering 
the  original  form.  It  has  six  tiers  of  boxes 
of  32  each,  and  the  pit  accommodates  more 
than  1,000  persons.  The  teatro  del  Fondo,  in 
the  strada  Molo,  is  under  the  same  manage- 
ment as  the  San  Carlo,  and  is  exclusively 
devoted  to  operas  and  ballets.  The  oldest 
theatre  in  Naples  is  the  teatro  de'  Fiorentini, 
now  the  popular  stage  of  the  Italian  drama. 
The  opera  buffa  is  represented  chiefly  in  the 
teatro  Nuovo.  The  teatro  Partenope  is  a  pop- 
ular theatre,  in  which  farce  and  comedy  are 
performed  twice  a  day  in  the  Neapolitan  dia- 
lect. The  theatre  of  San  Carlino  is  the  home 
of  Pulcinello.  The  performances  take  place  in 
the  morning  and  evening  in  the  Neapolitan  dia- 
lect, and  are  attended  by  all  classes  of  the  pop- 
ulation.— The  scholars  and  savants,  artists, 
jurists,  medical  men,  and  the  higher  middle 
and  professional  classes  of  Naples  generally, 
constitute  a  very  intelligent  and  refined  so- 
ciety; and  its  men  of  science  and  scholars  are 
celebrated  in  Italy  for  their  devotion  to  their 
respective  branches  of  study.  The  number  of 
strangers  is  great  at  all  times,  but  particular- 
ly during  the  winter,  notwithstanding  the  fre- 
quently dangerous  effect  of  the  climate  upon  for- 
eign constitutions,  especially  upon  consumptive 
patients. — Naples  has  three  ports:  the  Porto 
Piccolo,  the  last  remains  of  the  ancient  port  of 
Palseopolis,  and  now  only  suited  to  small  craft ; 
the  Porto  Militare,  a  new  harbor  with  a  'depth 
of  water  of  five  fathoms,  bounded  N.  by  the 
Porto  Grande  and  S.  by  a  mole  which  runs  in 
a  S.  E.  direction  into  the  sea  for  a  distance  of 
1,200  ft. ;  and  the  Porto  Grande,  the  principal 
port,  but  with  only  three  or  four  fathoms  in 
its  deepest  part,  having  suffered  from  the 
silting  of  the  sand  and  shingle.  Between  the 
Porto  Grande  and  Porto  Piccolo  is  the  imma- 
colatelle,  with  the  offices  of  a  branch  of  the 
board  of  health  and  the  captain  of  the  port. 
On  the  other  side  of  the  Porto  Piccolo  is  the 
custom  house.  New  docks  are  projected.  The 
Mandracchio  district,  S.  E.  of  the  latter  port, 
is  inhabited  by  the  dregs  of  the  Neapolitan 
population.  The  principal  imports  of  Naples 
are  sugar,  coffee,  and  other  colonial  produce ; 
coal,  salted  fish,  cotton  (the  cultivation  of 
which  has  of  late  enormously  increased  in  the 
surrounding  region),  woollen,  silk,  and  flax 
goods ;  iron,  tinware,  and  hardware.  The 
chief  exports  are  products  of  the  surrounding 


142 


NAPLES 


country,  chiefly  consisting  of  staves,  coral,  ol- 
ive oil,  tartar  and  wine  lees,  madder,  liquor- 
ice, hemp,  and  fruits,  and  amounting  in  1873 
to  nearly  $9,000,000  ;  imports,  chiefly  colonial 
products,  cotton,  woollen,  and  silk  goods,  fish, 
grain,  and  metals,  nearly  $25,600,000.  The 
shipping  comprised  4,703  inward  and  4,724  out- 
ward vessels,  tonnage  1,020,758  and  998,421. 
There  are  several  great  banks,  and  most  of  the 
business  men  are  more  or  less  interested  in 
financial  schemes,  which  are  often  carried  on  in 
a  reckless  manner.  Many  banks  recently  es- 
tablished without  adequate  capital  have  resulted 
in  bankruptcies  and  financial  chaos.  Merchants 
are  arranged  by  the  chamber  of  commerce 
into  five  different  classes,  and  credit  to  a  cer- 
tain amount  at  the  custom  house  for  the  pay- 
ment of  duties  is  granted  to  them  accordingly. 
The  most  important  manufacture  is  of  maca- 
roni and  vermicelli,  which  constitute  the  prin- 
cipal food  of  the  people.  Next  in  importance 
is  the  production  of  silk  goods,  the  gros  de 
Naples  taking  its  name  from  the  manufacture 
of  this  city.  There  are  also  iron  and  glass 
works,  type  founderies,  and  manufactories  of 
carpets,  broadcloth,  chemicals,  soaps,  perfu- 
mery, artificial  flowers,  corals,  porcelain,  hats, 
carriages,  gloves,  &c. — For  municipal  purposes 
the  city  is  divided  into  12  districts.  There 
is  a  garrison  of  6,000,  and  the  national  guard 
numbers  14,000.  The  prisons  of  Naples  have 
had  an  infamous  reputation,  but  have  been 
much  improved  of  late  years.  The  most  im- 
portant have  already  been  mentioned. — The 
principal  antiquities  of  Naples  are  the  cata- 
combs, which  are  of  greater  extent  than  those 
of  Rome.  (See  CATACOMBS,  vol.  iv.,  p.  95.) 
The  environs  abound  with  celebrated  relics 
of  antiquity,  but  in  the  city  proper  there  are 
not  many  of  them,  excepting  the  fragments 
of  the  temple  of  Castor  and  Pollux,  of  the 
Julian  aqueduct,  now  called  Ponti  Rossi,  and 
a  few  other  remains.  The  greatest  authority 
on  Neapolitan  inscriptions  is  Mommsen's  Cor- 
pus Inscriptionum  Neapolitanarum  (Leipsic, 
1851). — Several  of  the  learned  Neapolitan  an- 
tiquaries claim  for  Naples  a  Phoenician  ori- 
gin, but  it  is  generally  considered  to  have  been 
originally  a  Greek  city  and  colony  of  Cumse, 
although  the  account  of  its  first  foundation, 
under  the  name  of  Parthenope,  is  regarded  by 
many  authorities  as  a  mythical  tradition.  Ac- 
cording to  several  accounts  the  city  was,  after 
its  increase  through  settlers  from  various  parts 
of  Greece,  divided  into  an  old  town  (Palseopo- 
lis)  and  a  new  town  (Neapolis).  But  the  iden- 
tity of  the  connection  between  the  two  names 
is  not  yet  clearly  established.  Niebuhr  places 
the  situation  of  Palaeopolis  near  the  site  of  the 
present  town  of  Pozzuoli,  and  Livy  refers  to 
them  as  close  to  each  other  ;  but  long  before 
his  time  (330  B.  C.)  Palaeopolis  is  mentioned 
as  having  been  engaged  in  hostilities  with 
Rome,  and  the  name  seems  soon  afterward  to 
have  disappeared  from  history,  and  to  have  be- 
come merged  in  Neapolis,  which  early  became 


a  faithful  ally  and  dependency  of  Rome,  and 
noted  for  the  courage  of  its  citizens  from  their 
successful  resistance  to  the  attack  of  Pyrrhus 
in  280  B.  0.,  while  the  strength  of  its  fortifica- 
tions caused  Hannibal  to  leave  the  place  un- 
molested during  the  second  Punic  war.  It  re- 
tained to  a  far  greater  extent  than  other  Italian 
cities  its  Greek  culture  and  institutions,  and 
many  of  the  higher  classes  of  Romans  resorted 
to  Neapolis  for  their  education,  on  account  of 
the  beauty  of  the  climate  and  the  scenery,  and 
of  its  hot  springs.  It  recovered  quickly  from 
the  calamities  of  the  civil  war  of  Marius  and 
Sulla.  Under  the  empire  it  continued  to  be 
a  favorite  resort  of  the  Roman  nobility.  Nero 
made  his  first  public  appearance  as  an  actor  on 
the  stage  of  Naples,  and  the  voluptuous  char- 
acter of  the  city  caused  it  to  be  called  by  Ovid 
in  otia  natam  Parthenopen.  The  great  tunnel 
under  Posilippo  was  then  as  now  an  object  of 
admiration.  The  chief  glory  of  the  city  was 
its  association  with  Virgil,  who  resided  there 
for  a  considerable  period.  Naples  was  taken 
by  the  Goths  in  A.  D.  493,  retaken  by  Belisarius 
in  536,  and  reduced  and  dismantled  by  Totila 
in  543.  About  570  it  was  constituted  a  separate 
duchy,  forming  a  dependency  of  the  exarchate 
of  Ravenna.  After  the  fall  of  the  exarchate 
in  the  8th  century  it  enjoyed  for  about  400 
years  an  independent  government  under  dukes 
of  its  own  election,  though  often  engaged  in 
hostilities  with  the  Lombard  dukes  of  Bene- 
vento,  to  whom  it  was  obliged  to  pay  tribute. 
When  the  duchy  of  Benevento  was  divided 
into  three  principalities,  the  prince  of  Capua  en- 
deavored to  gain  the  supremacy,  and  succeeded 
in  temporarily  seizing  Naples  (1027)  ;  but  the 
Normans,  having  conquered  all  the  rest  of 
southern  Italy  and  Sicily,  reduced  Naples  after 
a  protracted  siege ;  and  the  city  submitted  to 
Roger  I.  of  Sicily  about  1137.  On  the  extinc- 
tion of  the  Norman  dynasty  in  1189,  Naples 
became  subject  to  the  house  of  Swabia.  In 
1268,  under  the  Anjou  dynasty,  Naples  super- 
seded Palermo  as  the  seat  of  the  government. 
In  1442  the  last  king  of  the  Anjou  dynasty 
was  conquered  by  Alfonso  of  Aragon.  Charles 
VIII.  of  France  conquered  Naples  in  1495, 
but  was  driven  out  by  Gonsalvo  de  Cordova. 
Under  the  Aragonese  and  Spanish  kings  it  was 
ruled  by  viceroys  till  the  peace  of  Utrecht 
(1713),  when  it  was  annexed  to  the  possessions 
of  the  house  of  Hapsburg.  The  popular  insur- 
rection under  Masaniello  took  place  in  1647. 
Charles,  son  of  Philip  V.  of  Spain,  became 
master  of  the  city  and  kingdom  in  1734,  and 
founded  the  Bourbon  dynasty.  The  French 
took  it  in  1799  and  again  in  1806.  Joseph 
Bonaparte  was  made  king  of  Naples,  but  was 
replaced  in  1808  by  Murat,  who  was  displaced 
by  the  Austrians  in  1814,  when  the  Bourbons 
were  restored.  The  city  was  the  scene  of  a 
revolutionary  conflict  on  May  15, 1848.  It  was 
entered  by  Garibaldi  in  September,  1860,  and 
incorporated  with  the  dominions  of  Victor 
Emanuel.  Naples  has  been  often  alarmed  by 


NAPO 


NARCISSUS 


143 


earthquakes,  and  a  severe  eruption  of  Vesu- 
vius in  April,  1872,  resulted  in  the  loss  of  some 
200  lives,  and  the  city  was  covered  with  a 
shower  of  ashes.  A  railway  to  the  summit  of 
Vesuvius  was  commenced  in  1875. 

NAPO,  a  river  of  South  America.  See  ECUA- 
DOE,  vol.  vi.,  p.  394. 

NAPOLEON  BONAPARTE.     See  BONAPAETE. 

NAPOLEON-VENDEE,  a  town  of  France,  capi- 
tal of  the  department  of  Vendee,  on  the  river 
Yon,  231  m.  S.  W.  of  Paris;  pop.  (including 
the  suburb  of  Roche-sur-Yon)  about  9,000.  It 
consists  of  several  streets  crossing  each  other 
at  right  angles,  nearly  all  ending  in  the  place 
Royale,  a  spacious  square,  bordered  by  ranges 
of  pine  trees,  and  surrounded  by  public  monu- 
ments and  fine  mansions.  It  is  situated  upon 
an  open  heath,  and  has  few  manufactures  and 
little  trade.  The  town  occupies  the  site  of  a 
large  feudal  castle  built  prior  to  the  crusade, 
which  was  destroyed  by  the  republicans  in 
1793.  In  1805  Napoleon  selected  the  place  as 
the  site  for  the  capital  of  the  department,  and 
devoted  3,000,000  francs  to  the  erection  of 
public  edifices,  giving  to  the  new  town  the 
name  which  it  nows  bears.  Under  the  restora- 
tion it  was  called  Bourbon- Vendee. 

NAPOLI  DI  ROMANIA.     See  NAUPLIA. 

NAQUET,  Alfred  Joseph,  a  French  chemist,  born 
in  Carpentras,  Oct.  6, 1834.  He  completed  his 
studies  in  Paris,  where  he  took  his  medical 
degree  in  1859.  In  August,  1863,  he  was 
named  professor  at  the  school  of  medicine, 
to  enter  upon  his  duties  in  November,  3865. 
In  the  interval  he  was  employed  by  the  Ital- 
ian government  in  establishing  a  professor- 
ship of  chemical  and  physical  sciences  in  the 
national  technical  institute  at  Palermo.  Af- 
ter lecturing  on  organic  chemistry  in  the  med- 
ical faculty  of  Paris  till  1867,  he  incurred 
15  months'  imprisonment  and  a  fine  for  hav- 
ing been  one  of  the  organizers  of  the  con- 
gress at  Geneva,  and  having  submitted  to  it  a 
resolution  calling  the  first  Napoleon  the  great- 
est malefactor  of  his  day.  In  March,  1869,  he 
was  again  arrested  and  fined  on  account  of 
his  opposing  the  rites  of  marriage  (his  own 
marriage  had  been  celebrated  in  1862  without 
the  attendance  of  a  clergyman)  in  his  pub- 
lication entitled  Religion,  propriete,  famille, 
in  which  however  he  defended  the  rights  of 
property.  After  the  revolution  of  Sept,  4, 
1870,  he  was  military  secretary  to  the  govern- 
ment at  Tours  and  Bordeaux.  His  election 
to  the  assembly,  Feb.  8,  1871,  being  contest- 
ed by  the  monarchists,  he  was  reflected,  July 
2,  by  a  large  majority.  Among  his  scientific 
works  are  :  Principes  de  chimie  fondes  sur  les 
theories  modernes  (1865) ;  De  Vatomicite  (1868) ; 
and  Precis  de  chimie  legate  (1872).  His  chief 
political  work  is  La  republique  radicale  (1 873). 

NARBONNE  (anc.  Narlo  Martins},  a  city  of 
Languedoc,  France,  in  the  department  of  Aude, 
near  the  Mediterranean,  with  which  it  is  con- 
nected by  a  canal,  33  m.  E.  of  Carcassonne, 
and  54  m.  S.  W.  of  Montpellier ;  pop.  in  1866, 
587  VOL.  xii. — 10 


17,172.  The  most  remarkable  edifices  are  the 
cathedral  of  St.  Just,  a  handsome  Gothic  struc- 
ture founded  in  the  13th  century ;  the  church 
of  St.  Paul,  an  ancient  building  in  the  Roman- 
esque style ;  and  the  hotel  de  ville,  formerly 
the  archiepiscopal  palace,  one  of  the  towers  of 
which  dates  from  the  14th  century.  Within 
it  Louis  XIII.  signed  the  order  for  the  arrest 
of  Cinq-Mars  and  De  Thou.  The  seat  of  the 
archbishopric  has  been  transferred  to  Toulouse. 
There  are  important  manufactures  of  verdigris, 
linen,  woollen,  and  leather,  and  trade  in  wine, 
and  in  honey  celebrated  for  its  whiteness. — 
Narbo  Martius  was  founded  by  the  Romans 
in  118  B.  C.  Many  of  the  soldiers  of  Csesar's 
tenth  legion  having  been  settled  there  at  the 
end  of  the  civil  war,  it  was  thence  frequently 
called  Decumanorum  Colonia.  It  was  taken 
by  the  Saracens  in  719,  and  held  by  them 
for  nearly  half  a  century.  In  the  middle  ages 
it  was  one  of  the  most  flourishing  towns  in 
France,  containing  more  than  40,000  inhabi- 
tants. No  building  of  the  Roman  period  now 
exists,  the  ruins  having  been  used  in  the  con- 
struction of  the  city  walls,  in  which  about  500 
Roman  bass  reliefs,  friezes,  and  inscriptions 
were  visible,  besides  Saracenic  ramparts.  The 
walls  were  pulled  down  after  1865,  and  many 
of  the  ancient  sculptures  are  gathered  in  the 
museum.  Varro,  the  Latin  poet,  and  the  Ro- 
man emperor  Carus,  were  born  in  or  near  Nar- 
bonne.  One  of  the  four  provinces  of  Gaul,  as 
divided  by  Augustus,  was  called  from  this  city 
Gallia  Narbonensis. 

NARBONNE-LARA,  Lonis,  ( count  de,  a  French 
soldier,  born  at  Colorno,  in  the  duchy  of  Par- 
ma, Aug.  24,  1755,  died  in  Torgau,  Germany, 
Nov.  17,  1813.  He  was  educated  with  the 
French  princes,  became  a  colonel  in  1780,  and 
was  employed  in  the  ministry  of  foreign  af- 
fairs under  Vergennes.  In  1789  he  became 
very  popular  at  Besancon,  where  in  1790  he 
was  placed  in  command  of  the  national  guard ; 
but  he  was  always  loyal  to  the  royal  family. 
He  accompanied  the  king's  aunts  when  they 
left  Versailles  in  1791,  and,  after  seeing  them 
safe  out  of  France,  returned  to  Paris.  He 
was  appointed  minister  of  war,  Dec.  6,  .1791, 
but  was  dismissed  in  March,  1792,  and  joined 
the  army.  After  the  attack  on  the  Tuileries, 
Aug.  10,  1792,  when  he  was  present  in  the 
capital  and  displayed  great  courage,  he  fled  to 
London,  where  he  wrote  a  memoir  to  the  con- 
vention in  behalf  of  Louis  XVI.  He  returned 
to  France  in  1800,  and  was  restored  to  his 
rank  as  general  of  division  in  1809.  He  ac- 
companied Napoleon  as  special  aide-de-camp 
to  Russia,  was  ambassador  to  Vienna  in  1813, 
minister  to  the  congress  at  Prague,  and  finally 
military  commander  at  Torgau. 

NARCISSUS.  I.  A  mythical  youth,  son  of  the 
river  god  Cephissus  and  the  nymph  Liriope, 
who  was  remarkable  for  his  beauty,  but  wholly 
inaccessible  to  love.  The  nymph  Echo  died  of 
grief  because  he  would  not  reciprocate  her  af- 
fection. One  of  his  rejected  admirers  begged 


144 


NAKCISSUS 


Nemesis  to  punish  him,  and  the  goddess  caused 
him  to  fall  in  love  with  the  reflection  of  his 
own  figure  in  a  spring.  Under  the  influence 
of  this  passion  he  pined  away,  and  after  death 
was  changed  into  the  flower  which  bears  his 
name.  II.  A  freedman  and  secretary  of  the 
Koman  emperor  Claudius,  who  was  completely 
subject  to  his  influence.  For  some  time  he 
used  his  power  in  subservience  to  the  wishes 
of  the  empress  Messalina ;  but  when  he  found 
that  she  meditated  his  destruction,  he  deter- 
mined to  anticipate  her,  and,  revealing  to  Clau- 
dius her  marriage  with  Caius  Silius,  convinced 
him  that  his  own  safety  required  her  imme- 
diate sacrifice.  The  emperor  consented  to  her 
imprisonment,  but  as  he  manifested  reluctance 
to  have  her  put  to  death,  Narcissus  sent  a 
tribune  to  despatch  her.  Agrippina,  whose 
intrigues  in  favor  of  her  son  Nero  Narcissus 
had  thwarted,  had  him  removed  to  Campania, 
where  he  was  murdered  by  her  orders,  A.  D. 
54.  He  is  said  to  have  amassed  a  fortune  of 
400,000,000  sesterces,  equivalent  to  $13,500,- 
000.  HI.  A  Roman  athlete,  with  whom  the 
emperor  Commodus  was  in  the  habit  of  con- 
tending in  the  arena,  and  who  was  afterward 
employed  by  Marcia  to  strangle  his  patron. 
For  this  crime  Septimius  Severus,  on  his  ac- 
cession (A.  D.  193),  had  him  given  to  the  lions. 
NARCISSUS,  the  common  as  well  as  the  botan- 
ical name  of  a  genus  of  popular  garden  flowers. 
It  is  often  said  that  the  name  is  from  that 
of  the  youth  of  Grecian  mythology  who  was 
turned  into  the  flower.  Prior  regards  this  as 
"  an  instance,  among  many  more,  of  a  legend 
written  to  a  name,"  and  considers  it  to  be  de- 
rived from  vapudeiv,  to  become  dumb,  as  it  had 
the  reputation  of  causing  torpor  or  heaviness 
by  its  perfume.  The  genus  belongs  to  the 
amaryllis  family,  and  consists  of  bulbous-root- 
ed plants,  with  flat  or  channelled,  linear  leaves, 
an  often  compressed  or  angular  scape  or  flow- 
er stalk,  at  the  top  of  which  is  a  spathe,  which 
bursts  at  one  side  and  liberates  one  to  several 
flowers.  The  tube  of  the  perianth  (calyx  and 
corolla  together)  is  prolonged  above  the  ovary, 
with  six  equal  spreading  divisions ;  stamens 
six,  of  unequal  length,  included  in  a  cup-shaped 
or  tubular  white  or  colored  crown,  which 
springs  from  the  corolla-tube  at  their  base; 
ovary  three-celled,  with  a  simple  style  and  an 
obtuse  stigma.  This  genus,  which  is  mainly 
south  European,  extending  into  Asia,  has  been 
divided  by  some  botanists  in  a  most  perplexing 
manner.  While  some  regard  it  as  containing 
only  a  few  species,  others,  upon  trivial  charac- 
ters, have  made  some  15  genera,  with  about 
100  species.  ^  In  popular  nomenclature  the 
genus  is  divided  into  narcissus,  jonquil,  and 
daffodil.  Those  recognized  as  narcissuses  have 
a  very  short,  cup-like  crown  to  the  flower. 
One  ^  of  the  best  known  of  these  is  the  poets' 
narcissus  (N.  poeticus),  large  clumps  of  which 
are  common  in  old  gardens ;  the  scape,  about 
a  foot  high,  bears  but  a  single  flower,  of  the 
purest  white  color,  yellowish  at  the  throat,  the 


small  crimped  crown  with  a  bright  pink  or 
scarlet  edge ;  there  is  a  double  variety  in  which 
the  crown  disappears;  this  species,  which  is 
very  fragrant,  especially  when  double,  is  a 


Poets'  Narcissus  (N.  poeticus). 

native  of  southern  Europe  from  France  to 
Greece.  The  two-flowered  narcissus  (N.  M- 
florus)  is  also  a  native  of  the  south  of  Europe, 
but  has  become  thoroughly  naturalized  in  Eng- 
land, and  is  thought  to  be  native  to  some  parts 
of  that  country;  it  has  two  white  or  pale 
straw-colored  flowers  to  each  stem,  the  flowers 
having  a  short  yellow  crown ;  this  is  also  sweet- 
scented,  and  is  the  primrose  peerless  and  pale 
daffodil  of  the  old  gardeners.  The  hoop-petti- 
coat narcissus  •{N.  bulbocodium)  has  its  leaves 
and  flower  scapes  6  to  9  in.  long ;  the  solitary 
bright  flower  is  1J  to  2  in.  long,  with  a  very 


Two-flowered  Narcissus  (N.  biflorus). 

conspicuous  cup,  which  widens  rapidly  toward 
the  brim ;  it  is  an  exceedingly  neat  and  pretty 
species  for  the  border  or  for  pot  culture.  The 
most  prized  of  all  is  that  known  as  the  poly 


NARCISSUS 

anthus  narcissus,  which  originated  from  JV. 
Tazetta,  perhaps  crossed  with  other  species; 
the  catalogues  give  numerous  named  varieties ; 
in  all  the  bulbs  are  large,  the  flat  leaves  about 


NARD 


145 


Polyanthus  Narcissus  (N.  Tazetta). 

a  foot  long,  and  the  flower  stem,  of  about  the 
same  height,  produces  a  cluster  or  umbel  of 
six  to  ten  large  very  fragrant  flowers ;  in  the 
different  varieties  corolla  and  cup  are  both  of 
different  shades  of  yellow,  or  the  one  is  white 
while  the  other  is  yellow,  and  in  some  the 
cup  is  double.  While  this  is  the  finest,  it  is 
the  most  tender  of  all ;  but  in  the  climate  of 
New  York  city,  if  planted  6  in.  deep,  and  cov- 
ered with  litter,  it  flowers  freely  in  spring.  It 
is  very  popular  for  forcing  for  winter  bloom- 
ing.— The  species  known  as  jonquil  (diminu- 


Daffodil  (Narcissus  pseudonarcissus). 

tiye  of  Span,  junco,  from  Lat.  juncus,  a  rush)  is 
N.  jonquilla,  which  has  narrow  rush-like  or 
half  cylindrical  leaves,  which  with  the  flower 
scapes  are  about  a  foot  long ;  flowers  two  to 


five,  small,  yellow,  and  fragrant;  there  is  a 
double  variety.  The  daffodil,  which  in  Eng- 
land more  than  in  this  country  is  called  daffo- 
dilly and  daffadowndilly,  derives  its  name  from 
asphodelus,  through  affodilly,  &c. ;  the  species 
generally  known  by  this  name  is  N.  pseudo- 
narcissus^  which  has  flat  leaves  and  the  scape 
bearing  a  single  large  flower  having  a  large 
crown  or  cup;  in  the  typical  form  the  cup 
and  petals  are  of  a  uniform  yellow  color,  but 
in  the  variety  bicolor  the  petals  are  white  and 
the  cup  yellow,  and  there  are  several  other 
varieties,  including  double  and  dwarf  ones. 
One  of  the  plants  known  by  the  garden  name 
of  "butter  and  eggs"  is  the  double  form  of 
the  incomparable  daffodil  (2f.  incomparabi- 
lis\  in  which  large  lemon-colored  petals  are  in- 
termingled with  smaller  orange-colored  ones. 
There  are  several  other  species,  but  they  are 
rarely  seen  in  ordinary  cultivation. — The  com- 
mon poets'  and  two-flowered  narcissus,  the 
jonquil,  and  daffodil  are  very  common  in  gar- 
dens, especially  in  country  places,  where  they 
remain  in  the  same  place  year  after  year,  and 
form  large  clumps  which  show  a  small  num- 
ber of  flowers  for  the  quantity  of  foliage; 
being  so  hardy,  they  are  left  to  themselves 
until  the  soil  about  them  becomes  filled  with 
bulbs  and  roots  and  completely  exhausted. 
To  have  them  flower  satisfactorily  the  clumps 
should  be  taken  up  in  autumn,  divided,  and 
set  in  fresh  soil.  The  treatment  of  the  tender 
sorts  is  indicated  under  POLYANTHUS.  The 
method  of  forcing  in  pots  is  the  same  as  for 
similar  bulbs  (see  HYACINTH).  The  varieties 
of  polyanthus  are  those  most  generally  seen  in 
window  culture,  but  the  commoner  species  are 
bright  and  welcome  in  winter,  and  might  be 
more  generally*  used  for  indoor  blooming  than 
they  are.  The  gardeners  near  New  York  and 
other  cities  force  great  quantities  of  the  poets' 
narcissus,  daffodils,  &c.,  and  send  them  to  mar- 
ket in  early  spring  in  full  bloom. 

NARCOTICS  (Gr.  vapw,  torpor),  substances 
which  when  taken  into  the  blood  affect  all 
parts  of  the  nervous  system,  but  especially  the 
higher  nervous  centres,  in  the  direction  of  pa- 
ralysis. A  primary  stage  of  stimulation  some- 
times precedes  the  true  narcotic  effect,  but 
much  of  what  is  called  stimulation,  as  for 
instance  the  noisiness  or  restlessness  of  alco- 
hol, is  in  reality  the  beginning  of  narcotism, 
being  due  to  a  gradual  removal  of  the  restraints 
imposed  by  the  higher  faculties,  by  custom, 
or  by  timidity,  upon  the  lower  impulses.  In 
the  later  stages  of  narcotism  the  faculties  of 
sensation,  of  voluntary  and  reflex  motion,  are 
abolished,  and  death  may  result  from  paralysis 
of  the  centres  that  govern  the  circulation  and 
respiration.  Familiar  examples  of  this  class  of 
drugs  are  opium,  alcohol,  and  chloroform.  The 
symptoms  of  narcotism  manifested  by  special 
drugs  are  described  under  the  titles  of  those 
drugs,  and  to  them  the  reader  is  referred. 

NARCOTIffA.     See  OPIUM. 

NARD.    See  SPIKENAED. 


146 


NARES 


N  ARES.  I.  James,  an  English  composer,  born 
at  Stanwell,  Middlesex,  in  1715,  died  in  1783. 
He  was  educated  as  a  chorister  at  King's  chapel, 
London,  under  Bernard  Gates  and  Dr.  Pepusch. 
In  1734  he  was  appointed  organist  of  York 
cathedral,  in  1756  organist  and  composer  to 
George  II.,  and  in  1757  master  of  the  choris- 
ters in  the  chapel  royal.  The  last  named  office 
he  resigned  in  1780.  He  composed  several 
anthems  and  services  for  the  royal  chapel,  and 
published  "  Twenty  Anthems  in  Score,"  which 
is  still  in  constant  use  in  the  cathedrals  of 
England  and  Ireland.  He  also  published  "  The 
Royal  Pastoral,  a  Dramatic  Ode,"  and  "  A  Col- 
lection of  Catches,  Canons,  and  Glees."  II. 
Robert,  an  English  author,  son  of  the  pre- 
ceding, born  in  1753,  died  in  1829.  He  was 
educated  at  Oxford,  took  orders  in  1778,  and 
became  rector  of  Sharnford,  Leicestershire,  and 
preacher  at  Lincoln's  Inn.  Subsequently  he 
was  assistant  librarian  at  the  British  museum, 
became  archdeacon  of  Stafford,  and  held  other 
preferments.  He  published  "  Elements  of  Or- 
thoepy" (1784);  "A  Connected  and  Chrono- 
logical View  of  the  Prophecies  relating  to  the 
Christian  Church  "  (1805)  ;  "  The  Veracity  of 
the  Evangelists  Demonstrated"  (1815);  and  a 
"  Glossary  of  Words,  Phrases,  &c.,  which  have 
been  thought  to  require  illustration  in  the  works 
of  English  authors  "  (4to,  1822 ;  new  ed.,  edited 
by  J.  O.  Halliwell  and  T.  Wright,  2  vols.  8vo, 
1859).  With  Mr.  Beloe  he  founded  the  "  Brit- 
ish Critic,"  which  he  edited  for  four  years. 
III.  Edward,  an  English  author,  cousin  of  the 
preceding,  born  in  London  in  1762,  died  at 
Biddenden,  Kent,  Aug.  20,  1841.  He  was 
educated  at  Westminster  school  and  at  Christ- 
church  college,  Oxford,  and  became  a  fellow 
of  Merton  college  in  1788.  He  took  orders  in 
1792,  married  a  daughter  of  the  duke  of  Marl- 
borough  in  1797,  and  in  1798  became  rector  of 
Biddenden.  He  was  appointed  Bampton  lec- 
turer in  1805,  and  professor  of  modern  history 
at  Oxford  in  1814.  His  works  are  :  "  On  the 
Plurality  of  Worlds"  (1802);  "Evidences  of 
Christianity"  (Bampton  lectures,  1805)  ;  "  Re- 
marks on  the  Version  of  the  New  Testament 
lately  published  by  the  Unitarians"  (1810); 
"  Thinks  I  to  Myself,"  a  novel  (1811)  ;  "  Dis- 
courses on  the  Three  Creeds"  (1819);  "Ele- 
ments of  General  History,"  a  continuation  of 
Tytler's  work  (1822);  "Heraldic  Anomalies" 
(2  vols.,  1824)  ;  and  "  Memoirs  of  the  Life  and 
Administration  of  William  Cecil,  Lord  Burgh- 
ley"  (3  vols.,  1828-'31). 

1VARO,  a  town  of  Sicily,  in  the  province  and 
12  m.  E.  of  the  city  of  Girgenti,  on  the  river 
Naro ;  pop.  about  11,000.  It  is  of  Saracenic 
origin,  and  renowned  for  its  picturesque  sit- 
uation, and  has  a  feudal  castle  bearing  the 
arms  of  the  Chiaromonte  family.  It  contains 
several  churches  and  other  buildings  of  great 
antiquity,  and  has  an  active  trade  in  sulphur, 
wine,  and  oil. 

NARRAGANSETT  BAY,  on  the  S.  E.  coast  of 
Rhode  Island,  extends  from  Point  Judith  on 


NARSES 

the  W.  to  Seconnet  on  the  E.,  and  N.  to  Bul- 
lock's Point,  6  in.  below  Providence ;  it  is  28 
m.  long  by  from  3  to  12  m.  wide.  It  receives 
the  Pawtuxet,  Providence,  Pawtucket,  and 
Taunton  rivers,  and  contains  a  number  of  isl- 
ands, the  principal  of  which  are  Rhode  island, 
Canonicut,  and  Prudence.  It  is  easily  acces- 
sible, and  affords  excellent  harbors  and  road- 
steads. Newport,  Bristol,  Warren,  and  other 
towns  are  on  its  borders.  It  is  well  supplied 
with  lighthouses,  and  strongly  fortified. 

NARRAGANSETTS,  an  Algonquin  tribe  of 
American  Indians,  who  occupied  the  territory 
now  comprised  in  Rhode  Island.  They  were 
less  warlike  and  more  industrious  than  the 
Pequots.  They  had  12  towns  within  a  distance 
of  20  m.,  and  were  very  numerous.  In  1621 
their  chief  Canonicus  sent  to  Plymouth  a  bun- 
dle of  arrows  tied  with  a  snake  skin,  indi- 
cating hostile  intentions.  Gov.  Bradford  re- 
turned the  skin  filled  with  powder  and  shot, 
which  seemed  to  have  a  quieting  effect.  In 
1636  Roger  Williams  won  the  Narragansetts 
to  peace,  and  they  made  a  treaty  and  cooperated 
with  Mason  against  the  Pequots.  In  1644  Gor- 
ton induced  them  to  cede  their  lands  to  the 
king.  They  engaged  in  hostilities  in  1645,  but 
submitted  to  a  treaty  Sept.  5,  agreeing  to  pay 
indemnity  to  the  colonies.  In  King  Philip's 
war  they  were  suspected  of  aiding  their  old 
enemies  the  Pokanokets,  and  a  force  of  1,000 
men,  with  150  Mohegans  and  Pequots,  captured 
and  burned  their  fortress.  Canonchet,  their 
chief,  then  cut  off  two  English  parties  and 
destroyed  many  frontier  villages,  but  was  at 
last  taken  by  Denison  and  shot.  A  large  force 
was  then  sent  to  crush  the  tribe.  Their  chief 
fortress,  on  an  island  in  a  swamp  in  South 
Kingston,  was  taken  after  a  stubborn  fight, 
and  it  was  estimated  that  1,000  men,  women, 
and  children  were  killed ;  the  colonial  loss  was 
230.  This  war  almost  exterminated  the  Nar- 
ragansetts. The  remnant  settled  at  Charles- 
town,  R.  I.,  and  prospered.  In  1822  there 
were  407  on  their  reserve  of  3,000  acres,  with 
a  missionary,  a  church,  and  50  pupils  at  school. 
In  1833  they  had  declined  to  158,  only  7  being 
of  pure  Narragansett  blood.  Their  language 
is  preserved  in  Roger  Williams's  "  Key  into  the 
Language  of  America,"  &c.  (London,  1643). 

NARSES,  a  Byzantine  general,  born  about 
A.  D.  473,  died  in  Rome  about  568.  He  was  a 
eunuch  and  a  slave  of  Justinian,  but  rendering 
important  services  to  his  master  during  the 
riots  of  "the  blue"  and  "the  green"  in  532, 
he  was  appointed  imperial  treasurer,  and  was 
subsequently  sent  on  several  embassies.  In 
538  he  commanded  the  reenf  or  cements  sent  to 
Belisarius,  then  waging  war  against  the  Goths 
in  Italy;  but  his  jealousy  of  that  general, 
whom  he  is  supposed  to  have  had  instructions 
from  Justinian  to  thwart,  paralyzed  the  Roman 
arms  and  led  to  the  capture  of  Milan  by  the 
Goths.  Narses  was  recalled  shortly  after,  and 
for  the  next  12  years  his  name  is  hardly  men- 
tioned in  the  Byzantine  annals ;  but  in  the  im- 


NARUSZEWICZ 


NARVAEZ 


147 


perial  councils  lie  continued  to  exercise  a  pre- 
dominant influence.  He  commanded  a  second 
expedition  against  the  Goths  in  Italy  in  552, 
and  near  Rome  gained  a  victory  over  King 
Totila,  who  perished  with  6,000  of  his  sol- 
diers. This  triumph  led  to  the  surrender  of 
Rome  and  several  of  the  strongest  fortresses 
in  central  Italy.  A  vast  barbarian  army  under 
Teias,  the  successor  of  Totila,  was  soon  after- 
ward defeated  on  the  banks  of  the  Sarno,  near 
Naples,  after  a  battle  of  two  days,  in  which 
Teias  was  slain.  The  Franks  and  Alemanni, 
to  the  number  of  75,000,  now  descended  from 
the  Alps,  and  spread  themselves  over  the  whole 
peninsula.  When  they  had  become  demoral- 
ized and  weakened  by  rapine,  Narses  attacked 
them  at  Casilinum  in  Campania,  on  their  return 
northward,  with  such  vigor  that  out  of  30,000 
men  only  5,000  are  said  to  have  escaped.  This 
victory  ruined  the  barbarian  power  in  Italy, 
which  once  more  became  a  province  of  the 
empire.  Narses  was  rewarded  by  the  appoint- 
ment of  governor  of  the  conquered  territory, 
and  ruled  at  Ravenna  with  the  title  of  exarch 
for  about  14  years.  After  the  accession  of 
Justin  II.,  being  dismissed  from  office,  he  in- 
vited the  Lombards  to  invade  Italy,  probably 
anticipating  that  he  would  be  restored  to  pow- 
er in  order  to  repel  them.  In  this  he  was  dis- 
appointed, and  he  is  said  to  have  died  of  grief 
at  the  ruin  he  brought  upon  the  country. 

NARVSZEWICZ,  Adam  Stanislaw,  a  Polish  histo- 
rian, born  in  Lithuania  in  1733,  died  at  Jano- 
wiec,  Galicia,  in  1796.  He  entered  the  order 
of  Jesuits  in  1748,  travelled  through  Germany, 
France,  and  Italy,  was  appointed  professor  at 
Warsaw,  and  became  bishop  of  Smolensk  in 
1773,  and  of  Luck  in  1790.  His  "  History  of 
Poland"  (8  vols.,  Warsaw,  1780  et  seq.)  gained 
him  the  surname  of  the  Polish  Tacitus.  Among 
his  other  works  are  a  history  of  the  Tartars, 
idyls,  satires,  and  other  poems. 

NARVA,  a  town  and  port  of  European  Rus- 
sia, in  the  government  and  80  m.  S.  W.  of  the 
city  of  St.  Petersburg,  on  the  left  bank  of  the 
Narova ;  pop.  in  1867,  6,175.  It  is  surrounded 
with  a  rampart,  and  has  manufactories  of  nails, 
extensive  saw  mills,  and  productive  fisheries. 
It  was  founded  in  the  13th  century,  and  was 
formerly  a  member  of  the  Hanseatic  league, 
and  celebrated  for  its  commerce  previous  to 
the  foundation  of  St.  Petersburg.  The  inhab- 
itants of  Narva  proper  are  nearly  all  of  Ger- 
man descent,  while  the  suburb  of  Ivangorod 
is  almost  exclusively  inhabited  by  Russians. 
Near  this  town  Charles  XII.,  on  Nov.  30, 1700, 
with  an  army  of  8,500  Swedes,  defeated  more 
than  50,000  Russians  under  Peter  the  Great. 

NARVAEZ,  Pamfilo  de,  a  Spanish  explorer, 
born  in  Yalladolid  about  1480,  perished  off 
the  southern  coast  of  Louisiana  in  1528.  He 
came  to  America  apparently  as  early  as  1501, 
served  in  Santo  Domingo,  and  then  passed  to 
Cuba,  where  he  stood  next  in  command  to 
Velazquez,  the  governor.  Sent  to  Mexico  to 
reduce  Cortes,  he  was  defeated,  lost  an  eye, 


and  was  confined  as  a  prisoner  by  Cortes 
for  five  years.  He  then  went  to  Spain,  ob- 
tained a  grant  of  Florida,  and  sailed  with  a 
large  force  in  1527.  He  landed  at  Tampa  bay, 
April  16,  1528,  and  marched  to  Appalache. 
Finding  the  country  poor  and  thinly  peopled 
with  fierce  tribes,  he  at  last  made  for  the 
coast,  built  rude  boats,  and  endeavored  to 
reach  Mexico.  Soon  after  crossing  the  mouth 
of  the  Mississippi  he  was  blown  out  to  sea 
in  his  boat  and  perished.  Most  of  his  force 
sank  under  hardship  or  hostilities,  but  his  trea- 
surer Cabeca  de  Vaca  and  others  made  their 
way  across  the  continent,  and  finally  reached 
the  Spanish  settlement  of  San  Miguel  in  So- 
nora  in  May,  1536.  His  accounts  led  to  the 
exploration  of  New  Mexico  and  California. 

NARVAEZ,  Ramon  Maria,  duke  of  Valencia, 
a  Spanish  statesman,  born  in  Loja,  Andalusia, 
Aug.  4,  1800,  died  in  Madrid,  April  23,  1868. 
He  was  early  engaged  in  military  operations, 
and  was  wounded  during  the  capture  of  Cas- 
telfollit  in  1822.  In  1823,  when  the  French 
army  of  intervention  entered  Spain,  he  retired 
to  Loja,  but  returned  to  the  army  in  1832,  and 
in  1834  was  wounded  in  the  battle  of  Mendi- 
gorria.  In  1836  he  acted  under  the  orders  of 
Espartero,  and  the  reputation  which  he  gained 
by  defeating  the  Carlist  general  Gomez  (Nov. 
25,  1836)  led  to  his  advancement.  In  1838, 
by  his  rigorous  measures  against  the  brigands 
who  infested  La  Mancha,  he  restored  tranquil- 
lity to  that  province ;  and  he  was  appointed 
captain  general  of  Old  Castile  and  general  of 
an  army  of  reserve.  He  had  also  been  elected 
to  the  cortes  from  Seville,  and  on  the  formation 
in  that  city  of  a  revolutionary  junta  by  Cor- 
dova, he  repaired  thither  to  aid  that  general 
in  his  movements  against  Espartero ;  but  the 
insurrection  was  suppressed,  and  Narvaez  was 
compelled  to  seek  refuge  in  France  (1840). 
While  thert  he  continued  his  machinations 
against  Espartero,  in  conjunction  with  the 
queen  mother  Maria  Christina ;  and  in  1843,  at 
the  head  of  the  Christinos,  he  landed  at  Valen- 
cia, defeated  Gen.  Seoane  at  Torrejon  de  Ardoz 
(July  22),  and  made  his  entry  into  Madrid,  which 
led  to  the  overthrow  of  Espartero.  In  1844  he 
became  prime  minister,  and  was  created  field 
marshal,  count  of  Canadas  Altas,  and  duke  of 
Valencia.  Maria  Christina  was  permitted  to 
return  to  Madrid,  and  the  opponents  of  the 
constitution  of  1845  were  put  down  rigorously. 
His  arbitrary  disposition  gave  offence  to  many 
members  of  his  own  party,  and  brought  him 
into  collision  with  Maria  Christina,  and  he  re- 
signed in  February,  1846.  After  having  served 
for  a  short  time  as  ambassador  in  Paris,  he  was 
recalled  to  power  in  1847,  but  was  soon  dis- 
missed on  account  of  quarrels  with  the  queen 
mother.  On  Oct.  21,  1849,  he  was  restored  to 
office,  and  opposed  the  British  government's 
attempt  to  interfere  in  Spanish  affairs  with  a 
firmness  which  led  to  the  withdrawal  of  the 
British  minister  (Sir  Henry  Bulwer)  from 
Madrid,  and  to  the  temporary  interruption  of 


148 


NARWHAL 


diplomatic  relations  between  the  two  govern- 
ments. He  resigned  Jan.  10, 1851,  and  became 
ambassador  to  Vienna.  After  Espartero's  with- 
drawal, July  14,  1856,  and  O'Donnell's  brief 
term  of  office,  Narvaez  was  again  called  upon 
to  preside  over  the  cabinet,  Oct.  12,  but  with- 
out special  office.  The  concordat  of  1851  with 
the  holy  see,  which  had  been  variously  modi- 
fied, was  restored.  The  outbreak  at  Malaga 
on  Nov.  16  was  put  down  by  force  of  arms, 
and  a  general  amnesty  to  the  Carlist  rebels  of 
1855  and  1856  was  promulgated,  April  8,  1857. 
Narvaez  caused  stringent  laws  to  be  enacted 
against  the  press,  and  made  various  dignita- 
ries of  church  and  state  ex  officio  members  of 
the  senate.  Overthrown  in  November,  1857, 
he  became  once  more  chief  of  the  cabinet  in 
September,  1864;  and  in  January,  1865,  he  pro- 
posed in  the  cortes  the  abandonment  of  Santo 
Domingo,  which  was  adopted  after  protracted 
discussions.  In  June  of  the  same  year  his  min- 
istry was  overthrown ;  but  in  July,  1866,  he 
was  again  prime  minister,  and  held  that  post 
till  his  death. 

NARWHAL,  a  cetacean  mammal,  of  the  genus 
monodon  (Linn.),  frequenting  the  arctic  seas ; 
its  popular  name  is  sea  unicorn.  It  has  no 
proper  teeth,  but  in  the  males,  and  sometimes 
in  the  females,  there  are  two  tusks  arising 
from  the  intermaxillary  bone ;  these  are  true 
incisors,  but  only  one,  usually  the  left,  is  de- 
veloped, the  other  remaining  rudimentary  in 
most  cases ;  the  former  is  long,  pointed,  spirally 
twisted  and  grooved,  and  directed  straight  for- 
ward, growing  through  life  from  a  permanent 
pulp  as  in  the  elephant.  The  tusk,  of  solid 
ivory  and  6  or  8  ft.  long,  is  a  most  formidable 
weapon  when  wielded  by  such  an  active  and 
powerful  animal,  and  is  sometimes  driven  deep- 
ly into  the  timbers  of  a  ship.  According  to 
Mulder  there  are  two  small  teeth  in  the  gum  of 
the  upper  jaw.  In  the  only  well  ascertained 


Narwhal. 


species  (M.  monoceros,  Linn.)  the  body  may 
attain  a  length  of  15  or  16  ft.,  and  the  tusk 
from  6  to  10  additional ;  there  is  no  well  marked 
separation  between  the  head  and  body ;  the 
forehead  rises  suddenly,  and  the  blow-hole  is 
on  the  top  of  the  head ;  the  eyes  and  mouth 


NASCAPEES 

are  small,  and  the  lips  unyielding ;  the  pecto- 
rals are  small  for  the  size  of  the  animal;  the 
caudal  is  transverse,  bilobed,  and  about  4  ft. 
wide ;  instead  of  a  dorsal  fin  there  is  a  low 
fatty  ridge  2  or  3  ft.  long  in  the  middle  of  the 
back.  The  prevailing  color  is  dark  gray  above 
with  numerous  darker  spots,  white  on  the  sides 
and  below,  on  the  former  with  grayish  spots ; 
some  specimens  are  very  light-colored,  and  the 
young  are  said  to  be  bluish  gray.  The  food 
consists  principally  of  cephalopod  mollusks, 
and,  on  the  authority  of  Scoresby,  of  flat  and 
other  fishes,  which  it  transfixes  with  its  horn ; 
other  uses  of  this  weapon  are  for  breaking  the 
ice  for  the  purpose  of  obtaining  air,  and  for 
defence.  Narwhals  are  sometimes  seen  in  bands 
of  10  to  20,  sporting  about  whaling  ships,  ele- 
vating their  tusks  above  the  water,  and  play- 
ing about  the  bows  and  rudder ;  they  are  mi- 
gratory, and  their  appearance  is  hailed  with 
delight  by  the  Greenlanders,  who  consider 
them  the  certain  forerunners  of  the  right 
whale ;  and  this,  the  result  of  their  experience, 
is  probably  due  to  both  using  the  same  kind 
of  food.  They  are  harpooned  for  their  ivory, 
oil,  and  flesh ;  the  last  is  considered  a  delicacy 
as  food  by  the  Greenlanders.  The  blubber  is 
from  2  to  4  in.  thick,  and  yields  a  very  supe- 
rior oil.  The  ivory  of  the  tusk  is  very  hard 
and  white,  and  takes  a  high  polish ;  it  was 
formerly  a  valuable  article  of  commerce,  when 
the  origin  of  the  horns  was  less  known ;  a 
famous  throne  of  the  kings  of  Denmark  is  said 
to  be  made  of  the  ivory  of  narwhals'  tusks. 

NASCAPEES,  and  Nehiroirini  or  Montagnais,  In- 
dian tribes  of  Labrador,  the  most  easterly  di- 
vision of  the  great  Algonquin  nation.  The 
Nehiroirini,  called  Montagnais  by  the  French 
Canadians,  now  occupy  the  territory  from  the 
Saguenay  to  the  straits  of  Belle  Isle  ;  but  when 
the  French  first  settled  Quebec  they  held  the 
valley  of  the  St.  Lawrence  from  above  that 
point.  They  were  always  friendly  to  the  set- 
tlers, but  were  driven  back  by  the  Iroquois  and 
the  want  of  game  to  their  present  location,  the 
Esquimaux  retiring  before  them.  The  Catho- 
lic missions  among  them  established  in  Cham- 
plain's  time  are  still  maintained;  but  they 
are  hunters,  and  cannot  be  made  cultivators. 
The  caribou  is  their  chief  game.  They  dress 
well  in  skins  or  purchased  clothing,  but  live 
in  wretched  cabins  of  poles  covered  with  bark 
and  branches,  often  pitched  on  the  snow  or 
damp  grounds.  La  Brosse,  the  last  of  the  old 
Jesuit  missionaries,  taught  them  generally  tb 
read  and  write,  and  this  knowledge  is  still 
maintained  by  family  instruction.  They  num- 
bered in  1872  about  1,700  in  various  bands  at 
Point  Bleu,  Chicoutimi,  Moisie,  the  Seven  Isl- 
ands, Cascapediac,  and  River  Godbout.  The 
Nascapees  or  Naskapis  (i.  e.,  people  standing 
upright)  occupy  the  table  land  in  the  interior 
from  Lake  Mistassini  to  the  Atlantic.  They 
are  shorter  and  lighter  than  the  Montagnais, 
with  clear-cut  features  and  large  eyes.  Their 
language  is  so  near  the  Montagnais  that  they 


NASEBY 


NASH 


149 


talk  with  each  other  without  difficulty.  They 
are  slovenly  in  their  persons  and  careless,  often 
in  want,  and  driven  even  to  acts  of  cannibal- 
ism. Missions  have  benefited  some  bands  only. 
They  telegraph  by  fires  on  high  places,  and 
mark  their  routes  by  poles  with  bark  pendents. 
They  believe  in  a  great  spirit  and  in  Atshem, 
a  spirit  of  evil.  The  government  returns  of 
1870  put  their  number  at  2,860.  These  two 
tribes  have  been  styled  by  Gallatin  and  others 
Sheshapootosh  and  Scoffies,  names  unknown 
in  Canada  and  derived  only  from  an  ignorant 
Micmac  boy.  Grammars  and  dictionaries  of 
the  Montagnais  by  missionaries  at  various  dates 
exist  in  manuscript,  but  only  devotional  works 
have  been  printed  in  the  language. 

NASEBY,  a  village  of  Northamptonshire,  Eng- 
land, 12  m.  N.  N.  W.  of  Northampton,  where 
was  fought  a  decisive  battle  between  Charles 
I.  and  the  parliamentary  forces  under  Fairfax, 
June  14,  1645.  After  the  capture  of  Leicester 
by  the  royal  army,  Fairfax,  who  was  besieging 
Oxford,  marched  into  Northamptonshire.  The 
two  armies,  about  equal  in  number,  confronted 
each  other  on  the  morning  of  June  14,  the 
parliamentarians  occupying  a  strong  position 
near  Naseby,  and  the  king's  troops  being  drawn 
up  one  mile  south  of  Harborough.  The  royal 
centre  was  commanded  by  the  king  in  person, 
the  right  wing  by  Prince  Eupert,  and  the  left 
by  Sir  Marmaduke  Langdale.  Fairfax,  sup- 
ported by  Skippon,  commanded  the  centre  of 
his  army,  with  Cromwell  on  his  right  wing  and 
Ireton  on  his  left.  The  royalists  made  the  at- 
tack, and  Rupert  with  his  cavaliers  charged  with 
such  fury  upon  Ireton  that  his  wing  was  broken 
and  put  to  flight.  Instead  of  supporting  his 
royal  kinsman,  Rupert  detached  himself  from 
the  main  battle  to  pursue  the  fugitives.  The 
royal  centre  maintained  an  obstinate  contest 
till  Cromwell,  having  routed  the  forces  of  Sir 
Marmaduke  Langdale,  fell  suddenly  upon  its 
rear,  when,  unsupported  by  either  of  its  wings, 
it  almost  immediately  surrendered.  One  regi- 
ment alone  held  out  for  the  king,  but  was 
finally  broken  by  repeated  charges.  At  this 
moment  Rupert  returned  from  his  needless 

Pursuit  of  Ireton's  troops,  with  his  men  and 
orses  exhausted  and  the  time  for  effective  aid 
gone  by.  The  king  saved  himself  only  by  a 
precipitate  flight.  The  royalists  lost  800  killed 
and  4,500  prisoners,  besides  their  artillery  and 
ammunition;  the  parliamentarians  had  1,000 
killed.  A  number  of  private  letters  between 
Charles  and  his  queen,  subsequently  published 
under  the  title  of  "The  King's  Cabinet  Open- 
ed," also  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  victors. 

NASH,  a  N.  E.  county  of  North  Carolina, 
bounded  S.  W.  by  Contentny  creek  and  N.  by 
Swift  creek,  and  intersected  by  Tar  river ;  area, 
640  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  11,077,  of  whom 
4,721  were  colored.  The  surface  is  uneven. 
The  chief  productions  in  1870  were  8,046  bush- 
els of  wheat,  152,506  of  Indian  corn,  14,356 
of  oats,  24,907  of  sweet  potatoes,  and  3,697 
bales  of  cotton.  There  were  845  horses,  444 


mules  and  asses,  1,443  milch  cows,  911  work- 
ing oxen,  2,073  other  cattle,  2,619  sheep,  and 
10,697  swine.  Capital,  Nashville. 

NASH,  Joseph,  an  English  water-color  painter, 
born  about  1813.  He  is  chiefly  distinguished 
as  a  painter  of  architecture,  and  his  "Archi- 
tecture of  the  Middle  Ages"  (fol.,  1838),  and 
"Mansions  of  England  in  the  Olden  Time" 
(4  vols.  fol.,  1839-'49),  lithographed  in  colors 
from  his  drawings,  are  among  his  works  which 
have  been  published.  He  has  painted  histori- 
cal scenes  from  Shakespeare  and  Scott,  and 
miscellaneous  subjects,  such  as  "  The  Queen's 
Visit  to  Lincoln's  Inn  Hall"  (1846),  "Charles 
V,  visiting  Francis  I."  (1865),  "The  Chapel  of 
Edward  the  Confessor  in  Westminster  Abbey  " 
(1866),  and  "  Louis  Philippe's  Bedroom  at 
Claremont "  (1867). 

NASH,  Richard,  known  as  Beau  Nash,  born  in 
Swansea,  Glamorganshire,  Oct.  18,  1674,  died 
in  Bath,  Feb.  3,  1761.  After  a  preliminary 
education  at  Carmarthen  school,  he  was  en- 
tered at  Jesus  college,  Oxford,  where  he  dis- 
played some  ability,  but  was  chiefly  distin- 
guished by  dissipation.  To  preserve  him  from 
an  imprudent  marriage,  he  was  at  17  years  of 
age  removed  from  the  university,  and  his  father 
purchased  for  him  a  commission  in  the  army ; 
but  wearying  of  the  monotony  of  barrack  life, 
he  entered  himself  a  student  of  law  in  the 
Middle  Temple.  Instead  of  studying,  however, 
he  devoted  himself  to  pleasure,  and  with  re- 
sources supplied  from  the  gaming  table  he  be- 
came a  leader  of  fashion  and  a  man  about  town. 
On  the  occasion  of  an  entertaiment  given  by 
the  members  of  the  Middle  Temple  to  William 
III.,  he  conducted  the  pageant  with  so  much 
tact  and  address  that  the  king  offered  to  knight 
him  ;  but  Nash,  sensible  of  his  uncertain  means 
of  support,  declined  the  honor.  In  1704  he 
visited  Bath,  then  just  rising  into  importance 
as  a  watering  place,  and  the  citizens  appointed 
him  master  of  ceremonies.  He  succeeded  in  a 
short  time  in  securing  for  the  place  the  repu- 
tation of  an  agreeable  resort  for  valetudinarians 
as  well  as  mere  seekers  of  pleasure.  Decency 
of  dress  and  civility  of  manners  were  enforced 
in  the  public  resorts,  an  elegant  assembly  room 
was  built,  streets  and  buildings  were  improved, 
and  in  process  of  time  a  handsome  city  was 
established  in  place  of  what  had  been  only  a 
dull  provincial  town.  Nash  himself  shared  in 
the  prosperity  which  he  had  promoted,  and, 
from  his  influence  and  the  deference  in  which 
he  was  held  by  citizens  as  well  as  visitors,  was 
styled  the  "  king  of  Bath."  Supporting  himself 
still  by  the  gaming  table,  he  lived  in  great  style, 
travelling  in  a  coach  and  six  with  outriders, 
and  dispensing  charities  with  reckless  profu- 
sion. Toward  the  close  of  his  life  his  glory 
waned,  and  after  the  act  of  parliament  against 
gambling  he  lived  in  comparative  indigence. 
He  was  honored  by  a  public  funeral,  and  a 
marble  statue  of  him  was  placed  in  the  pump 
room  of  the  king's  bath.  Nash  was  ungainly 
in  person,  with  coarse  and  ugly  features,  and 


150 


NASH 


dressed  in  a  tawdry  style.    A  life  of  him  by 
Goldsmith  was  published  anonymously  in  1762. 

NASH,  Thomas,  an  English  dramatist,  born  in 
Lowestoft,  Suffolk,  about  1560,  died  in  London 
in  1600  or  1601.  He  took  the  degree  of  B.  A. 
at  Cambridge  in  1584,  and  in  1589  fixed  his 
abode  in  London.  The  prelatists  and  Puritans 
being  then  engaged  in  a  war  of  vituperation, 
Nash  espoused  the  cause  of  the  former,  and 
wrote  a  series  of  pamphlets  including  "Pap 
with  a  Hatchet,"  "An  Almond  for  a  Par- 
rot," "A  Countercuffe  to  Martin  Junior,"  and 
"Martin's  Month's  Minde."  He  aided  Mar- 
lowe in  writing  "Dido,  Queen  of  Carthage," 
and  produced  a  spectacle  styled  "Summer's 
Last  Will  and  Testament,"  which  was  exhib- 
ited before  Queen  Elizabeth  in  1592.  Nash's 
plays  were  ill  received,  and  he  became  very 
poor.  He  described  his  forlorn  condition  in 
his  "  Pierce  Penniless,  his  Supplication  to  the 
Divell,"  which  appeared  in  1592.  He  then 
resumed  pamphleteering,  and  assailed  Dr.  Ga- 
briel Harvey,  who  made  a  stout  defence ;  and 
finally  the  archbishop  of  Canterbury  ordered 
the  publications  of  both  to  be  seized.  In  1597" 
Nash  produced  a  satirical  play  called  "The 
Isle  of  Dogs,"  the  representation  of  which  led 
to  his  confinement  in  the  Fleet  prison. 

NASHUA,  a  city  and  one  of  the  shire  towns  of 
Hillsborough  co.,  New  Hampshire,  at  the  junc- 
tion of  the  Merrimack  and  Nashua  rivers,  35 
m.  S.  of  Concord,  and  40  m.  N.  N.  W.  of  Bos- 
ton; pop.  in  1870,  10,543.  The  streets  are 
broad,  well  lighted,  and  lined  with  trees,  and 
many  of  the  churches  and  residences  are  hand- 
some. Its  prosperity  depends  upon  its  railroad 
facilities  and  its  manufactures.  The  railroads 
meeting  here  are  the  Boston,  Lowell,  and 
Nashua;  the  Concord;  the  Nashua,  Acton, 
and  Boston;  the  Worcester  and  Nashua;  the 
Wilton;  and  the  Nashua  and  Rochester.  Water 
power  is  obtained  from  the  Mine  falls  in  the 
Nashua  river,  from  which  a  canal  has  been  cut, 
3  m.  long,  60  ft.  wide,  and  8  ft.  deep,  with  a 
head  and  fall  of  36  ft.  The  Jackson  company, 
with  766  looms  and  22,000  spindles,  produces 
sheetings  and  shirtings ;  the  Nashua  manufac- 
turing company,  with  1,800  looms  and  75,000 
spindles,  manufactures  sheetings,  shirtings, 
prints,  and  flannels ;  and  the  Vale  Mills  manu- 
facturing company,  with  4,684  spindles,  pro- 
duces shirtings.  There  are  also  extensive  iron 
works,  with  the  largest  steam  hammer  in  the 
United  States,  soapstone  works,  and  manufac- 
tories of  bedsteads,  carpets,  bobbins,  spools, 
and  shuttles,  cards  and  glazed  paper,  edge  tools, 
locks,  shoes,  marble-working  tools  and  imple- 
ments, sash,  doors,  and  blinds,  &c.  The  city 
has  two  national  banks  and  three  savings  banks. 
There  are  a  high  school  and  several  grammar, 
middle,  and  primary  schools,  with  an  average 
attendance  of  1,790;  a  city  library,  with  about 
6,000  volumes;  two  daily  and  two  weekly 
newspapers ;  and  11  churches,  viz. :  1  Baptist, 
3  Congregational,  1  Episcopal,  2  Methodist,  2 
Roman  Catholic,  1  Unitarian,  and  1  Universal- 


NASHVILLE 

ist.  Nashua  owes  its  origin  to  the  organiza- 
tion of  the  Nashua  manufacturing  company  in 
1823.  It  was  incorporated  as  a  city  in  1853. 

NASHVILLE,  a  port  of  delivery  and  the  capi- 
tal of  Tennessee,  seat  of  justice  of  Davidson 
co.,  the  second  city  of  the  state  in  point  of 
population,  situated  on  the  S.  bank  of  the 
Cumberland  river,  200  m.  above  its  junction 
with  the  Ohio,  a  little  N.  of  the  centre  of  the 
state,  and  240  m.  S.  S.  W.  of  Cincinnati ;  lat. 
36°  10'  N.,  Ion.  86°  49'  W. ;  pop.  in  1830, 
5,566;  in  1840,  6,929;  in  1850,  10,165;  in 
1860,  16,988;  in  1870,  25,865,  of  whom  9,709 
were  colored  and  2,809  foreigners.  The  river 
bluffs  are  here  rocky,  and  rise  70  or  80  ft. 
above  low-water  mark.  The  land  on  which 
the  city  is  built  is  irregular,  rising  in  gradual 
slopes,  with  the  exception  of  Capitol  hill, 
which  is  more  abrupt.  This  eminence  is  sym- 
metrical, resembling  an  Indian  mound,  and 
overlooks  the  entire  city.  Nashville  is  regu- 
larly laid  out,  with  streets  crossing  each  other 
at  right  angles,  but  mostly  rather  narrow.  It 
is  generally  well  built,  and  there  are  numerous 
imposing  public  and  private  buildings.  One 
of  the  finest  of  the  former  is  the  capitol,  situ- 
ated on  Capitol  hill,  and  constructed  inside  and 
out  of  a  beautiful  variety  of  fossiliferous  lime- 
stone. It  is  three  stories  high  including  the 
basement.  At  each  end  there  is  an  Ionic  por- 
tico of  eight  columns,  each  4  ft.  6  in.  in  diameter 
and  33  ft.  5  in.  high,  and  each  of  the  sides  has 
also  a  portico  of  six  columns.  A  tower  rises 
above  the  centre  of  the  roof  to  the  height  of 
206  ft.  from  the  ground.  It  has  a  quadrangu- 
lar rusticated  base,  42  ft.  high,  surmounted  by 
a  circular  cell  37  ft.  high  and  26  ft.  8  in.  in 
diameter,  with  eight  fluted  Corinthian  col- 
umns, designed  from  the  choragic  monument  of 
Lysicrates  at  Athens.  The  dimensions  of  the 
whole  building  are  239  by  138  ft.,  and  it  cost 
nearly  $1,000.000.  It  is  approached  by  four 
avenues  which  rise  from  terrace  to  terrace  by 
broad  marble  steps.  The  edifice  is  considered 
one  of  the  handsomest  public  buildings  in  the 
country.  The  court  house  is  a  large  building 
on  the  public  square,  with  an  eight-columned 
Corinthian  portico  at  each  end,  and  a  four-col- 
umned portico  at  each  side.  The  market  house, 
also  on  the  public  square,  is  a  fine  building. 
The  county  jail  is  a  substantial  structure  of 
stone.  The  state  penitentiary  buildings,  also 
of  stone,  occupy  three  sides  of  a  hollow  square 
enclosed  by  a  massive  stone  wall,  within  which 
are  numerous  workshops.  The  Hermitage,  the 
celebrated  residence  of  Andrew  Jackson,  is  12 
m.  E.  of  Nashville.  The  city  has  several  lines 
of  street  railway.  It  is  lighted  with  gas,  and 
is  supplied  with  water  by  expensive  works, 
which  raise  it  from  the  river  to  four  reservoirs. 
The  Cumberland  is  navigable  below  this  point 
for  about  nine  months  in  the  year,  and  to  Car- 
thage, 100  m.  above,  for  about  the  same  .time, 
and  for  four  months  to  Point  Burnside,  260  m. 
above  Carthage,  tapping  the  great  Appalachian 
coal  field.  At  Nashville  it  is  crossed  by  an 


NASHVILLE 


151 


Nashville. 


iron  railroad  bridge,  with  an  immense  draw  of 
280  ft.,  and  two  stationary  spans,  each  of  200 
ft.,  and  also  by  a  wire  suspension  bridge.  Rail- 
road communication  with  Louisville,  St.  Louis, 
Memphis,  Chattanooga,  Montgomery,  and  other 
points  is  furnished  by  the  Louisville,  Nashville, 
and  Great  Southern,  the  Nashville,  Chatta- 
nooga, and  St.  Louis,  the  St.  Louis  and  South- 
eastern, and  the  Tennessee  and  Pacific  lines. 
These  railroads  and  the  river  enable  the  city 
to  command  the  trade  of  an  extensive  and 
productive  region.  Its  business  is  rapidly  in- 
creasing. The  value  of  its  wholesale  trade  in 
1873  was  as  follows: 


BRANCHES. 

Value. 

BRANCHES. 

Value. 

$2.000,000 
1,043,250 

750.000 
500,000 
300,000 

250,000 
200,000 

2,500,000 
1,069,000 
110.000 
400,000 
500,000 

800,000 

Cotton 

$4,250.000 
416.320 
1,300,000! 
4,000,000' 
7,000.000; 
2,000,000  i 
300,000, 
1,500,000! 
10,000,000 

1,300,000 
1.000,000 
1,200,000 
5,000,000! 
688,000! 
175,000' 
210,000 
200,000 

200,000 

Cigars  and  tobacco 
Live  stock  .  . 

Leaf  tobacco  
Provisions  
Dry  goods  
Liquors  
Boots  and  shoos.  .  . 
Hats  
Hardware  
Groceries  
Notions  and  white 
goods  

i  Stoves    and    tin- 

Furniture     .  ... 

Paper  
Coach  and  saddle- 
ry hardware  
Saddlery  and  har- 
ness trade  
Other      manufac- 

Drugs  

Clothing  

Flour  and  wheat.. 
Corn  and  oats  
Salt  
Leather  

Millinery 

Coal 

Books  and  station- 

Hides  

China,  glass,    and 
queensware  

Total  $51,261,570 

Nashville  has  one  large  cotton  factory,  oper- 
ating in  1875  400  looms  and  13,840  spindles, 
and  employing  325  hands;  in  1874  it  produced 
2,628,907  yards,  chiefly  sheetings.  There  are 
seven  saw  mills,  five  flour  mills,  eight  planing 


mills  and  sash  and  blind  factories,  two  cotton- 
seed oil  mills,  two  tanneries,  two  manufactories 
of  chairs,  four  of  furniture,  three  of  wagons, 
four  of  carriages,  one  of  cedar  ware,  one  of  fer- 
tilizers, several  of  mattresses,  saddletrees  and 
trunks,  brooms,  shoes,  and  clothing,  six  found- 
eries,  six  machine  shops,  two  brass  founderies, 
a  brewery,  distilleries,  and  paper  mills.  There 
are  four  national  banks,  with  an  aggregate 
capital  of  $900,000,  a  savings  bank,  and  three 
fire  and  three  life  insurance  companies. — The 
city  is  divided  into  10  wards,  and  is  governed 
by  a  mayor  and  a  board  of  aldermen  of  one 
member  and  a  common  council  of  two  mem- 
bers from  each  ward.  There  is  an  efficient 
police  force  and  a  well  organized  fire  depart- 
ment. The  receipts  into  the  city  treasury,  for 
the  year  ending  Oct.  1, 1874,  were  $456,535  80 ; 
disbursements,  $461,599  11 ;  city  debt,  $1,630,- 
506  22;  assessed  value  of  property,  $13,355,281, 
embracing  about  two  thirds  of  the  property  of 
the  city.  The  principal  charitable  and  reform- 
atory institutions  are  the  state  institution  for 
the  blind,  several  hospitals,  two  orphan  asy- 
lums near  the  city,  the  city  workhouse,  and 
a  house  of  industry  for  females.  About  6 
m.  from  the  city  is  the  county  poorhouse,  and 
about  the  same  distance  the  state  hospital 
for  the  insane.  Nashville  is  the  seat  of  sev- 
eral important  educational  institutions.  The 
university  of  Nashville  was  incorporated  in 
1785  under  the  name  of  Davidson  academy, 
and  in  1806  as  Cumberland  college ;  it  received 
its  present  title  in  1826.  The  literary  depart- 
ment was  united  in  1855  with  the  "  Western 
Military  Institute,"  and  was  conducted  on  the 
military  plan  until  the  breaking  out  of  the 
civil  war.  After  its  close  the  Montgomery 


152 


NASHVILLE 


Bell  academy,  an  endowed  institution,  was 
united  with  it.  The  main  building  is  a  hand- 
some Gothic  edifice  of  stone.  In  1873-'4  there 
were  9  instructors,  179  preparatory  and  44  col- 
legiate students,  and  a  library  of  11,000  vol- 
umes. The  medical  department,  opened  in 
1850,  also  occupies  a  fine  building;  it  has  an 
extensive  museum,  and  the  charge  of  a  miner- 
alogical  cabinet  of  20,000  specimens  collected 
by  Dr.  Gerard  Troost.  The  number  of  instruc- 
tors in  1873-'4  was  10 ;  of  students,  235.  The 
funds  and  property  of  the  university  amount 
to  $300,000.  Fisk  university  was  established 
in  1866  by  several  northern  gentlemen  for  the 
colored  youth  of  the  state.  The  course  em- 
braces the  common  and  preparatory  branch- 
es as  well  as  those  of  collegiate  grade.  The 
number  of  instructors  in  1873-'4  was  13 ;  of 
students,  424.  The  Tennessee  Central  college 
(Methodist),  also  for  colored  people,  was  es- 
tablished in  1866,  and  in  1873-'4  had  8  pro- 
fessors and  28  students ;  it  embraces  academic, 
normal,  preparatory,  collegiate,  and  theologi- 
cal departments.  The  Tennessee  college  of 
pharmacy,  organized  in  1872,  in  1873-'4  had 

5  professors  and  20  students.     The  buildings 
of  Vanderbilt  university,  named  in  honor  of 
Cornelius  Vanderbilt  of  New  York, -who  gave 
$500,000  for  its  establishment,  are  in  course 
of  erection.     It  is  under  the  control  of  the 
Methodist  Episcopal  church,  South,  and  is  in- 
tended to  comprise  theological,  law,  medical, 
and  literary  and  scientific  departments.     Oth- 
er educational  institutions  are  a  young  ladies' 
seminary,  a  select  school,  and  the  following 
under  the  control  of  the  Koman  Catholics: 
St.  Cecilia's  academy  for  young  ladies,  St.  Ber- 
nard's academy,  and  a  parochial  school.     The 
public  schools  are  graded,  embracing  a  high 
school  department,  and  are  in  a  flourishing 
condition.     The  number  of  children  between 

6  and  18  years  of  age  in  1873-'4  was  8,877; 
number  enrolled  in  public  schools,  3,656  (2,820 
white  and  836  colored);  average  attendance, 
2,520 ;  number  of  teachers,  70 ;  total  expendi- 
tures for  school  purposes,  $75,170  53,  of  which 
$11,000  was  for  permanent  improvements,  and 
$48,180  25  for  teachers'  salaries;  number  of 
school  houses,  6  (4  for  white  and  2  for  colored 
children)  ;  number  of  sittings,  3,345  ;  value  of 
school  property,  $141,000.     The  state  library 
in  the  capitol  has  20,000,  volumes  and  5,000 
pamphlets,  and  the  city  library  6,000  volumes. 
There  are  two  daily,  two  tri-weekly,  and  eleven 
weekly  newspapers,  and  nine  monthly  and  two 
quarterly  periodicals.     There  are  34  churches, 
viz. :  6  Baptist  (3  colored),  3  Christian  (1  col- 
ored), 1  Cumberland  Presbyterian,  3  Episcopal, 
1  German  Lutheran,  2  Jewish,  5  Methodist 
Episcopal  (1  German),  7  Methodist  Episcopal, 
South,  4  Presbyterian,  and  2  Eoman  Catho- 
lic-— The  first  permanent  settlement  at  Nash- 
ville was  made  in  1779-'80,  and  the  town  was 
incorporated  in  1784,  and  received  a  city  char- 
ter in  1806.     The  state  legislature  met  here 
from  1812  to  1815  inclusive,  when  it  was  trans- 


ferred to  Murfreesbpro ;  but  since  1826  it  has 
sat  at  Nashville,  which  was  made  the  perma- 
nent capital  of  the  state  by  a  legislative  act 
of  1843.  In  July,  1850,  a  convention  of  dele- 
gates from  several  of  the  southern  states  was 
held  in  Nashville,  at  which  secession  was  open- 
ly urged.  In  February,  1862,  the  city  was  the 
headquarters  of  the  confederate  general  A. 
S.  Johnston,  while  he  was  awaiting  the  re- 
sult of  Grant's  operations  against  Fort  Donel- 
son.  When  tidings  came  that  the  fort  had 
been  captured  the  legislature  was  in  session ;  it 
was  immediately  adjourned  by  the  governor 
to  meet  at  Memphis.  It  was  Sunday;  the 
churches  were  deserted,  and  the  streets  were 
piled  up  with  property  for  removal.  John- 
ston hastily  abandoned  the  city,  which  was 
given  over  to  the  mob,  and  a  scene  of  gene- 
ral plunder  ensued.  The  Union  forces  moved 
upon  Nashville,  which  was  entered  without 
opposition  by  a  detachment  under  Gen.  Buell, 
Feb.  26,  Grant  arriving  the  next  day.  An- 
drew Johnson  was  appointed  military  gover- 
nor of  Tennessee,  March  5,  and  reached  Nash- 
ville on  the  12th.  The  common  council  re- 
fused to  take  the  oath  of  allegiance,  and  were 
removed ;  the  mayor  was  placed  under  arrest, 
and  the  press  put  under  military  supervision. 
During  the  ensuing  summer  several  unsuccess- 
ful attempts  were  made  by  the  confederates  to 
regain  possession  of  the  city.  In  November, 
1864,  Gen.  Thomas  being  in  command  of  the 
Union  army  of  Tennessee,  Gen.  Hood,  who 
had  succeeded  Gen.  J.  E.  Johnston  and  lost 
Atlanta,  commenced  an  invasion  of  that  state. 
Gen.  Schofield,  with  a  large  Union  division, 
fell  back.  He  was  overtaken  at  Franklin,  18 
m.  S.  of  Nashville,  and  a  severe  action  en- 
sued, Nov.  30.  The  confederates  assaulted  the 
Union  intrenchments  and  were  repulsed,  los- 
ing 4,500  men  according  to  Hood's  account,  or 
about  6,000  according  to  Schofield's  estimate. 
Schofield  then  joined  Thomas  at  Nashville, 
which  was  strongly  fortified.  Hood  followed, 
and  early  in  December  intrenched  himself  in 
front  of  the  Union  lines.  On  the  15th  Thomas 
made  an  attack  in  force  and  drove  the  enemy 
from  their  works.  During  the  night  Hood 
took  up  another  position,  where  he  was  at- 
tacked by  Thomas  in  the  afternoon  of  the 
16th.  The  confederates  were  driven  off  in 
almost  total  rout;  but  night  coming  on,  the 
pursuit  was  suspended.  It  was  resumed  on 
the  next  day,  mainly  by  cavalry.  Hood  main- 
tained a  strong  rear  guard,  and  succeeded,  after 
several  sharp  skirmishes,  in  reaching  the  Ten- 
nessee river,  which  he  crossed  on  the  27th. 
No  trustworthy  reports  have  ever  been  made 
of  the  losses  in  these  actions.  Thomas  puts 
his  loss  in  killed,  wounded,  and  missing  du- 
ring the  entire  campaign  at  about  10,000.  He 
states  that  he  took  13,189  prisoners;  the 
confederates  lost  several  thousands  by  deser- 
tion ;  and  their  entire  loss  was  probably  nearly 
25,000,  besides  72  guns  and  a  large  number  of 
small  arms.  For  all  practical  purposes  their 


NASMYTH 


NASSAU 


153 


army  was  entirely  broken  up,  and  Hood  was 
removed  from  command  Jan.  23,  1865. 

NASMYTH,  James,  a  British  inventor,  born  in 
Edinburgh,  Aug.  19,  1808.  He  studied  in  the 
school  of  arts  and  at  the  university  of  Edin- 
burgh, and  was  employed  in  London  previous 
to  settling  in  Manchester  in  1834,  when  he 
founded  an  extensive  establishment  for  the 
manufacture  of  machinery,  from  which  he  re- 
tired in  1856.  He  invented  the  steam  ham- 
mer, the  steam  pile  driver,  and  a  new  and  effec- 
tive kind  of  ordnance,  and  constructed  pow- 
erful telescopes  for  investigating  the  moon. 
In  conjunction  with  James  Carpenter,  he  pub- 
lished "  The  Moon  considered  as  a  Planet,  a 
World,  and  a  Satellite  "  (2d  ed.,  1874). 

NASO,  a  town  of  Sicily,  in  the  province  and 
40  m.  W.  S.  W.  of  the  city  of  Messina ;  pop. 
about  8,000.  It  is  celebrated  for  its  pictu- 
resque situation  and  its  mediaeval  appearance. 
It  contains  fine  buildings,  and  the  trade  is  ac- 
tive. In  the  vicinity  are  ferruginous  springs. 
Some  authorities  identify  Naso  with  the  an- 
cient Agathyrnum  or  Agathyrna,  but  the  site 
of  the  latter  town  is  also  assigned  to  another 
locality,  and  is  altogether  doubtful. 

NASR-ED-DIN,  shah  of  Persia,  born  in  1829. 
He  succeeded  to  the  throne  on  the  death  of 
his  father,  Muhammad,  Sept.  10,  1848.  The 
principal  events  of  his  reign  are  his  successful 
contests  with  some  of  the  neighboring  tribes ; 
his  defeat  in  the  war  with  England  (1856-'7); 
a  famine  which  broke  out  in  1871,  and  desola- 
ted a  large  portion  of  the  country;  and  his 
visit  in  1873  to  European  courts,  the  Russian 
and  British  cabinets  both  attempting  to  secure 
his  good  will.  While  in  England  he  made 
concessions  to  Reuter  for  establishing  railways 
and  canals  and  working  mines  in  Persia ;  but 
differences  arose  between  the  contracting  par- 
ties, and  nothing  has  yet  been  effected  (1875). 
The  shah  wrote  a  curious  diary  of  his  Euro- 
pean tour,  which  was  translated  verbatim  into 
English  by  J.  W.  Redhouse  (London,  1874). 

NASSAU,  formerly  a  German  duchy,  bounded 
by  the  Prussian  provinces  of  the  Rhine  and 
Westphalia,  by  Hesse-Darmstadt,  Hesse-Cassel, 
Hesse-Homburg,  and  Frankfort;  area,  1,808 
sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1866,  468,311.  It  now  forms 
the  S.  W.  part  of  the  Prussian  province  of 
Hesse-Nassau,  including  the  beautiful  valley  of 
the  Lahn,  between  the  Taunus  range  in  the 
southeast  and  the  Westerwald  in  the  north- 
west; the  towns  of  Wiesbaden  (the  former 
capital),  Diez,  Dillenburg,  and  Herborn;  the 
watering  places  Ems,  Selters,  and  Schwalbach ; 
and  the  renowned  vineyards  of  Johannisberg, 
Hochheim,  Rtidesheim,  and  Asmannshausen. — 
In  Germanic  antiquity  Nassau  was  inhabited 
by  various  tribes  of  Alemanni.  After  their  in- 
corporation with  the  Prankish  empire  various 
families  rose  into  prominence,  among  which 
was  that  of  Laurenburg  or  Lurenburg.  Wai- 
ram  I.  (died  in  1020)  was  by  his  two  sons, 
Walram  II.  and  Otho,  the  founder  of  two  lines, 
the  older  of  which  subsequently  assumed  the 


title  of  counts  of  Nassau,  after  a  small  rural 
settlement  of  that  name,  which  is  mentioned 
in  a  public  record  as  early  as  A.  D.  794.  The 
younger  son  became  by  marriage  with  the 
heiress  of  Gelderland  the  founder  of  the  Guel- 
drian  line,  and  from  the  latter  are  descended 
the  Dutch  princes  of  Orange,  hence  called  of 
Nassau- Orange.  Walram  IV.,  of  the  elder  line, 
was  the  father  of  Adolphus  of  Nassau,  who 
was  king  of  Germany  from  1292  to  1298.  The 
grandsons  of  the  latter,  Adolphus  II.  and  John 
I.,  and  their  successors  divided  their  inheri- 
tances into  several  branches,  which  were  even- 
tually reunited  by  Louis  II.,  who  died  in  1625. 
His  sons  again  divided  the  house  of  Nassau 
into  several  branches,  of  which  that  of  Nas- 
sau-Weilburg  was  the  more  immediate  source 
of  the  German  line  of  dukes,  who  acquired 
their  new  dignity  by  joining  the  confederation 
of  the  Rhine  (1806).  After  the  fall  of  Napo- 
leon, the  German  possessions  of  the  Nassau- 
Orange  line  were  acquired  by  the  dukes  of 
Nassau  in  exchange  for  territory  ceded  by 
them  to  Prussia.  They  also  acquired  at  that 
time  the  hereditary  right  to  the  succession  of 
Luxemburg,  which  however  they  sold  to  Hol- 
land in  1839  for  about  $350,000.  In  the  war 
of  1866,  Nassau  sided  with  Austria,  was  occu- 
pied by  Prussian  troops  in  July,  and  by  the  de- 
cree of  Sept.  20,  1866,  was  annexed  to  Prussia. 
The  last  duke,  Adolphus  (born  July  24,  1817), 
succeeded  his  father  in  1839,  and  after  his  dis- 
possession took  up  his  residence  in  Frankfort, 
where  he  still  resides  (1875). 

NASSAU,  the  N.  E.  county  of  Florida,  border- 
ing on  the  Atlantic,  separated  from  Georgia 
on  the  N.  and  N.  W.  by  St.  Mary's  river,  and 
bounded  S.  by  the  Nassau  river ;  area,  610  sq. 
m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  4,247,  of  whom  1,970  were 
colored.  It  has  a  level  surface  and  sandy  soil. 
Amelia  island,  included  in  the  county,  occupies 
the  whole  of  the  coast.  The  county  is  trav- 
ersed by  the  Florida  railroad.  The  chief  pro- 
ductions in  1870  were  24,058  bushels  of  In- 
dian corn,  17,614  of  sweet  potatoes,  1,900 
Ibs.  of  rice,  984  of  wool,  and  4,198  gallons  of 
molasses.  There  were  8,133  cattle,  777  sheep, 
and  3,447  swine.  Capital,  Fernandina. 

NASSAU,  an  island  in  the  Pacific  ocean,  in 
lat.  11°  30'  S.,  Ion.  165°  30'  W.,  discovered  by 
Capt.  Sampson,  of  the  American  whaler  whose 
name  it  bears,  in  1835.  It  is  low  and  ap- 
parently uninhabited,  but  wood  and  water  are 
plentiful.  It  is  supposed  to  be  identical  with 
Danger  island,  which  an  English  whale  ship 
so  called  reported  in  1848  to  be  in  lat.  11°  35' 
S.,  and  Ion.  166°  45' W. 

NASSAU,  a  city,  capital  of  the  island  of  New 
Providence,  of  the  Bahama  group,  in  lat.  25° 
5'  N.,  Ion.  71°  21;  W. ;  pop.  about  9,000.  The 
town  is  well  laid  out,  has  a  library  and  museum, 
and  its  salubrious  climate  makes  it  a  winter  re- 
sort for  invalids.  In  1872  the  entrances  were 
43  steamers  of  57,910  tons,  and  196  sailing 
vessels  of  20,104  tons;  clearances,  43  steam- 
ers of  57,910  tons,  and  186  sailing  vessels  of 


154 


NASSAU  ISLANDS 


18,950  tons;  imports,  $911,582;  exports,  $1,- 
446,456,  including  cotton  $915,297,  pineapples 
$252,332,  and  sponge  $91,953.  A  falling  off  of 
$558,567  from  the  imports  of  1871  is  due  to  a 
decrease  in  the  number  of  wrecks.  The  increase 
in  exports  over  1871  was  $456,627.  Wrecking, 
formerly  extensively  followed,  is  now  much  less 
profitable,  and  more  attention  is  paid  to  agri- 
culture. The  French  and  Spaniards  destroyed 
Nassau  in  1703.  It  was  rebuilt  in  1718,  fortified 
in  1740,  and  declared  a  free  port  in  1787.  It 
was  made  a  bishopric  of  the  church  of  Eng- 
land in  1861.  During  the  American  civil  war 
Nassau  was  a  resort  for  blockade  runners. 

NASSAU  (or  Foggy)  ISLANDS,  two  islands  off  the 
W.  coast  of  Sumatra;  pop.  about  1,000.  The 
northern  island  is  situated  between  lat.  2°  32' 
and  2°  52'  S.,  and  the  southern  between  2°  50' 
and  3°  20'  S. ;  they  are  separated  by  a  narrow 
strait,  and  both  are  included  between  Ion.  99° 
37'  and  100°  41'  E.  They  consist  of  high  steep 
hills,  covered  with  timber  of  very  large  size, 
and  well  suited  for  masts  and  spars.  Cocoa- 
nuts  abound,  and  pepper  is  cultivated.  The 
sago  tree  constitutes  the  chief  article  of  food. 
The  natives  are  divided  into  small  tribes,  each 
tribe  living  in  one  village. 

NASSAU  HALL.    See  PRINCETON. 

NASS1CK,  or  Nashik,  a  town  of  British  India, 
in  the  province  and  about  100  m.  N.  E.  of  the 
city  of  Bombay,  capital  of  a  collectorate  of  the 
same  name  (pop.  in  1872,  672,791),  on  the  Go- 
davery  river  and  the  Great  India  Peninsula 
railway;  pop.  about  25,000.  It  is  celebrated 
for  its  Brahmanical  temples  and  Buddhist  ex- 
cavations. Its  proximity  to  the  sources  of  the  | 
Godavery,  and  the  legendary  associations  of  the 
place,  render  it  extremely  sacred  in  the  estima- 
tion of  the  Hindoos,  who  come  as  pilgrims  to 
Nassick  in  large  numbers.  Their  wealthy  and 
numerous  black  basalt  temples  line  both  banks 
of  the  river.  In  the  vicinity  of  the  town, 
about  5  m.  distant,  are  the  Buddhist  rock  caves, 
which  are  believed  to  have  been  excavated  in 
the  2d  or  3d  century  of  our  era.  There  are 
more  than  13  apartments,  one  of  which  is  45 
ft.  square,  profusely  ornamented  with  sculptures 
and  colossal  stone  figures. 

NAST,  Thomas,  an  American  artist,  born  in 
Landau,  Bavaria,  Sept.  27,  1840.  He  came 
to  the  United  States  in  1846,  and  at  the  age 
of  14  found  employment  as  a  draughtsman  on 
"Frank  Leslie's  Illustrated  Paper."  In  1860 
he  went  to  England  to  illustrate  the  Heenan 
and  Sayers  prize  fight,  his  sketches  appearing 
in  the  "  New  York  Illustrated  News."  Imme- 
diately afterward  he  went  to  Italy  to  follow 
Garibaldi,  entered  Naples  with  him,  was  pres- 
ent at  the  sieges  of  Capua  and  Gaeta,  and  exe- 
cuted sketches  of  the  war  for  the  "  New  York 
Illustrated  News,"  the  "Illustrated  London 
News,"  and  Le  Monde  Illustre  of  Paris.  Re- 
turning  to  New  York,  he  began  in  July,  1862, 
a  series  of  war  and  political  sketches  in  "  Har- 
per's Weekly,"  and  since  then  has  been  one 
of  the  principal  artists  on  that  journal.  In 


NASTURTIUM 

1866  he  executed  for  the  Bal  d?  Opera  in 
New  York  60  caricatures  of  prominent  poli- 
ticians, editors,  artists,  and  actors.  Some  of 
these  pictures  measured  3  ft.  by  4,  others  4 
ft.  by  6,  and  all  of  them  were  painted  in  wa- 
ter colors  in  30  days.  In  1873  he  appeared 
as  a  public  lecturer  in  leading  cities  through- 
out the  United  States,  illustrating  his  lectures 
by  caricatures  drawn  on  the  stage.  Among 
some  of  his  best  known  sketches  in  "Har- 
per's Weekly"  are  "Santa  Glaus  in  Camp  "  and 
"  Christmas  Eve  "  (1863) ;  "  New  Year's  Day 
North  and  South"  (1864);  "President  Lin- 
coln entering  Richmond"  (1865);  and  an  ex- 
tended series  of  political  pictures.  He  illustra- 
ted "  The  Tribute  Book  "  and  Nasby's  "  Swing- 
ing round  the  Cerkle;"  contributes  a  cartoon 
and  other  illustrations  every  month  to  the 
"Phunny  Phellow;"  and  has  issued  annually 
since  1872  "Nast's  Illustrated  Almanac." 

NASTURTIUM,  the  generic  name  of  a  plant 
of  the  crucifercB  or  mustard  family,  and  the 
common  name  of  the  widely  different  genus 
tropceolum.  The  genus  nasturtium  (Lat.  nasus 
tortus,  a  tortured  nose,  some  of  the  plants  be- 
ing exceedingly  pungent)  includes  among  other 
plants  the  well  known  water  cress  and  horse 
radish,  both  of  which  are  described  under  their 
proper  titles.  The  old  herbalists,  who  classi- 
fied plants  by  their  sensible  properties  rather 
than  by  their  structure,  finding  the  species  of 
tropoBolum  to  possess  a  pungency  similar  to 
that  of  the  cruciferous  plants,  included  them 
under  nasturtium,  a  name  which  in  this  or 
its  altered  form  of  sturtion  they  have  retained, 
in  spite  of  the  fact  that  the  books  give  Indian 
cress  as  their  suitable  common  name.  In  the 
most  recent  revision  of  genera  tropceolum  (Gr. 
rp6Traiov,  a  trophy,  the  leaves  of  some  resem- 
bling a  shield,  and  the  flowers  a  helmet)  is 
placed  in  the  geraniacece ;  it  includes  tender 
South  American  herbs,  most  of  which  climb 
by  means  of  their  long  leaf  stalks,  and  have  a 
pungent  watery  juice  with  the  taste  and  odor 
of  cress.  There  are  about  35  species,  most 
of  which  are  in  cultivation,  besides  numerous 
garden  varieties.  Some  are  treated  as  garden 
annuals,  others  as  greenhouse  plants ;  a  num- 
ber of  the  species  produce  tubers.  The  flow- 
ers consist  of  five  sepals,  united  at  the  base 
and  extended  at  the  upper  side  of  the  flower 
into  a  long  spur ;  petals  five  or  fewer,  usually 
with  claws,  the  upper  two  somewhat  different 
from  the  others  and  inserted  at  the  mouth  of 
the  spur ;  stamens  eight,  unequal ;  ovary  three- 
lobed  with  a  single  style,  and  in  fruit  forming 
three  fleshy  separate  carpels.  The  common 
garden  nasturtium  (T.  majus)  is  one  of  the 
most  generally  cultivated  annuals ;  the  stem 
climbs  6  or  8  ft.,  and  is  often  planted  near 
fences,  or  provided  with  brush,  which  it  soon 
covers  with  its  peltate  foliage  ;  the  flowers  vary 
from  yellow  to  orange,  scarlet,  and  crimson; 
the  three  lower  petals  have  longer  claws  than 
the  others,  and  are  fringed  at  the  base.  There 
is  a  double  variety,  and  dwarf  forms  which  do 


NASTURTIUM 


NATAL 


155 


not  climb.  The  unexpanded  flower  buds,  and 
the  young  fruit  while  still  tender,  are  pickled 
in  vinegar  ;  and  the  French,  who  call  the  plant 
capucine,  use  the  gay-colored  flowers  to  or- 
nament salads.  The  dwarf  varieties  of  this 
form  bushy  rounded  tufts  about  a  foot  high, 


Dwarf  Nasturtium  (Tropseolum  minus). 

and  are  used  for  bedding ;  some  of  the  named 
varieties  have  flowers  of  exceedingly  rich  col- 
ors. The  smaller  nasturtium  {T.  minus)  has 
smaller  flowers,  with  petals  pointed  at  the  tip, 
and  smaller  seeds ;  but  it  is  so  mixed  up  with 
the  dwarf  forms  of  the  preceding  that  the  true 
species  is  rarely  met  with.  The  canary-bird 
flower  (T.  peregrinum)  is  one  of  the  most  in- 
teresting of  garden  climbers,  and  very  unlike 
the  others ;  it  climbs  high  and  spreads  rapidly ; 
its  leaves  are  five-  to  seven-lobed,  and  its  small 
flowers  have  the  two  upper  petals  cut-lobed, 


Canary-Bird  Flower  (Tropseolum  peregrinum). 

the  lower  ones  fringed,  and  the  spur  curiously 
curved;  when  partly  expanded  the  flowers  may 
be  fancied  to  resemble  a  little  bird,  an  appear- 
ance which  is  aided  by  the  lively  canary-yellow 
color  of  the  petals.  It  is  an  easily  cultivated 
annual,  which  like  the  others  is  more  produc- 


tive of  flowers  in  rather  poor  than  in  rich  soils. 
The  tuberous  nasturtium  (T.  tulerosum)  has  red 
and  yellow  tubers  the  size  of  a  small  pear,  five- 
lobed  leaves,  short  orange-colored  petals,  and 
an  orange-red  calyx  with  a  heavy  spur.  This 
is  the  ysano  of  the  Peruvians,  with  whom  it  is 
held  in  high  esteem  as  an  article  of  food  ;  and 
it  has  been  introduced  into  Europe  and  this 
country  as  a  garden  vegetable,  but  has  met 
with  little  favor.  In  South  America  the  tuber 
is  first  boiled  and  afterward  frozen,  and  is  eat- 
en in  the  frozen  state.  The  tubers  are  pre- 
served and  propagated  in  the  same  manner  as 
potatoes.  Lobb's  nasturtium  (T.  Lolbianum) 
is  a  favorite  greenhouse  climber,  but  it  does 
not  flourish  so  well  in  the  open  air  as  the  com- 
mon species,  which  it  much  resembles ;  it  has 
smaller  and  slightly  hairy  leaves,  and  much 
fringed  flowers,  which  in  the  many  named 
varieties  present  a  great  diversity  of  color. 
Among  the  tuberous-rooted  greenhouse  spe- 
cies are  T.  tricolorum,  with  scarlet  and  black 
flowers ;  T.  azureum,  blue  and  white ;  and  T. 
Jarattii,  carmine  and  yellow.  They  are  sum- 
mer-flowering, and  remarkable  for  the  exceed- 
ing delicacy  of  their  stems,  which  near  the 
tuber  are  scarcely  larger  than  a  thread ;  they 
are  trained  upon  low  trellises,  while  T.  penta- 
phyllum,  also  tuberous,  can  be  trained  to  pil- 
lars and  rafters.  All  the  tropeeolums  are  raised 
from  seed,  which  in  some  is  very  slow  in  ger- 
minating, and  those  with  fleshy  stems  grow 
readily  from  cuttings. 

NATAL,  a  British  colony  in  S.  E.  Africa,  N. 
E.  of  Cape  Colony,  from  which  it  is  separated 
by  Caffraria  along  the  coast.  It  lies  between 
lat.  27°  30'  and  31°  30'  S.,  and  Ion.  28°  30'  and 
32°  E.,  and  is  bounded  N.  E.  by  the  Buffalo 
and  Great  Tugela  rivers,  beyond  which  is  the 
Zooloo  country,  S.  E.  by  the  Indian  ocean,  S. 
and  S.  W.  by  Caffraria,  and  W.  and  N.  W.  by  the 
Drakenberg  range,  with  the  Orange  River  Free 
State  on  the  opposite  slope ;  length  about  250 
m.,  breadth  between  the  sea  and  the  mountains 
150  m. ;  coast  line  170  m.  long;  area,  accord- 
ing to  the  British  parliamentary  accounts  of 
1872,  16,145  sq.  m. ;  pop.  250,352.  In  1869 
the  number  of  whites  was  17,821,  and  of  In- 
dian coolies  introduced  as  agricultural  labor- 
ers 5,227,  but  the  native  Zooloos  make  up  the 
bulk  of  the  population.  Many  of  the  16  dis- 
tricts into  which  the  colony  is  divided  have 
been  but  partially  explored.  Pietermaritzburg, 
the  capital,  in  lat.  29°  35'  S.,  Ion.  30°  20'  E. 
(pop.  in  1869,  6,192),  and  D'Urban,  the  colo- 
nial port,  about  50  m.  distant  (pop.  5,708), 
are  the  principal  towns;  while  villages  of  va- 
rious sizes  are  scattered  over  the  colony. 
I>'Urban  is  situated  upon  the  coast,  on  the  N. 
side  of  Port  Natal,  a  circular  basin  about  10 
m.  in  circumference,  communicating  with  the 
sea  by  a  narrow  channel.  This  is  the  only 
harbor  of  any  importance,  and  efforts  have  re- 
cently been  made  to  improve  it.  The  coun- 
try rises  from  the  coast  in  a  series  of  terraces 
to  an  elevation  of  between  3,000  and  4,000  ft., 


156 


NATAL 


at  the  base  of  the  Drakenberg,  and  presents 
many  varieties  of  climate,  soil,  and  scenery. 
Along  the  Indian  ocean  is  a  belt  of  undulating  or 
hilly  land  about  25  m.  broad,  producing  sugar, 
coffee,  cotton,  tobacco,  and  many  other  tropical 
plants,  together  with  the  mulberry,  olive,  vine, 
oats,  beans,  potatoes,  and  Indian  corn,  and  di- 
versified with  occasional  tracts  of  forest.  Suc- 
ceeding this  belt  is  a  higher  tract  displaying 
the  productions  of  a  temperate  climate;  still 
further  inland  is  a  fine  grazing  district,  and 
back  of  this  a  succession  of  hills  extending 
to  the  foot  of  the  Drakenberg  division  of  the 
Quatlamba  mountains,  which  rises  abruptly 
like  a  wall  to  a  height  of  8,000  ft.  above  the 
sea,  and  nearly  4,000  ft.  above  the  country  at 
its  base,  and  over  which  there  are  but  two 
practicable  passes.  Several  offshoots  of  this 
range  approach  the  coast.  The  climate  is  ex- 
ceedingly pleasant  and  healthful.  In  the  neigh- 
borhood of  the  coast  the  weather  is  warm,  the 
average  temperature  being  about  74°  in  sum- 
mer and  63°  in  winter ;  but  in  the  elevated 
districts  it  is  much  cooler.  The  rainy  season 
continues  from  March  to  the  end  of  Septem- 
ber, during  which  violent  thunder  storms  are 
frequent.  The  grazing  country  produces  abun- 
dant crops  of  wheat,  oats,  and  other  cereals  of 
the  temperate  regions,  and  excellent  apples, 
pears,  walnuts,  peaches,  apricots,  and  necta- 
rines. From  the  coast  upward  the  whole  is 
well  watered  by  numerous  streams  and  several 
considerable  rivers,  none  of  which  are  navi- 
gable. All  the  rivers  are  low  in  the  dry  season, 
but  become  full  in  a  few  hours  in  rainy  weath- 
er, and  rush  down  like  torrents.  Along  the 
coast  the  soil  is  sandy,  with  masses  of  volcanic 
rocks  and  sandstone  interspersed.  The  high 
lands  are  composed  of  stratified  sandstone, 
with  a  vein  of  granite  running  in  a  N.  E.  di- 
rection ;  and  the  soil  is  mostly  a  friable  loam. 
The  coast  line,  extending  from  high-water 
mark  5  or  10  m.  inland,  has  proved  to  be  well 
adapted  to  the  cultivation  of  cotton,  which  has 
been  raised  in  the  colony  since  1866,  and  now 
forms  an  important  article  of  export.  But 
little  definite  scientific  knowledge  yet  exists  as 
to  the  mineral  resources  of  Natal.  Coal  de- 
posits of  good  quality  are  said  to  exist  in  the 
Tugela  valley ;  iron  ore  occurs  in  many  places ; 
copper  has  been  discovered ;  beds  of  limestone 
are  known  to  exist;  and  small  quantities  of 
gold  have  been  obtained  in  the  vicinity  of 
D'Urban.  The  number  of  the  larger  wild  ani- 
mals in  the  colony  is  diminishing.  The  ele- 
phant is  met  with  in  the  remote  forest  dis- 
tricts, and  the  hippopotamus  frequents  some  of 
the  eastern  rivers.  The  fauna  also  includes  the 
leopard,  hyaena,  buffalo,  eland,  several  other 
varieties  of  antelope,  the  crocodile,  and  a  num- 
ber of  snakes,  some  of  which  are  venomous. 
— The  native  Zooloo  population,  belonging  to 
the  same  ethnological  family  as  the  Caffres, 
are  a  pastoral  people  and  disinclined  to  agri- 
cultural pursuits,  in  which  however,  under 
European  influence,  they  have  extensively  en- 


gaged. They  are  remarkable  for  their  honesty 
and  peaceable  disposition.  In  1871  the  total 
number  of  acres  under  crops  and  grass  was 
175,355,  of  which  106,300  were  devoted  to  the 
growth  of  maize.  Of  sugar,  which  is  one  of 
the  principal  products,  7,661  tons,  valued  at 
£159,430,  were  exported  in  the  crop  season 
of  1870-'7l,  as  against  857  tons,  valued  at 
£21,286,  in  that  of  1860-'61.  In  1870  there 
were  1,014,210  Ibs.  of  coffee  raised,  while  the 
product  for  1869  amounted  only  to  4,058  Ibs. 
Sheep  are  raised  in  large  numbers,  and  the 
value  of  the  wool  exported  exceeds  tht,t  of 
any  other  article,  amounting  to  £140,597  for 
4,814,710  Ibs.  in  the  first  nine  months  of  1871. 
The  total  value  of  the  exports  in  1870  was 
£382,979,  comprising  the  following  principal 
articles  in  the  order  of  value:  wool,  raw 
sugar,  hides,  ivory,  butter,  ostrich  feathers, 
arrowroot,  cured  meat,  raw  cotton,  and  grain. 
The  imports  for  the  same  year  were  valued  at 
£429,527,  and  included  cotton,  woollen,  and 
leather  manufactures,  ironmongery,  flour  and 
meal,  coffee,  rice,  and  linen.  Since  the  dis- 
covery of  diamonds  near  the  Vaal  river,  large 
numbers  of  these  gems  have  been  exported 
through  Natal;  but  it  has  proved  difficult  to 
ascertain  the  aggregate  value,  as  many  of  them 
are  carried  away  without  any  declaration  to 
the  authorities.  In  1870  the  value  of  the  dia- 
monds exported  through  the  D'Urban  custom 
house  was  £9,615;  in  the  first  10  months  of 
1871  it  was  £32,056.  Exclusive  of  coasters, 
the  tonnage  of  vessels  entered  at  the  ports  of 
Natal  in  1870  was  23,881,  and  of  those  cleared 
24.005. — In  1870  there  were  79  schools  sus- 
tained wholly  or  partially  by  the  government, 
with  an  average  attendance  of  1,797  pupils. 
Of  these,  4  were  classed  as  government  schools, 
including  high  schools  at  Pietermaritzburg 
and  D'Urban,  65  as  aided  schools,  and  10  as 
itinerant  schools.  The  school  system  is  under 
the  control  of  a  superintendent  of  education. 
Excellent  schools  are  also  maintained  by  mis- 
sionaries in  various  parts  of  the  country,  prom- 
inent among  which  are  the  American  mission 
schools  in  the  coast  range,  and  those  of  the 
church  of  England  and  of  the  Wesleyan 
church.  At  Pietermaritzburg  there  is  a  cen- 
tral training  school  belonging  to  the  Free 
church  of  Scotland.  The  colony  was  made 
a  diocese  of  the  Anglican  church  in  1853,  and 
is  also  the  seat  of  a  Roman  Catholic  bishop. 
The  American  mission  is  composed  chiefly  of 
Presbyterian  and  Congregational  ministers ;  in 
1870  it  maintained  19  stations  and  out  stations, 
with  12  churches,  having  about  500  native 
members. — In  the  government  of  Natal,  the 
crown  retains  the  right  to  veto  colonial  legis- 
lation, and  the  public  officers  remain  under  the 
control  of  the  home  government.  The  execu- 
tive authority  is  vested  in  a  lieutenant  gov- 
ernor, who  is  assisted  by  an  executive  council 
of  8  and  a  legislative  council  of  16  members. 
The  colonial  secretary,  the  treasurer,  the  at- 
torney general,  and  the  secretary  for  native 


NATAL 


NATCHEZ 


157 


affairs  belong  ex  officio  to  both.  The  12  addi- 
tional members  of  the  legislative  council  are 
representatives  from  the  counties  and  boroughs, 
elected  by  voters  possessing  freehold  property 
worth  £50,  or  occupying  house  or  land  at  a 
rent  of  £10  a  year ;  all  voters  are  eligible  to 
membership.  Two  of  these  representatives, 
designated  by  the  lieutenant  governor,  to- 
gether with  the  chief  justice  and  the  senior 
officer  in  command  of  the  troops,  constitute 
the  four  additional  members  of  the  executive 
council.  The  judicial  system  comprises  a  su- 
preme court  with  three  justices,  sitting  at 
Pietermaritzburg,  and  local  courts  and  magis- 
trates in  the  several  counties.  In  1871  the 
revenue,  derived  from  customs,  land  sales, 
stamps,  a  native  hut  tax,  and  other  sources, 
amounted  to  £180,498,  and  the  expenditure  to 
£132,978.  There  is  a  public  debt  of  £263,- 
000.  The  military  expenses,  with  the  excep- 
tion of  about  £4,000  per  annum,  are  borne  by 
Great  Britain;  they  were  £39,188  in  1869,  of 
which  the  colony  provided  £4,272,  besides  ex- 
pending £1,061  for  its  volunteer  forces.  There 
is  telegraphic  communication  between  D'Urban 
and  the  capital,  and  a  project  for  the  construc- 
tion of  345  m.  of  railway  has  been  approved 
by  the  government. — The  Portuguese  discov- 
ered the  coast  of  Natal  on  Christmas  day, 
1497,  and  named  it  in  honor  of  the  day.  It 
was  visited  and  favorably  reported  upon,  to- 
ward the  close  of  the  17th  century  and  later, 
by  Dampier,  Woodes  Rogers,  and  several  Dutch 
navigators.  Subsequently  a  Dutch  expedition 
purchased  the  territory  from  some  native  chiefs. 
Its  actual  colonization,  however,  was  not  pro- 
jected till  1823.  In  that  year  Mr.  Thomson,  a 
merchant  of  Cape  Town,  and  Lieuts.  Farewell 
and  King  of  the  English  navy,  in  the  course  of 
a  trading  voyage  to  the  E.  coast  of  Africa,  put 
into  Natal  harbor.  In  1824  Lieut.  Farewell, 
having  visited  it  again,  obtained  from  the  chief 
of  the  Zooloos,  who  had  conquered  the  coun- 
try, a  grant  of  land  around  Port  Natal,  where 
he  hoisted  the  British  flag  and  took  possession. 
In  1834,  in  consequence  of  an  application  to 
the  governor  of  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  from 
the  Zooloo  chief  for  a  white  settlement  to  be 
formed  at  Natal,  a  few  emigrants  proceeded 
from  that  colony.  In  1835  the  American  mis- 
sionaries commenced  operations  in  the  terri- 
tory ;  but  nothing  was  done  on  a  large  scale 
till  about  1837,  when  the  Dutch  farmers  who 
were  dissatisfied  with  the  British  rule  in  the 
Cape  Colony  ascended  to  the  sources  of  the 
Orange  river,  and  found  their  way  across  the 
Quatlamba  mountains  under  the  leadership  of 
Pieter  Retief,  who  became  engaged  in  a  con- 
test with  the  chief  of  the  Zooloos  and  was 
slain,  together  with  many  of  his  followers. 
The  remainder,  led  by  Andries  Willem  Preto- 
rius,  defeated  the  Zooloo  chief  in  the  follow- 
ing year,  and  founded  Pietermaritzburg  with  a 
view  to  make  it  the  capital  of  their  settle- 
ment, which  they  called  the  republic  of  Natal, 
delegating  the  necessary  powers  of  govern- 


ment to  a  council  of  24  with  a  president  at 
their  head.  The  men  capable  of  bearing  arms 
were  enrolled  as  militia  subject  to  the  council. 
When  the  English  government,  in  1845,  de- 
clared the  British  sovereignty  to  extend  over 
Natal,  and  sent  a  military  expedition  to  take 
possession  of  the  country,  after  some  resis- 
tance the  more  resolute  of  the  emigrants,  un- 
der Pretorius,  abandoned  the  territory.  Natal 
remained  subordinate  to  the  government  of 
Cape  Colony  till  1856,  when  it  was  constitu- 
ted a  separate  and  distinct  colony.  In  1873  a 
conflict  with  the  Ama-Hlubi  tribe,  numbering 
about  10,000,  charged  with  the  illegal  posses- 
sion of  unregistered  firearms,  resulted  in  the 
killing  of  about  200  of  them,  the  transporta- 
tion of  as  many  more,  including  their  chief  Lan- 
galibalele,  and  the  outlawry  of  the  whole  tribe. 
NATCHEZ,  a  tribe  of  North  American  Indians, 
known  to  Europeans  from  1560,  when  Tristan 
de  Luna  aided  the  gulf  tribes  against  them. 
"With  the  Tensas,  a  kindred  tribe,  they  held  a 
tract  on  the  E.  bank  of  the  Mississippi.  Ac- 
cording to  their  traditions,  they  came  from 
the  southwest,  in  consequence  of  wars  with 
ancient  inhabitants,  and  made  a  stand  on  the 
seacoast,  where  a  part  remained,  while  oth- 
ers pushed  on  to  the  spot  where  they  were 
found.  Their  language,  sabseism,  and  mound 
building  connect  them  with  -the  Mayas  of 
Yucatan.  La  Salle  reached  their  country  in 
March,  1683,  and  planted  a  cross.  Iberville 
also  visited  them,  and  proposed  to  build  a  city 
there.  They  were  mild  and  friendly,  brave, 
though  preferring  peace  to  war,  and  very  dis- 
solute. They  were  governed  by  the  Great 
Sun,  descended  in  the  female  line  from  a  man 
and  woman,  their  first  civilizers,  who  came 
down  from  the  sun,  and  first  built  the  temple 
for  perpetual  fire,  which  was  always  afterward 
maintained.  This  temple  was  on  a  mound  8 
ft.  high,  with  a  pitched  roof,  and  contained 
the  bones  of  the  suns  and  three  logs  elowly 
burning  under  the  care  of  appointed  guar- 
dians. The  cabin  of  the  sun  was  on  a  similar 
mound,  but  with  rounded  roof.  His  power 
was  despotic,  as  was  that  of  his  sister  and  im- 
mediate kindred.  He  was  never  approached 
without  special  marks  of  reverence.  Next  to 
the  suns  were  the  nobles,  while  the  Michemi- 
chequipy,  called  Puants  by  the  French,  formed 
the  common  people,  and  were  evidently  of  the 
Choctaw  race.  They  used  bows  and  arrows, 
but  had  no  metals,  dressed  in  buffalo  robes,  and 
made  feather  robes  for  winter,  and  others  for 
summer  of  the  bark  of  the  mulberry  and  of 
flax.  They  had  many  feasts,  and  on  the  death 
of  a  chief  killed  many  to  attend  him.  The 
dead  were  kept  on  raised  platforms  till  the 
flesh  was  consumed.  They  rapidly  declined 
after  the  appearance  of  the  French  and  of 
English  traders,  who  about  the  same  time 
reached  them.  La  Mothe  Cadillac  in  1715  re- 
fused the  calumet,  and  they  killed  some  French- 
men; but  Bienville  in  1716  compelled  them  to 
give  up  the  murderers,  and  built  a  fort  there. 


158 


NATCHEZ 


Hostilities  were  renewed  in  1722,  but  Bien- 
ville  burnt  the  Apple  village  and  again  com- 
pelled them  to  punish  the.  guilty.  In  1729  the 
tyranny  of  Chopart,  who  wished  the  site  of 
one  of  the  villages  for  his  own  use,  led  to  a 
.  conspiracy  in  which  apparently  the  Choctaws 
and  Chickasaws  were  engaged.  On  Nov.  28 
the  Natchez  began  a  general  massacre  of  the 
French,  killing  all  the  men  except  20  who  es- 
caped and  two  or  three  kept  for  service;  a 
few  women  were  killed,  but  most  were  kept  as 
prisoners,  and  the  negro  slaves  were  adopted. 
Their  kindred  Tensas  had  disappeared  before 
1712  as  a  distinct  tribe,  and  do  not  appear  in 
these  troubles ;  but  the  Yazoos  and  Chickasaws 
joined  the  Natchez,  while  the  Choctaws  joined 
the  French  and  were  first  in  the  field.  Lesueur, 
a  Canadian  officer,  raised  a  large  Choctaw  force, 
and  marching  into  the  Natchez  territory  at- 
tacked the  enemy  Jan.  27,  1730,  killed  80,  and 
recovered  many  captives  and  slaves.  The  che- 
valier de  Loubois  soon  after  came  up  with  the 
colonial  troops  that  had  been  raised  at  New 
Orleans,  moved  slowly  up  the  Mississippi  to 
the  Tonicas,  and  after  some  delay  finally  on 
Feb.  13  besieged  the  Natchez  forts.  He  showed 
little  vigor,  and  after  obtaining  the  remaining 
captives  allowed  the  Natchez  at  the  end  of 
February  to  escape.  The  fugitives  in  their 
flight  cut  off  French  parties,  and  at  last  made 
a  stand  on  Black  river,  west  of  the  Mississippi. 
Gov.  Perrier  on  Jan.  25,  1731,  reduced  this 
fort  and  captured  the  sun,  his  brother  and 
nephew,  next  in  succession,  40  warriors,  and 


387  women  and  children.  These  were  sent  to 
Santo  Domingo  and  sold  as  slaves.  The  rem- 
nant of  the  nation,  more  furious  than  ever, 
fled  to  the  Chickasaws,  after  killing  many  of 
the  Tonicas  and  attacking  the  Natchitoches, 
where  they  were  repulsed  with  heavy  loss  by 
Saint-Denis.  But  in  spite  of  this  repulse  they 
with  the  Chickasaws  kept  up  the  war,  and  the 
French  attempting  to  punish  the  Chickasaws 
were  repulsed,  and  at  last  patched  up  a  peace 
in  1740.  The  Natchez  never  again  appeared 
as  a  distinct  nation.  After  a  time  they  moved 
to  the  Muskogees,  and  in  1835  were  reduced  to 
300  souls,  retaining  their  own  language  and 
line  of  suns,  but  without  restoring  their  tem- 
ple or  worship. — For  their  language  the  only 
materials  are  the  words  preserved  by  Le  Page 
du  Pratz  and  other  French  writers,  and  a  vo- 
cabulary taken  by  Gallatin  in  1826  from  the 
chief  Isahlakteh.  Dr.  Brinton  traced  the  anal- 
ogy between  it  and  the  Maya. 

NATCHEZ,  a  city,  port  of  entry,  and  the  capi- 
tal of  Adams  co.,  Mississippi,  the  second  city 
in  the  state  in  population,  situated  on  the  E. 
bank  of  the  Mississippi  river,  279  m.  above 
New  Orleans  and  116  m.  below  Vicksburg  by 
water,  and  85  m.  in  a  direct  line  S.  W.  of  Jack- 
son; lat.  31°  34'  N.,  Ion.  91°  25'  W. ;  pop.  in 
1850,  4,434;  in  1860,  6,612;  in  1870,  9,057,  of 
whom  5,329  were  colored.  It  is  built  on  the 
summit  of  a  bluff  150  ft.  above  the  water,  and 
on  the  narrow  strip  of  land  between  the  foot 
of  the  hill  and  the  river.  The  latter  portion  of 
the  city,  called  Natchez  Landing  or  Natchez- 


Natchez-on-the-Hill. 


under-the-Hill,  has -some  important  business 
houses,  but  can  make  no  claim  to  beauty.  It 
communicates  by  broad  and  well  graded  roads 
with  the  upper  quarters  (Natchez-on-the-Hill), 
which  are  beautifully  shaded  and  contain  many 
handsome  residences  and  other  buildings.  The 
streets  are  regular,  lighted  with  gas,  and  gen- 
erally gravelled  in  the  roadway.  The  houses 
are  principally  of  brick,  and  the  residences  are 


adorned  with  gardens.  The  brow  of  the  bluff 
along  the  whole  front  of  the  city  is  occupied 
by  a  park.  The  principal  buildings  are  the 
court  house,  in  a  public  square  shaded  with 
trees,  the  masonic  temple,  the  Catholic  cathe- 
dral, with  a  spire  182  ft.  high,  the  Episcopal 
church,  and  the  Presbyterian  church,  with  a 
spire  containing  a  clock.  The  city  hall  and 
market  house  are  immediately  back  of  the 


NATCHEZ 


NATURAL  HISTORY 


159 


court  house.  In  the  suburbs  there  were  for- 
merly numerous  residences  of  wealthy  planters, 
expensively  furnished,  and  surrounded  with 
beautiful  lawns  and  gardens;  but  many  of  these 
were  destroyed  in  the  civil  war.  On  the  bluff, 
adjoining  the  city,  there  is  a  national  cemetery, 
handsomely  laid  out  and  decorated.  The  cli- 
mate of  Natchez  is  pleasant  and  very  salu- 
brious. The  winters  are  temperate,  though 
variable,  and  the  summers  are  long  and  equa- 
ble ;  the  thermometer  seldom  rises  above  90°. 
The  business  is  mainly  in  cotton,  which  is 
brought  to  this  market  from  the  adjoining 
counties,  and  in  the  supply  of  provisions  and 
implements  for  the  neighboring  plantations. 
From  13,000  to  20,000  bales  of  cotton  are  an- 
nually shipped  to  New  Orleans.  Regular  lines 
of  steamers  connect  with  New  Orleans,  Vicks- 
burg,  and  Memphis,  and  a  stage  line  runs  to 
Brookhaven  on  the  New  Orleans,  Jackson, 
and  Great  Northern  railroad,  60  m.  E.  There 
are  a  Protestant  and  two  Roman  Catholic  or- 
phan asylums,  and  a  city  hospital.  The  United 
States  marine  hospital  is  situated  between  the 
city  and  the  national  cemetery.  There  are  sev- 
eral Roman  Catholic  schools,  and  good  public 
schools,  attended  by  about  1,000  pupils.  Of 
the  two  school  buildings,  one  is  a  handsome 
structure  recently  erected  for  colored  chil- 
dren, while  the  "  Natchez  institute  "  for  whites 
was  used  as  a  free  school  before  the  civil  war. 
A  daily  and  two  weekly  newspapers  are  pub- 
lished. The  city  contains  eight  churches,  viz. : 
Baptist  (2),  Episcopal,  Jewish,  Methodist  (2), 
Presbyterian,  and  Roman  Catholic,  besides 
several  for  colored  people. — The  site  of  Nat- 
chez was  selected  by  a  party  sent  by  Le  Moyne 
d'Iberville  in  1700  as  the  chief  place  of  a  num- 
ber of  proposed  settlements  in  the  lower  Mis- 
sissippi territory,  and  the  name  of  Rosalie  was 
given  to  it  in  honor  of  the  countess  of  Pont- 
chartrain,  whose  husband  had  been  one  of 
Iberville's  patrons.  No  settlement  was  made 
however  until  1716,  when  Bienville,  Iberville's 
brother,  built  Fort  Rosalie  on  Natchez  bluff. 
In  November,  1729,  the  fort  and  adjacent  set- 
tlements were  destroyed  by  the  Natchez  In- 
dians and  the  inhabitants  massacred ;  but  a  few 
months  later  a  force  of  French  and  Indian  allies 
drove  out  the  Natchez  and  rebuilt  the  fort, 
which  continued  to  be  a  French  military  and 
trading  post  until  it  passed  into  the  hands  of 
Great  Britain  by  the  treaty  of  1763.  It  was 
now  called  Fort  Panmure.  In  1779  it  was  oc- 
cupied by  the  Spaniards,  who  kept  possession 
of  it  until  March,  1798,  although  by  the  treaty 
of  1783  it  was  rightfully  included  in  the  terri- 
tory of  the  United  States.  In  April,  1798,  the 
territory  of  Mississippi  was  created  by  act  of 
congress,  and  Natchez  became  its  capital.  It 
was  incorporated  as  a  city  in  1803.  In  1820 
the  seat  of  government  was  removed  to  Jack- 
son. In  1840  a  large  part  of  the  city  was  laid 
in  ruins  by  a  tornado.  During  the  civil  war 
Natchez  was  captured,  May  12,  1862,  by  a 
portion  of  Farragut's  fleet.  It  had  never  been 
588  VOL.  xii.— 11 


occupied  by  any  considerable  force  of  the  con- 
federates, and  being  of  little  military  impor- 
tance was  soon  abandoned  by  the  Unionists. 

NATCHITOCHES,  a  tribe  of  American  Indians, 
allied  to  the  Caddoes,  and  formerly  residing  on 
Red  river,  Louisiana,  with  a  fortified  town  on 
an  island.  The  Washitas  and  Capichis  were 
united  with  them.  They  worshipped  the  sun, 
had  a.  temple  with  perpetual  fire,  and  made  salt 
at  a  neighboring  lake,  which  they  traded  to 
other  tribes  for  grain  and  skins.  They  were 
always  friendly  to  the  French,  who  planted  a 
fort  near  them.  This  led  to  an  attack  on  them 
by  the  fugitive  Natchez  in  1731.  They  grad- 
ually united  with  the  Caddoes,  forming  a  band 
of  that  tribe. 

NATCHITOCHES,  a  N.  W.  parish  of  Louisiana, 
intersected  by  Red  river  and  bounded  E.  by  a 
branch,  Saline  bayou ;  area,  2,260  sq.  m. ;  pop. 
in  1870,  18,265,  of  whom  10,929  were  colored. 
It  has  a  level  surface  and  fertile  soil,  especially 
near  the  rivers.  The  chief  productions  in  1870 
were  231,746  bushels  of  Indian  corn,  12,356 
of  sweet  potatoes,  15,671  bales  of  cotton,  and 
3,189  Ibs.  of  wool.  There  were  2,949  horses, 
1,845  mules  and  asses,  3,527  milch  cows,  1,644 
working  oxen,  8,952  other  cattle,  5,442  sheep, 
and  10,244  swine.  Capital,  Natchitoches  (pop. 
in  1870,  1,401),  a  shipping  point  on  Red  river, 
about  500  m.  by  water  N.  W.  of  New  Orleans. 

NATICK,  a  town  of  Middlesex  co.,  Massachu- 
setts, on  the  Boston  and  Albany  railroad,  at 
the  junction  of  the  Saxonville  branch,  17  m. 
W.  by  S.  of  Boston;  pop.  in  1870,  6,404. 
Charles  river  flows  through  the  S.  E.  portion, 
and  Cochituate  lake,  which  supplies  Boston 
with  water,  is  partly  within  the  town.  Farm- 
ing is  carried  on  to  some  extent,  but  the  prin- 
cipal business  is  the  manufacture  of  boots  and 
shoes,  for  which  there  are  15  or  20  establish- 
ments. There  are  also  a  hat  factory  and  a 
base-ball  manufactory.  The  town  has  a  na- 
tional bank,  a  savings  bank,  water  and  gas 
works,  a  fine  public  library  and  library  building, 
a  high  school,  a  weekly  newspaper,  and  eight 
churches.  Natick  was  incorporated  in  1781. 
The  first  Indian  church  in  New  England  was 
erected  here  in  1660,  on  the  site  now  occupied 
by  the  Unitarian  church.  John  Eliot  preached 
here,  and  in  the  cemetery  is  a  monument  to 
his  memory. 

NATIONS,  Law  of.    See  LAW  OF  NATIONS. 

NATRON.     See  SODA. 

NATURAL  BRIDGE.     See  BRIDGE,  NATURAL. 

NATURAL  HISTORY,  strictly  speaking,  the  his- 
tory of  universal  nature  or  of  all  natural  ob- 
jects, their  qualities  and  forces,  their  laws  of 
existence,  their  origin  (as  far  as  possible),  and 
their  mutual  relations  to  each  other  and  to 
man.  The  study  of  the  physical  forces  of  na- 
ture, however,  has  been  separated  into  distinct 
branches  of  science,  under  the  names  of  nat- 
ural philosophy,  chemistry,  astronomy,  &c. ; 
leaving  for  natural  history  proper  the  investi- 
gation of  the  structure,  properties,  and  uses  of 
the  inanimate  bodies  called  minerals,  and  of 


160 


NATURALIZATION 


the  various  kinds  of  living  things,  both  ani- 
mal and  vegetable,  including  their  description, 
collection,  preservation,  determination,  and  ar- 
rangement in  a  natural  series,  and  embracing 
as  principal  divisions  zoology,  botany,  and 
mineralogy.  For  details  on  these  divisions, 
see  the  articles  ANIMAL,  BOTANY,  COMPABA- 
TIVE  ANATOMY,  GEOLOGY,  MINERALOGY,  PHYSI- 
OLOGY, ZOOLOGY,  and  the  various  animal  and 
vegetable  classes  in  their  respective  order. 

NATURALIZATION,  the  act  of  investing  an  alien 
with  the  rights  and  privileges  of  a  native-born 
citizen  or  subject.  It  is  of  two  kinds,  collec- 
tive and  personal.  A  collective  naturalization 
takes  place  when  a  country  or  state  is  incor- 
porated in  another  country  by  gift,  cession,  or 
conquest.  Thus,  when  England  and  Scotland 
were  formed  into  one  kingdom  in  the  reign  of 
Queen  Anne,  it  was  declared  by  the  fourth 
section  of  the  act  of  union  that  subjects  of 
the  United  Kingdom  possessed  thereafter  all 
the  rights,  privileges,  and  advantages  enjoyed 
by  the  subjects  of  either  kingdom ;  and  when 
Louisiana  was  ceded  by  France  to  the  United 
States  in  1803,  it  was  provided  by  the  third 
article  of  the  treaty  that  its  inhabitants  should 
be  entitled  to  all  the  rights  and  privileges  of 
citizens  of  the  United  States;  and  a  similar 
effect  took  place  when  the  republic  of  Texas 
was  annexed  to  and  formed  into  one  of  the 
states  of  the  American  Union.  Personal  nat- 
uralization is  where  the  privileges  of  a  subject 
or  citizen  are  conferred  upon  an  individual  by 
the  license  or  letters  patent  of  a  sovereign  or 
the  act  of  a  legislative  body,  or  are  obtained 
by  the  individual  himself  under  a  general  law, 
upon  his  complying  with  certain  conditions 
prescribed  by  the  law. — Naturalization  was 
practised  among  the  states  of  antiquity,  and  is 
found  in  the  rudest  forms  of  human  society. 
The  North  American  Indians  frequently  adopt- 
ed Europeans,  and  more  frequently  members 
of  other  tribes  taken  in  war.  The  earliest  ac- 
count that  we  have  of  naturalization  is  among 
the  Jews.  It  formed  a  part  of  their  early 
legislation,  as  embodied  in  the  books  of  Moses. 
The  knowledge  we  possess  of  the  laws  or  customs 
of  the  great  contemporary  nations,  the  Egyp- 
tians, Assyrians,  Babylonians,  Phoenicians,  and 
Persians,  is  too  limited  to  enable  us  to  know 
with  certainty  the  policy  they  pursued  upon 
this  subject. — In  Greece,  during  the  heroic 
ages,  the  people  had  few  or  no  privileges,  and 
whatever  was  allowed  to  them  appears  to  have 
been  as  freely  extended  to  strangers.  In  the 
convulsions  which  followed  these  ages,  natural- 
ization was  readily  granted ;  but  as  the  differ- 
ent states  settled  down  into  compact  and  well 
organized  communities,  the  value  of  citizenship 
became  enhanced,  and  the  privilege  was  more 
sparingly  bestowed.  In  Athens,  so  far  as  can 
be  gathered  from  the  fragmentary  information 
that  has  descended  to  us,  there  would  seem  to 
have  been  three  kinds  of  naturalization :  1,  the 
admission  of  an  alien  to  membership  in  a  deme 
or  township  by  the  vote  of  its  inhabitants,  at 


their  convocation  or  general  meeting,  and  the 
inscribing  of  his  name  upon  the  lexiarchic  re- 
gister, or  roll  of  the  qualified  citizens  of  the 
deme,  kept  by  the  demarch ;  2,  citizenship  con- 
ferred by  the  state  as  a  mark  of  distinction 
upon  foreigners  eminent  for  their  virtues  or 
talents,  or  who  had  rendered  important  services 
to  the  republic;  3,  privileges,  more  or  less 
qualified,  extended  to  the  inhabitants  of  other 
states,  or  to  particular  persons.  By  the  laws 
of  Solon,  none  but  those  who  were  banished 
from  their  country  for  ever,  and  had  with  their 
families  taken  up  their  permanent  abode  in 
Attica,  with  the  intention  of  practising  some 
trade  or  profession,  could  be  enrolled  in  the  list 
of  citizens.  Afterward,  however,  the  practice 
arose  of  bestowing  citizenship  as  the  gift  of  the 
state.  It  was  conferred  as  an  honorary  dis- 
tinction upon  foreigners,  admitting  them  to 
every  privilege  except  that  of  holding  the  office 
of  archon  or  priest,  and  did  not  imply  the  ne- 
cessity of  residence;  but  whether  it  entitled 
them  to  vote  in  the  assembly  is  a  point  upon 
which  authors  are  divided.  The  admission  of 
aliens  as  members  of  a  deme,  which  was  the 
ordinary  or  general  mode  of  naturalization,  was 
very  limited  at  first,  as  the  Athenians,  in  com- 
mon with  the  other  Grecian  states,  placed  a 
high  value  upon  citizenship,  and  were  suspicious 
of  and  prejudiced  against  foreigners.  When 
Clisthenes  made  a  new  division  of  the  tribes,  in 
509  B.  0.,  and  of  their  subdivision  into  demes 
or  local  parishes,  townships,  or  cantons,  he, 
with  a  view  of  strengthening  these  separate 
political  communities,  added  new  citizens, 
among  whom  were  included  not  only  resident 
foreigners  and  strangers,  but  even  slaves.  It 
was  not  intended  as  a  precedent,  but  was  a 
temporary  expedient  to  enable  him  to  carry 
out  more  effectually  his  plan  for  the  division 
of  the  people  into  local  communities.  The  in- 
novation, however,  was  followed  by  the  grad- 
ual extension  of  a  more  liberal  feeling  in  regard 
to  aliens.  There  was  constantly  at  Athens  a 
large  body  of  resident  foreigners,  attracted 
there  either  by  commercial  pursuits,  or  a  wish 
to  profit  by  the  instruction  of  its  schools,  or 
the  love  of  amusement.  This  class,  embracing 
persons  from  all  parts  of  Greece  and  from  other 
countries,  were  known,  in  contradistinction  to 
transitory  strangers  or  mere  sojourners,  by  the 
appellation  of  metcaci,  and  were  under  many 
disabilities.  They  could  not  acquire  landed 
property,  and  if  engaged  in  industrial  pursuits, 
they  were  subject  to  a  heavier  tax  than  the 
citizens.  They  were  compelled  to  select  a  pat- 
ron as  the  mediator  between  themselves  and 
the  state  in  the  transaction  of  all  legal  busi- 
ness, who  was  answerable  for  their  good  con- 
duct. They  were  obliged,  like  the  citizens,  to 
serve  in  the  army  or  navy  when  the  exigencies 
of  the  state  demanded  it,  and  occasionally  com- 
pelled to  perform  degrading  services,  which 
were  rather  symbolical  acts,  designed  to  remind 
them  of  the  inferiority  of  their  relation  to  the 
citizen.  Upon  the  payment  of  the  tax  imposed, 


NATURALIZATION 


161 


they  were  allowed  to  engage  in  trade  and  com- 
merce ;  and  nearly  all  commercial  business  was 
in  their  hands.  To  this  class,  who  had  made 
Athens  their  permanent  abode,  it  was  of  the 
greatest  importance  to  be  admitted  members  of 
a  deme,  as  it  released  them  from  a  burdensome 
tax,  enabled  them  to  acquire  land,  to  inherit, 
and  generally  to  enjoy  the  privileges  of  citizens, 
except  that  of  holding  the  office  of  archon  or 
priest.  So  strong  was  this  desire,  that  they 
were  occasionally  induced  to  get  their  name 
surreptitiously  entered  upon  the  register  of  a 
distant  deme ;  for  a  citizen  was  not  obliged  to 
reside  in  the  one  in  which  he  was  enrolled, 
and  there  were  at  least  one  hundred  of  these 
distinct  commonalties  distributed  over  Attica ; 
but  if  the  fraud  was  discovered,  the  alien  was 
liable  upon  conviction  to  be  sold  as  a  slave. 
Themistocles  exerted  himself  strongly  in  favor 
of  this  class,  and  chiefly  through  his  influence 
their  admission  into  the  denies  was  greatly 
facilitated,  and  it  afterward  became  more  gen- 
eral. When  the  number  of  the  citizens  was 
greatly  diminished  by  war,  the  loss  was  sup- 
plied by  the  admission  of  the  resident  aliens  or 
metoeci.  After  the  disastrous  defeat  at  Syra- 
cuse, which  nearly  depopulated  the  state,  the 
ranks  of  the  citizens  were  recruited  by  natural- 
izing the  metoeci.  The  lexiarchic  registers 
were  filled  with  these  names,  and  the  naturali- 
zation was  so  extensive  as  nearly  to  abolish  all 
distinction.  The  loss  of  citizens  was  again  sup- 
plied in  this  way  after  the  battle  of  Chseromjea; 
and  perhaps  no  state,  in  proportion  to  its  pop- 
ulation, ever  naturalized  so  many  aliens.  It  was 
the  fixed  policy  of  the  Spartans,  and  the  pecu- 
liar aim  of  their  institutions,  to  retain  to  them- 
selves and  to  their  descendants  the  exclusive 
exercise  of  political  power ;  and  so  rigidly  was 
this  policy  pursued,  that  Herodotus  declares 
that  but  two  instances  had  occurred  in  which 
they  had  admitted  foreigners  to  the  full  fran- 
chise. After  the  time  of  Herodotus,  foreign- 
ers were  occasionally  admitted,  and  it  is  after 
this  period  that  helots  are  supposed  to  have 
been  raised  to  this  dignity.  Upon  the  revo- 
lution effected  by  Cleomenes,  and  the  recon- 
struction by  him  of  the  constitution  of  the 
state,  he  admitted  a  considerable  number  of 
new  citizens.  They  were  selected  from  among 
the  most  worthy  and  deserving  of  the  popu- 
lation, and  embraced  natives  of  Lacedsemon, 
Perioeci,  and  strangers,  all  of  whom  were  ad- 
mitted to  the  full  franchise.  (See  SPAETA.) — In 
Rome  citizenship,  or  the  Roman  burgess  right, 
was  originally  limited  to  the  patricians.  It  was 
at  first  sparingly  bestowed  on  distinguished 
foreign  clans,  after  their  emigration  from  their 
homes  or  after  the  conquest  of  their  cities ; 
but  such  grants  became  more  rare  as  the  privi- 
lege increased  in  value.  During  the  republic 
citizenship  was  conferred  by  a  vote  of  the 
senate  upon  aliens  who  had  rendered  eminent 
services  to  the  state,  of  which  several  striking 
examples  are  mentioned  by  the  Roman  histo- 
is.  After  the  social  or  Marsic  war,  90  B.  C., 


the  right  was  extended  to  all  the  people  of  It- 
aly. Under  the  emperors,  down  to  the  reign 
of  Caracalla,  foreigners  petitioning  for  citi- 
zenship were  naturalized  by  an  imperial  de- 
cree ;  but  under  a  constitution  promulgated 
by  Caracalla,  all  the  free  inhabitants  of  the 
various  provinces  comprising  the  empire  be- 
came thereafter  Roman  citizens;  and  as  that 
empire  embraced  the  civilized  world,  there 
could  be  few  or  no  instances  thereafter  of  per- 
sonal naturalization. — The  mode  of  obtaining 
naturalization  in  modern  times,  and  the  con- 
ditions upon  which  it  will  be  granted,  differ 
in  different  countries.  In  the  United  States 
the  power  of  conferring  it  is  exclusively  vested 
in  the  national  government.  This  power  has 
been  sometimes  exercised  by  a  collective  natu- 
ralization, in  cases  where  foreign  territory  has 
been  acquired,  and  in  respect  to  certain  Indian 
tribes,  as  well  as  by  the  fourteenth  amendment 
of  the  constitution,  which  made  citizens  of  the 
f reedmen  and  other  colored  persons ;  but  the 
mode  in  which  individuals  obtain  it  on  their 
own  application  is  regulated  by  acts  of  congress. 
The  policy  of  this  country  on  the  subject,  which 
is  characterized  by  a  desire  to  admit  all  foreign- 
ers of  good  character  to  a  full  participation  in 
all  the  rights  enjoyed  by  our  own  citizens,  after 
a  period  of  probation  sufficiently  long  to  enable 
them  to  become  acquainted  with  the  nature  of 
our  institutions,  is  to  be  traced  back  to  an  early 
period  of  our  colonial  history.  It  was  not  de- 
rived, like  many  of  our  laws,  from  the  enact- 
ments or  the  example  of  Great  Britain,  but 
grew  out  of  the  necessities  attendant  upon  the 
settlement  of  a  new  country.  At  the  period 
when  the  colonies  were  founded,  the  policy 
of  England  for  more  than  a  century  had  been 
hostile  to  conferring  political  privileges  upon 
foreigners ;  and  so  illiberal  was  its  course  in 
this  respect  through  the  whole  period  of  our 
colonial  history,  that  one  of  the  acts  of  tyr- 
anny charged  upon  George  III.  in  the  Decla- 
ration of  Independence  was,  that  he  had.  en- 
deavored to  prevent  the  population  of  the 
states  by  obstructing  the  laws  for  the  nat- 
uralization of  foreigners,  and  by  refusing  to 
pass  others  to  encourage  their  migration  hith- 
er. The  only  mode  by  which  a  foreigner  in 
England  could  obtain  naturalization,  investing 
him  with  all  the  rights  of  a  subject,  was  by  act 
of  parliament.  He  could  obtain  letters  of  den- 
ization  by  the  king's  special  license,  which  was 
granted  with  certain  restrictions.  In  the  sev- 
enth year  of  the  reign  of  Queen  Anne  an  act 
was  passed  naturalizing  foreign  Protestants,  by 
which  persons  of  this  class  could  be  admitted 
to  all  the  rights  of  subjects  upon  receiving  the 
sacrament  and  taking  the  oaths  of  abjuration 
and  allegiance ;  but  it  was  repealed  in  the  short 
space  of  three  years.  The  rights  of  foreigners 
settled  in  the  colonies  were  in  a  very  preca- 
rious state.  By  the  law  of  England  they  could 
neither  hold  nor  transmit  real  property,  nor  ex- 
ercise any  political  rights ;  and  by  the  naviga- 
tion act,  unless  they  were  naturalized  or  made 


162 


NATURALIZATION 


free  denizens  by  the  king's  letters  patent,  they 
were  forbidden  to  exercise  in  any  of  the  colo- 
nies the  occupation  of  a  merchant  or  a  factor. 
To  remedy  this  state  of  things  and  to  encourage 
immigration,  the  colonial  legislatures  exercised 
the  right  of  passing  naturalization  laws.  Mary- 
land was  the  first  colony  that  took  this  course. 
In  1666  she  enacted  a  law  for  the  naturaliza- 
tion of  the  Dutch  from  Cape  Henlopen  and 
the  French  Protestant  refugees  who  had  set- 
tled in  the  colony,  and  continned  to  pass  laws 
for  the  naturalization  of  aliens  to  the  time  of 
the  revolution.  In  1 671,  in  the  reign  of  Charles 
II.,  the  colony  of  Virginia  passed  an  act  for 
the  naturalization  of  any  one  desiring  to  make 
that  commonwealth  his  constant  residence,  who 
might  apply  by  petition  to  the  general  assembly. 
Five  acts  were  afterward  passed,  naturalizing  a 
number  of  aliens  who  had  petitioned  for  the 
privilege ;  and  in  1680  the  governor  was  author- 
ized to  grant  letters  of  naturalization  to  any 
foreigner  settled  in  the  colony  upon  his  taking 
the  oath  of  allegiance.  In  1705  a  law  was  passed 
adding  the  test  oath  to  the  oath  of  allegiance  to 
secure  the  Protestant  succession,  and  in  1738 
another  act  naturalizing  any  alien  who  might 
settle  upon  the  Roanoke.  In  South  Carolina, 
in  1693,  the  French  Protestants  who  had  set- 
tled in  the  province  were  made  citizens  by  the 
colonial  legislature ;  and  in  1731  Massachusetts 
passed  an  act  for  the  admission  of  foreign 
Protestants  after  a  residence  of  one  year.  The 
colony  of  New  York  passed  an  act  in  1683, 
declaring  that  all  actual  inhabitants  of  the 
province  professing  Christianity,  of  whatever 
foreign  nation,  should  be  entitled  to  all  the 
privileges  of  natural-born  subjects  upon  ta- 
king the  oath  of  allegiance.  Delaware  in  1700 
passed  an  act  empowering  the  governor  to  de- 
clare any  alien,  previously  settled,  or  thereaf- 
ter coming  to  settle  in  the  province,  natural- 
ized, upon  taking  an  oath  to  be  true  and  faith- 
ful to  the  king  and  to  the  government  of  the 
province,  and  declaring  that  all  Swedes,  Dutch, 
and  other  foreigners  settled  in  the  colony  be- 
fore its  acquisition  by  the  English  were  to  be 
deemed  fully  and  completely  naturalized.  Penn- 
sylvania also  passed  a  naturalization  law  in  the 
same  year,  and  South  Carolina  a  general  act 
in  1696.  These  laws  were  not  favorably  re- 
garded in  England.  They  were  looked  upon  as 
encroachments  upon  the  royal  prerogative"  or 
the  rights  of  parliament ;  and  even  in  the  col- 
onies, the  more  strenuous  loyalists  denounced 
them  as  disregarding  the  navigation  acts,  and 
as  tending  to  an  undue  increase  of  the  inhabi- 
tants, thereby  creating  formidable  antagonists 
to  English  industry,  and  nursing  a  disposition 
to  rebellion.  In  1715  the  colony  of  New  York 
passed  an  act  for  the  naturalization  of  all  for- 
eign Protestants  then  inhabiting  the  province. 
The  act  was  referred  by  the  board  of  trade  to 
Northey,  the  English  attorney  general,  who 
condemned  this  mode  of  naturalizing  "in  the 
lump,"  but  recognized  the  right  of  the  colonial 
legislature  to  naturalize  particular  aliens  by 


name,  after  inquiring  into  each  case  specially; 
and  thereafter  down  to  1773  some  14  acts 
were  passed*,  by  which  an  immense  number  of 
aliens  were  naturalized  by  name.  In  1740  an 
act  was  passed  by  the  British  parliament  for 
the  naturalization  of  foreign  Protestants  set- 
tled in  the  colonies  of  America.  It  required 
a  residence  there  of  seven  years,  without  hav- 
ing been  absent  at  any  time  for  more  than  two 
months ;  all  naturalized  under  it,  except  Qua- 
kers or  Jews,  had  first  to  receive  the  sacra- 
ment of  the  Lord's  supper  in  some  Protestant 
communion ;  and  by  an  act  passed  in  1747,  the 
benefit  of  the  previous  act  was  extended  to  the 
Moravian  Brethren,  and  other  foreign  Protes- 
tants settled  in  America,  who  had  conscientious 
scruples  against  taking  an  oath.  This  was  un- 
doubtedly designed  to  supersede  colonial  legis- 
lation, but  it  did  not  have  that  effect.  The 
long  period  of  residence  required  was  very  ob- 
jectionable in  a  new  country,  and  the  Catholics, 
who  had  settled  extensively  in  Maryland,  were 
excluded  from  its  provisions.  The  colonial 
legislatures  still  continued  to  pass  naturaliza- 
tion laws,  and  the  difficulties  growing  out  of 
the  subject  continued  to  increase  until  the  sep- 
aration of  the  two  countries. — During  the  rev- 
olution, and  until  the  adoption  of  the  federal 
constitution,  the  power  of  naturalizing  aliens 
was  exercised  by  the  states.  The  constitution 
of  the  state  of  New  York,  adopted  in  1777,s 
declared  that  it  should  be  in  the  discretion  of 
the  legislature  to  naturalize  all  such  persons, 
and  in  such  manner,  as  they  should  think'  prop- 
er. The  legislature  enacted  no  general  law, 
but  continued  to  pass  acts  for  the  naturalization 
of  persons  by  name  down  to  the  year  1790. 
After  the  breaking  out  of  the  revolution,  and 
especially  after  the  independence  of  the  United 
States  was  recognized  by  Great  Britain,  it  be- 
came necessary  both  here  and  in  England  to 
determine  who  of  those  born  in  the  colonies 
were  to  be  deemed  aliens.  It  was  decided  in 
the  English  courts  that  all  persons  of  this  class, 
adhering  to  the  American  government  during 
the  war  and  until  after  the  treaty  of  1783, 
ceased  thereafter  to  be  subjects  of  Great  Brit- 
ain, and  were  aliens ;  but  in  the  American  tri- 
bunals it  was  held  that  the  colonies  acquired 
all  the  rights  and  powers  of  sovereign  states 
when  they  declared  their  independence  on  July 
4,  1776,  and  that  the  people  of  the  respective 
states  ceased  upon  that  day  to  be  subjects  of 
Great  Britain,  and  became  members  of  the 
new  nation  then  formed ;  that  none  were  ex- 
cepted  unless,  within  a  reasonable  time  after 
that  event,  they  had  placed  themselves  under 
the  protection  and  power  of  the  government 
of  Great  Britain  in  such  a  way  as  to  indicate 
an  election  on  their  part  to  remain  in  alle- 
giance to  that  country.  It  was  conceded  by 
the  tribunals  of  both  countries  that  all  persons 
born  in  the  colonies  had  a  right,  upon  the  hap- 
pening of  such  an  event  as  the  revolution,  to 
elect  to  which  government  they  would  adhere ; 
the  point  upon  which  they  differed  being  that 


NATURALIZATION 


163 


the  English  courts  considered  the  date  of  the 
treaty  of  1783  as  the  period  when  we  ceased 
to  be  subjects,  while  our  courts  adopted  as  the 
era  the  day  of  the  declaration  of  independence. 
In  some  of  the  states  laws  were  passed  soon 
after  the  declaration  of  independence,  setting 
forth  that  all  abiding  in  the  state  after  that 
event,  or  after  a  certain  specified  period,  and 
deriving  protection  from  the  laws  of  the  state, 
owed  allegiance  to  it.  This  was  the  case  in 
New  York,  Massachusetts,  Pennsylvania,  and 
New  Jersey.  In  other  states  no  special  laws 
were  passed,  but  each  case  was  left  to  be  de- 
cided upon  its  own  circumstances  according 
to  the  voluntary  acts  and  the  conduct  of  the 
party.  It  was  also  held  that  persons  born  in 
Great  Britain  who  adhered  to  the  American 
cause  until  the  close  of  the  war,  became  there- 
by American  citizens ;  and  that  the  natives  of 
the  colonies  absent  and  living  under  the  pro- 
tection of  Great  Britain  at  the  declaration  of 
independence,  but  who  returned  to  the  country 
before  the  treaty  of  1783,  and  continued  here 
afterward,  were  citizens.  This  question  of 
the  alienage  or  citizenship  of  those  born  in 
the  country  before  or  during  the  war  became 
a  very  important  one,  as  it  involved  the  right 
of  succession  to  landed  property,  and  was  a 
fruitful  source  of  litigation,  until  ultimately 
settled  by  the  tribunals  of  both  countries.  In 
the  articles  of  confederation  there  was  a  clause 
declaring  that  the  free  inhabitants  of  each  state 
should  be  entitled  to  all  the  privileges  and  im- 
munities of  free  citizens  in  the  several  states ; 
and  as  each  state  had  the  power  of  determining 
for  itself  upon  what  condition  aliens  should  be 
admitted,  and  as  in  some  of  the  states  higher 
qualifications  were  required  by  law  than  in 
others,  it  was  felt  that  great  inconveniences 
would  arise  in  the  practical  operation  of  this 
provision.  A  single  state  had  the  power  of 
forcing  into  another  any  alien  upon  whom  it 
might  confer  the  right  of  citizenship,  though 
declared  to  be  disqualified  by  the  laws  of  that 
state.  One  state  had  but  to  naturalize  him, 
and  then,  by  the  effect  of  the  clause  in  the 
articles  of  confederation,  he  became  a  citizen 
in  every  other,  thereby  making  the  law  of  one 
state  paramount  to  that  of  the  rest.  No  actual 
difficulty  occurred,  but  the  most  serious  em- 
barrassments were  likely  to  arise  at  any  mo- 
ment. Therefore,  when  the  federal  constitu- 
tion was  framed  in  1787,  a  provision  was  in- 
serted without  debate  conferring  upon  congress 
the  power  of  establishing  one  uniform  rule  of 
naturalization  throughout  the  United  States; 
and  at  the  second  session  of  the  first  congress 
after  the  adoption  of  the  constitution,  on  March 
26,  1790,  an  act  of  the  most  liberal  character 
was  passed,  authorizing  the  naturalization  of 
any  free  white  alien  after  a  residence  of  two 
years  under  the  jurisdiction  of  the  United 
States,  and  of  one  year  in  the  state  where  he 
applied  for  admission ;  and  from  that  time  to 
the  year  1872  some  18  acts  were  passed  upon 
the  subject.  In  1795  the  period  of  residence 


was  increased  to  five  years,  and  a  previous 
declaration  upon  oath  by  the  alien  of  his  in- 
tention to  become  a  citizen  was  required  to 
be  made  before  a  court  of  one  of  the  states,  at 
least  three  years  before  the  applicant's  admis- 
sion. In  1798  the  residence  was  increased  to 
14  years,  with  five  years'  previous  declaration 
of  intention.  In  1802  the  residence  was  re- 
duced again  to  five  years  and  the  declaration 
of  intention  to  three  years;  and  in  1824  the 
declaration  of  intention  was  further  reduced  to 
two  years.  It  was  supposed  in  some  of  the  states 
that  they  still  had  concurrent  jurisdiction,  and 
Virginia  adopted  a  conflicting  statute  in  1790 ; 
but  it  was  held  by  the  supreme  court  of  the  Uni- 
ted States  in  1817  that  the  power  to  naturalize 
was  vested  exclusively  in  congress.  The  sound- 
ness of  this  decision  was  much  questioned  at 
the  time,  but  it  is  now  universally  acknowl- 
edged to  have  been  correct.  But  though  no 
state  can  confer  upon  any  alien  all  the  rights 
and  privileges  of  a  citizen  of  the  United  States, 
it  may  grant  him  any  civil  or  political  privileges 
within  its  own  jurisdiction  not  inconsistent 
with  the  laws  of  the  United  States;  and  in 
many,  especially  in  the  western  states,  aliens 
are  allowed  to  hold  land,  to  exercise  the  elec- 
tive franchise,  and  to  enjoy  many  of  the  privi- 
leges of  citizens;  a  liberal  policy  which  has 
contributed  greatly  to  the  rapid  settlement  of 
these  states,  and  to  their  increase  in  wealth 
and  prosperity. — Until  the  enactment  of  the 
revised  statutes  in  1874,  the  laws  of  the  Uni- 
ted States  on  the  subject  of  naturalization  had 
to  be  gathered  from  many  statutes,  some  of 
them  relating  to  other  subjects ;  and  the  want 
of  one  general  act,  in  which  the  whole  law 
should  be  embodied  and  clearly  expressed,  was 
much  felt.  The  qualifications  requisite,  and 
the  mode  of  obtaining  naturalization,  are  at 
present  (1875)  as  follows.  The  applicant  must 
have  resided  in  the  United  States  for  the  con- 
tinued term  of  five  years  next  preceding  his 
admission,  and  one  year  at  least  within  the 
state  or  territory  where  the  court  is  held  that 
admits  him.  Two  years  at  least  before  his  ad- 
mission he  must  declare  on  oath  or  affirmation, 
before  a  court  of  record  having  common-law 
jurisdiction  and  a  seal  and  clerk,  or  before  a 
circuit  or  district  court  of  the  United  States, 
or  before  a  clerk  of  either  of  the  said  courts, 
that  it  is  lona  fide  his  intention  to  become  a 
citizen,  and  to  renounce  for  ever  all  allegiance 
and  fidelity  to  any  foreign  prince,  potentate, 
state,  or  sovereignty,  and  particularly  by  name 
the  prince,  potentate,  state,  or  sovereignty  of 
which  he  is  at  the  time  a  citizen  or  subject. 
This  declaration  is  recorded  by  the  clerk,  and 
a  certificate  under  the  seal  of  the  court  and 
signed  by  the  clerk  that  he  has  made  such  a 
declaration  is  given  him,  which  is  received 
thereafter  as  evidence  of  the  fact.  If  the  ap- 
plicant was  a  minor  under  the  age  of  18  years 
when  he  came  to  the  country,  this  previous 
declaration  of  intention  is  dispensed  with,  and 
he  is  entitled  to  be  admitted  after  he  has  ar- 


164: 


NATURALIZATION 


rived  at  the  age  of  21  years,  if  he  has  resided 
five  years  in  the  United  States,  including  the 
three  years  of  his  minority,  and  has  so  con- 
tinued to  reside  up  to  the  time  when  he  makes 
his  application,  upon  complying  with  the  law 
in  other  respects.     There  is  some  obscurity  in 
this  latter  provision.     Some  have  thought  that 
the  three  years  of  minority,  from  18  to  21,  is 
all  that  can  be  allowed  as  a  part  of  the  five 
years'  residence  demanded  by  the  act,  and  that 
one  naturalized  as  a  minor  was  not  entitled  to 
be  admitted  until  he  had  arrived  at  the  age  of 
23  ;  but  it  has  been  decided  in  the  New  York 
common  pleas  (all  the  judges  concurring)  that 
he  is  entitled  to  be  admitted  at  21,  if  he  had 
resided  here  since  he  was  15  ;  that  all  that  the 
statute  requires  is,  that  he  must  in  every  case 
have  resided  here  between  the  ages  of  18  and 
21,  and  if  he  has  done  that,  and  also  resided 
here  two  years  before  that  period  began,  it  is 
a  residence  of  five  years  within  the  meaning  of 
the  act.    By  an  act  passed  in  1862  an  alien  who 
has  enlisted  in  the  armies  of  the  United  States, 
either  in  the  regular  or  volunteer  service,  and 
who  has  been  honorably  discharged,  may,  upon 
proof  of  one  year's  residence  in  the  United 
States  and  of  good  character,  be  naturalized 
without  any  previous  declaration  of  intention. 
By  the  act  of  June  7,  1872,  any  seaman  who 
declares  his  intention  in  a  competent  court  to 
become  a  citizen,  and  who  thereafter  serves  for 
three  years  on  board  of  a  merchant  ship  or 
ships  of  the  United  States,  can,  upon  the  pro- 
duction of  a  certificate  of  his  discharge  and 
good  conduct  during  that  time  and  of  his  pre- 
vious declaration,  be  naturalized ;  and  for  the 
purpose  of  protection  he  is  deemed  a  citizen 
after  the  filing  of  his  declaration  of  intention 
to  become  one.     When  the  applicant  has  com- 
pleted the  necessary  residence,  he  must  prove 
the  fact  before  one  of  the  courts  previously 
named  by  other  testimony  than  his  own  oath. 
One  witness,  if  he  knows  the  fact,  is  sufficient. 
If  entitled  to  admission  without  a  previous 
declaration  of  intention,  the  alien  must  declare 
upon  oath,  and  prove  to  the  satisfaction  of  the- 
court,  that  for  the  three  years  next  preceding 
his  application  it  was  bonafide  his  intention  to 
become  a  citizen ;  and  every  applicant  must 
prove  (which  may  be  done  by  his  own  oath, 
unless  the  court  should  require  other  testimony) 
that  he  has  behaved  during  the  period  of  his 
residence  as  a  man  of  good  moral  character, 
attached  to  the  principles  of  the  constitution 
of  the  United  States,  and  well  disposed  to  the 
good  order  and  happiness  of  the  same.     The 
mode  of  admission  is  as  follows.     The  appli- 
cant goes  to  the  clerk  of  the  court,  and  exhib- 
its the  certificate  of  his  having  declared  his 
intention.     The  clerk  then  prepares  a  written 
deposition  for  the  witness,  setting  forth  his 
knowledge  of  the  applicant's  residence  and  of 
his  good  character,  and  another  for  the  appli- 
cant, declaring  that  he  renounces  all  allegiance 
to  every 'foreign  power,  and  particularly  that 
of  which  he  is  a  citizen  or  subject,  and,  if  he 


has  borne  any  title  of  nobility,  that  he  re- 
nounces it,  and  that  he  will  support  the  con- 
stitution of  the  United  States.     The  parties 
are  then  taken  before  the  judge,  who  examines 
each  of  them  under  oath  ;  and  if  he  is  satisfied 
that  the  applicant  has  resided  in  the  country 
for  the  requisite  period,  and  is  a  man  of  good 
character,  he  makes  an  order  in  writing  for  his 
admission.    The  depositions  are  then  subscribed 
by  the  parties  and  publicly  sworn  to  in  court 
in  the  presence  of  the  judge ;  and  the  certificate 
of  the  declaration  of  intention,  the  depositions, 
and  the  order  of  the  judge  are  filed,  and  con- 
stitute the  record  of  the  proceeding.     A  final 
certificate  under  the  seal  of  the  court,  signed 
by  the  clerk,  is  then  given  the  alien,  declaring 
that  he  has  complied  with  all  the  requisites  of 
the  law,  and  has  been  duly  admitted  a  citizen ; 
which  certificate  is  conclusive  evidence  there- 
after of  the  fact.     In  the  case  of  a  minor  the 
previous  declaration  of  intention  is  dispensed 
with,  but  in  all  other  respects  the  course  of 
procedure  is  the  same.     The  record  of  natu- 
ralization, if  regular  upon  its  face,  is  conclu- 
sive as  to  the  naturalization  of  the  alien,  and 
cannot  be  contradicted  by  extrinsic  evidence. 
It  may  be  set  aside,  however,  if  fraudulently 
obtained,  by  the  court  in  which  the  alien  was 
naturalized;  and  a  very  elaborate  and  effective 
act  was  passed  July  14, 1872,  making  it  a  felony 
to  obtain  or  knowingly  to  assist  in  obtaining 
a  fraudulent  naturalization.     Acts  have  been 
passed  for  the  admission  of  persons  residing 
in  the  United  States  before  certain  dates  with- 
out previous  declaration  of  intention  ;  but  they 
have  all  become  obsolete  by  lapse  of  time,  ex- 
cept possibly  the  last,  relating  to  those  so  re- 
siding prior  to  June  18,  1812.     A  child  born 
out  of  the  United  States  is  a  citizen  if  the  fa- 
ther was  one  at  the  time  of  the  birth  of  the 
child,  but  the  right  will  not  descend  to  one 
whose  father  has  never  resided  in  the  United 
States ;  and  the  minor  children  of  persons  nat- 
uralized, if  the  children  are  then  dwelling  in 
the  United  States,  become  citizens  by  the  natu- 
ralization of  the  parent.    It  was  formerly  ques- 
tioned whether  this  latter  provision  applied  to 
any  but  the  children  of  parents  naturalized 
before  the  passage  of  the  act  in  1802.     Chan- 
cellor Kent,  in  his  "  Commentaries,"  inclined  to 
the  opinion  that  the  act  was  prospective,  and 
was  designed  to  embrace  the  children  of  per- 
sons who  should  thereafter  be  naturalized ;  and 
opinions  to  the  same  effect  were  expressed  by 
many  eminent  jurists.     But  the  point  came  up 
for  decision  in  the  court  of  chancery  of  the 
state  of  New  York  in  1840,  in  the  case  of  chil- 
dren who  were  minors,  living  with  their  father 
in  this  country,  when  the  father  was  naturalized 
in  1830,  and  whose  right  to  succeed  to  his  es- 
tate was  denied  upon  the  assumption  that  they 
were  aliens.     Chancellor  Wai  worth  decided 
that  they  were  not  aliens,  but  became  citizens 
in  1830  by  the  naturalization  of  their  father. 
After  an  elaborate  examination  of  the  legisla- 
tion of  congress,  he  held  that  the  provision  in 


NATURALIZATION 


165 


the  act  of  1802  was  prospective,  so  as  to  em- 
brace the  children  of  aliens  naturalized  after 
the  passage  of  the  act.  as  well  as  the  children 
of  those  who  were  naturalized  before.  Deci- 
sions to  the  same  effect  were  rendered  by  Chief 
Justice  Daly  in  the  New  York  court  of  com- 
mon pleas  in  1847 ;  by  the  supreme  court  of 
Arkansas  in  a  case  of  great  public  interest  in 
which  the  question  was  elaborately  examined, 
in  1850;  and  by  the  supreme  court  of  Florida 
in  1865.'  Another  important  question  under 
this  provision  is  whether  both  parents  should 
be  naturalized  to  confer  the  right  upon  chil- 
dren. The  importance  of  this  question  is 
greatly  lessened  in  cases  of  naturalization  after 
Feb.  10,  1855,  as  congress  on  that  day  passed 
an  act  declaring  "  that  any  woman  who  might 
be  lawfully  naturalized  under  the  existing  laws, 
married  or  who  shall  be  married  to  a  citizen  of 
the  United  States,  shall  be  deemed  and  taken  to 
be  a  citizen  ;"  but  before  that  time  the  Amer- 
ican courts  had  repeatedly  held  that  a  wife  who 
was  an  alien  did  not  become  a  citizen  by  the 
naturalization  of  her  husband.  These  two  ques- 
tions are  of  great  practical  importance,  as  vast 
numbers  of  persons  since  the  enactment  of 
this  provision  have  inherited,  purchased,  and 
transmitted  real  property  upon  the  assumption 
that  they  were  citizens  by  the  naturalization 
of  their  fathers,  whose  rights,  and  the  rights 
which  others  have  derived  from  them,  would 
be  disturbed  if  a  different  construction  were 
now  given  to  this  provision ;  and  although 
these  two  questions  have  not  been  decided  by 
the  highest  authority  in  this  country,  the  su- 
preme court  of  the  United  States,  it  may  never- 
theless be  assumed  that  they  are  now  settled, 
and  the  construction  above  stated  universally 
acquiesced  in.  A  doubt  arose  whether  the  act 
of  1855  applied  to  a  woman  who  was  mar- 
ried to  her  husband  before  he  was  naturalized, 
the  language  of  the  act  being,  "  married  or  who 
shall  be  married  to  a  citizen."  The  supreme 
court  of  the  United  States  decided  that  these 
words  refer  to  a  state  of  marriage,  and  not  to 
the  time  when  the  ceremony  was  performed ; 
that  whether  married  before  or  after  the  natu- 
ralization of  her  husband,  the  wife  becomes  by 
his  naturalization  also  a  citizen,  it  being  the 
manifest  intent  of  the  act  that  the  citizenship 
of  the  wife  should  follow  as  a  consequence  of 
the  naturalization  of  the  husband  ;  and  it  was 
decided  in  North  Carolina  in  1869  that  a  white 
woman,  a  native  of  Ireland,  who  married  an 
American  citizen,  was  a  citizen  of  the  United 
States,  although  she  had  always  resided  in  Ire- 
land. If  an  alien  who  has  declared  his  inten- 
tion dies  before  he  is  naturalized,  his  widow 
and  children  may  become  citizens  by  simply 
taking  the  oath  required  of  all  naturalized  citi- 
zens to  support  the  constitution  of  the  United 
States,  and  to  renounce  all  previous  allegiance. 
In  this  case  the  period  of  residence  of  the 
widow  and  children  is  immaterial,  nor  is  any 
distinction  made  between  minor  children  and 
adults.— In  certain  cases  aliens  are  disqualified 


from  becoming  citizens.  No  alien  can  be  ad- 
mitted while  his  country  is  at  war  with  the 
United  States,  nor  could  one  be  admitted  who 
was  legally  convicted  of  having  joined  the 
British  army  during  the  American  revolution, 
.or  who  was  proscribed  by  any  state  before 
1802,  unless  with  the  consent  of  the  state.  The 
statutes  formerly  provided  only  for  the  natural- 
ization of  "free  white"  persons,  which  is  sup- 
posed to  exclude  all  that  can  be  denominated 
colored  races — the  copper-colored  natives  or 
Indians  of  America,  the  African  races,  and  the 
yellow  races  of  Asia.  It  has  been  held  by  the 
courts  of  California  that  a  Chinese  is  not  a 
white  person  within  the  meaning  of  the  act, 
and  cannot  therefore  be  naturalized.  In  the 
celebrated  Dred  Scott  case  the  supreme  court 
of  the  United  States  in  1856  held  that  the 
Africans  imported  into  the  country  and  their 
descendants  were  a  subjugated  race,  and  not 
the  people  by  whom  the  government  was  es- 
tablished ;  that  they  were  not  and  never  were 
intended  to  be  embraced  under  the  denomina- 
tion of  citizens;  and  that  when  the  right  to 
naturalize  was  surrendered  by  the  states  to  the 
federal  government,  it  was  meant  to  be  con- 
fined to  persons  of  foreign  birth,  and  not  a 
power  to  raise  inferior  races  here  to  the  rank 
of  citizens,  such  as  Indians,  negroes,  and  mulat- 
toes,  though  upon  this  latter  point  the  judges 
differed.  Indians,  and  persons  of  mixed  Indian 
and  African  blood,  have  however  been  admitted 
to  the  rights  of  citizenship  by  special  treaties 
and  acts  of  annexation.  This  was  done  by  ar- 
ticle 14  of  the  treaty  with  the  Choctaws  of  Sept. 
27,  1830  ;  by  article  12  of  that  with  the  Chero- 
kees  of  May  23,  1836 ;  and  in  the  treaties  by 
which  Louisiana,  Florida,  and  California  were 
acquired.  A  delicate  question  arose  as  to  the 
degree  of  mixture  or  color  which  would  pre- 
clude one  from  being  denominated  a  white  per- 
son. There  was  no  agreement  on  the  subject 
even  in  the  slave  states.  In  some  the  propor- 
tion was  one  eighth,  in  others  one  fourth ;  and 
in  South  Carolina  any  distinct  and  visible*  ad- 
mixture of  negro  blood,  to  be  determined  by  the 
evidence  of  features,  complexion,  and  parent- 
age, was  sufficient.  On  the  other  hand,  in  the 
free  state  of  Ohio  any  one  being  nearer  white 
than  black,  that  is,  having  more  than  one  half 
white  blood,  was  declared  to  be  white.  The 
question  has  ceased  to  be  of  its  former  impor- 
tance since  the  adoption  in  1868  of  the  four- 
teenth amendment  of  the  constitution  of  the 
United  States,  which  declares  that  all  persons 
born  or  naturalized  in  the  United  States  and 
subject  to  the  jurisdiction  thereof  are  citizens 
of  the  United  States  and  of  the  state  wherein 
they  reside,  and  that  no  state  shall  make  or  en- 
force any  law  which  shall  abridge  the  privileges 
or  immunities  of  citizens  of  the  United  States. 
It  was  held  by  the  supreme  court  of  the  United 
States  in  1872,  in  the  slaughter  house  cases, 
that  this  enactment  was  primarily  intended  to 
confer  citizenship  on  the  negro  race  ;  secondly, 
to  give  definitions  of  citizenship  of  the  United 


166 


NATURALIZATION 


States  and  of  the  states ;  and  that  it  recognizes 
the  distinction  between  the  two.  Since  the 
act  of  July  14,  1870,  aliens  of  African  nativity 
and  persons  of  African  descent  may  be  natu- 
ralized. The  question  however  remains,  under 
the  laws,  what  admixture  of  color  will  preclude 
one  from  being  denominated  a  white  person, 
and  may  arise  when  persons  of  mixed  Indian 
blood  born  out  of  the  United  States  apply  to 
be  naturalized.— The  residence  required  by  the 
naturalization  laws  is  a  permanent  abode  in 
the  country;  and  when  that  is 'established  or 
begun,  it  will  not  be  affected  by  a  temporary 
absence  upon  business  or  pleasure,  if  the  inten- 
tion to  keep  up  the  residence  here  and  return 
has  always  existed,  and  no  residence  has  been 
established  elsewhere.  A  man's  residence  may 
be  denned  to  be  the  place  where  he  abides, 
with  his  family  if  he  has  one,  and  makes  the 
chief  seat  of  his  affairs  and  interests.  In  re- 
spect to  seamen  who  have  no  fixed  place  of 
residence,  they  are  provided  for  in  the  act  of 
1872  before  referred  to.— Many  questions  have 
been  decided  by  the  courts  in  respect  to  nat- 
uralization, which  will  be  summarily  stated. 
Foreigners  by  birth  are  prima  facie  aliens, 
and  must  show  that  they  have  been  natu- 
ralized before  they  can  inherit;  and  if  not 
entitled  to  inherit,  being  aliens,  they  cannot 
become  so  by  afterward  getting  naturalized. 
The  marriage  of  an  American  woman  with  an 
alien  does  not  make  her  an  alien ;  but  if  she. 
emigrates  to  a  foreign  country  with  her  hus- 
band and  takes  up  her  abode  with  an  intention 
to  remain  there  permanently,  she  would  prob- 
ably be  regarded  as  having  lost  the  character 
of  an  American  citizen,  at  least  while  such  a 
state  of  things  existed,  especially  if  in  the 
country  in  which  she  dwells  she  is  by  its  laws 
a  citizen  or  subject  there,  by  being  married  to 
a  citizen  or  subject  of  that  country.  Emigra- 
tion to  another  country,  swearing  allegiance  to 
it,  and  entering  and  uniformly  continuing  in 
the  service  of  its  government,  are  sufficient  to 
show  expatriation,  and  that  the  person  has  lost 
the  character  of  an  American  citizen.  A  child 
born  in  a  foreign  country,  whose  mother  was  a 
native  of  that  country,  and  whose  father  was 
an  American  citizen  who  went  there  with  the 
intention  of  remaining,  but  was  never  natural- 
ized there,  is  an  American  citizen,  and  can  in- 
herit property  in  the  United  States.  A  child 
born  of  non-resident  parents,  if  born  in  one  of 
the  United  States,  is  prima  facie  a  citizen,  al- 
though his  mother  was  in  the  state  merely  for 
the  purpose  of  being  confined.  A  child  born 
abroad  of  an  American  citizen  is  subject  to  a 
double  allegiance ;  but  upon  arriving  at  ma- 
turity he  may  elect  one  and  repudiate  the 
other,  and  such  election  is  conclusive  upon  him. 
Allegiance  in  the  United  States  is  twofold,  to 
the  Union  and  to  the  particular  state ;  but  that 
to  the  Union  is  paramount.  Where  a  territory 
is  conquered,  it  operates  to  change  the  alle- 
giance of  the  people;  but  their  relation  and 
rights  in  respect  to  each  other  remain  undis- 


turbed. Citizens  of  Texas  before  the  annexa- 
tion became  citizens  of  the  United  States  by 
that  act,  which  operated  as  an  act  of  naturali- 
zation; and  it  was  decided  in  Pennsylvania 
that  a  native  of  Saxony  who  went  to  Louisiana 
in  1801,  and  was  residing  there  when  the  terri- 
tory was  ceded  to  the  United  States  in  1803, 
and  continued  to  reside  there  afterward,  be- 
came by  the  act  of  cession  a  citizen  of  the 
United  States.  A  court  having  neither  clerk 
nor  recording  officer  distinct  from  the  judge  is 
not  a  court  entitled  to  naturalize. — As  to  the 
right  of  a  citizen  or  subject  to  expatriate  him- 
self and  renounce  his  allegiance  to  his  native 
country,  there  was  formerly  even  in  the  Uni- 
ted States  great  difference  of  opinion.  The 
most  authoritative  writers  upon  the  law  of 
nations  treated  it  as  an  inherent  right,  and  it 
was  so  regarded  in  many  of  the  European  na- 
tions. In  England,  however,  it  was  held  by 
the  courts  that  the  allegiance  of  a  native-born 
subject  was  intrinsic  and  perpetual,  of  which 
he  could  never  divest  himself  by  any  act  of  his 
own,  and  that  it  was  not  in  the  power  of  any 
foreign  prince  or  nation,  by  naturalization,  to 
dissolve  the  bond  between  a  British  subject 
and  the  crown.  In  the  supreme  court  of  the 
United  States  the  question  was  elaborately 
discussed  in  three  cases,  but  was  not  passed 
upon,  while  in  the  state  courts  there  were  con- 
flicting decisions.  Chancellor  Kent  in  his 
"Commentaries,"  after  reviewing  all  the  de- 
cisions, declared  the  better  opinion  to  be  that 
an  American  citizen  could  not  renounce  his  al- 
legiance without  the  consent  of  the  govern- 
ment in  a  mode  prescribed  by  law;  and  as 
congress  had  passed  no  law,  that  the  rule  of 
the  English  common  law  remained  unaltered. 
On  the  other  hand,  the  executive  branch  of  the 
government  recognized  the  right.  Gen.  Cass, 
the  secretary  of  state,  did  so  in  1859;  and  At- 
torney Generals  Cushing  and  Black  both  offi- 
cially advised  the  government  that  an  Ameri- 
can citizen  could  renounce  his  allegiance.  Fi- 
nally an  act  of  congress  was  passed  July  27, 
1868,  declaring  expatriation  to  be  an  inherent 
right  in  all  men,  and  that  any  act  of  any  officer 
of  the  government  which  denied,  restricted, 
impaired,  or  questioned  it  was  inconsistent 
with  the  fundamental  principles  of  the  gov- 
ernment. In  the  same  year  it  was  settled  by 
treaty  between  the  United  States  and  the  North 
German  Union  that  if  a  citizen  or  subject  was, 
after  a  residence  of  five  years,  naturalized  in 
either  country,  he  was  to  be  deemed  a  citizen 
of  that  country;  that  if  he  returned  to  the 
land  of  his  birth,  he  could  not  be  prosecuted 
for  any  criminal  offence  unless  it  was  commit- 
ted before  his  expatriation ;  and  that  by  a  resi- 
dence of  two  years  in  the  country  to  which  he 
originally  belonged,  with  no  intention  of  re- 
turning to  the  one  of  his  adoption,  he  would 
be  presumed  to  have  renounced  his  naturaliza- 
tion. In  1870  Great  Britain,  by  an  act  of  par- 
liament, which  will  be  hereafter  referred  to, 
abandoned  its  former  policy ;  and  the  right  of 


NATURALIZATION 


167 


expatriation  and  the  renunciation  of  allegiance 
is  now  recognized  in  the  United  States,  Great 
Britain,  France,  Russia,  Germany,  Austria, 
Italy,  Spain,  Belgium,  Holland,  Denmark,  Swe- 
den, and  Norway ;  but  in  some  of  these  coun- 
tries it  is  subject  to  the  condition  that  the  na- 
tive has  fulfilled  the  obligations  imposed  by 
his  former  allegiance,  such  as  military  service. 
— In  Great  Britain,  prior  to  1844,  naturaliza- 
tion could  be  effected  only  by  act  of  parlia- 
ment. Originally  it  conferred  all  the  rights  of 
a  natural-born  subject,  but  by  an  act  dictated 
by  the  jealous  policy  of  the  government  upon 
the  accession  of  the  house  of  Orange,  passed 
in  1701,  it  was  declared  that  no  one,  though 
naturalized,  should  be  of  the  privy  council  or 
a  member  of  parliament,  or  hold  any  office 
civil  or  military,  or  be  allowed  to  receive  any 
grant  of  land  from  the  crown.  As  before 
stated,  the  king  might  grant  letters  of  deniza- 
tion  conferring  certain  limited  rights,  in  the 
exercise  of  his  royal  prerogative.  In  this 
state  the  law  remained  until  the  reign  of  Vic- 
toria. Great  desire  having  been  expressed  for 
more  liberal  enactments,  the  subject  was  re- 
ferred to  a  committee  of  parliament,  who 
made  an  elaborate  investigation,  and  a  law 
was  passed  in  1844  defining  the  privileges  of 
aliens  upon  some  questionable  points,  and  pro- 
viding for  the  naturalization  of  all  aliens  re- 
siding in  or  coming  to  Great  Britain  with  in- 
tent to  settle.  The  provisions  of  this  act  need 
not  be  enumerated,  as  they  were  superseded 
by  a  more  comprehensive  act  passed  in  1870, 
which  repealed  a  number  of  the  preceding 
laws.  By  the  latter  act  any  alien  who  has  re- 
sided for  five  years  in  the  United  Kingdom,  or 
has  been  for  that  period  in  the  service  of  the 
crown,  and  intends  after  naturalization  to  con- 
tinue in  that  service  or  to  reside  in  the  United 
Kingdom,  may,  upon  producing  such  evidence 
of  his  residence,  service,  and  intention  as  shall 
be  satisfactory  to  one  of  her  majesty's  prin- 
cipal secretaries  of  state,  receive  from  such 
secretary  a  certificate  of  naturalization,  which 
shall  take  effect  after  the  alien  has  taken  the 
oath  of  allegiance;  upon  which  he  shall  be 
entitled  to  all  the  rights  and  be  subject  to 
all  the  obligations  of  a  natural-born  subject, 
but  shall  not  within  the  limits  of  the  foreign 
state  of  which  he  was  a  subject  be  deemed  a 
British  subject,  unless  he  has  ceased  to  be  a 
-subject  of  that  state  by  its  laws  or  by  treaty. 
The  secretary  of  state  may  grant  or  refuse  the 
certificate  without  giving  any  reasons,  and 
from  his  decision  there  is  no  appeal ;  and  he 
may  grant  a  special  certificate  of  naturalization 
to  any  person,  in  respect  to  whose  nationality 
as  a  British  subject  there  is  any  doubt,  which 
is  not  to  be  an  admission  that  he  was  not  pre- 
viously a  British  subject.  This  act  contains 
many  important  provisions  in  respect  to  alien- 
age and  expatriation.  It  provides  that  aliens 
may  acquire,  hold,  and  dispose  of  real  and  per- 
sonal property  in  the  same  manner  in  all  re- 
spects as  naturalized  British  subjects,  and  that 


it  may  be  derived  from  or  through  them  in  all  re- 
spects as  from  or  through  natural-born  subjects. 
This  however  does  not  extend  to  property  out 
of  the  United  Kingdom,  nor  confer  upon  them 
any  municipal,  parliamentary,  or  other  fran- 
chises, or  entitle  them  to  hold  office.  It  de- 
clares that  any  British  subject  in  a  foreign 
state,  who  was  not  under  any  disability,  and 
who  has  voluntarily  become  naturalized  in  that 
state,  shall  cease  to  be  a  British  subject ;  that 
any  person  who  by  his  having  been  born  in 
the  dominion  of  the  queen  is  a  British  sub- 
ject, but  who  at  the  time  of  his  birth  was  also 
by  its  laws,  and  is  still,  a  subject  of  a  foreign 
state,  may  cease  to  be  a  British  subject  by  ma- 
king a  declaration  of  his  alienage  in  the  pres- 
ence of  any  diplomatic  or  consular  officer  in 
the  service  of  the  queen,  or  if  such  person  is  in 
the  United  Kingdom  before  a  justice  of  the 
peace,  or  if  he  is  elsewhere  in  her  majesty's 
dominions  before  any  officer  authorized  to  ad- 
minister an  oath  ;  and  that  where  a  convention 
to  that  effect  has  been  entered  into  by  the 
queen  with  a  foreign  state,  any  subject  or  cit- 
izen of  that  state  who  has  been  naturalized  as 
a  British  subject  may  in  like  manner  make  a 
declaration  of  alienage,  upon  which  he  shall 
cease  to  be  a  British  subject,  and  shall  be 
thereafter  regarded  as  a  citizen  or  subject  of 
the  country  to  which  he  originally  belonged. 
Under  this  act  also  a  married  woman  is  to  be 
deemed  a  subject  of  the  country  of  which  her 
husband  is  a  subject.  If  she  is  a  widow  and 
was  born  a  British  subject,  she  may  obtain  a 
certificate  of  admission  to  British  nationality. 
The  children  of  British  subjects  naturalized  in 
a  foreign  country,  who  during  infancy  became 
resident  of  the  country  where  their  father  or 
mother  was  naturalized,  and  who  according  to 
the  laws  of  the  country  became  naturalized 
therein,  are  to  be  deemed  citizens  or  subjects 
of  that  country  and  not  British  subjects  :  and 
when  the  father,  or  the  mother  if  a  widow, 
has  been  readmitted  to  British  nationality,  the 
children,  if  they  have  become  residents  during 
infancy  in  the  British  dominion  with  the  father 
or  the  mother,  resume  their  position  of  British 
subjects ;  and  if  the  father,  or  the  mother  if 
a  widow,  become  naturalized,  the  children  are 
deemed  British  subjects  if  they  during  infancy 
become  residents  with  their  father  or  their 
mother  in  any  part  of  the  United  Kingdom. 
And  finally  all  laws  made  in  the  British  co- 
lonial possessions  respecting  naturalization  are 
to  have  the  authority  of  law,  but  are  subject 
to  be  confirmed  or  disallowed  by  the  queen 
like  other  colonial  laws. — In  the  various  Brit- 
ish colonies  naturalization  is  either  granted  by 
the  governor,  or  by  a  special  act  or  ordinance 
of  the  colonial  legislature  or  council,  in  each 
instance,  or  it  is  regulated  by  a  general  local 
law.  It  is  granted  by  the  governor  in  Ja- 
maica, the  Bahamas,  Antigua,  Turk's  and  Oai- 
cos  islands,  Newfoundland,  Victoria,  South 
Australia,  Tasmania,  and  New  Zealand ;  by  a 
special  act  or  ordinance  in  each  case  in  West- 


168 


NATURALIZATION 


ern  Australia,  British  Guiana,  Barbadoes,  St. 
Vincent,  St.  Lucia,  Grenada,  Trinidad,  and 
generally  in  the  minor  West  India  islands.  In 
Antigua,  Grenada,  and  St.  Vincent  immigrants 
from  the  United  States  and  British  North 
America,  of  African  descent,  who  have  served 
under  a  contract  for  a  year,  can  after  three 
years'  residence  become  naturalized  by  taking 
the  oath  of  allegiance  before  the  governor  and 
secretary  of  the  colony.  In  Sierra  Leone  it  is 
regulated  by  an  act  of  the  imperial  parliament. 
In  New  South  Wales,  Bermuda,  and  Honduras, 
it  is,  making  the  necessary  changes,  the  same 
as  under  the  English  act  of  1844.  In  the  fol- 
lowing colonies  it  is  regulated  by  a  general  lo- 
cal law :  Canada,  St.  Christopher  and  Anguilla, 
Turk's  and  Caicos  islands,  and  Cape  Colony. 
In  Canada  and  Cape  Colony  a  certain  period 
of  residence  is  required.  In  all  the  colonies  an 
oath  of  allegiance  is  taken  and  a  few  other  for- 
malities are  requisite.  In  Canada  an  oath  by  the 
applicant  of  three  years'  residence  with  intent 
to  settle,  and  an  oath  of  allegiance,  are  taken  be- 
fore a  justice  of  the  peace.  The  justice  trans- 
mits a  certificate  that  the  requisite  oaths  have 
been  taken  to  the  court  of  the  city  or  place 
where  the  applicant  resided  on  the  first  day  of 
its  sitting ;  this  is  publicly  read  in  court,  and  if 
no  valid  objection  is  made  the  certificate  is  filed 
and  the  act  of  naturalization  is  complete.  The 
effect  of  naturalization  by  the  local  government 
of  a  colony  or  country  forming  part  of  the  do- 
minions of  the  crown  of  England,  was  consid- 
ered iu  a  case  arising  in  the  reign  of  Charles  II., 
Craw  against  Ramsey,  reported  in  Vaughan's 
Reports.  It  was  declared  in  that  case  that  a 
person  naturalized  by  the  parliament  of  Ire- 
land, or  naturalized  in  Scotland,  which  at  that 
period  was  an  independent  kingdom,  connected 
with  England  only  by  the  circumstance  that 
the  crowns  of  both  kingdoms  centred  in  one 
person,  did  not  thereby  become  a  naturalized 
subject  in  England;  that  the  effect  of  such 
a  naturalization  did  not  extend  beyond  the 
limits  of  the  country  where  it  was  conferred, 
and  that  this  applied  to  all  the  colonies  or  de- 
pendencies of  the  crown  of  England.  It  was 
also  held  in  two  cases  before  the  privy  council, 
in  1834  and  1837,  one  of  which  arose  in  the 
island  of  Mauritius  and  the  other  in  Canada, 
that  the  status  or  political  condition  of  a  per- 
son resident  in  one  of  the  British  dependencies 
was  to  be  determined  by  the  law  of  Great 
Britain,  but  that  the  rights  or  liabilities  which 
attached  to  it,  when  ascertained,  depended 
upon  the  law  of  the  particular  colony. — The 
policy  of  France  upon  this  subject  has  been 
restrictive,  which  may  be  traced  in  a  great  de- 
gree to  the  unfavorable  influence  exercised  by 
foreigners  at  various  periods  of  her  history. 
Many  Italian  adventurers  were  naturalized  in 
the  reign  of  Charles  VIII.,  but  their  characters 
were  so  worthless  that  their  certificates  of 
naturalization  were  annulled  -by  his  successor 
Louis  XII.  in  1499.  At  the  time  of  the  league 
great  numbers  of  naturalized  Spaniards  and 


Italians  mingled  in  public  affairs,  and  gave 
such  offence,  especially  as  a  branch  of  the 
clergy,  that  a  law  was  passed  in  1579  prohibit- 
ing foreigners  from  holding  ecclesiastical  of- 
fices. Their  participation  in  the  civil  adminis- 
tration of  the  state  reached  its  climax  when 
the  notorious  Italian  Concini,  the  protege  of 
Maria  de'  Medici,  became  a  marshal  without 
ever  having  drawn  a  sword,  and  minister, 
ruling  with  capricious  insolence  a  people  of 
whose  laws  he  was  ignorant.  After  his  tragical 
end  in  1617,  an  act  was  passed  debarring  for- 
eigners from  holding  a  seat  in  the  administra- 
tion; and  the  mischief  wrought  by  Mazarin 
and  his  foreign  camarilla  led  to  a  still  more 
stringent  law  in  1651.  No  material  change 
took  place  until  the  revolution,  when  in  1791 
the  legislative  assembly  was  authorized  to  nat- 
uralize foreigners  upon  the  condition  that  they 
fixed  their  residence  in  the  country  and  took 
an  oath  of  allegiance.  In  1793  a  law  was 
enacted  admitting  all  to  the  rights  of  French 
citizens  who  had  been  domiciled  in  the  country 
one  year,  over  the  age  of  21,  who  supported 
themselves  by  their  labor,  or  acquired  prop- 
erty, or  who  should  marry  a  native,  or  adopt 
a  French  infant,  or  support  an  aged  person, 
and  all  others  whom  the  convention  regarded 
as  meriting  well  of  humanity.  In  1798  a  res- 
idence of  seven  consecutive  years  was  made 
necessary;  and  as  the  country  gravitated  to- 
ward monarchy  in  1800,  the  residence  was  ex- 
tended to  ten  consecutive  years.  In  1803  the 
residence  was  reduced  to  one  year,  if  the  alien 
had  rendered  important  service  to  the  state  by 
his  talents,  inventions,  useful  industry,  or  by 
forming  large  establishments  therein.  In  1808 
it  was  provided  that  naturalization  upon  the 
ground  of  important  services  to  the  state, 
thereafter  known  as  la  grande  naturalisation, 
should  be  conferred  by  a  decree  ratified  by  the 
council  of  state.  In  1814  it  was  declared  that 
no  naturalized  subject  should  be  eligible  to 
a  seat  in  the  legislative  chambers,  unless  he 
had  received  the  grand  naturalization.  Af- 
ter the  revolution  of  1848  the  term  of  resi- 
dence was  reduced  to  five  years,  and  in  1867  it 
was  further  reduced  to  three  years.  As  the  law 
now  stands,  the  grand  naturalization  after  the 
residence  of  a  year,  in  the  cases  already  men- 
tioned, is  conferred  by  a  decree  of  the  execu- 
tive, and  ratified  by  the  legislature.  In  other 
cases  the  alien  must  have  attained  the  age  of 
21,  must  have  resided  in  France  for  three 
consecutive  years  under  the  authorization  of 
the  government,  and  have  declared  his  inten- 
tion of  fixing  his  residence  there ;  and  the  ap- 
plication must  be  made  in  the  manner  pro- 
vided for  by  the  decree  of  1809.  A  child  born 
in  France  of  foreign  parents,  or  the  child  of 
French  parents  born  abroad,  may  reclaim  the 
rights  of  citizenship  on  attaining  the  age  of  21, 
if  he  resides  in  France  and  declares  his  in- 
tention of  there  fixing  his  domicile,  or  if,  re- 
siding abroad,  he  makes  a  similar  declara- 
tion and  establishes  himself  in  France  within 


NATURALIZATION 


169 


the  year  that  he  makes  his  declaration.  A  for- 
eign woman  marrying  a  native  becomes  a 
French  subject,  and  a  French  woman  marrying 
a  foreigner  follows  the  condition  of  her  hus- 
band ;  but  becoming  a  widow,  she  recovers 
her  nationality  if  living  in  France,  or  if  she 
returns  to  it  with  the  authority  of  the  execu- 
tive, and  declares  her  intention  of  fixing  there 
her  residence.  A  foreigner  living  in  France 
enjoys  the  same  civil  rights  that  are  accorded 
to  Frenchmen  in  the  country  to  which  the  for- 
eigner belongs.  Citizenship  is  lost  by  natural- 
ization elsewhere,  by  accepting  office  or  a  pen- 
sion under  another  government  without  the 
authority  of  the  executive,  or  by  so  establish-, 
ing  one's  self  abroad  as  to  indicate  an  inten- 
tion not  to  return ;  but  dwelling  abroad  for 
commercial  purposes  does  not  have  that  effect. 
Citizenship  may  be  recovered  by  renouncing 
the  foreign  office  and  domicile,  on  due  applica- 
tion to  the  state,  upon  declaring  an  intention 
to  fix  a  residence  in  France  and  renouncing  all 
distinctions  contrary  to  its  laws.  A  difference 
is  recognized  since  1823  between  letters  of 
naturalization  and  letters  of  nationality,  the 
former  conferring  a  new  right,  the  latter  mere- 
ly restoring  a  right  that  was  lost  or  in  abey- 
ance. All  Frenchmen,  whether  naturalized  or 
holding  office  abroad  with  the  consent  of  the 
executive,  who  are  taken  bearing  arms  against 
France,  suffer  the  penalty  of  death ;  it  consti- 
tutes no  exemption  that  they  were  serving  in 
obedience  to  the  laws  of  their  adopted  country. 
Not  only  in  this  provision,  but  upon  naturali- 
zation of  foreigners  generally,  the  policy  of  the 
government  is  in  practice  very  illiberal.  In 
1852  a  difficulty  arose  between  the  govern- 
ments of  the  United  States  and  France,  upon 
the  claim  of  the  latter  to  compel  a  Frenchman 
naturalized  in  the  United  States  to  serve  in  the 
French  army.  At  the  earnest  remonstrances  of 
the  American  minister,  the  case  was  investiga- 
ted by  the  French  minister  of  war,  and  he  was 
of  opinion  that  the  claim  of  the  government  of 
France  could  not  be  supported,  but  he  left  the 
matter  to  be  determined  by  the  judicial  tribu- 
nals. The  question  afterward  came  before  the 
French  courts  in  the  case  of  two  natives  of 
France  naturalized  in  the  United  States,  who 
upon  their  return  to  their  native  country  had 
been  compelled  to  enter  the  French  army ;  and 
after  a  full  examination  of  the  whole  subject, 
it  was  decided  that  as  France  recognized  the 
right  of  expatriation,  it  followed  as  a  conse- 
quence that  it  could  have  no  claim  upon  a  na- 
tive of  France  who  by  naturalization  became 
the  citizen  of  another  country ;  that  by  being 
naturalized  a  Frenchman  changed  his  allegiance 
and  lost  his  native  character,  and  could  not  on 
returning  to  France  be  compelled  to  serve  in 
the  army,  or  perform  the  obligations  required 
of  a  French  subject  or  citizen.  The  decision 
was  approved  by  the  imperial  government,  and 
the  men  were  discharged. — In  Belgium  natu- 
ralization is  granted  by  a  legislative  act.  It  is 
of  two  kinds,  grand  and  ordinary.  The  first 


is  conferred  only  where  eminent  services  have 
been  rendered  to  the  state,  and  the  person  to 
whom  it  is  granted  is  placed  in  every  respect 
upon  an  equality  with  a  native.  The  second 
naturalization,  ordinaire  or  petite,  admits  to 
every  privilege  except  the  exercise  of  those 
political  rights  which  are  reserved  for  the  grand 
naturalization.  In  contradistinction  to  France, 
the  policy  of  the  Belgian  government  on  this 
subject  is  distinguished  by  great  liberality.  In 
the  Netherlands,  by  the  fundamental  law  of 
1848,  a  foreigner  can  be  naturalized  only  by 
an  act  of  the  states  general,  approved  by  the 
king;  but  he  acquires  substantially  the  privi- 
leges of  a  subject  if  he  has  permission  from  the 
king  to  establish  a  domicile,  and  gives  notice 
to  the  administration  of  a  commune  that  he  has 
established  his  domicile  in  that  commune,  with 
a  declaration  of  his  intention  to  settle  in  the 
kingdom,  and  retains  his  domicile  in  the  same 
commune  for  six  years.  In  neither  country  is 
any  stated  period  of  residence  demanded,  or  any 
other  special  condition  required ;  and  citizenship 
in  both  may  be  lost  for  the  same  causes  as  in 
France,  and  restored  in  the  same  way. — In  Swe- 
den, by  a  law  passed  in  1858,  an  application  must 
be  made  by  petition  to  the  king,  accompanied  by 
proof  of  the  age  of  the  petitioner,  his  religion, 
his  native  country,  the  time  of  his  immigra- 
tion, the  places  where  he  has  resided  in  Swe- 
den, and  his  general  good  conduct.  He  must 
be  21  years  of  age,  of  good  character,  a  resi- 
dent of  Sweden  for  three  years,  must  have  the 
means  of  supporting  himself,  and  must  not  be 
of  the  Roman  Catholic  religion.  If  he  has 
been  previously  admitted  into  the  service  of 
the  state,  or  is  known  as  a  man  of  more  than 
ordinary  ability  in  the  arts  or  sciences,  or  in 
the  industrial  pursuits  of  agriculture  or  mining, 
or  if  for  other  reasons  it  is  considered  that  his 
adoption  as  a  Swedish  subject  would  prove 
useful  to  the  state,  the  three  years'  previous 
residence  may  be  dispensed  with.  In  Norway 
naturalization  is  granted  by  the  storthing,  the 
national  legislative  assembly,  in  which  this 
power  is  exclusively  vested,  the  assent  of  the 
king  in  this  case  not  being  necessary ;  but  any 
one  who  has  definitively  fixed  his  domicile  in 
Norway,  and  resided  there  for  ten  years,  has 
all  the  civil  and  political  rights  of  a  Norwe- 
gian subject.  In  Denmark  a  petition  must  be 
addressed  to  the  president  of  the  rigsraad, 
with  a  certificate  of  two  citizens  that  the  pe- 
titioner has  resided  one  year  in  the  country. 
An  act  is  then  passed  by  the  rigsraad,  decla- 
ring that  the  petitioner  may  reside  and  trade 
in  the  kingdom,  with  all  the  rights  and  sub- 
ject to  all  the  duties  of  a  native-born  sub- 
ject. It  must  be  approved  by  one  of  the  min- 
isters and  receive  the  sanction  of  the  king, 
and  the  privilege  is  almost  invariably  granted 
as  a  matter  of  course  whenever  applied  for. — 
In  Russia,  by  the  law  of  1864,  a  domicile  of 
five  years  is  requisite,  which  may  be  shortened 
in  special  cases.  To  acquire  a  domicile  the 
foreigner  must  declare  his  wish  to  the  gover- 


170 


NATURALIZATION 


nor  of  the  province  where  he  intends  to  re- 
side, and  explain  the  nature  of  his  occupation 
in  his  own  country  and  the  pursuit  he  pur- 
poses to  follow  in  Russia;  upon  the  receipt 
of  which  declaration  he  becomes  domiciled. 
When  the  requisite  time  has  elapsed  applica- 
tion for  naturalization  must  he  made  to  the 
minister  of  the  interior,  with  whom  it  is  op- 
tional to  refuse  or  grant  the  petition.  If  grant- 
ed, the  alien  becomes  naturalized  by  taking  an 
oath  of  fidelity  to  the  emperor,  and  is  then 
in  respect  to  his  rights  and  obligations  upon 
a  perfect  equality  with  native-born  Russians. 
He  may  if  he  wishes  afterward  renounce  his 
naturalization  on  payment  of  all  claims  against 
him,  governmental  or  private,  and  return  to 
his  native  country  or  remain  in  Russia  as  a 
foreigner.  Foreigners  in  the  military  or  civil 
service  of-  Russia,  and  ecclesiastics  of  foreign 
persuasions,  are  naturalized  by  taking  the  oath 
of  allegiance  without  any  fixed  period  of  domi- 
cile. The  oath  of  allegiance  is  merely  per- 
sonal, and  does  not  affect  children  previously 
born,  who  however  may  be  admitted  upon  the 
same  terms  as  their  parents.  Children  who 
are  born  afterward  are  Russians.  Children 
of  foreigners  born  and  educated  in  Russia,  or 
born  abroad  and  educated  in  a  Russian  upper 
or  middle  school,  may  be  naturalized  a  year 
after  they  have  attained  their  majority. — As 
most  of  the  German  states  are  now  incorpo- 
rated in  the  German  empire,  their  previous 
regulations  respecting  naturalization  and  citi- 
zenship, have  been  modified  by  a  comprehen- 
sive provision  preserved  from  the  constitution 
of  the  North  German  confederation  adopted 
in  1867,  which  declared  that  citizenship  should 
thereafter  be  subject  to  the  regulations  of  the 
confederation  and  of  its  legislature ;  that  a  com- 
mon right  of  citizenship  prevailed  in  the  con- 
federation, and  that  the  citizens  of  each  con- 
stituent member  of  it  should  be  treated  as  na- 
tives in  all  the  others.  A  bureau  has  recently 
been  established  by  the  national  government 
to  which,  it  is  said,  this  whole  subject  has  been 
committed.  As  a  general  rule,  under  the  regu- 
lations formerly  in  force,  naturalization  was 
granted  if  the  applicant  had  been  released  from 
his  former  allegiance,  or  had  been  allowed  by 
his  government  to  emigrate;  if  he  were  of 
good  character,  and  had  discharged  all  his  ob- 
ligations in  the  particular  state  to  which  he  be- 
longed, such  as  paying  his  debts  and  fulfilling 
his  military  duty,  which  latter  condition  was 
required  only  of  those  from  other  German 
states.  Application  was  made  in  writing  to 
the  council  of  the  city  or  village  where  the  ap- 
plicant resided,  showing  that  he  came  within 
the  above  requirements.  The  petition  was 
closely  scrutinized,  and  if  favorably  regarded 
was  sent  with  a  report  to  the  highest  authority 
in  the  state,  and  a  diploma  signed  by  the  prop- 
er minister  was  transmitted  and  given  to  the 
petitioner  upon  the  payment  of  a  small  fee. 
If  the  petition  was  refused  by  the  local  author- 
ities, it  was  simply  sent  back,  but  the  reasons 


were  given  if  applied  for.  An  Appeal  might 
be  taken,  but  was  of  little  value,  as  the  deci- 
sion of  the  local  authorities  was  almost  inva- 
riably affirmed.  In  Prussia,  by  a  law  of  1842, 
the  superior  administrative  authorities  are  em- 
powered to  naturalize  any  stranger  who  satis- 
fies them  of  his  good  conduct,  certain  excep- 
tions being  made.  Citizenship  is  acquired  by 
nomination  to  a  public  office,  or  by  the  mar- 
riage of  a  foreign  woman  with  a  Prussian. 
The  quality  of  a  Prussian  subject  is  lost  by  His 
being  discharged  upon  his  request,  which  is 
not  granted  to  males  between  the  ages  of  17 
and  25  years  without  a  military  certificate  that 
the  application  is  not  made  to  avoid  the  per- 
formance of  their  military  duty.  It  is  also 
lost  by  the  sentence  of  a  court,  by  living  ten 
years  in  a  foreign  country,  by  entering  a  for- 
eign service  without  the  permission  of  Prussia, 
or  by  the  marriage  of  a  female  subject  wipi  a 
foreigner.  If  there  is  no  special  exemption, 
the  certificate  of  discharge  comprehends  the 
wife  and  the  minor  children  that  are  still  un- 
der their  father's  authority. — In  Austria,  a 
foreigner  acquires  the  rights  of  citizenship  if 
employed  as  a  public  functionary,  but  not  by 
mere  admission  into  the  military  service,  nor 
by  receiving  a  title  of  distinction  or  honor, 
but  is  treated  as  a  citizen  if  maintained  by 
the  government  on  account  of  military  ser- 
vices. The  right  may  be  conferred  by  the 
superior  authorities  upon  an  individual  after 
ten  years'  residence  without  interruption,  upon 
proof  of  the  fact  and  upon  taking  the  oath 
of  allegiance.  The  authorities,  however,  may 
grant  it  before  the  expiration  of  that  period 
upon  proof  of  good  moral  character  and  of 
the  applicant's  ability  to  support  himself ;  and 
foreigners  acquire  the  rights  of  citizens  by 
entering  into  business  requiring  a  permanent 
residence.  The  temporary  possession  of  a 
farm,  however,  of  a  house  or  other  real  estate, 
or  the  mere  establishment  of  a  manufactory, 
or  a  commercial  business,  or  a  partnership, 
does  not  confer  the  right.  An  emigrant  who 
has  left  the  empire  by  permission  of  the  au- 
thorities, with  the  intention  not  to  return,  for- 
feits his  privileges  as  a  subject.  Marriage 
with  an  Austrian  confers  citizenship  upon  the 
wife. — In  Switzerland,  under  the  constitution 
of  May  29,  1874,  a  foreigner  obtains  citizen- 
ship, and  thereby  equal  rights  with  the  citizens 
in  all  cantons,  by  paying  a  fee  in  any  commune, 
varying  from  about  $4  to  $300,  according  to  the 
amount  of  communal  property. — In  Portugal, 
an  application  must  be  made  to  the  king  through 
the  secretary  of  foreign  affairs,  which  is  re- 
ferred to  the  council  of  state.  The  applicant 
must  be  over  25  years  of  age,  have  resided  in 
the  country  one  year,  and  have  the  means  of 
subsistence.  The  year's  residence  may  be  dis 
pensed  with  if  he  is  of  Portuguese  blood,  01 
upon  proof  that  he  has  married  a  Portuguese, 
or  been  useful  to  the  state  by  embarking  in 
commerce,  improving  any  branch  of  the  arts, 
or  introducing  any  new  trade,  manufacture,  or 


NATURALIZATION 


171 


invention,  or  by  opening  or  improving  a  public 
road ;  and  they  are  generally  dispensed  with  in 
the  case  of  mariners,  as  it  has  been  the  constant 
policy  of  Portugal  to  encourage  foreigners  to 
enter  and  augment  its  marine. — In  Spain,  by 
the  ancient  law  of  the  realm,  no  foreigner  could 
be  naturalized.  The  constitutions  of  1837  and 
1845,  however,  included  in  their  classification 
of  Spanish  subjects  those  who  should  receive 
letters  of  naturalization,  and  provided  for  the 
enactment  of  a  law  declaratory  of  the  condi- 
tions upon  which  such  letters  would  be  granted. 
The  present  state  of  the  law  appears  to  be 
unsettled  or  difficult  to  ascertain. — Before  the 
various  Italian  states  were  formed  into  the 
kingdom  of  Italy,  each  state  had  its  own  reg- 
ulations in  respect  to  naturalization.  In  the 
Two  Sicilies  ten  years'  consecutive  residence 
was  required,  but  special  naturalization  might 
be  granted  after  one  year's  residence  to  any  one 
who  had  rendered  important  service  to  the  state. 
In  Sardinia  it  was  granted  after  five  years'  resi- 
dence if  the  applicant  had  purchased  real  estate 
or  was  engaged  in  some  useful  commercial  busi- 
ness. The  pope  in  the  Papal  States  and  the 
king  in  the  Neapolitan  dominions  might  natu- 
ralize whom  they  thought  proper ;  but  the  ex- 
ercise of  the  power  was  rare,  and  when  it  took 
place  was  usually  upon  the  same  conditions  as 
in  Sardinia,  except  that  none  could  be  admitted 
but  Roman  Catholics,  while  in  Sardinia  no'  dis- 
tinction was  made  on  the  ground  of  religion. 
According  to  the  revised  code  of  the  kingdom 
of  Italy  of  1866,  aliens  may  become  naturalized 
citizens  either  by  a  special  act  of  parliament  or 
by  a  royal  decree.  The  decree  to  be  effectual 
must  within  six  months  after  its  date  be  regis- 
tered with  the  proper  civil  authority  of  the 
state  in  the  place  where  the  alien  has  estab- 
lished or  intends  to  establish  his  domicile,  and 
the  alien  must  also  within  that  period  take 
an  oath  before  the  same  authorities  that  he 
will  be  faithful  to  the  king  and  observe  the 
statutes  and  laws  of  the  realm.  The  code  does 
not  contain  any  further  regulations  on  the 
subject,  but  the  government  has  discretionary 
power  for  taking  such  informations  as  each 
application  may  seem  to  require.  Hence  the 
necessity  of  a  special  act  of  parliament  or  a 
royal  decree  for  each  individual  naturalization. 
There  is  in  Italy,  besides  the  national  citizen- 
ship, a  local  one,  as  every  Italian  citizen  must 
be  enrolled  in  the  lists  of  the  district  in  which 
he  is  subject  to  taxation  and  conscription; 
citizenship  in  fact  being  of  the  same  general 
nature  as  the  German  burgher  right.  By  the 
national  code  above  referred  to  of  1866,  if 
the  father  is  unknown,  the  child  of  a  citizen 
mother  is  a  citizen ;  and  if  the  mother  is  un- 
known and  the  child  was  born  in  the  kingdom, 
it  is  a  citizen.  A  child  of  an  alien  who  has  had 
an  uninterrupted  domicile  in  th6  kingdom  for 
ten  years  is  a  citizen ;  also  the  child  of  a  citi- 
zen who  has  lost  his  citizenship  before  the  birth 
of  the  child,  if  the  child  was  born  and  resides 
in  the  kingdom.  In  such  cases,  however,  the 


child  may  elect  to  be  considered  an  alien,  upon 
making  a  declaration  to  that  effect  in  a  mode 
prescribed.  A  child  born  abroad  before  his 
father  lost  his  citizenship  is  an  alien ;  but  he 
may  elect  to  take  the  quality  of  a  citizen  by 
making  a  declaration  in  a  form  prescribed  and 
establishing  a  domicile  in  Italy  for  a  year ;  or 
he  is  regarded  as  a  citizen  if  he  has  served  in 
the  Italian  army  or  navy,  or  accepted  public 
employment  in  the  kingdom,  or  satisfied  the 
requirements  of  the  conscription  without  seek- 
ing exemption  as  an  alien.  If  an  alien  has  not 
established  his  domicile  for  ten  years,  his  child 
is  an  alien,  but  by  making  the  prescribed  dec- 
laration may  become  a  citizen.  Citizenship  is 
lost:  1,  by  making  a  formal  renunciation  of  it 
before  the  civil  authority  of  the  province  where 
the  person  resides  and  emigrating;  2,  by  ac- 
cepting employment  from  a  foreign  state  or 
entering  its  army,  without  permission  of  the 
Italian  government;  3,  by  naturalization  in  a 
foreign  country.  The  wife  and  minor  children 
of  one  who  has  lost  his  citizenship  are  aliens, 
unless  they  have  continued  to  reside  in  the 
realm.  Citizenship  may  be  restored:  1,  by 
returning  to  the  realm  with  the  permission 
of  the  government;  2,  by  renouncing  foreign 
citizenship,  or  the  employment  or  military  ser- 
vice of  a  foreign  power;  3,  by  declaring  an 
intention  before  the  proper  authority  to  estab- 
lish a  domicile  in  the  realm,  and  establishing 
it  within  a  year. — In  Greece,  by  a  law  passed 
May  15,  1835,  any  foreigner  may  become  a 
Greek  citizen  by  making  a  declaration  of  his 
intention  before  the  authorities  of  the  deme 
in  which  he  resides,  and  after  a  continued 
residence  in  the  country  for  three  years  from 
the  day  when  he  declared  his  intention.  Upon 
the  expiration  of  the  three  years  he  is  natural- 
ized by  taking  an  oath  before  the  prefect  of 
obedience  to  the  laws  and  of  fidelity  to  the 
king.  From  the  period  of  declaring  his  inten- 
tion he  enjoys  all  civil  rights,  and  Grecian  cit- 
izenship may  be  conferred  without  expense 
upon  any  foreigner  who  has  rendered'  dis- 
tinguished service  to  the  state.  Any  person 
born  in  Greece  of  foreign  parents  may,  when 
arriving  of  age,  become  a  Greek  citizen  by 
declaring  his  intention  to  make  Greece  his  per- 
manent home,  and  registering  his  name  in  a 
deme,  or,  if  residing  abroad,  by  making  a  simi- 
lar declaration,  and  returning  within  one  year 
thereafter  to  Greece  and  registering  his  name 
as  above.  Every  one  born  abroad  of  a  Greek 
father  is  a  citizen  of  Greece ;  or  if  the  father 
has  lost  his  nationality,  the  son  may  become  a 
citizen  by  making  the  declaration  and  register- 
ing his  name  as  above  stated.  This  law  de- 
clares Greek  citizens  to  be  those  born  in  the 
kingdom  and  of  parents  having  the  Greek  na- 
tionality, and  those  who  have  acquired  it  by  de- 
claring their  intention  to  become  citizens ;  and 
that  the  nationality  is  lost  by  becoming  a  citi- 
zen of  a  foreign  country,  by  bearing  arms 
against  Greece,  or  by  entering  the  civil  or 
military  service  of  another  nation  without  ob- 


172 


NATURALIZATION 


taming  special  permission  from  the  king,  or 
by  a  citizen  establishing  himself  abroad  in  a 
manner  which  indicates  an  intent  not  to  return, 
but  no  such  intent  is  to  be  inferred  simply  from 
the  fact  that  a  citizen  has  established  himself 
in  another  country  for  commercial  purposes. — 
In  Turkey  the  population  is  divided  into  two 
great  classes,  the  Turks  or  Mohammedans,  the 
ruling  race,  and  the  Eayas  (the  flock),  who 
with  the  exception  of  some  few  tribes  are 
Christians  or  Jews.  The  Rayas  are  organized 
in  distinct  communities,  having  their  own  mu- 
nicipal regulations,  as  Armenians,  Bulgarians, 
Bosnians,  Serbs,  Latin  Christians,  or  Jews, 
under  a  recognized  head,  as  a  bishop,  pa- 
triarch, or  other  ruler,  who  is  responsible  to 
the  sultan  for  the  good  conduct  of  his  com- 
munity. Resident  foreigners  might  become 
members  of  one  of  these  communities  with 
the  consent  of  the  body,  upon  giving  due  no- 
tice to  the  Porte,  and  when  admitted  were  en- 
titled to  the  privileges  and  bound  to  the  ob- 
ligations of  Turkish  subjects.  This  however 
has  probably  been  modified  by  a  decree  of  the 
Ottoman  empire  of  Jan.  19,  1869,  which  pro- 
vides that  the  character  of  a  Turkish  subject 
may  be  obtained  on  application  to  the  minister 
for  foreign  affairs,  if  the  applicant  is  of  age 
and  has  resided  five  years  consecutively  within 
the  Ottoman  empire,  and  that  this  condition 
may  be  dispensed  with  by  the  government  in 
exceptional  cases.  By  this  decree  also  the 
nationality  of  the  parents,  or  of  the  father, 
alone  determines  that  of  the  child,  irrespec- 
tive of  the  place  of  birth  ;  and  it  further  pro- 
vides that  a  person  born  of  an  alien  on  Turkish 
territory  may  within  three  years  after  arriving 
at  age  claim  to  become  a  Turkish  subject. 
Foreigners,  not  members  of  one  of  the  Raya 
communities,  are  aliens  and  under  the  protec- 
tion of  their  respective  consuls.  The  Moham- 
medans enjoy  greater  privileges  than  the  Rayas, 
and  foreigners  of  whatever  creed  or  nation 
may  be  received  into  this  class  upon  embracing 
Mohammedanism.  Their  naturalization  was 
formerly  both  a  civil  ceremony  and  a  religious 
rite.  It  consisted  in  going  first  to  the  Porte  or 
the  executive  authority  representing  it,  in  put- 
ting on  the  fez  cap,  and  making  a  public  decla- 
ration of  faith  in  the  words:  "There  is  no 
God  but  God,  and  Mohammed  is  his  prophet;" 
and  then  repeating  the  same  ceremony  in  the 
mosque.  Circumcision  was  also  required ;  and 
when  these  conditions  had  been  fulfilled,  the 
proselyte  was  invested  with  all  the  rights  of  a 
native-born  Mohammedan  subject.  Whether 
this  continues,  or  has  been  superseded  by  the 
decree  of  1869,  is  not  known.  In  Egypt,  Per- 
sia, and  throughout  all  the  Mohammedan  coun- 
tries, naturalization  is  effected  in  the  same 
way,  either  by  embracing  Mohammedanism  or 
by  being  formally  admitted  a  member  of  one 
of  the  other  organized  communities. — In  the 
European  states,  with  but  a  few  exceptions 
which  have  been  mentioned,  a  naturalized 
foreigner  enjoys  every  civil  and  political  right, 


and  may  hold  the  highest  office.  In  all  of  them 
naturalization  is  a  thing  of  rather  unusual  oc- 
currence, the  number  of  foreigners  who  be- 
come permanent  residents  in  any  one  of  them 
being  very  limited.  Those  who  do  are  chiefly 
devoted  to  commercial  pursuits ;  and  as  natu- 
ralization, as  a  general  rule,  is  not  essential  to 
enable  them  to  carry  on  trade  or  commerce,  it 
is  not  generally  applied  for. — In  the  different 
West  India  islands  belonging  to  European 
powers,  the  authority  to  naturalize  is  generally 
either  vested  in  the  sovereign  or  his  representa- 
tive, or  regulated  by  a  local  law.  In  the  island 
of  Cuba,  by  the  Spanish  ordinance  of  Oct.  21, 
1817,  the  captain  general  may  grant  letters  of 
license  for  domiciliation  to  all  resident  foreign- 
ers, upon  their  taking  an  oath  of  fidelity  and 
submission  to  the  law.  These  letters  entitle 
them  to  hold  real  and  personal  property,  and 
to  the  same  protection  in  their  persons  and 
property  as  Spanish  subjects  ;  but  for  the  first 
five  years  of  domiciliation  they  cannot  engage 
in  trade,  open  a  shop,  or  become  owners  of 
ships  or  vessels,  unless  in  partnership  with 
Spanish  subjects.  After  that  time  they  can  be- 
come naturalized.  They  must  present  their 
original  letter  of  license  to  the  captain  general, 
and  avow  their  intention  to  make  the  island 
their  perpetual  residence;  and  if  it  appear 
after  due  inquiry  by  the  government  that  they 
have  resided  constantly  on  the  island  for  five 
years,  and  are  of  good  moral  character,  letters 
of  naturalization  are  granted  to  them  after  they 
have  sworn  fidelity  to  the  Roman  Catholic  re- 
ligion, to  the  crown,  and  to  the  laws,  and  re- 
nounced all  foreign  allegiance  to  and  every 
privilege  received  from  any  other  government 
When  thus  naturalized,  they  and  their  legiti- 
mate heirs  and  descendants  acquire  all  the 
rights  and  privileges,  and  are  placed  upon  the 
same  footing  as  natural-born  subjects.  But  the 
provision  in  respect  to  naturalization,  though 
still  in  full  force,  has  become  practically  a  dead 
letter,  as  natives  enjoy  but  few  privileges  which 
resident  or  domiciled  foreigners  do  not  possess. 
— In  Hayti,  by  a  modification  of  the  civil  code 
adopted  in  1860,  any  person  who  in  virtue  of 
the  constitution  wishes  to  become  a  citizen, 
must  within  a  year  after  his  arrival  make  an 
oath  before  a  justice  of  the  peace  renouncing 
allegiance  to  every  other  government,  upon 
presenting  an  official  attestation  of  which  at 
the  office  of  the  president  of  Hayti,  he  receives 
from  that  officer  an  act  recognizing  him  as  a 
citizen  of  the  republic, — In  Mexico  two  years' 
residence  is  required,  and  one  year's  previous 
declaration  of  intention.  This  declaration  is  in 
the  form  of  a  petition  to  the  ayuntamiento  of 
the  place  where  the  applicant  resides.  Before 
he  can  be  naturalized,  the  applicant  must  prove 
before  the  nearest  circuit  judge  that  he  is  of 
the  Roman  Catholic  religion,  and  has  a  trade, 
profession,  or  income  sufficient  to  support 
him.  The  documents  containing  this  proof 
must  then  be  laid  before  the  governor  or  politi- 
cal chief  of  the  district  or  territory,  and,  if 


NATURALIZATION 


173 


satisfactory,  letters  of  naturalization  are  grant- 
ed by  that  officer  to  the  applicant  upon  re- 
nouncing his  former  allegiance  and  swearing  to 
support  the  constitution;  but  naturalization 
cannot  be  obtained  while  the  country  to  which 
the  applicant  owes  allegiance  is  at  war  with 
Mexico.  Colonists  who  settle  new  lands  can 
be  naturalized  a  year  after  they  have  settled, 
and  aliens  in  the  naval  service  become  citizens 
by  taking  the  oath  of  allegiance.  Citizenship 
in  Mexico  is  lost  by  residing  abroad  for  ten 
years  without  obtaining  a  prolongation  of  the 
permit  to  be  absent ;  by  accepting  honors  or 
offices  from  a  foreign  sovereign ;  by  becoming 
naturalized  in  another  country ;  by  a  citizen  so 
establishing  himself  abroad  as  to  indicate  a 
manifest  intention  not  to  return ;  by  a  Mexican 
woman  upon  her  marriage  with  a  foreigner, 
and  by  the  children  of  Mexicans  born  out  of 
the  country  who  do  not  claim  the  right  before 
they  arrive  at  the  age  of  26  years  (but  this  is 
supposed  to  be  unconstitutional  since  1857). 
The  adult  children  of  Mexican  parents  who 
have  lost  their  citizenship  also  lose  the  right, 
unless  they  claim  it  and  reside  one  year  in  the 
country  after  their  right  to  citizenship  is  recog- 
nized. Finally,  any  Mexican  who  in  time  of 
war  hoists  a  foreign  flag  over  his  house,  loses 
his  citizenship,  and  is  punished  by  banishment. 
The  children  of  aliens  born  in  Mexico  follow 
the  condition  of  their  parents,  and  are  not 
deemed  citizens. — In  Brazil  three  years'  previ- 
ous residence  is  requisite,  after  which  naturali- 
zation is  obtained  by  a  joint  resolution,  which 
must  pass  both  chambers  of  the  general  assem- 
bly and  be  affirmed  by  the  emperor.  By  a  law 
passed  in  1860  children  of  foreigners  born  in 
Brazil  have  during  their  minority  the  politi- 
cal condition  of  their  parents ;  but  on  reach- 
ing their  majority  they  acquire  the  rights  and 
become  subject  to  the  duties  of  Brazilian  citi- 
zens. A  Brazilian  woman  marrying  an  alien 
follows  his  condition,  but  upon  becoming  a 
widow  is  considered  a  Brazilian  subject  if  re- 
siding in  Brazil,  or  if,  returning  there,  she  de- 
clares her  intention  to  fix  her  residence  in  the 
country ;  and  a  foreign  woman  marrying  a  Bra- 
zilian has  the  political  condition  of  her  hus- 
band. In  the  Argentine  Republic  two  years' 
residence  in  the  country  is  required,  or  the  pe- 
riod may  be  lessened  where  services  have  been 
rendered  to  the  state.  In  Peru  the  governor  of 
a  department  may  grant  naturalization  upon 
proof  of  good  conduct,  that  the  applicant  has 
resided  in  Peru  for  one  year,  and  that  he  comes 
within  the  requirements  of  the  constitution, 
and  upon  his  taking  the  oath  of  allegiance.  In 
Chili  five  years'  previous  residence  is  necessary ; 
but  where  an  alien  has  married  a  native,  this 
period  is  reduced  to  four  years.  In  Paraguay 
foreigners  who  establish  a  character  for  pru- 
dence and  discretion,  and  who  are  not  politi- 
cal propagandists,  may  be  naturalized  with  the 
consent  of  the  president.  In  Bolivia  citizenship 
is  granted  to  those  who  renounce  their  former 
allegiance  and  inscribe  their  names  upon  the 


civil  register.  In  Venezuela  it  may  be  obtained 
by  transmitting  a  memorial  through  the  gov- 
ernor of  a  province  to  the  executive,  with  legal 
proof  of  the  applicant's  good  conduct  and  of 
his  means  of  subsistence,  the  names  of  his 
wife  and  children  if  he  have  any,  and  that  he 
has  either  resided  one  year  in  the  territory  or 
sailed  for  six  months  in  a  war  or  merchant 
vessel  of  the  republic,  or  owns  real  estate  of  a 
certain  value,  or  is  married  to  a  Venezuelan 
woman,  or  that  he  has  rendered  important 
service  to  the  state.  If  approved,  letters  of 
naturalization  are  sent  to  the  governor,  who 
delivers  them  upon  the  applicant's  taking  an 
oath  before  him  or  before  the  jefe  politico 
that  he  will  obey  the  constitution  and  laws ; 
and  the  wife  and  minor  children  become 
naturalized  with  him,  their  names  and  ages 
being  indorsed  upon  the  letters.  In  Ecuador 
a  foreigner  may  be  naturalized  if  he  owns  real 
estate  or  $1,000  in  money,  or  is  engaged  in 
some  industrial  pursuit,  upon  making  known 
his  intention  to  the  governor  of  a  province ;  in 
Colombia,  by  sending  a  memorial  through  the 
governor  of  a  province  to  the  executive,  sta- 
ting the  applicant's  nationality,  and  the  names 
of  his  wife  and  children  if  he  have  any,  and 
by  taking  an  oath  to  obey  the  constitution  and 
laws  and  renouncing  his  former  allegiance,  his 
wife  and  minor  children  becoming  naturalized 
with  him. — In  the  states  of  Central  America 
the  more  general  rule  is,  as  in  Brazil,  to  nat- 
uralize the  alien  either  by  the  executive  or 
by  a  legislative  act.  In  Costa  Rica  an  applica- 
tion must  be  made  to  the  president  of  the  re- 
public, accompanied  by  proof  that  the  peti- 
tioner has  resided  there  six  years,  of  his  good 
conduct  during  that  period,  and  of  his  having 
honest  means  of  subsistence.  Letters  of  natu- 
ralization are  then  granted  him  by  the  presi- 
dent on  renouncing  his  previous  national  al- 
legiance. In  Honduras  a  foreigner  is  natural- 
ized by  acquiring  real  estate  and  a  residence 
of  four  years,  but  if  one  marries  a  Hondurian 
wife  this  period  is  reduced  to  two  years;  or 
a  letter  of  naturalization  may  be  obtained 
from  the  legislature  for  services  rendered  to 
the  state,  for  an  important  improvement  in 
agriculture  or  the  arts,  or  for  introducing  a 
new  manufacture  in  the  country.  In  San  Sal- 
vador he  is  naturalized  by  acquiring  real  estate 
and  a  residence  of  five  years,  or  by  contract- 
ing marriage  with  a  Salvadorian  woman  and 
a  residence  of  three  years,  or  by  obtaining 
a  letter  of  naturalization  from  the  legislative 
body  in  the  same  way  and  for  the  same  causes 
as  in  Honduras.  In  Nicaragua  letters  of  natu- 
ralization may  be  granted  by  congress  after 
two  years'  residence  in  the  republic. .  In  most 
of  the  states  of  Central  America  naturalization 
is  granted  by  the  legislature  to  resident  foreign- 
ers generally  upon  application,  without  insist- 
ing upon  any  conditions  ;  the  clause  that  it  is 
upon  the  ground  of  important  services  to  the 
state,  &c.,  being  usually  inserted  in  the  letters 
of  naturalization  as  a  mere  matter  of  form. — 


174:        NATURAL   PHILOSOPHY 

In  the  foregoing  enumeration  some  countries 
are  omitted,  because  their  laws  could  not  be 
accurately  ascertained,  and  many  countries  of 
Asia  and  Africa  are  not  noticed  for  the  reason 
that  they  have  no  regulations  upon  the_subject. 
In  the  largest  of  these  countries,  China,  for- 
eigners are  by  the  imperial  code  perpetually 
excluded,  except  within  certain  prescribed  lim- 
its, unless  where  provision  is  made  for  more 
extended  privileges  by  treaty. 

NATURAL  PHILOSOPHY,  a  term  formerly  used 
to  include  all  those  sciences  which  relate  to 
the  material  universe,  in  contradistinction  to 
those  which  relate  to  the  mind  or  metaphysics. 
The  wide  extent  of  the  term  and  its  conse- 
quent vagueness  have  led  to  a  gradual  restric- 
tion of  its  application,  until  at  present  it  em- 
braces only  mechanics  and  physics.  For  the 
former,  see  the  article  MECHANICS.  The  term 
physics  is  usually  considered  as  including  the 
sciences  of  hydromechanics,  pneumatics,  acous- 
tics, heat,  light,  electricity,  and  magnetism. 
Each  of  these  will  be  found  treated  in  this 
Cyclopedia  under  its  appropriate  head. 

NAUHEIM,  a  watering  place  of  Hesse-Darm- 
stadt, Germany,  17  m.  N.  of  Frankfort;  pop. 
about  2,500.  The  salt  works  here  are  of  great 
antiquity,  but  baths  were  iirst  established  in 
1834,  and  the  number  of  visitors  is  now  about 
3,000  a  year.  A  fountain  bored  in  1838  down 
to  the  bed  of  natural  salt  gave  out  in  1848, 
but  a  new  one  soon  took  its  place.  In  Decem- 
ber, 1846,  a  slight  shock  of  earthquake  brought 
forth  another  fountain  from  a  hole  bored  some 
years  before.  This  affords  water  for  the  old 
and  new  bath  houses,  and  produces  annually 
75,000  quintals  of  salt.  A  still  more  recent 
fountain,  the  Friedrich-Wilhelm's  Sprudel,  dis- 
charges a  column  of  water  12  in.  in  diameter 
from  the  top  of  a  shaft  15  ft.  high.  These  wa- 
ters, used  both  for  bathing  and  drinking,  are 
efficacious  in  diseases  of  the  skin  and  bowels. 
The  Kurhaus  is  a  fine  building  surrounded  by  a 
park.  Gaming  tables,  which  formerly  existed, 
have  been  abolished.  The  mineral  waters  of 
Nauheim  and  vicinity  are  largely  exported. 

NAUMAM,  Johann  Friedrich,  a  German  orni- 
thologist, born  at  Ziebigk,  near  Kothen,  Feb. 
14,  1780,  died  in  Kothen,  Aug.  15,  1857.  He 
was  the  son  of  the  ornithologist  Johann  An- 
dreas ISTaumann,  studied  at  Dessau,  and  devoted 
himself  especially  to  the  study  of  the  birds  of 
Germany.  Besides  other  works,  he  published 
Naturgeschifhte  der  Vogel  Deutschlands  (13 
vols.,  Leipsic,  1822-'52),  embellished  by  plates, 
a  large  number  of  which  he  engraved  himself. 

NAUMAM.  I.  Johann  Gottlieb,  a  German  com- 
poser, born  at  Blase witz,  near  Dresden,  April  17, 
1741,  died  in  Dresden,  Oct.  23,  1801.  When 
13  years  of  age  he  went  to  Italy,  and  afterward 
settled  in  Venice,  where  he  remained  eight 
years,  teaching  and  composing  music.  In  1765 
he  returned  to  Dresden,  and  was  appointed 
composer  to  the  elector  of  Saxony.  Shortly 
after  he  made  a  second  journey  to  Italy,  and  in 
1772  a  third,  when  he  resided  two  years  at 


NAUMBURG 

Rome,  and  in  13  months  composed  five  operas. 
In  his  later  years  he  composed  much  church 
music.  Among  his  operas  are  "  Cora,"  "  Am- 
phion,"  "  Orpheus,"  and  "  Gustavus  Vasa." 
II.  Karl  Friedrieh,  a  German  mineralogist,  son 
of  the  preceding,  born  in  Dresden,  May  30, 
1797,  died  in  Leipsic  in  January,  1874.  He 
was  educated  at  Freiberg,  Leipsic,  and  Jena, 
made  a  scientific  journey  to  Norway  in  1821 
and  1822,  and  published  Beitrdge  zur  Kennt- 
niss  Norwegens  (2  vols.,  Leipsic,  1824).  In 
1826  he  succeeded  Mohs  in  the  chair  of  crys- 
tallography at  Freiberg,  and  in  1835  was  also 
appointed  professor  of  geognosy.  In  1842  he 
went  to  the  university  of  Leipsic  as  professor 
of  mineralogy  and  geognosy,  and  in  1866  he 
was  made  privy  counsellor  of  mines.  Among 
his  remaining  works  are:  Anfangsgrunde  der 
Krystallographie  (Dresden,  1841 ;  2ded.,  3  vols., 
Leipsic,  1854)  ;  Elemente  der  Mineralogie  (8th 
ed.,  1871) ;  and  Lehrluch  der  Geognosie  (1850 ; 
2d  ed.,  3  vols.,  1858-'67).  III.  Moritz  Ernst  Adolf, 
a  German  physician,  brother  of  the  preceding, 
born  in  Dresden,  Oct.  6,  1798,  died  in  Bonn, 
Oct.  19,  1871.  He  took  his  degree  at  Leipsic, 
and  was  adjunct  professor  there  in  1824-'5,  and 
subsequently  in  Berlin  till  1828,  when  he  be- 
came professor  at  Bonn.  Among  his  works  are : 
Handbuch  der  medicinischen  Klinik  (8  vols., 
Berlin,  1829-'39;  2d  ed.,  11  vols.,  1839-'47); 
Pathogenic  (3  vols.,  1841-'5) ;  Allgemeine  Pa- 
tholog'ie  und  Therapie  (1851)  ;  Ergebnisse  und 
Studien  aus  der  medicinischen  Klinik  zu  Bonn 
(2  vols.,  Leipsic,  1858-'61) ;  and  Die  Naturwis- 
senschaften  und  der  Mater  ialismus  (Bonn,  1869). 
IV.  Emil,  a  German  composer  and  author,  son 
of  the  preceding,  born  in  Berlin,  Sept.  8, 1828. 
He  studied  under  Mendelssohn,  and  in  1848 
produced  his  first  important  work,  the  oratorio 
Ghristus  der  Friedensbote.  About  1852  he  pub- 
lished Die  Umgestaltung  der  protestantischen 
Kirchenmmik,  and  was  soon  after  appointed 
director  of  church  music  at  Berlin.  Among 
his  compositions  are  the  cantata  Zerstorung 
Jerusalem's,  the  operas  Judith  and  Muhlenhexe, 
the  overture  to  Lorelei,  and  many  pieces  of 
church  music.  He  has  published  Ueber  die 
Einfuhrung  des  Psalmengesanges  in  der  evan- 
gelischen  Kirche  (1856),  and  Die  Tonkunst  in 
der  Culturgeschichte  (1869-'70). 

XAO1BFRG,  a  fortified  town  of  Prussia,  in 
the  province  of  Saxony,  on  the  Saale,  near 
the  junction  of  the  Unstrut,  23  m.  S.  S,  "W. 
of  Halle;  pop.  in  1871,  15,120.  It  is  an  ac- 
tive manufacturing  and  commercial  town,  but 
the  once  famous  fair  of  Naumburg  has  lost 
its  importance.  Among  the  principal  build- 
ings are  the  cathedral,  one  of  the  finest  spe- 
cimens of  German  mediaeval  architecture,  re- 
markable for  its  lofty  towers  and -double  choir, 
completed  in  1349,  and  the  restoration  of 
which  was  begun  in  1874,  and  the  church  of 
St.  Wenceslas,  with  a  famous  picture  of 
"  Christ  blessing  Little  Children,"  by  Cranach. 
It  is  the  seat  of  the  Protestant  cathedral  chap- 
ter of  Naumburg-Zeitz,  and  has  one  Roman 


NAUPACTUS 


NAUTILUS 


175 


Catholic  and  four  Protestant  churches,  a  gym- 
nasium, and  several  other  schools  of  a  high 
grade.  An  annual  children's  festival  is  cele- 
brated here,  in  commemoration  of  the  raising 
of  the  siege  by  the  Hussites  under  Procopius, 


Naumburg. 

which  according  to  tradition  took  place  July 
28,  1432,  in  consequence  of  the  entreaties  of 
the  children  of  Naumburg.  This  event  has 
been  dramatized  in  Kotzebue's  Die  Hussiten 
vor  Naumburg,  but  its  authenticity  has  been 
called  in  question  by  recent  historians.  Sev- 
eral treaties  were  concluded  at  Naumburg  in 
the  15th  and  16th  centuries,  and  the  town  was 
of  strategical  importance  during  the  thirty 
years'  war  and  the  wars  of  1806  and  1813. 

NAUPACTUS.     See  LEPANTO. 

NAUPLIA,  or  Napoli  di  Romania,  a  seaport  town 
of  Greece,  in  the  nomarchy  of  Argolis  and 
Corinth,  and  capital  of  an  eparchy  of  its  own 
name,  on  the  gulf  of  Argolis,  58  m.  S.  W. 
of  Athens;  pop.  in  1870,  8,543.  The  three 
forts  which  protect  it  make  it  the  strongest 
maritime  town  of  Greece.  It  is  the  seat  of  a 
Greek  archbishop,  of  a  court  of  appeal,  and  of 
a  court  of  primary  jurisdiction.  The  town  has 
seven  churches,  a  gymnasium,  and  an  arsenal. 
From  1824  to  the  end  of  1834  it  was  the  seat 
of  the  government  of  Greece.  In  1831  Capo 
d'Istria  was  assassinated  here,  and  in  1833 
Otho,  the  first  king  of  restored  Greece,  land- 
ed at  the  port.  In  antiquity  Nauplia  was  the 
port  of  Argos. 

NAUSEA  (from  Gr.  vav$,  a  ship,  from  its  pres- 
ence in  sea  sickness),  the  sickening  sensation 
at  the  pit  of  the  stomach  which  usually  pre- 
cedes vomiting.  Nausea  may  be  produced  by 
a  variety  of  causes :  by  the  introduction  into 
the  stomach  of  nauseating  or  emetic  drugs,  by 
continued  rotation  or  swinging  of  the  body,  by 
the  unaccustomed  motion  of  a  vessel  upon  the 
waves,  by  food  which  disagrees  with  the  stom- 
ach either  in  quantity  or  quality,  sometimes 
589  VOL.  xii.— 12 


by  a  blow  upon  the  head,  and  in  sensitive 
persons  by  offensive  odors,  by  sudden  alterna- 
tions of  temperature,  and  even  by  disagreeable 
news  or  moral  impressions.  When  followed 
by  vomiting,  it  is  usually  relieved  immediately 

upon  the  evacuation  of 

^  the  stomach.  If  not 
so  relieved,  and  if  long 
continued,  it  becomes 
excessively  depressing, 
and  may  even  be  dan- 
gerous to  life.  If  the 
sensation  of  nausea  be 
excited  by  any  sub- 
stance which  has  been 
taken  into  the  stomach, 
the  best  treatment  is  to 
favor  the  act  of  vomit- 
ing by  copious  draughts 
of  warm  water,  and  thus 
secure  an  early  and  com- 
plete evacuation  of  the 
stomach.  If  it  depends 
upon  any  other  of  the 
causes  named,  quiet, 
a  horizontal  position, 
and  freedom  from  all 
sources  of  disturbance, 
are  most  effectual. 

NAUSETS.     See  MASSACHUSETTS  INDIANS. 
NAUSHON.     See  ELIZABETH  ISLANDS. 
NAUTILUS  (Gr.  vavr'ikoq,  from  vovf,  a  ship),  a 
name  applied  to  both  the  tetrabranchiate  and 
dibranchiate  orders  of  the  cephalopod  mollusks. 
In  the  former  the  true  or  pearly  nautilus  is  the 
best  known  species  of  the  only  living  genus 
representing  the  extinct  chambered  shells  (such 


Pearly  Nautilus  (Nautilus  pompilius). 

as  ammonites,  orthoceratites,  turrilites,  &c.) 
which  abounded  during  the  primary  and  sec- 
ondary geological  ages ;  in  the  latter  belongs 
the  nautilus  of  the  ancients  (the  paper  nauti- 
lus of  the  moderns),  more  properly  called  ar- 
gonaut. For  the  characters  of  the  class  and 
orders  see  CEPHALOPODA,  and  MOLLUSCA. — The 


176 


NAUTILUS 


genus  nautilus  (Linn.)  has  a  discoid,  symmet- 
rical, univalve  shell,  with  simple  aperture,  su- 
tures, and  siphuncle.  The  organization  of  the 
pearly  nautilus  (JV.  pompilius,  Linn.)  was  first 
made  known  by  Prof.  Owen  in  1832,  and  after- 
ward by  Gray,  Grant,  Be  Blainville,  Van  der 
Hoeven,  Valenciennes,  and  Huxley.  The  pos- 
terior portion  of  the  body,  containing  the  vis- 
cera, is  soft,  smooth,  and  adapted  to  the  ante- 
rior chamber  of  the  shell ;  the  anterior  is  mus- 
cular, including  the  organs  of  sense  and  loco- 
motion, and  can  be  retracted  within  the  shell ; 
the  mantle  is  very  thin  behind,  and  prolonged 
through  the  calcareous  tube  of  the  occupied 
chamber  as  a  membranous  siphon,  and  through 
all  the  divisions  of  the  shell  to  the  central  nu- 
cleus ;  on  the  upper  part  of  the  head  is  a  broad 
triangular  muscular  hood,  the  back  part  exca- 
vated for  the  involuted  convexity  of  the  shell, 
protecting  the  head  when  retracted,  and  used 
as  a  foot  for  creeping  at  the  bottom  of  the  sea 
with  the  shell  uppermost.  On  each  side  of  the 
head  are  20  perforated  digitated  processes  of 
a  conical  form,  each  containing  a  long  finely 
ringed  tentacle,  whose  inner  surface  is  closely 
set  with  narrow  transverse  plates ;  the  eyes, 
large  and  prominent,  are  placed  on  short  pedi- 
cels on  the  side  of  the  head  behind  the  digita- 
tions ;  the  subocular  processes  have  no  tenta- 
cles, and  are  rudimentary  external  ears,  their 
cavity  extending  to  the  auditory  capsule.  The 
mouth  has  two  horny  mandibles,  like  the  beak 
of  a  parrot  reversed,  the  lower  overlapping 
the  upper,  moving  vertically,  and  implanted  in 
thick  muscular  walls ;  the  surrounding  circular 
fleshy  lip  has  4  labial  processes,  each  pierced 
by  12  canals,  containing  each  a  small  retrac- 
tile tentacle,  making,  with  the  38  digital  and 
4  ophthalmic,  90  tentacles  on  and  around  the 
head.  The  internal  cartilaginous  skeleton  is 
confined  to  the  lower  surface  of  the  head,  a 
part  of  the  cephalic  nervous  system  being  pro- 
tected in  a  groove  on  its  upper  surface,  and 
the  two  great  muscles  which  fix  the  body  to 
the  shell  are  attached  to  it.  The  funnel  is  very 
muscular,  and  is  the  principal  organ  of  free 
locomotion,  the  animal  being  propelled  back- 
ward by  a  succession  of  jerks  occasioned  by 
the  reaction  of  the  ejected  respiratory  currents 
against  the  surrounding  water.  The  capacious 
crop  opens  into  an  oval  muscular  gizzard ;  the 
intestine  terminates  in  the  branchial  cavity 
near  the  base  of  the  funnel ;  the  liver  is  bulky, 
and  the  bile  is  derived  from  arterial  blood; 
there  is  no  ink  gland.  Sea  water  is  admitted 
into  the  pericardium;  the  branchiaa  are  two 
pairs  without  branchial  hearts,  the  larger  bran- 
chia  supporting  48  vascular  folded  plates  on 
each  side,  the  smaller  36  ;  the  large  veins  near 
the  heart  have  clusters  of  follicles  attached  to 
them,  according  to  Owen  seeming  to  be  ho- 
mologous with  the  so-called  renal  glands  of 
lower  mollusks ;  by  some  they  are  considered 
as  diverticula  to  relieve  the  circulation  du- 
ring the  varying  pressures  to  which  the  ani- 
mal is  subjected.  The  tongue  is  furnished  with 


numerous  papillae  and  spines.  The  nautilus, 
though  the  lowest  of  the  cephalopods,  ap- 
proaches the  vertebrate  type  nearer  than  any 
other  invertebrate,  in  the  perfect  symmetry  of 
the  organs,  the  larger  proportion  of  muscle,  the 
increased  bulk  and  concentration  of  the  nervous 
centres  in  and  near  the  head,  the  vertical  op- 
position of  the  jaws,  the  gustatory  papillae  of 
the  tongue,  and  the  cartilaginous  cephalic  skele- 
ton. Its  food  consists  of  other  mollusks  and 
of  crustaceans,  showing  that  its  natural  habitat 
is  the  bottom  of  the  sea,  where  it  creeps  about 
shell  upward.  The  parts  of  the  shell  progres- 
sively vacated  during  the  growth  of  the  animal 
are  successively  partitioned  off  into  air-tight 
chambers  by  thin  smooth  plates  concave  toward 
the  opening,  with  sinuous  margins,  growing 
from  the  circumference  toward  the  centre, 
and  pierced  by  the  membranous  siphon.  The 
young  animal,  before  the  shell  becomes  came- 
rated,  cannot  rise  from  the  bottom ;  but  the 
older  ones  can  come  to  the  surface  by  changes 
in  the  expansion  of  the  soft  parts,  by  a  slight 
vacuum  produced  in  the  posterior  part  of  the 
occupied  chamber,  and  according  to  some  by 
the  exhalation  of  some  light  gas  into  the  de- 
serted chambers ;  they  rise  in  the  water  as  a 
balloon  does  in  the  air,  with  the  ability  also  of 
directing  the  motions  to  a  certain  extent  by 
means  of  the  funnel ;  they  float  at  the  surface 
shell  upward,  and  sink  quickly  by  reversing 
the  shell.  The  proportion  of  the  air  chambers 
to  the  dwelling  chamber  is  such  that  the  shell 
is  nearly  of  the  same  specific  gravity  as  the 
water;  the  siphon  communicates  with  the 
pericardium,  and  is  probably  filled  with  fluid 
from  that  cavity ;  it  conducts  small  vessels  for 
the  nutrition  of  the  shell,  and  perhaps  for  se- 
cretory purposes.  A  large  and  perfect  shell 
will  weigh  6  or  7  oz.,  and  the  soft  parts  5  or 
6  oz.  more ;  the  exterior  crust  of  the  shell  is 
whitish  with  fawn-colored  streaks  and  bands, 
and  the  interior  has  a  beautiful  pearly  lustre, 
and  is  in  request  by  cabinet  makers  and  jewel- 
lers ;  by  removing  the  external  coat  by  acids, 
the  pearly  surface  is  readily  exposed,  and  shells 
thus  treated  and  richly  engraved  were  former- 
ly highly  prized  as  ornaments  for  the  mantle- 
piece  and  sideboard.  This  species  is  so  com- 
mon in  the  S.  Pacific,  that  at  certain  seasons 
of  the  year  they  are  carried  by  the  winds  and 
currents  to  the  island  shores,  where  they  are 
used,  when  smoke-dried,  for  food  ;  in  the  Pap- 
uan archipelago  the  shells  are  used  as  common 
utensils ;  they  are  found  from  the  Persian  gulf 
and  Indian  ocean  to  the  Chinese  seas  and  the 
Pacific.  In  the  umbilicated  nautilus  (N.  um- 
bilicatus,  Lester)  the  last  whorl  of  the  shell 
does  not  envelop  and  conceal  the  others ;  the 
shape  is  ventricose,  the  surface  reticulated, 
and  the  color  dusky  smoky,  with  numerous 
delicate  chestnut  flammules  (five  to  the  inch). 
A  nautilus  extended  in  a  straight  line  would  be 
a  shell  like  a  fossil  orthoceratite ;  in  the  am- 
monites the  shell  is  coiled  as  in  the  nautilus, 
but  is  strengthened  by  arched  ribs  and  dome- 


NAUTILUS 


NAUVOO 


irr 


shaped  elevations  on  the  convex  surface. — The 
paper  nautilus  or  argonaut  belongs  to  the  oc- 
topod  group  of  the  dibranchiate  cephalopods, 
or  to  the  acetabulifera  of  D'Orbigny,  from  the 
arms  being  provided  with  sucking  disks.  It 
differs  from  the  true  nautilus  in  the  arms  of 
larger  size  and  more  complicated  structure, 
partially  connected  by  membrane  at  the  base ; 
in  the  larger  and  more  complex  eyes,  not  pe- 
dunculated  but  lodged  in  orbits;  in  the  gills 
being  only  two  in  number,  each  with  a  bran- 
chial heart ;  in  the  funnel  being  an  entire  tube ; 
and  in  the  presence  of  an  ink  gland  and  bag  for 
its  secretion.  In  the  genus  argonauta  (Linn.), 
in  the  females,  which  alone  have  a  shell  as  an 
egg  receptacle,  the  first  or  dorsal  pair  of  the 
eight  arms  are  dilated  into  broad  thin  mem- 
branes, which  secrete  and  sustain  the  very 
light,  paper-like,  calcareous,  symmetrical,  and 
single-chambered  shell;  like  the  other  arms, 
these  are  provided  with  two  rows  of  suctorial 
disks,  extending  around  the  whole  circumfer- 
ence, by  means  of  which  the  animal  retains 
the  shell  in  position;  the  six  non-palmated 
arms  serve  as  organs  of  prehension  and  loco- 
motion, as  the  animal  drags  itself  along  the 
bottom  or  climbs  the  rocks  in  search  of  food, 
and  as  anchors ;  the  shell,  as  in  the  nautilus, 
is  carried  above  the  body.  The  arms  are  at- 
tached to  the  anterior  part  of  the  cephalic  car- 
tilage; the  suckers  are  completely  under  the 
control  of  the  animal,  which  can  fasten  or 
relax  them  instantly.  Swimming  is  effected 
in  a  retrograde  manner  by  the  ejected  currents 
from  the  funnel.  The  skin  is  soft  and  tender, 
and  includes  a  great  number  of  cells  contain- 
ing pigment  matter  of  different  colors,  whose 
contractions  and  expansions,  with  the  surface 
movements,  give  it  a  remarkable  power  of  rap- 
idly changing  its  tints.  There  is  no  internal 
shell,  and  it  is  now  ascertained  that  the  exter- 
nal shell  is  peculiar  to  the  female,  and  is  only 
an  incubating  and  protective  nest  for  the  eggs ; 
it  is  not  the  homologue  of  the  internal  rudi- 
mentary shell  of  the  cuttle  fish,  nor  of  the 
external  chambered  shell  of  the  nautilus,  but 
rather  answers  to  the  cocoon  of  leeches  and 
other  articulates,  or  to  the  egg-float  of  the 
delicate  gasteropod  janthina ;  the  eggs  are 
attached  by  thread-like  stalks  to  the  involuted 


Paper  Nautilus  (Argonauta  argo). 

spire  of  the  shell,  behind  and  beneath  the  body 
of  the  female.  The  best  known  species,  the 
A.  argo  (Linn.),  inhabits  the  Atlantic,  Pacific, 
and  Indian  oceans,  and  the  Mediterranean, 
especially  about  Sicily.  In  the  last  named  lo- 
cality Mme.  Jeanette  Power  made  the  experi- 


ments which  determined  that  the  argonaut  is 
the  maker  of  its  own  shell,  and  not  a  parasitic 
occupant  like  the  hermit  crab ;  this  question 
arose  from  the  fact  that  the  animal  has  no 
muscular  or  other  attachment  to  the  shell,  and 
has  been  known  voluntarily  to  quit  it,  and  sur- 
vive in  captivity  a  considerable  time  without 
any  attempt  to  return  to  it ;  it  also  repairs  the 
shell  when  broken  by  the  agency  of  the  pal- 
mated  arms.  For  an  account  of  the  arguments 
for  and  against  parasitism  (among  the  advo- 
cates of  the  former  being  Lamarck,  Leach,  De 
Blainville,  Broderip,  and  Sowerby,  and  among 
those  of  the  latter  Cuvier,  Duvernoy,  Fe>ussac, 
and  D'Orbigny),  and  for  an  extensive  bibli- 
ography on  this  animal,  see  "Proceedings  of 
the  Boston  Society  of  Natural  History,"  vol. 
v.,  pp.  369-'81  (1856).  Leach,  who  considered 
the  animal  a  parasite,  described  it  as  the  genus 
ocythoe.  The  sexes  are  distinct ;  the  specimens 
usually  found  are  all  females,  the  males  hav- 
ving  been  until  recently  described  as  parasites 
under  the  name  of  hectocotylus  ;  this  is  a  worm- 
like  body,  resembling  the  arm  of  a  cuttle  fish, 
the  under  surface  bordered  with  40  or  50  pairs 
of  alternating  suckers ;  for  a  long  time  regard- 
ed as  a  parasitic  annelid,  it  is  now  known  to 
be  the  spermatophorous  arm  of  the  male  argo- 
naut, deciduous  during  sexual  congress,  and 
attaching  itself  within  the  mantle  of  the  fe- 
male ;  in  this  genus  it  is  the  third  arm  of  the 
left  side  which  is  thus  deciduous  and  hollowed 
for  the  spermatic  receptacle.  The  male  argo- 
naut has  no  shell  and  no  palmated  arms,  and 
is  only  about*  one  eighth  of  the  size  of  the  fe- 
male. The  argonaut,  according  to  Rang,  rises 
to  the  surface  shell  upward,  turning  it  down- 
ward when  it  floats  on  the  water ;  by  retract- 
ing the  six  arms  within  the  shell  and  placing 
the  palmated  ones  on  the  outside,  it  can  quick- 
ly sink,  explaining  why  the  animal  is  so  rarely 
taken  with  the  shell.  The  shell  is  flexible  in 
the  water,  but  very  fragile  when  dry;  after 
having  been  soaked  in  water  for  some  time  it 
may  be  bent  as  before.  A  specimen,  one  of  the 
largest  known,  in  the  cabinet  of  the  Boston 
society  of  natural  history,  is  10  in.  long,  6£ 
broad,  and  the  opening  4  in.  wide ;  it  cost  the 
donor  $500.  Many  species  are  described. 

NAFVOO,  a  township  of  Hancock  co.,  Illinois, 
on  a  bend  of  the  Mississippi  river,  near  the 
head  of  the  lower  rapids,  52  m.  above  Quincy 
and  220  m.  above  St.  Louis;  pop.  in  1870, 
1,578.  The  city  of  Nauvoo  was  founded  by 
the  Mormons  in  1840,  and  contained  about 
15,000  inhabitants  at  the  time  of  their  expul- 
sion in  1846  by  the  neighboring  people.  It 
was  regularly  laid  out  with  broad  streets  cross- 
ing at  right  angles,  and  the  houses  were  built 
generally  of  logs,  with  a  few  frame  and  brick 
buildings  interspersed.  A  temple  130  ft.  long 
by  90  wide  was  erected  of  polished  limestone. 
The  baptistery  was  in  the  basement,  and  held 
a  large  stone  basin  supported  by  12  colossal 
oxen.  In  1848  this  building  was  set  on  fire 
by  an  incendiary,  and  all  destroyed  except  the 


178 


NAVAJOS 


walls,  which  on  May  27, 1850,  were  overthrown 
by  a  tornado.  In  1850  Nauvoo  was  occupied 
by  M.  Oabet,  a  French  communist,  with  a  small 
body  of  followers,  called  Icarians ;  he  died  in 
1856,  and  his  community  was  broken  up  in 
the  following  year.  Two  weekly  newspapers 
(one  German)  are  published. 

NAVAJOS,  the  most  northerly  band  of  the 
Apache  Indians,  inhabiting  the  table  lands  and 
mountains  of  a  district  on  the  San  Juan  and 
Little  Colorado,  called  by  the  Spaniards  Nava- 
joa,  whence  they  were  styled  Apaches  de  Nava- 
joa.  They  call  themselves  Yutahenne.  They 
are  by  far  the  most  civilized  tribe  of  the  Atha- 
bascan stock,  having  evidently  acquired  many 
arts  from  the  semi-civilized  Indians  of  New 
Mexico.  They  cultivate  the  soil  rudely  but 
extensively,  Col.  Baker  in  1859  estimating  their 
farms  at  20,000  acres ;  and  having  at  an  early 
period  obtained  horses,  cattle,  sheep,  and  goats, 
they  soon  had  large  herds  and  flocks,  and  learn- 
ed to  spin  and  weave  cotton  and  wool.  Their 
blankets  are  highly  prized,  bringing  from  $80 
to  $150.  Their  houses  however  are  very  rude, 
being  merely  conical  structures  of  poles,  cov- 
ered with  branches.  Like  all  the  Apaches, 
they  have  warred  on  the  Mexicans  from  an 
early  period.  When  they  came  within  the  lim- 
its of  the  United  States  they  occupied  Sevol- 
leta  and  nine  other  fixed  towns,  all  under  one 
head  chief.  The  Mexicans  frequently  attempt- 
ed to  reduce  them.  Doniphan's  expedition  in 
1846,  Wilkes's  in  1847,  Newby's  in  1848,  and 
Washington's  in  1849  were  failures.  Sumner 
in  1851  pushed  into  the  heart  of  flieir  country, 
and  planted  Fort  Defiance  at  Canoncito  Bonito, 
but  was  forced  to  retreat.  A  series  of  treaties 
were  broken  as  soon  as  made ;  and  the  Nava- 
jos  kept  on  killing  and  plundering  till  Col.  Car- 
son in  1863,  in  a  winter  campaign,  conquered 
and  compelled  them  to  leave  their  country  and 
remove  to  Bosque  Redondo,  on  Pecos  river,  at 
a  distance  from  their  fastnesses.  Here  they 
were  held  as  prisoners  by  government  to  the 
number  of  7,000  for  several  years,  at  great 
expense.  But  they  were  constantly  exposed 
to  attacks  from  the  Comanches  and  other  hos- 
tile tribes;  the  site  was  unhealthy,  the  soil 
poor,  and  the  water  bad.  On  June  1,  1868, 
Gen.  Sherman  and  Col.  Tappan  as  commission- 
ers concluded  a  treaty,  and  the  next  month  the 
Navajos  were  removed  to  Fort  Wingate,  and 
in  1869  to  their  old  country  around  Fort  De- 
fiance, 6,120  square  miles  being  assigned  as 
their  reservation.  One  band,  Sandoval's,  has 
been  friendly  from  the  first.  In  1872  the 
Navajos  on  the  reservation  numbered  9,114, 
with  three  outlying  bands.  They  had  130,000 
sheep  and  goats,  10,000  horses,  and  some  cat- 
tle. They  were  peaceful  and  well  disposed, 
and  received  $91,000  a  year  in  annuities.  In 
1870  a  Presbyterian  mission  and  school  were 
established,  but  the  school  soon  ceased.  The 
Navajos  are  distinguished  by  a  full  round  eye. 
They  dress  decently,  covering  the  whole  body, 
in  textures  of  their  own  weaving,  generally  of 


NAVARRE 

bright  colors;  and  the  warriors  wear  a  hel- 
met-shaped deerskin  cap  with  feathers.  Their 
arms  are  bows,  lances,  and  rawhide  shields. 

NAVARINO,  or  Neocastro,  a  fortified  town  of 
the  Morea,  Greece,  in  the  nomarchy  of  Messe- 
nia,  at  the  S.  extremity  of  the  bay  of  Navarino, 
5  m.  N.  of  Modon  (Methone),  and  3  m.  from 
Old  Navarino,  which  stands  on  the  N.  coast 
of  the  bay,  near  the  ruins  of  Messenian  Py- 
los ;  pop.  about  2,000.  It  has  a  citadel,  situ- 
ated on  a  high  rock.  The  chief  objects  of  in- 
terest are  the  remains  of  an  old  aqueduct,  and 
some  antique  marble  pillars  adorning  the  front 
of  a  former  mosque.  The  bay  of  Navarino  is 
about  3  m.  long  and  2  m.  wide,  with  from  12 
to  26  fathoms  of  water.  It  is  shut  in  by  the 
island  of  Sphacteria  or  Sphagia,  famous  for 
the  victory  achieved  there  by  the  Athenian 
Cleon  over  the  Spartans,  425  B.  C.  Here,  on 
Oct.  20,  1827,  the  combined  fleets  of  Great 
Britain,  France,  end  Russia,  under  Codrington, 
Rigny,  and  Heiden,  destroyed  the  Turkish- 
Egyptian  fleet,  which  greatly  promoted  the 
success  of  the  Greeks  in  their  struggle  for 
independence. 

NAVARRE  (Span.  Navarrd),  a  N.  province  of 
Spain,  between  Aragon,  Old  Castile,  and  Bis- 
cay, bounded  N.  by  France  and  the  Pyrenees, 
E.  by  the  provinces  of  Huesca  and  Saragossa, 
S.  by  Saragossa  and  Logrofio,  and  W.  by  Alava 
and  Guipuzcoa ;  area,  4,045  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in 
1870,  318,687.  The  country  generally  is  in- 
tersected by  small  mountain  ranges  project- 
ing southward  from  the  Pyrenees;  but  near 
the  banks  of  the  Ebro,  which  forms  a  part 
of  the  southern  frontier,  there  are  wide  and 
fertile  plains.  Besides  that  river,  Navarre  is 
watered  by  its  affluent  the  Aragon,  which, 
coming  from  the  northeast,  receives  several 
smaller  streams,  running  due  S.  from  the 
mountains;  in  the  southwest  by  the  Ega,  an- 
other affluent  of  the  Ebro;  .and  toward  the 
northwest  by  the  Bidassoa,  which  falls  into 
the  bay  of  Biscay.  While  the  mountainous 
region  is  mostly  bleak,  cold,  and  unsuitable 
for  tillage,  the  valleys  are  fertile  in  wheat, 
maize,  barley,  and  oats.  Hemp,  flax,  oil,  wine, 
and  liquorice  are  also  produced ;  it  is  princi- 
pally a  grazing  and  agricultural  district,  and 
manufactures  are  in  a  very  backward  state. 
The  canal  of  Aragon,  which  connects  Tudela 
and  Saragossa,  affords  means  of  intercourse 
with  the  adjoining  provinces  on  the  east,  and 
the  province  is  also  connected  by  railways  W. 
and  S.  with  the  principal  cities  in  Spain.  It 
communicates  with  France  by  railway  N.  to 
Bayonne,  and  by  roads  through  mountain  passes 
or  defiles,  the  most  celebrated  of  which  is  that 
of  Roncesvalles,  where  the  army  of  Charle- 
magne was  defeated.  In  the  mountains,  besides 
the  Pyrenean  limestone,  jasper,  slate,  and  mar- 
ble occur  in  large  beds  ;  there  are  iron,  copper, 
and  lead  mines,  numerous  thermal  springs,  salt 
springs,  and  mines  of  rock  salt.  The  forest 
trees  of  the  Pyrenees,  chiefly  consisting  of 
pines,  beeches,  oaks,  and  chestnuts,  furnish  an 


NAVARRETE 


179 


abundant  supply  of  building  timber.  Wolves, 
wild  boars,  foxes,  and  wild  cats  are  found  in 
the  mountains.  The  principal  occupation  of 
the  people  is  pasturing  sheep,  goats,  and  cattle. 
Wool,  grain,  hides,  salt,  and  wine  are  the  chief 
exports,  and  silk  and  cotton  fabrics  and  colo- 
nial produce  the  most  important  imports.  The 
Navarrese  are  tall  and  well  formed,  and  evince 
an  independent  spirit  and  great  attachment  to 
their  religion  and  ancient  privileges.  The  Cas- 
tilian  language  is  generally  used  among  them  ; 
but  the  Basque  is  spoken  in  the  N.  W.  and  W. 
districts.  The  principal  towns  are  Pamplona, 
the  capital,  Tudela,  Estella,  and  Tafalla.— This 
province,  which  is  sometimes  termed  Upper 
Navarre,  once  formed  a  kingdom,  in  conjunc- 
tion with  Lower  Navarre,  which  is  situated  on 
the  northern  slope  of  the  Pyrenees,  within  the 
limits  of  France.  It  was  one  of  the  first  Chris- 
tian principalities  founded  after  the  conquest  of 
Spain  by  the  Arabs,  and,  although  occasionally 
overrun  by  those  invaders,  was  never  subdued. 
It  acknowledged  for  a  while  the  supremacy 
of  Charlemagne  and  his  immediate  successor, 
Louis  le  Debonnaire  ;  but  about  the  middle  of 
the  9th  century  it  vindicated  its  independence, 
which  was  sanctioned  in  887  by  the  diet  of 
Trebur.  At  the  beginning  of  the  llth  century, 
under  Sancho  III.,  surnamed  the  Great,  its  limits 
were  considerably  enlarged ;  and  it  was  for  a 
while  the  most  powerful  among  the  Christian 
kingdoms  of  Spain.  In  1234  it  fell  by  inheri- 
tance to  Thibault,  count  of  Champagne,  whose 
granddaughter  Jeanne  in  1284  married  the  fu- 
ture Philip  the  Fair  of  France;  and  on  the 
accession  of  that  prince  to  the  throne  in  the 
following  year,  Navarre  was  united  to  France. 
This  union  lasted  43  years  ;  and  on  the  acces- 
sion of  Philip  VI.  of  Valois,  Navarre  returned 
to  its  own  sovereigns.  Jeanne,  the  daugh- 
ter of  Louis  X.  of  France,  the  lawful  heir- 
ess, brought  the  Navarrese  crown  to  the  house 
of  £vreux,  from  which,  by  intermarriage,  it 
passed  in-  succession  to  the  houses  of  Aragon  in 
1425,  of  Foix  in  1479,  and  finally  of  Albret  in 
1494.  The  whole  of  Spanish  Navarre  was  in 
1512  seized  by  Ferdinand  the  Catholic,  king 
of  Aragon ;  and  henceforth  the  kingdom  was 
limited  to  the  small  district  known  as  French 
or  Lower  Navarre.  By  the  marriage  of  Duke 
Antoine  to  Jeanne  d' Albret  Navarre  was  ac- 
quired by  the  house  of  Bourbon,  and  their  son 
Henry  of  Navarre,  in  1589,  inherited  the  throne 
of  France.  His  successors,  until  1830,  styled 
themselves  kings  of  France  and  Navarre.  Du- 
ring the  Carlist  struggles  in  1834-'9  and  in 
1872-'5  the  province  was  a  principal  seat  of 
war,  it  being  mainly  occupied  by  the  Carlists. 
Estella,  their  chief  stronghold,  was  captured  l»y 
the  Alfonsists  in  February,  1875. 

NAVARRETE,  Domingo  Fernandez,  a  Spanish 
missionary,  born  at  Pefiafiel  in  1610,  died  in 
Santo  Domingo  in  December,  1689.  He  joined 
the  Dominican  order,  and  in  1647  was  sent  to 
the  Philippine  islands,  and  became  professor 
of  theology  at  Manila.  Visiting  China,  he 


penetrated  into  the  interior  of  the  empire,  and 
was  for  some  years  superior  of  his  order  there ; 
but  during  a  persecution  he  was  apprehended 
and  sent  to  Canton,  whence  he  escaped  to 
Macao,  took  ship  for  Europe,  and  reached  home 
in  1673.  In  the  same  year  he  went  to  Rome, 
and  protested  to  the  pope  against  the  policy 
of  the  Jesuit  missionaries  in  China,  whom  he 
accused  of  accommodating  themselves  to  the 
ceremonies  of  the  natives.  In  1678  he  was 
appointed  archbishop  of  Santo  Domingo.  He 
published  Tratados  Mstoricos,  poltticos,  ethicos 
y  religiosos  de  la  monarquia  de  China  (fol., 
Madrid,  1676).  A  second  volume  of  this  work 
was  suppressed  by  the  inquisition,  and  a  third 
was  written  but  never  printed. 

NAVARRETE,  Juan  Fernandez,  surnamed  EL 
MUDO  (the  Mute),  a  Spanish  artist,  born  in 
Logrofio  in  1526,  died  about  1575.  He  became 
deaf  and  dumb  in  his  infancy,  studied  paint- 
ing in  the  monastery  of  the  Hieronymites  at 
Estrella,  and  afterward  in  Italy,  and  was  a 
pupil  of  Titian.  He  devoted  himself  to  sa- 
cred subjects,  and  nearly  all  his  works  are  in 
the  Escurial. 

NAVARRETE,  Martino  Fernandez,  a  Spanish  his- 
torian, born  at  Abalos,  Old  Castile,  Nov.  9, 
1765,  died  in  Madrid,  Oct.  8, 1844.  He  entered 
the  navy  in  1780,  was  present  at  the  attack  on 
Gibraltar  in  September,  1782,  and  afterward 
served  against  the  Moors  and  Algerines.  In 
1789  he  was  commissioned  by  the  Spanish  gov- 
ernment to  compile  from  the  national  archives 
a  collection  of  documents  on  the  history  of 
Spanish  maritime  discovery.  He  returned  to 
sea  when  war  was  declared  with  France,  and 
remained  afloat  until  he  was  appointed  in  1797 
to  a  post  in  the  ministry  of  marine.  On  the 
French  invasion  in  1808  he  retired  to  Seville. 
Returning  to  Madrid  in  1814,  he  engaged  in 
literary  labors,  proposed  the  new  system  of 
orthography  adopted  by  the  Spanish  academy 
in  its  dictionary,  and  wrote  a  "Life  of  Cer- 
vantes" (Madrid,  1819).  In  1823  he  was  made 
chief  of  the  hydrographical  department.'  The 
first  two  volumes  of  the  work  to  which  he  de- 
voted the  best  part  of  his  life  were  published 
at  Madrid  in  1825,  under  the  title  of  Coleccion 
de  los  majes  y  desculrimientos  que  Mcieron  por 
mar  los  Espafloles  desde  fines  del  siglo  XV. 
The  third  appeared  in  1829,  and  the  fourth  and 
fifth  in  1837.  The  sixth  and  seventh  were  left 
unfinished  at  the  author's  death.  The  first  two 
volumes  are  devoted  to  the  discoveries  of  Co- 
lumbus, concerning  whom  they  brought  to  light 
from  the  national  archives  an  immense  wealth 
of  information,  consisting  of  letters,  public  doc- 
uments, (fee.,  which  were  the  basis  of  Wash- 
ington Irving's  "Life  of  Columbus."  Navar- 
rete  began  in  1842,  with  two  associates,  a 
"Collection  of  Unpublished  Documents  for 
the  History  of  Spain,"  of  which  five  volumes 
appeared  during  his  lifetime,  and  it  was  con- 
tinued after  his  death.  He  published  a  treatise 
on  the  Spanish  discoveries  on  the  Pacific  coast 
of  North  America,  prefixed  to  a  narrative  of 


180 


NAVARRO 


the  "  Voyage  of  the  Sutil  and  Mexican  on  the 
Coasts  of  California"  (1802).  His  Disertacion 
sobre  la  historia  de  la  ndutica  espanola  was 
published  in  1846,  and  his  Biblioteca  maritima 
espanola,  in  2  vols.,  in  1851. 

NAVARRO,  a  N.  E.  county  of  Texas,  bounded 
N.  E.  by  the  Trinity  river,  by  branches  of 
which  it  is  drained;  area,  1,040  sq.  m. ;  pop. 
in  1870,  8,879,  of  whom  2,245  were  colored. 
It  has  a  rolling  surface,  with  a  rich,  dark  soil 
along  the  watercourses,  and  a  large  portion  of 
prairie.  It  is  traversed  by  the  Houston  and 
Texas  Central  railroad.  The  chief  productions 
in  1870  were  219,865  bushels  of  Indian  corn, 
5,150  of  sweet  potatoes,  4,077  bales  of  cotton, 
and  2,935  Ibs.  of  wool.  There  were  9,244 
horses,  1,151  mules  and  asses,  4,875  milch  cows, 
2,459  working  oxen,  32,783  other  cattle,  7,144 
sheep,  and  16,419  swine.  Capital,  Corsicana. 

NAVEZ,  Francois  Joseph,  a  Belgian  painter, 
born  in  Charleroi,  Nov.  17, 1787,  died  in  Brus- 
sels in  1869.  He  studied  at  Brussels,  won  a 
prize  at  Ghent,  became  a  pupil  of  J.  L.  Da- 
vid in  Paris,  and  subsequently  visited  Italy. 
On  returning  to  Brussels  he  rapidly  rose  to 
be  the  most  eminent  master  of  the  academi- 
cal school  of  painting,  and  became  director 
of  the  academy  of  fine  arts  and  professor  in 
the  normal  school.  Among  his  works  are: 
"Hagar  in  the  Desert,"  "Meeting  of  Isaac 
and  Rebecca,"  "  Raising  of  the  Son  of  the  Su- 
lamite  Woman,"  "  The  Prophet  Samuel,"  "  The 
Ascension  of  the  Virgin,"  "Marriage  of  the 
Virgin,"  "Jesus  Sleeping,"  and  "The  Virgin 
and  the  Infant  Jesus." 

NAVIGATION,  the  art  or  system  of  rules  and 
practices  by  means  of  which  vessels  are  direct- 
ed in  their  course  upon  the  water.  Prior  to 
the  invention  of  the  mariner's  compass  naviga- 
tion was  limited  to  enclosed  seas  like  the  Medi- 
terranean, to  gulfs  and  archipelagos,  and  to  the 
coasts.  Beyond  the  sight  of  land,  the  mariner 
had  no  guide  in  cloudy  nights,  and  no  resource 
in  stormy  weather ;  consequently,  the  most  re- 
mote and  venturesome  expeditions  only  moved 
along  the  shore ;  and  the  sea  was  avoided  as 
much  as  possible,  especially  during  the  winter 
season,  from  the  middle  of  November  to  the 
middle  of  March.  The  discovery  of  the  mari- 
ner's compass  changed  this  state  of  things  en- 
tirely, by  furnishing  a  never-failing  guide,  as 
useful  and  safe  to  the  navigator  in  the  night  as 
during  the  day,  and  in  storms  as  in  fair  weath- 
er. It  is  uncertain  to  whom  the  world  is  in- 
debted for  the  first  observation  of  the  directing 
powers  of  the  magnet,  and  for  their  application 
to  the  purposes  of  travelling  by  land  and  sea. 
(See  COMPASS.)  The  introduction  to  Church- 
ill's "Collection"  contends  for  the  honor  of 
the  discovery  in  behalf  of  Flavio  Gioja  of  Pasi- 
tano,  near  Amalfi,  in  Campania.  The  date  as- 
signed to  Gioja's  invention  is  about  the  begin- 
ning of  the  14th  century.  There  can  be  no 
doubt  that  to  him  belongs  the  merit  of  having 
invented  something  by  which  its  adaptation 
to  nautical  purposes  was  very  much  promoted ; 


NAVIGATION 

but  that  it  was  used  at  sea  before  his  time  ap- 
pears from  various  passages  in  authors  of  an 
older  date.  It  was  known  in  China  many  cen- 
turies previous  to  its  introduction  into  Europe, 
and  was  used  in  the  eastern  portion  of  the 
Mediterranean  during  the  first  half  of  the  13th 
century. — When  ships,  carrying  with  them  an 
unfailing  guide  to  direct  their  course,  began 
to  traverse  the  great  seas  in  all  directions,  the 
cross  staff  and  the  astrolabe  furnished  them 
with  the  means  of  measuring  the  altitude  of 
the  sun  and  stars,  and  thus  of  approximately 
determining  the  latitude  and  time.  But  the 
most  serious  inconvenience  arose  from  the  un- 
avoidable use  of  a  plane  chart  to  represent  the 
sphere,  the  gross  distortions  and  errors  of  which 
often  misled  the  mariner,  especially  in  voyages 
far  distant  from  the  equator.  Recourse  was 
had  to  globes  to  remove  this  evil,  and  a  famous 
pair  is  mentioned  which  was  made  in  1592, 
under  the  direction  of  Mr.  William  Sanderson, 
a  merchant,  "  commended  for  his  knowledge  as 
well  as  generosity  to  ingenious  men."  On  the 
terrestrial  one  were  described  the  voyages  of 
Drake,  Cavendish,  and  Frobisher.  The  plane 
chart,  however,  being  so  much  more  easy  and 
convenient  in  practice,  kept  its  place  until  the 
invention  of  the  projection  of  the  sphere  upon 
a  plane  surface  by  Gerard  Mercator,  in  1569. 
Mercator's  projection  consists  in  keeping  the 
meridians  parallel,  but  augmenting  the  length 
of  the  meridians  between  the  parallels  of  lati- 
tude, in  receding  from  the  equator,  in  such  a 
manner  that  the  just  proportions  of  the  merid- 
ians and  parallels  of  latitude  to  each  other  are 
preserved.  The  signal  advantage  o.f  this  pro- 
jection is,  that  the  directions  of  the  compass, 
or  what  in  technical  language  are  called  the 
"compass  courses,"  are  straight  lines.  The 
navigator  works  most  conveniently  upon  a  plane 
surface,  and  by  means  of  Mercator's  projection 
he  is  able  to  lay  down  his  courses  with  a  paral- 
lel rule,  the  points  being  taken  from  a  compass 
drawn  on  the  chart,  and  the  line  being  one  that 
cuts  all  the  meridians  at  the  same  angle,  and 
.marks  the  magnetic  bearing  of  the  objects 
through  which  it  passes.  This  is  called  the 
rhumb  line  or  loxodromic  curve,  and  the  defini- 
tion of  it  answers  for  the  definition  of  the  com- 
pass course.  Such  is  the  suitableness  of  Merca- 
tor's projection  to  the  use  of  the  mariner's  com- 
pass, that  the  latter  now  seems  to  have  been  an 
incomplete  discovery  until  the  announcement 
of  the  former.  It  is  suggested  that  Mercator 
arrived  at  his  invention  by  simply  observing  on 
the  globe  where  the  meridians  were  cut  at  each 
par.allel  of  latitude  by  the  rhumb  lines ;  and  it 
is  admitted  that  he  never  laid  down,  if  he  knew 
it,  the  mathematical  theory  on  which  it  rests. 
This  was  first  announced  by  Edward  Wright, 
of  Caius  college,  Cambridge.  Shortly  after 
this  (1595),  the  famous  navigator  Capt.  John 
Davis,  who  gave  his  name  to  the  straits  which 
he  discovered,  published  a  small  treatise  called 
"  The  Seaman's  Secrets,"  at  the  end  of  which 
he  gives  a  figure  of  a  staff  of  his  contrivance, 


NAVIGATION 


181 


to  make  a  back  observation;  "than  which  in- 
strument," he  said,  "  the  seaman  shall  not  find 
any  so  good,  and  in  all  clymates  of  so  great 
certaintie."  The  celebrated  Portuguese  math- 
ematician Pedro  Nunez,  or  Nonius,  had  as 
early  as  1537  published  his  book,  which,  with 
additions,  was  printed  30  years  afterward  by 
Basil  in  Latin,  and  called  De  Arte  et  Eatione 
Namgandi.  In  this  he  introduces,  among 
much  of  what  was  then  very  valuable  matter, 
his  method  of  the  division  of  a  quadrant  by 
concentric  circles.  Davis's  back  staff  main- 
tained the  first  place  until  it  was  superseded  by 
the  quadrant.  Another  important  invention  is 
the  log,  first  mentioned  by  Pigafetta  in  the  ear- 
ly part  of  the  16th  century.  About  the  year 
1620  logarithms  were  introduced  into  naviga- 
tion by  Edmund  Gunter,  whose  scales  are  of 
such  general  repute;  and  shortly  afterward 
Richard  Norwood  published  his  method  of  set- 
ting down  and  perfecting  a  sea  reckoning,  with 
the  use  of  a  traverse  table.  In  1700  Dr.  Hal- 
ley  published  a  general  map  on  which  were 
delineated  the  lines  of  equal  variation.  It  was 
hailed  with  great  applause,  as  the  means  of 
determining  the  longitude  at  sea ;  but  this  ex- 
pectation proved  futile.  But  of  all  the  gifts  to 
the  navigator,  by  far  the  greatest  of  this  time 
is  Hadley's  quadrant.  It  has  been  superseded 
by  the  sextant,  which  does  not  differ  from  it 
in  principle,  but  is  very  much  more  nicely  con- 
structed, and  more  accurate,  convenient,  and 
generally  useful.  (See  QUADRANT,  and  SEX- 
TANT.) For  a  long  time  the  problem  of  the 
longitude  engaged  the  attention  of  the  men  of 
science  in  Europe,  and  especially  in  Great  Brit- 
ain. The  British  house  of  commons  has  at  va- 
rious times  offered  rewards  for  the  solution 
of  this  problem,  one  of  which  amounted  to 
£20,000  sterling.  Newton's  improvement  of 
the  theory  of  the  moon  led  to  the  construction 
of  Mayer's  lunar  tables,  and  to  the  publication 
of  the  "Nautical  Almanac  and  Astronomical 
Ephemeris,"  by  Dr.  Maskelyne,  in  1767.  The 
appearance  of  the  latter  created  a  new  era  in 
navigation,  to  which  it  rendered  essential  ser- 
vice. The  lunar  method,  as  it  is  called,  has 
since  received  great  additions,  corresponding 
to  the  advancing  state  of  astronomical  knowl- 
edge, and  the  improvements  in  the  instruments 
of  the  seaman  and  the  astronomer.  The  meth- 
od by  the  chronometer  owes  its  highest  suc- 
cess to  the  science  and  ingenuity  of  English 
artists  and  mechanics  of  the  present  genera- 
tion, and  that  immediately  preceding.  (See 
CLOCKS  AND  WATCHES,  and  LONGITUDE.)  In 
our  day  the  art  or  science  of  navigation  has 
not  failed  to  receive  valuable  accessions ;  such 
as  Suinner's  method  for  determining  the  posi- 
tion by  lines  of  bearing  or  of  equal  altitudes ; 
Chauvenet's  great  circle  protractor,  which  fur- 
nishes great  circle  courses  immediately  by  in- 
spection, saving  a  world  of  figures,  and  also 
solves  in  the  same  way  the  problems  of  nautical 
astronomy ;  precise  and  trustworthy  sailing  di- 
rections and  memoirs,  like  those  of  Horsburgh, 


the  Blunts  of  New  York,  Findlay,  and  the  in- 
valuable memoirs  of  Kerhallet;  and  valuable 
contributions  to  our  knowledge  of  the  laws  of 
storms  by  Redfield,  Reid,  and  Piddington,  and 
of  the  currents  and  meteorology  of  the  ocean 
generally  by  Berghaus,  Keith  Johnston,  and 
Maury. — Without  attempting  a  scientific  trea- 
tise on  navigation,  we  may  give  the  general 
reader  a  simple  conception  of  the  manner  in 
which  the  place  of  a  ship  and  her  direction  are 
ascertained  upon  the  sea,  under  favorable  cir- 
cumstances. When  the  ship  has  left  port,  the 
reckoning  is  begun  by  observing  the  compass 
bearing  and  distance  of  some  conspicuous  ob- 
ject, as  a  lighthouse;  and  from  the  time  of 
taking  this  bearing  the  reckoning  is  continued 
by  noting  down  (generally  from  hour  to  hour) 
the  courses  sailed,  which  are  ascertained  by 
observations  of  the  compass,  and  the  distance 
on  each  course,  which  is  ascertained  by  the  log. 
(See  LOG.)  The  reckoning  is  made  up  with 
these  data,  from  the  time  of  any  independent 
determination  of  the  ship's  position,  by  con- 
sidering the  sum  of  the  distances  sailed  in  the 
N.  and  S.  and  E.  and  W.  directions,  and  re- 
ducing the  whole  to  one  residual  expression 
of  the  actual  course  and  distance  made  good ; 
this  is  done  by  means  of  a  traverse  table  in- 
vented for  the  purpose.  The  reckoning  here 
described  is  called  dead  reckoning,  and  is  sus- 
ceptible of  error  from  so  many  disturbing 
causes,  that  it  can  only  be  depended  upon  for 
a  short  time.  The  navigator  is  provided  with 
simple  and  easy  methods  of  acquiring  a  knowl- 
edge of  his  position  by  independent  observa- 
tions of  the  sun,  moon,  and  stars.  We  will 
look  only  at  the  first  of  these  luminaries.  The 
elements  of  position  are  the  latitude  and  lon- 
gitude. The  determination  of  the  latitude  by 
the  altitude  of  the  sun  at  noon  is  readily  "un- 
derstood, if  it  be  remembered  that  if  the  sun 
moved  always  on  the  equator^  the  height  it 
reached  at  noon  at  any  place  would  depend 
merely  on  the  distance  of  that  place  from  the 
equator ;  but  the  sun  "being  removed  from  the 
equator  more  or  less,  according  to  the  season 
of  the  year,  the  navigator  reduces  it  to  that 
circle  by  applying  the  declination,  which  is  the 
astronomical  expression  in  degrees  and  min- 
utes for  the  interval  of  its  separation.  For 
this  declination  and  all  his  astronomical  data, 
he  is  indebted  to  the  nautical  almanac.  The 
longitude  is  determined  by  chronometers.  A 
chronometer  is  expected  to  keep  the  time  of  a 
certain  place,  as  Greenwich  or  Paris;  but  as 
all  chronometers  are  subject  to  a  slight  rate  of 
loss  or  gain,  this  rate,  and  the  error  at  start- 
ing, are  applied  at  the  moment  of  observation, 
to  obtain  the  correct  Greenwich  time.  The 
change  of  a  degree  in  longitude  is  equivalent 
to  a  change  of  four  minutes  in  time ;  the  busi- 
ness of  a  navigator  then  is  simply  to  compare 
his  own  time  with  the  standard  time,  or  the 
time  at  Greenwich ;  he  obtains  his  own  time 
through  an  observation  of  the  sun  when  its  al- 
titude is  changing  rapidly.  In  the  case  of  the 


182 


NAVIGATION  LAWS 


determination  of  the  longitude  by  the  lunar 
method,  the  clock  showing  the  Greenwich  time 
is  in  the  sky.  Such  observations  are  detached 
and  disconnected.  The  navigator,  if  set  down 
suddenly  in  the  middle  of  the  ocean,  could  de- 
termine his  position  as  well  as  if  he  had  pro- 
ceeded there  gradually,  and  known  it  from 
day  to  day.— -We  have  selected  single  and  plain 
cases  only ;  but  navigation,  regarded  as  an  art, 
is  a  copious  and  complex  system  of  rules  and 
practices,  involving  the  use  of  numerous  ta- 
bles. Bowditch's  "  American  Navigator"  is  a 
large  octavo  of  nearly  800  pages,  containing 
over  50  tables.  Raper's  "British  Standard 
Navigator"  (edition  of  1849),  approved  by  the 
admiralty,  numbers  900  pages  and  74  tables. 
Navigation,  regarded  as  a  science,  requires  at 
the  very  least  a  knowledge  of  spherical  trigo- 
nometry and  algebra  in  the  mathematics,  and 
of  the  apparent  motions  and  phenomena  of 
'the  principal  heavenly  bodies  in  astronomy. 
In  addition  to  the  above  named  authorities, 
see  Peirce's  "  Plane  and  Spherical  Trigonome- 
try ;"  Chauvenet's "Trigonometry  "  and  "  Man- 
ual of  Astronomy;"  Francceur's  Astronomic 
pratique;  Boitard  and  Ansard-Deusy's  Navi- 
gation pratique  ;  Churchill's  "Collection,"  in- 
troductory discourse ;  Dr.  Wilson's  "  Disserta- 
tion," in  Robertson's  "  Elements ;"  and  Hum- 
boldt's  "  Cosmos."  (See  SHIP.) 

NAVIGATION  LAWS,  the  name  usually  given  to 
those  enactments  by  which  commercial  states 
have  endeavored  to  regulate  the  navigation 
which  left  or  visited  their  ports,  seeking  al- 
ways to  favor  and  promote  the  commerce  of 
the  state  enacting  them.  Such  laws  have  ex- 
isted in  some  form  among  all  the  maritime 
states  of  Europe  for  many  centuries.  The  first 
systematic  effort  of  this  kind  was  probably 
that  of  Spain,  about  three  centuries  ago,  to 
preserve  the  exclusive  possession  of  her  very 
profitable  commerce  with  her  American  colo- 
nies. In  England,  so  far  back  as  1379,  in  the 
reign  of  Richard  II.,  a  statute  was  passed  pro- 
hibiting the  king's  subjects  from  importing  or 
exporting  merchandise  except  in  English  ships. 
After  this  time  sundry  enactments  were  passed 
for  a  similar  purpose.  But  the  navigation  laws 
of  England,  so  called,  properly  began  in  Crom- 
well's time.  Then  the  long  pending  conflict 
between  Holland  and  England  for  the  suprem- 
acy of  the  seas  came  to  a  crisis.  The  contest 
continued  after  the  restoration  of  Charles  II. 
But  the  fatal  blow  was  given  to  Holland,  and 
the  superiority  of  England  made  certain,  not 
so  much  by  her  naval  victories  as  by  the  navi- 
gation laws,  which,  originating  in  the  sagacity 
of  Cromwell,  and  receiving  then  the  form  they 
have  preserved  until  recent  times,  secured  to 
England,  first,  the  building  of  all  her  ships  and 
their  navigation  by  English  seamen ;  next,  the 
absolute  monopoly  of  her  colonial  commerce ; 
and  finally,  her  full  share  of  the  general  carry- 
ing trade  of  the  world.  For  these  purposes 
it  was  provided  that  no  ship  should  be  deemed 
a  British  ship  that  was  not  wholly  built  within 


NAYY 

the  dominions  of  Great  Britain,    and  wholly 
owned  by  British  subjects,  and  navigated  by  a 
British  commander   and  a  crew  of  which  at 
_east  three  fourths  were  British  subjects ;  next, 
that  only  British  ships  should  carry  any  mer- 
chandise from  any  port  of  the  British  empire 
to  any  other;  and  thirdly,  that  no  goods  which 
were  the  growth,  product,  or  manufacture  of 
Asia,  Africa,  or  America,  should  be  imported 
into  any  of  the  ports  of  Great  Britain  except 
in  British  ships,  or  in  ships  of  the  countries  of 
which  the  goods  were  the  production.     The 
rigorous  execution  of  these  laws,  and  the  con- 
sistent adherence  to  these  principles,  are  sup- 
posed by  many  to  have  done  more  than  any 
other  one  cause  in  giving  to  Great  Britain  her 
enormous  commerce.      In  order  to  ascertain 
what  were  British  ships,  and  secure  the  exe- 
cution of  these  laws,  an  admirable  system  of 
registry  was  adopted  and  remained  in  force  in 
England  during  almost  two  centuries,  with  no 
substantial  change.     But  in  1849  the  principle 
of  free  trade  was  permitted  to    break  down 
this  monopoly  to  some  extent.     By  the  act  of 
that  year  and  the  subsequent  amendments  it 
is  enacted,  first,  that  ships  which  are  not  of 
British  build  may  become  British   ships  by 
registry,  if  .wholly  owned  by  British  subjects; 
and  next,   that  any  ship  may  bring  to  the 
United  Kingdom  any  merchandise,  excepting, 
however,  that  the  king  or  queen,  by  order  in 
council,  may  interpose  such  changes,  restric- 
tions, or  prohibitions  upon  ships  of  any  country 
as  will  put  the  ships  of  that  country  when  in 
British  ports  on  the  same  footing  on  which 
British  ships  stand  in  the  ports  of  that  country. 
—  This  subject  was  one  of  the  earliest  to  which 
the  American  congress,  under  the  present  con- 
stitution, turned  its  attention ;  and  in  the  win- 
ter of  1792-'3  acts  were  passed  which  were 
substantially  the  same  as    the  English  acts 
then  in  force,  but,  so  far  as  they  differ,  may 
be  considered  as  more  rigorous.     These  stat- 
utes are  still  in  force,  having  never  been  ma- 
terially altered.     The  maritime  nations  of  con- 
tinental Europe  have  their  own  systems  of 
navigation  laws,  but  these  are  not  in  any  case 
quite  so  stringent  as  those  of  England  and  the 
United  States.    During  the  years  which  im- 
mediately followed  the  adoption  of  the  federal 
constitution,  England  and  France  being  con- 
stantly at  war,  the  United  States  had  almost 
the  whole  carrying  trade  of  the  world ;  and  its 
vast  profits  laid  the  foundation  of  the  wealth 
of  the  country,  and  built  up  its  commercial 
marine    with   a  rapidity  unexampled  in  the 
history  of  the-  world. 

NAVIGATORS'  ISLANDS.    See  SAMOAN  ISLANDS. 

NAVY,  a  collective  term  for  the  vessels  of  war 
belonging  to  a  nation.  The  sea-going  vessels  of 
Phoenicia  and  Carthage,  of  Greece  and  Rome, 
were  flat-bottomed  barges  or  galleys,  unable  to 
live  in  a  gale ;  sea  room  in  a  squall  was  de- 
struction to  them ;  they  crept  along  the  coasts, 
casting  anchor  at  night  in  some  cove  or  creek. 
(See  GALLEY.)  To  cross  over  from  Greece  to 


NAVY 


183 


Italy,  or  from  Africa  to  Sicily,  was  a  dangerous 
operation.     The  ships  were  provided  with  but 


Prow  of  a  Galley. 

little  canvas,  and  oars  were  relied  upon  to  pro- 
pel them  sluggishly.    The  implements  for  offen- 
sive warfare  were  equally  inefficient.     Bows 
and     arrows,     javelins, 
clumsy  ballistas  and  cata- 
pults, were  the  only  arms 
that  could  be  used  at  a 
distance.       No     serious 
harm  could  be  done  to 
an  enemy  at   sea  until 
the   two   fighting  ships 
came  into  actual  contact. 
Thus,  there  were  but  two 
modes  of  naval  fighting 
possible :    to  manoeuvre 
so  that  the  sharp,  strong, 
iron  -  pointed    prow    of 
your  own  ship  should  be 
driven  with    full   force 
against      the     enemy's 
broadside    in    order    to 
run  him  down;   or  else  to  run  on  broadside 
to  broadside,  fasten  the  two  ships  together,  and 
board  the  enemy  at  once.    After  the  first  Punic 


minion  soon  put  an  end  to  the  possibility  of 
further  naval  contests  in  the  Mediterranean. 
— In  the  naval  encounters  between  the  Ro- 
mans and  Gauls  described  by  Caesar,  the  for- 
mer used  galleys  and  the  latter  merely  sail 
vessels,  from  which  fact  it  would  seem  that  in 
the  seas  about  Great  Britain  sail  vessels  only 
were  used  at  that  time.  The  invasion  of  Eng- 
land by  the  Anglo-Saxons  was  made  in  sail 
vessels.  In  the  time  of  Alfred  galleys  were  in- 
troduced, the  effect  of  which  was  to  diminish 
the  length  and  boldness  of  voyages,  for  the  gal- 
leys could  not  venture  out  to  sea,  although  they 
made  excellent  coast  guards.  After  the  Nor- 
man conquest  sail  vessels  came  more  into  use, 
and  voyages  again  became  bolder.  But  the 
real  birthplace  of  our  modern  navies  is  the 
German  ocean.  About  the  time  when  the 
great  mass  of  the  Teutonic  tribes  of  central 
Europe  rose  to  trample  down  the  decaying 


Boman  Galley. 

war,  which  destroyed  the  naval  superiority  of 
the  Carthaginians,  there  is  not  a  single  naval 
engagement  in  ancient  history  offering  the 
slightest  professional  interest,  and  Roman  do- 


Norman  Galley. 

Roman  empire  and  to  regenerate  western  Eu- 
rope, the  Frisians,  Saxons,  Angles,  Danes,  and 
Northmen  began  to  take  to  the  sea.     Their 
vessels  were  firm,  stout 
sea  boats,  with  a  prom- 
inent   keel    and     sMrp 
lines,  relying  mostly  on 
sails  alone,  and  not  afraid 
to  face   a    gale  in    the 
middle    of    that    rough 
northern    sea.      It    was 
with  this  class  of  vessels 
that  the  Northmen  un- 
dertook their  roving  ex- 
peditions,   extending   to 
Constantinople    on    the 
one   side    and    America 
on  the  other.     The  ves- 
sels in  which  the  North- 
men made  their  excur- 
sions were  probably  of 
no  very  large  size,  per- 
haps not  exceeding  100 
tons  in  any  case,  and  car- 
rying one  or  at  the  outside  two  masts,  fore- 
and-aft  rigged.    For  a  long  time  both  ship 
building  and  navigation  appear  to  have  re- 
mained stationary;   during  the  whole  of  the 


NAVY 


middle  ages  vessels  were  small,  and  the  bold 
spirit  of  the  Northmen  and  the  Frisians  had 
passed  away;  whatever  improvements  were 
made  were  owing  to  Italians  and  Portuguese, 


Henry  Grace  de  Dien,  from  an  old  woodcut. 

who  now  became  the  boldest  sailors.  The 
Portuguese  discovered  the  route  by  sea  to 
India;  two  Italians  in  foreign  service,  Co- 
lumbus and  Cabot,  were 
the  first  since  the  times 
of  Leif  the  Northman  to 
cross  the  Atlantic.  Long 
sea  voyages  now  became 
a  necessity,  and  they  re- 
quired large  ships ;  at  the 
same  time  the  necessity 
of  arming  vessels  of  war, 
and  even  merchantmen, 
with  heavy  artillery, 
equally  tended  to  increase 
size  and  tonnage.  The 
same  causes  which  had 
produced  standing  armies 
on  land,  now  produced 
standing  navies  afloat ; 
and  it  is  from  this  time 
only  that  we  can  proper- 
ly speak  of  navies.  The 
era  of  colonial  enterprise 
which  now  opened  for 
all  seafaring  nations,  also 
saw  the  formation  of  large 
fleets  of  war  to  protect 
the  newly  formed  colonies  and  their  trade  ; 
and  a  period  followed  richer  in  naval  strug- 
gles and  more  fruitful  to  the  development  of 
naval  armaments  than  any  that  preceded  it. 


The  foundation  of  the  British  navy  was  laid 

by  Henry  VII.,  who  built  the  first  ship,  called 
"  The  Great  Harry."  His  successor  formed  a 
regular  standing  fleet,  the  property  of  the  state, 
the  largest  ship  of  which  was  called 
the  Henry  Grace  de  Dieu.  This 
vessel,  the  largest  ever  built  up  to 
that  time,  carried  80  guns,  partly 
on  two  regular  flush  gun  decks, 
partly  on  additional  platforms  both 
forward  and  astern.  She  was  pro- 
vided with  four  masts ;  her  tonnage 
is  variously  stated  at  from  1,000  to 
1,500.  The  whole  of  the  British  fleet 
at  the  death  of  Henry  VIII.  consisted 
of  about  50  sail,  with  an  aggregate 
tonnage  of  12,000,  and  manned  by 
8,000  sailors  and  marines.  In  1578 
it  comprised  24  ships,  of  10,395  tons, 
954  guns,  and  6,570  men.  The  Tri- 
umph, of  1,000  tons  and  100  guns, 
was  the  largest  vessel;  next  to  her 
ranked  the  Elizabeth  and  the  White 
Bear,  each  of  900  tons  and  80  guns. 
The  large  ships  of  the  period  were 
clumsy  contrivances,  deep-waisted, 
that  is  to  say,  provided  with  towering 
forecastles  and  poops,  which  rendered 
them  exceedingly  top-heavy.  The 
Mary  Eose  was  sunk  off  Sheerness  in 
1588  while  tacking,  her  lower  ports 
being  only  16  inches  above  the  water. 
The  first  English  three-decker  was 
the  Sovereign  of  the  Seas,  afterward 
called  the  Eoyal  Sovereign,  built  in  1637.  She 
bore  the  character  of  the  best  man-of-war  in 
the  world  until  1696,  when  she  was  accidental- 


The  Sovereign  of  the  Seas. 

ly  burned  at  Chatham.  She  is  the  first  vessel 
of  whose  armament  we  get  something  like  an 
accurate  account.  She  had  three  flush  decks, 
a  forecastle,  a  half  deck,  a  quarter  deck,  and  a 


NAVY 


185 


round  house ;  on  her  lower  deck  she  carried  30 
guns,  42-  and  32-pounders ;  30  on  her  middle 
deck,  18-  and  9-pounders ;  on  her  upper  deck 
26  lighter  guns,  probably  6-  and  3-pounders. 
Besides  these,  she  carried  20  chase  guns  and 
26  guns  on  her  forecastle  and  half  deck.  But 
on  her  regular  home  establishment  this  arma- 
ment was  reduced  to  100  guns,  the  full  com- 
plement being  evidently  too  much  for  her.  As 
to  the  smaller  vessels,  our  information  is  very 
scanty.  In  1651  the  navy  was  classed  in  six 
rates ;  but  besides  them  there  continued  to  ex- 
ist numerous  classes  of  unrated  ships,  such  as 
shallops,  hulks,  and  later  bombs,  sloops,  fire 
ships,  and  yachts.  In  1677  we  find  a  list  of  the 
whole  English  navy ;  according  to  which,  the 
largest  first  rate  three-decker  carried  26  42- 
pdrs.,  28  24-pdrs.,  28  9-pdrs.,  14  6-pdrs.,  and 
4  3-pdrs. ;  and  the  smallest  two-decker  (fifth 
rate)  carried  18  18-pdrs.,  8  6-pdrs.,  and  4  4- 
pdrs.,  or  30  guns  in  all.  The  whole  fleet  con- 
sisted of  129  vessels.  In  1714  we  find  198 
vessels  ;  in  1727,  178  ;  and  in  1744,  128.  Af- 
terward, as  the  number  of  vessels  increases, 
their  size  also  gets  larger,  and  the  heaviness 
of  the  armament  is  augmented  with  the.  ton- 
nage. The  first  English  ship  answering  to  our 
modern  frigate  was  built  by  Sir  Robert  Dud- 
ley, as  early  as  the  end  of  the  16th  century; 
but  it  was  not  till  fully  80  years  later  that  this 
class  of  ships,  first  used  by  the  southern  Euro- 
pean nations,  was  generally  adopted  in  the  Brit- 
ish navy.  The  particular  fast-sailing  qualities  of 
frigates  were  little  understood  for  some  time 
in  England.  British  ships  were  generally  over- 
gunned,  so  that  their  lower  ports  were  but 
3  ft.  from  the  water's  edge,  and  could  not  be 
opened  in  a  rough  sea,  and  the  sailing  capaci- 
ties of  the  vessels  were  also  greatly  impaired. 
Both  the  Spaniards  and  the  French  allowed 
more  tonnage  in  proportion  to  the  number  of 
guns ;  the  consequence  was  that  their  ships 
could  carry  heavier  calibre  and  more  stores, 
had  more  buoyancy,  and  were  better  sailers. 
The  English  frigates  of  the  first  half  of  the  18th 
century  carried  as  many  as  44  guns,  of  9, 12,  and 
a  few  of  18  Ibs.  calibre,  with  a  tonnage  of  about 
710.  By  1780  frigates  of  38  guns  (mostly  18- 
pdrs.)  and  of  946  tons  were  built.  The  French 
frigates  of  the  same  epoch,  with  a  similar  ar- 
mament, averaged  100  tons  more.  About  the 
same  time  (the  middle  of  the  18th  century)  the 
smaller  men-of-war  were  more  accurately 
classed  in  the  modern  way  as  corvettes,  brigs, 
brigantines,  and  schooners.  In  1779  a  piece 
of  ordnance  was  invented  (probably  by  the 
British  Gen.  Melville)  which  changed  to  a  great 
extent  the  armaments  of  most  navies.  It  was 
a  very  short  gun,  with  a  large  calibre,  approach- 
ing in  its  shape  a  howitzer,  but  intended  to 
throw  solid  shot,  with  small  charges,  at  short 
ranges.  These  guns  were  first  manufactured 
by  the  Carron  iron  company,  in  Scotland,  and 
were  hence  called  carronades.  The  shot  from 
this  gun,  useless  at  long  ranges,  had  fearful  ef- 
fects upon  timber  at  close  quarters;  from  its 


reduced  velocity  (by  the  reduced  charge),  it 
made  a  larger  hole,  shattered  the  timber  far 
more,  and  made  numerous  and  more  dangerous 
splinters.  The  comparative  lightness  of  the 
guns,  too,  made  it  easy  to  find  room  for  a  few 
of  them  on  the  quarter  deck  and  forecastle  of 
vessels ;  and  as  early  as  1781  there  were  429 
ships  in  the  British  navy  provided  with  from 
six  to  ten  carronades  over  and  above  their 
regular  complement  of  guns.  In  reading  the 
accounts  of  naval  engagements  during  the 
French  and  American  wars,  it  should  be  borne 
in  mind  that  the  British  never  include  the  car- 
ronades in  the  number  of  guns  given  as  a  ship's 
complement;  so  that,  for  instance,  a  British 
frigate,  stated  to  be  a  36-gun  frigate,  may  in 
reality  have  carried  42  or  more  guns,  including 
the  carronades.  The  superior  weight  of  metal 
which  the  carronades  gave  to  the  British  broad- 
sides, helped  to  decide  many  an  action  fought 
at  close  quarters  during  the  war  of  the  French 
revolution.  But  after  all,  carronades  were 
merely  a  make-shift  to  increase  the  strength  of 
the  comparatively  small-sized  men-of-war  of 
a  century  ago.  As  soon  as  the  size  of  the  ships 
was  increased  for  each  rating,  they  were  again 
cast  aside,  and  are  now  superseded  by  other 
arms.  At  that  period,  in  the  construction  of 
men-of-war,  the  French  and  Spaniards  were 
decidedly  ahead  of  the  English.  Their  ships 
were  larger  and  designed  with  far  better  lines 
than  the  British ;  their  frigates  especially  were 
superior  both  in  size  and  sailing  qualities ;  and 
for  many  years  the  English  frigates  were  cop- 
ied from  the  French  frigate  Hebe,  captured  in 
1782.  In  the  same  proportion  as  the  vessels 
were  lengthened,  the  high  towering  erections 
at  the  bow  and  stern,  the  forecastles,  quarter 
decks,  and  poops,  were  reduced  in  height,  the 
sailing  qualities  of  the  ships  being  increased 
thereby ;  so  that  gradually  the  comparatively 
elegant  and  swift-sailing  lines  of  the  present 
men-of-war  came  to  be  adopted.  Instead  of 
increasing  the  number  of  guns  to  these  larger 
ships,  the  calibre  was  increased,  and  so  were 
the  weight  and  length  of  each  gun,  in  order  to 
admit  of  the  use  of  full  charges,  and  to  secure 
the  greatest  point-blank  range,  so  as  to  allow 
the  fire  to  be  opened  at  long  distances.  The 
small  calibres  below  24  Ibs.  disappeared  from 
the  larger  vessels,  and  the  remaining  calibres 
were  simplified,  so  as  to  have  no  more  than 
two  calibres,  or  at  the  outside  three,  on  board 
of  any  one  vessel.  In  ships  of  the  line,  the 
lower  deck,  being  the  strongest,  was  armed 
with  guns  of  the  same  calibre  as  the  upper 
decks,  but  of  greater  length  and  weight,  in 
order  to  have  at  least  one  tier  of  guns  avail- 
able for  the  greatest  possible  range. — About 
1820  the  French  Gen.  Paixhans  made  an  inven- 
tion which  has  been  of  great  importance  in 
naval  armaments.  He  constructed  a  gun  of 
large  calibre  provided  with  a  chamber  at  the 
breech  for  the  insertion  of  the  powder,  and  be- 
gan to  fire  hollow  shot,  at  low  elevations,  from 
these  "  shell  guns  "  (canons  obusiers).  Hither- 


186 


NAVY 


to  hollow  shot  had  been  fired  against  ships  from 
howitzers  in  shore  batteries  only;  though  in 
Germany  the  practice  of  firing  shell  horizon- 
tally from  short  24-pdr.  and  even  12-pdr.  guns 
had  been  long  in  use  against  fortifications.  The 
destructive  effects  of  shell  against  the  wooden 
sides  of  vessels  were  well  known  to  Napoleon, 
who  at  Boulogne  armed  most  of  his  gunboats 
for  the  expedition  to  England  with  howitzers, 
and  laid  it  down  as  a  rule  that  ships  must  be 
attacked  with  projectiles  which  will  burst  after 
hitting.  Now,  Paixhans's  shell  guns  gave  the 
means  of  arming  ships  with  cannon  which,  by 
throwing  their  shells  as  nearly  as  possible  hori- 
zontally, could  be  used  at  sea,  ship  against  ship, 
with  nearly  the  same  probability  of  hitting  as 
the  old  round-shot  guns.  The  new  gun  was 
soon  introduced  into  all  navies,  and,  after  un- 
dergoing various  improvements,  for  some  time 
constituted  an  essential  portion  of  the  arma- 
ment of  all  large  men-of-war. — The  first  at- 
tempts were  made  to  apply  steam  to  the  pro- 
pulsion of  ships  of  war  shortly  after  it  had 
been  applied  by  Fulton  to  that  of  commercial 
vessels.  The  progress  from  the  river  steamer 
to  the  coasting  steamer,  and  gradually  to  the 
ocean  steamer,  was  slow  ;  in  the  same  ratio  was 
the  progress  of  war  steamers  retarded.  As  long 
as  paddle  boats  were  the  only  steamers  in  exis- 
tence, this  was  justifiable.  The  paddles  and 
part  of  the  engine  were  exposed  to  the  enemy's 
shot,  and  could  be  disabled  by  a  single  lucky 
hit ;  they  took  up  the  best  portion  of  the  broad- 
side room  of  the  vessel ;  and  the  weight  of 
engine,  paddles,  and  coal  so  much  reduced  the 
capacity  of  the  ship,  that  a  heavy  armament 
of  numerous  long  guns  was  entirely  out  of  the 
question.  A  paddle  steamer,  therefore,  could 
never  be  a  ship  of  the  line ; '  but  its  superior 
speed  might  permit  it  to  compete  with  frigates, 
which  are  expected  to  hover  on  the  flanks  of 
an  enemy,  to  collect  the  fruits  of  a  victory,  or 
to  cover  a  retreat.  Now  a  frigate  has  just  the 
size  and  armament  which  enable  it  to  go  fear- 
lessly on  any  independent  roving  errand,  while 
its  superior  sailing  qualities  enable  it  to  with- 
draw in  time  from  an  unequal  contest.  The  sail- 
ing qualities  of  any  frigate  were  far  outstripped 
by  the  steamer ;  but  without  a  good  armament 
the  steamer  could  not  fulfil  its  mission.  Regu- 
lar broadside  fighting  was  out  of  the  question ; 
the  number  of  guns  must,  for  want  of  space, 
be  always  inferior  to  that  of  a  sailing  frigate. 
The  diminished  number  of  guns  on  board  a 
steam  frigate  was  counterbalanced  by  their 
weight  of  metal  and  calibre.  Originally  these 
guns  were  intended  to  throw  shells  only,  but  now 
rifled  guns  have  nearly  superseded  smooth-bores, 
and  in  a  short  time  there  will  be  no  smooth- 
bores afloat  in  the  navies  of  the  great  powers. 
Moreover,  the  reduced  number  of  guns  admits 
of  traversing  platforms  and  railways  being  laid 
down  on  the  deck,  by  means  of  which  all  or 
most  of  the  guns  can  be  brought  to  bear  in  al- 
most any  direction ;  a  provision  by  which  the 
strength  of  a  steam  frigate  for  an  attack  is 


nearly  doubled,  and  a  20-gun  steam  frigate  can 
bring  at  least  as  many  guns  into  action  as  could 
a  40-gun  sailing  frigate  with  but  18  working 
guns  for  each  single  broadside.  Thus  the  large 
modern  steam  frigate  is  a  most  formidable 
ship ;  the  superior  calibre  and  range  of  her 
guns,  added  to  her  velocity,  enable  her  to  crip- 
ple an  opponent  at  a  distance  where  no  effec- 
tive return  of  fire  would  have  been  possible  to 
the  sailing  vessel;  while  the  weight  of  her 
metal  comes  in  with  crushing  power  when  it  is 
to  her  advantage  finally  to  force  the  fighting. 
For  smaller  vessels,  corvettes,  advice  boats, 
and  other  light  craft,  not  counting  in  a  naval 
battle,  but  very  useful  throughout  a  campaign, 
steam  was  at  once  found  of  great  advantage, 
and  there  were  many  such  paddle  boats  con- 
structed in  most  navies.  It  was  the  same 
with  transport  ships.  Where  landings  were 
intended,  steamers  not  only  reduced  the  length 
of  passage  to  a  minimum,  but  permitted  one 
to  calculate  to  a  moral  certainty  the  time  of 
arrival  at  any  given  place.  The  transport 
of  bodies  of  troops  was  now  made  a  matter 
of  great  simplicity,  especially  as  every  naval 
country  had  a  large  fleet  of  commercial  steam- 
ers to  fall  back  upon  for  transport  vessels  in 
case  of  necessity.  It  was  on  these  considera- 
tions that  the  prince  de  Joinville,  in  his  well 
known  pamphlet,  ventured  to  maintain  that 
steam  had  altered  the  condition  of  naval  war- 
fare to  such  an  extent  as  to  render  an  inva- 
sion of  England  by  France  no  longer  an  im- 
possibility. Still,  so  long  as  the  ships  used  for 
decisive  action,  the  ships  of  the  line,  remained 
exclusively  sailing  vessels,  the  introduction  of 
steam  could  work  but  little  change  in  the  con- 
ditions under  which  great  naval  battles  were 
fought.  The  invention  of  the  screw  propeller 
was  destined  to  supply  the  means  of  revolu- 
tionizing naval  warfare  entirely,  and  to  trans- 
form all  war  fleets  into  steam  fleets.  It  was 
fully  13  years  after  the  invention  of  the  screw 
before  the  first  step  in  this  direction  was  made. 
Finally  in  1849  the  French  engineer  Dupuy- 
Delome  constructed  the  first  screw  line-of-bat- 
tle  ship,  the  Napoleon,  of  100  guns  and  600 
horse  power.  This  ship  was  not  intended  to 
depend  upon  steam  only ;  unlike  the  paddles, 
the  screw  allowed  a  ship  to  retain  all  the  lines 
and  rigging  of  a  sailing  vessel,  and  to  be  moved 
at  will  by  steam  alone,  by  sails  alone,  or  by 
both  combined.  She  could  therefore  always 
save  her  coal  for  emergencies  by  having  re- 
course to  her  sails,  and  was  thus  far  less  de- 
pendent upon  the  proximity  of  coaling  stations 
than  the  old  paddle-wheel  steamer.  On  this 
account,  and  because  her  steam  power  was  too 
weak  to  give  her  the  full  speed  of  a  paddle 
steamer,  the  Napoleon  and  other  vessels  of 
this  class  were  called  auxiliary  steam  vessels ; 
since  then,  however,  ships  of  war  of  the  lar- 
gest class  have  been  constructed  which  have 
steam  power  enough  to  give  them  all  the  speed 
of  which  the  screw  propeller  is  capable.  The 
success  of  the  Napol6on  soon  caused  screw 


NAVY 


1ST 


ships  of  war  to  be  built  both  in  France  and 
England.  The  Russian  war  gave  a  new  im- 
pulse to  this  radical  change  in  naval  construc- 
tion ;  and  when  it  was  found  that  all  strong- 
built  ships  of  war  could,  without  too  much 
difficulty,  be  fitted  with  a  screw  and  engines, 
the  transformation  of 
all  navies  into  steam 
fleets  became  only  a 
matter  of  time.  No 
large  naval  power  now 
thinks  of  constructing 
sailing  vessels;  all  ships 
newly  laid  down  are 
screw  steamers,  except 
the  few  paddle  steam- 
ers which  for  certain 
purposes  are  still  re- 
quired.— The  Crimean 
war  called  into  exis- 
tence two  new  na- 
val constructions.  The 
first  of  these  is  the 
steam  gun  boat  or  mor- 
tar boat,  originally  con- 
structed by  the  Eng- 
lish for  the  contem- 
plated attack  on  Cron- 
stadt ;  it  is  a  small 
vessel  drawing  from  4 
to  7  ft.  of  water,  and 
armed  with  one  or  two 
heavy  long-range  guns 
or  a  heavy  mortar ; 
the  former  to  be  used 
in  shallow  and  intri- 
cate waters  generally,  the  latter  in  the  bom- 
bardment from  a  long  distance  of  fortified 
naval  arsenals.  The  gun  boats,  when  acting 
in  concert  with  coast  batteries,  will  strengthen 
the  defence,  and  will  also  provide  naval  war- 
fare with  those  light  skirmishers  which  were 
hitherto  wanting  to  it.  The  second  innova- 
tion is  the  iron-sided,  shot-proof  floating  bat- 
teries, first  constructed  by  the  French,  for  the 
attack  of  coast  defences.  The  navies  of  the 
world  are  at  present  in  an  experimental  state. 
For  defence  of  harbors  and  coasts  iron-clad 
ships  are  taking  the  place  of  wooden  unar- 
mored  ships,  and  indeed  the  French  and  Brit- 
ish and  some  other  European  nations  have 
sent  to  sea  iron-clad  cruisers.  Several  Ameri- 
can monitors  also  have  been  tested  at  sea,  and 
some  contend  that  they  are  suitable  for  cruis- 
ing; but  the  success  of  ironclads  has  not  been 
so  far  fully  demonstrated.  For  an  account  of 
the  history  of  such  vessels,  and  of  rifled  naval 
guns,  see  IRON-CLAD  SHIPS. — The  vessels  of 
war  of  which  modern  navies  are  composed  are 
classed  in  various  ratings,  from  first  to  sixth 
rates.  The  classification  before  the  introduction 
of  steam  and  iron-clad  ships  was  the  following : 
1.  Ships  of  the  line  were  the  largest  men-of- 
war  afloat,  destined  to  form  the  line  of  battle  in 
a  general  action,  and  to  decide  the  struggle  by 
the  weight  of  metal  thrown  into  the  enemy's 


ships.  They  were  either  three-deckers  or  two- 
deckers  ;  that  is  to  say,  they  had  either  three 
or  two  covered  decks  armed  with  guns.  These 
decks  were  called  the  lower,  middle,  and  main 
or  upper  deck.  The  upper  deck,  which  was 
formerly  covered  in  at  the  quarter  deck  and 


U.  S.  Screw  Ship  of  War  Wabash  (first  rate). 


forecastle  only,  was  afterward  covered  in  by 
a  continuous  open  deck  from  stem  to  stern. 
This  open  deck,  which  was  called  the  quar- 
ter deck  and  forecastle,  also  carried  artillery, 
mostly  carronades;  so  that  in  reality  a  two- 
decker  carried  three,  and  a  three-decker  four 
tiers  of  guns.  The  heaviest  guns  were  of 
course  placed  on  the  lower  deck;  and  the 
guns  became  lighter  in  proportion  as  the  bat- 
teries were  more  elevated  above  the  water. 
The  calibre  being  generally  the  same,  light- 
ness was  obtained  by  reducing  the  weight  of 
the  guns,  in  consequence  of  which  those  on 
the  upper  decks  could  only  stand  reduced 
charges,  which  implied  that  they  could  be  used 
only  at  shorter  ranges.  The  only  exception  to 
this  rule  was  in  the  case  of  chase  guns,  which 
were  placed  at  the  bow  and  stern  of  a  ship, 
and  which,  even  if  placed  on  the  forecastle  or 
quarter  deck,  were  still  as  long  and  heavy  as 
possible,  being  required  to  act  at  the  longest 
ranges  practicable.  Thus,  the  bow  and  stern 
guns  of  English  ships  of  the  line  were  com- 
posed either  of  8-  or  10-inch  shell  guns,  or  of 
56-pdr.  (bore  7'T  in.)  or  68-pdr.  (bore  8'13  in.) 
solid-shot  guns,  one  of  which  was  placed  on 
the  forecastle  on  a  traversing  platform.  There 
were  in  the  English  navy  generally  six  stern 
and  five  bow  guns  to  a  first  rate ;  the  remain- 
ing armament  of  such  a  ship  was  as  follows : 


188 


NAVY 


POSITION. 

DESCRIPTION. 

W'ght. 

Length. 

No. 

Cwt. 

Ft.  In. 

Lower  deck  

8-inch  shell  guns. 

65 

9     0 

4 

tb     -             U 

32-pdr.  guns  

56 

9     6 

28 

Middle  deck  

8-inch  shell  guns. 

65 

9    0 

2 

Upper  deck  
Forecastle  and  | 

32-pdr.  guns  

50 
42 
45 

9    0 
8    0 
8    6 

82 
34 
6 

quarter  deck  [ 

"         carronades 

17 

4    0 

14 

Total 

120 

The  armament  of  the  smaller  ratings  of  vessels 
of  the  line  was  arranged  upon  the  same  princi- 
ple. For  the  sake  of  comparison,  we  also  give 
that  of  a  French  first  rate,  viz. :  lower  deck, 
32  long  30-lb.  guns ;  middle  deck,  4  80-lb.  shell 
guns,  and  30  short  30-lb.  guns;  upper  deck, 
34  30-lb.  shell  guns;  forecastle  and  quarter 
deck,  4  30-lb.  shell  guns,  and  16  30-lb.  car- 
ronades ;  in  all,  120  guns.  The  French  80-lb. 
shell  gun  has  a  larger  bore  than  the  8-inch 
English  gun  by  0'8  inch;  the  30-lb.  shell  gun 
and  the  30-lb.  gun  have  a  slightly  larger  bore 
than  the  English  32-pdr.,  so  that  the  advan- 
tage of  weight  of  metal  would  lie  with  the 
French.  The  smallest  ship  of  the  line  carried 
72  guns;  the  largest  frigate  carried  61.  2.  A 
frigate  is  a  ship  with  only  one  covered  deck 
carrying  guns,  and  another  open  deck  above  it 
(forecastle  and  quarter  deck),  which  is  equally 


U.  8.  Sailing  Frigate  Constitution. 

provided  with  guns.  The  armament,  in  the 
English  service,  was  generally  of  30  guns 
(either  all  shell  guns  or  part  shell  guns  and 
part  long  32-pdrs.)  on  the  gun  deck,  and  30 
short  32-pdrs.  on  the  forecastle  and  quarter 
deck,  with  a  heavy  pivot 'gun  on  a  traversing 


platform  at  the  bow.  Frigates  being  mostly 
sent  on  detached  service,  where  they  were 
always  likely  to  become  engaged  single-hand- 
ed against  hostile  frigates  sent  on  the  same 
errand,  it  was  a  great  point  with  most  naval 
nations  to  make  them  as  large  and  powerful  as 
possible.  In  no  class  of  vessels  is  the  increase 
in  size  so  remarkable  as  in  this.  The  United 
States,  requiring  a  cheap  navy  strong  enough 
to  enforce  respect,  were  the  first  to  see  the 
great  advantage  to  be  drawn  from  a  fleet  of 
large  frigates,  each  of  them  superior  to  any 
frigate  which  other  nations  could  bring  against 
it.  The  superiority  of  the  American  ship 
builders  in  producing  swift  vessels  was  also 
taken  advantage  of,  and  the  last  war  against 
England  (1812-'15)  showed  in  many  well  con- 
tested engagements  what  formidable  antago- 
nists these  American  frigates  were.  They 
were  considered  models  of  this  class  of  vessels. 
The  names  frigate  and  corvette  or  sloop  have 
been  retained  in  the  navies  of  the  present  day. 
3.  The  next  class  of  men-of-war  was  called 
corvettes.  They  had  but  one  tier  of  guns, 
placed  on  an  open  deck ;  but  the  larger  class 
was  provided  with  a  forecastle  and  quarter  deck 
(not  connected  however  by  a  continuous  deck 
amidships),  where  they  carried  a  few  guns 
more.  Such  corvettes,  therefore,  almost  cor- 
responded to  what  a  frigate  was  100  years  ago, 
before  the  two  elevated 
extremities  of  the  ves- 
sel were  connected  by 
a  flush  deck.  These 
corvettes  were  strong 
enough  to  carry  the 
same  calibre  of  guns 
as  the  larger  ves- 
sels. They  also  carried 
three  masts,  all  square- 
rigged.  Corvettes  are 
also  called  sloops  of 
war.  4.  Of  small- 
er vessels,  brigs  and 
schooners  carried  from 
20  guns  to  6.  They 
had  but  two  masts, 
square-rigged  in  brigs, 
fore-and-aft  rigged  in 
schooners.  The  cali- 
bre of  their  guns  was 
necessarily  smaller  than 
that  of  the  larger  ships, 
and  did  not  generally 
exceed  18-  or  24-pdrs., 
going  down  as  low  a^ 
12-  and  9-pdrs.  Ves- 
sels of  this  small  powel 
of  offence  could  not 
be  sent  where  seri- 
ous resistance  was  anticipated.  In  European 
waters  they  have  been  superseded  by  small 
steamers,  and  they  could  have  been  of  actual 
service  only  on  such  coasts  as  those  of  South 
America,  China,  &c.,  where  they  had  to  meet 
powerless  antagonists,  and  where  they  mere- 


NAVY 


189 


ly  served  to  represent  the  flag  of  a  power- 
ful naval  nation. — During  the  17th  century 
the  noted  naval  commanders  distinguished 
themselves  as  soldiers  as  well  as  sailors,  and 
in  many  instances  (notably  that  of  Admiral 
Blake)  it  is  certain  that  commanders  of  fleets 
and  squadrons  had  no  naval  experience.  The 
result  was,  that  in  ships  of  war  there  were 
two  departments,  the  sailing  and  the  fighting 
departments,  the  former  in  charge  of  the  navi- 
gation of  the  ship,  and  the  latter  of  its  disci- 
pline and  fighting.  This  arrangement  did  not 
last  long,  as  it  was  soon  seen  that  a  ship  more 
than  any  other  thing  should  have  but  one 
head,  responsible  for  everything.  Therefore 
the  commander  of  a  ship  of  war  is  now  re- 
sponsible for  its  navigation  as  well  as  for  its 
discipline  and  the  state  of  its  war  material,  and 
in  fact  is  the  only  person  on  board  to  whom 
the  higher  authority  looks  for  the  proper  care 
of  the  public  property  and  the  behavior  of 
the  ship  in  action.  The  grades  of  officers  are 
nearly  the  same  in  all  navies  of  the  present 
day.  Admirals,  vice  admirals,  rear  admirals, 
and  commodores  in  general  command  fleets  and 
squadrons  and  navy  yards.  Captains  command 
large  ships,  and  commanders  smaller  ones. 
Lieutenant  commanders  and  lieutenants  are  the 
immediate  assistants  and  subordinates  of  the 
ship  commanders.  Masters  come  next  below 
lieutenants,  and  are  equivalent  to  second  lieu- 
tenants; after  them  come  ensigns.  Midshipmen 
are  aspirants  for  the  higher  grades,  and  are 
usually  educated  at  government  naval  schools 
before  they  are  sent  to  sea  in  cruisers.  The 
preceding  are  all  line  officers.  Chaplains,  pay- 
masters, surgeons,  and  engineers  are  attached 
to  all  navies,  and  have  rank  assimilated  to  the 
grades  given  above,  dependent  upon  length  of 
service.  These  are  staff  officers.  In  some 
foreign  navies  each  of  the  three  grades  of  ad- 
mirals is  subdivided  into  three  other  grades, 
making  nine  in  all,  designated  by  the  colors 
of  their  flags,  which  are  red,  white,  or  blue. 
Thus  there  may  be  an  admiral  of  the  white,  or  of 
the  red,  or  of  the  blue,  &c.  The  admiral's  ship 
is  recognized  by  his  flag,  which  is  square.  In 
the  United  States  navy  its  color  is  blue.  Cap- 
tains and  other  commanders  of  ships  fly  a  pen- 
nant. Gunners,  boatswains,  quartermasters, 
cockswains,  carpenters,  sailmakers,  machinists, 
armorers,  &c.,  are  called  warrant  or  petty  of- 
ficers according  to  the  style  of  their  appoint- 
ments, and  are  not  in  general  in  the  line  of 
promotion.  Seamen,  ordinary  seamen,  lands- 
men, and  firemen  are  the  privates,  and  do  the 
work  of  navigating  the  ship,  firing  the  engines 
and  handling  the  guns.  A  war  ship's  company 
must  have  in  it  numerous  persons  whose  duties 
are  exceedingly  various.  Thus,  there  are  secre- 
taries, clerks,  cooks  for  the  officers,  cooks  for 
the  men,  nurses,  coopers,  tailors,  bakers, 
stewards,  musicians,  painters,  &c.,  besides  the 
assistants  to  these  functionaries,  and  servants. 
A  guard  of  marines  is  attached  to  every  ship 
of  war,  the  members  of  which  are  armed  as 


infantry  and  do  sentinel's  duty.  Their  officers 
have  the  same  grades  as  those  of  the  army,  and 
are  assimilated  in  rank  to  those  of  the  line  of 
the  navy.  Their  grades,  however,  are  not  de- 
pendent upon  length  of  service. — The  origin 
of  the  navy  of  the  United  States  may  be  said 
to  date  from  Oct.  13,  1775,  when  congress  au- 
thorized the  equipment  of  two  cruisers  mount- 
ing respectively  10  and  14  guns.  Before  the 
end  of  that  year,  15  more  vessels,  of  from  20  to 
36  guns,  were  authorized.  These  vessels  were 
built  in  the  colonies  of  New  England,  and  in 
New  York,  Pennsylvania,  and  Maryland.  On 
Dec.  22,  1775,  congress  appointed  a  corps  of 
naval  officers,  of  whom  Esek  Hopkins  was 
commander-in-chief,  and  John  Paul  Jones  was 
a  lieutenant.  The  affairs  of  the  navy  were  at 
this  time  intrusted  to  the  management  of  a 
"marine  committee."  In  October,  1776,  the 
navy  consisted  of  26  vessels,  mounting  536 
guns,  and  its  services  throughout  the  revolu- 
tionary war  were  most  important.  In  1778 
several  vessels  of  considerable  force  were  built 
or  purchased  for  the  navy;  among  these  was 
the  celebrated  Alliance,  a  frigate  of  32  guns. 
The  first  vessel  of  war  taken  by  an  American 
cruiser  in  battle  was  the  Edward,  which  was 
captured  by  the  Lexington,  Capt.  John  Barry, 
on  April  17,  1777.  On  March  27,  1794,  con- 
gress authorized  the  construction  of  six  frig- 
ates, and  it  was  fortunately  decided  that  three 
of  them  should  be  of  a  very  heavy  class  ;  the 
Constitution  was  one  of  these  ships.  This  step 
laid  the  foundation  of  the  present  navy,  the 
vessels  of  the  revolution  having  been  disposed 
of  at  the  end  of  that  contest,  in  1783.  Large 
whaleboats  were  fitted  out  by  both  sides  during 
the  war  of  the  revolution,  which  were  effective 
gunboats.  They  were  about  40  ft.  long,  pro- 
pelled by  oars  and  sails,  and  carried  two  guns 
and  a  supply  of  small  arms.  Their  crew  num- 
bered between  40  and  50  men.  They  went 
far  out  to  sea,  and  severe  fights  took  place  be- 
tween the  boats  of  the  rebels  and  loyalists. 
In  1798  the  navy  department  was  formally 
created,  and  Benjamin  Stoddart  appointed  the 
first  secretary.  At  this  time,  urged  by  the 
depredations  of  France  upon  our  commerce, 
and  warned  by  the  conduct  of  the  Barbary 
powers,  congress  authorized  a  considerable  in- 
crease of  the  navy,  which  the  president  was 
empowered  to  use  for  defence  against  the 
French.  In  the  quasi  war  with  France  which 
resulted,  our  naval  successes  were  marked.. 
Upon  the  accession  to  office  of  Mr.  Jefferson 
in  1801,  the  navy  was  reduced.  In  the  same 
year  war  was  declared  by  Tripoli  against  the 
United  States,  and  continued  till  1805.  The 
naval  achievements  of  these  four  years  gave  a 
high  character  to  the  American  service.  In  1803 
the  "gunboat  system"  was  inaugurated.  In 
1806  and  1807  the  number  of  gunboats  was 
rapidly  increased,  congress  having  authorized 
the  construction  of  257  of  these  vessels ;  but 
they  were  afterward  found  to  be  expensive  and 
inefficient,  and  the  system  was  soon  abandoned. 


190 


NAVY 


During  the  war  of  1812  the  navy  obtained  a 
vast  increase  of  reputation.  The  superior  force 
of  the  frigates  of  1794  was  evinced  in  their  al- 
most uniform  success  in  action  with  an  enemy 
hitherto  deemed  invincible  on  the  ocean.  The 
policy  of  maintaining  an  efficient  navy  was  now 
considered  settled;  and  although,  compared 
with  the  navies  of  other  nations,  that  of  the 
United  States  is  very  small,  the  aim  has  always 
been  to  keep  pace  with  the  improvements  of 
the  day,  and  to  have  none  but  the  most  effi- 
cient ships  of  their  class  in  the  service.  The 
navy  of  the  United  States  still  possesses  wooden 
sailing  vessels,  but  it  is  not  probable  that  any 
of  them  will  ever  go  to  sea  again  as  cruisers, 
or  in  any  other  capacity,  except  as  practice 
ships  or  on  some  peaceful  service.  The  sailing 
navy  may  be  considered  as  out  of  existence. 
In  the  navy  of  the  United  States  the  wooden 
war  steamers  were  on  Jan.  1, 1874,  as  follows  : 


RANK. 

Num- 
ber. 

AVERAGE. 

Guns. 

Tonnage. 

First  rates... 
Second  rates. 
Third  rates 

5 
31 
24 
5* 

45 

20 
8 
4 

3,000 
2,200 
800 
400 

1 

The  wooden  sailing  vessels  at  the  same  date 
werfe  as  follows  : 

RANK. 

Num- 
ber. 

AVEBAGE. 

Guns. 

Tonnage. 

Second  rates. 
Third  rates.. 
Fourth  rates. 

5 
10 

8 
4 

15 

20 
10 
2 

2,600 
1,500 
800 
600 

j  First  class  ... 

|  Second  class  

There  were  also  48  iron-clad  vessels  and  26 
tugs  and  other  small  vessels.  Admiral  Porter 
in  his  annual  report,  Nov.  6,  1874,  says  that 
though  the  ironclads  fulfilled  in  the  late  civil 
war  the  specific  purpose  for  which  they  were 
built,  none  of  them  can  now  compete  with 
recently  constructed  foreign  monitors;  20  of 
them  have  been  condemned,  and  only  17  are 
serviceable.  Of  the  wooden  ships  only  31  can 
properly  be  called  vessels  of  war,  and  a  thor- 
ough rebuilding  of  ttte  navy  is  recommended, 
especially  of  monitors  for  coast  defence.  The 
personnel  of  the  navy,  and  its  annual  pay  when 
at  sea,  were  on  Jan.  1,  1874,  as  follows :  1  ad- 
miral, $13,000  ;  1  vice  admiral,  $9,000  ;  11  rear 
admirals,  $6,000 ;  25  commodores,  $5,000 ;  50 
captains,  $4,500  ;  90  commanders,  $3,500  ;  132 
lieutenant  commanders,  $2,800  to  $3,000  ;  236 
lieutenants,  $2,400  to  $2,600;  100  masters, 
$1,800  to  $2,000 ;  35  ensigns,  $1,200  to  $1,400 ; 
103  midshipmen,  $1,000;  and  235  cadet  mid- 
shipmen at  the  naval  school;  $500.  There 
were  150  medical  officers  of  the  various  grades, 
131  paymasters,  211  engineers,  42  cadet  engi- 
neers, 22  chaplains,  12  professors  of  mathe- 
matics, 17  naval  constructors  and  assistants, 
and  7  civil  engineers.  The  warrant  officers 

*  Three  iron  vessels. 


NAYLOR 

were  58  boatswains,  64  gunners,  46  carpenters, 
40  sailmakers,  and  58  masters'  mates.  On  the 
retired  list  there  were  280  commissioned  and 
warrant  officers.  In  the  marine  corps  there 
were  92  officers  of  all  grades  from  brigadier 
general  to  second  lieutenant  on  the  active  list, 
and  10  commissioned  officers  on  the  retired 
list.  The  navy  is  governed  under  the  president 
by  the  secretary  of  the  navy.  In  his  depart- 
ment are  eight  bureaus  which  have  charge  of  all 
the  details  of  administration  of  the  service. 
Each  of  these  has  for  its  head  an  officer  of  the 
navy  of  high  rank,  who  serves  for  four  years. 

JffAXOS,  or  Naxia,  an  island  of  Greece,  and 
the  largest  of  the  Cyclades,  in  the  Archipelago, 
5  m.  E.  of  Paros  ;  length  about  20  m.,  greatest 
breadth  14  m. ;  area,  about  150  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in 
1870,  11,508;  of  the  eparchy  of  Naxos,  which 
includes  Paros  and  several  smaller  islands, 
20,582,  all  members  of  the  Greek  church,  ex- 
cept about  400  Roman  Catholics.  The  surface 
is  diversified  and  picturesque ;  the  plains  and 
valleys  are  remarkable  for  their  fertility.  In 
the  centre  of  the  island  is  the  mountain  an- 
ciently called  Drius,  now  Zia  or  Dia,  3,300  ft. 
high,  from  which  22  islands  and  the  Asiatic 
continent  are  visible.  The  vine,  olives,  oranges, 
iron,  marble,  &c.,  are  produced,  and  cjieese, 
honey,  and  wax  are  among  the  principal  ex- 
ports. '  The  wine  of  Naxos,  called  Bacchus 
wine,  was  celebrated.  Naxos  formerly  fur- 
nished the  bulk  of  the  emery  used  in  trade,  the 
annual  production  amounting  to  2,000  tons. 
The  island  contains  about  40  villages.  Naxos, 
the  capital,  is  on  the  W.  coast;  pop.  about 
5,000.  The  streets  are  narrow,  and  the  for- 
mer ducal  palace  is  in  ruins,  but  the  white 
houses  present  a  cheerful  appearance.  It  is 
the  seat  of  a  Greek  bishop  and  a  Roman 
Catholic  archbishop,  and  has  ten  Greek  and 
four  Roman  Catholic  churches,  a  Lazarist,  a 
Capuchin,  and  an  Ursuline  convent,  and  a  cus- 
tom house. — This  island  in  antiquity  was  some- 
times called  Strongyle  from  its  circular  form, 
sometimes  Dionysias  from  the  prevalence  there 
of  the  worship  of  Dionysus  (Bacchus),  and  fre- 
quently Dia  in  honor  of  Zeus.  It  was  inhab- 
ited in  early  times  chiefly  by  lonians  from  At- 
tica. It  was  conquered  by  Pisistratus,  and  in 
490  B.  C.  by  the  Persians.  After  the  battle 
of  Salamis  it  regained  its  independence,  but 
nine  years  later  became  a  dependency  of  Athens, 
and  after  many  vicissitudes  of  the  Roman  and 
then  the  Byzantine  empire.  In  A.  D.  1207  it 
became  the  seat  of  a  duchy,  comprising  several 
other  islands,  established  by  the  Venetian  Marco 
Sanudo.  In  1566  the  island  was  taken  by  the 
Turks,  and  under  Selim  II.  was  ruled  by  a  Jew, 
Joseph  Nasi  (the  Prince). 

NAYLOR,  James,  an  English  religious  enthu- 
siast, born  at  Ardsley,  Yorkshire,  about  1616, 
died  in  Huntingdonshire  in  1660.  In  1642 
he  took  up  arms  for  the  parliament.  After 
the  overthrow  of  the  royalist  party  he  became 
a  follower  of  George  Fox  and  an  itinerant 
preacher.  He  fancied  that  he  was  inspired, 


NAZAREANS 


NEAL 


191 


that  he  was  set  as  a  sign  of  Christ's  coming, 
and  that  the  spirit  of  the  Saviour  dwelt  in  him. 
For  these  opinions  the  parliament  in  1656  con- 
demned him  to  stand  with  his  head  in  the  pil- 
lory for  two  hours,  be  whipped  at  the  cart's 
tail  from  Palace  yard  to  the  old  exchange,  have 
his  tongue  bored  with  a  red-hot  iron,  and  his 
forehead  branded  with  the  letter  B,  as  the 
stigma  of  a  blasphemer ;  and  he  was  afterward 
imprisoned  for  nearly  three  years.  After  his 
liberation  he  hastened  homeward,  but  died  on 
the  way.  Naylor's  theological  essays,  epistles, 
<fec.,  were  published  in  1716,  and  "  Memoirs 
of  the  Life,  Ministry,  Trial,  and  Sufferings  of 
James  Naylor"  appeared  in  1719. 

NAZAREANS.     See  CHRISTIANS  OF  ST.  JOHN. 

IN  A/AUKVE,  a  term  of  contempt  applied  to 
Christ  and  his  first  disciples,  from  Nazareth, 
the  place  of  his  residence,  a  poor  town  in  the 
despised  region  of  Galilee.  There  was  a  sect 


of  heretics  called  Nazarenes  in  the  2d  century, 
who  insisted  on  the  necessity  of  combining  the 
Mosaical  ceremonies  with  the  religion  of  Christ. 
In  Hungary,  in  1857,  arose  a  new  sect  which 
in  the  ten  succeeding  years  made  so  many  con- 
verts as  to  attract  the  attention  of  the  govern- 
ment. Calling  themselves  Nazarenes,  without 
disputing  the  divine  origin  of  the  Old  Testa- 
ment, they  claim  to  derive  their  creed  exclu- 
sively from  the  New  Testament.  They  have 
no  ordained  clergy,  and  any  man  may  explain 
the  Scriptures.  They  practise  baptism  by  im- 
mersion and  for  adults  only.  The  funerals  are 
simple,  and  the  dead  are  not  mourned  for. 
Marriage  is  regarded  as  a  purely  civil  institu- 
tion, and  Sunday  is  not  considered  sacred. 

NAZARETH  (now  En-Nazireh),  a  town  of 
Palestine,  20  m.  S.  E.  of  Acre,  and  65  m.  N. 
of  Jerusalem ;  pop.  about  4,000,  about  one 
fourth  of  whom  are  of  the  Greek  church,  the 


Nazareth. 


rest  being  Moslems,  Greek  Catholics,  Latins, 
and  Maronites.  It  is  beautifully  situated  in  a 
valley  surrounded  on  all  sides  by  hills.  The 
houses  are  mostly  of  stone,  well  built,  and 
flat-roofed.  The  population  has  a  more  pros- 
perous appearance  than  in  any  other  part  of 
the  country,  and  the  women  of  Nazareth  are 
famous  for  their  beauty.  At  the  periodical 
feasts  there  is  an  immense  influx  of  pilgrims. 
The  principal  edifices  are  the  Latin  convent, 
the  finest  in  Palestine,  the  Latin  church  of  the 
Annunciation,  the  Casa  Nuova,  or  Christian 
caravansary,  a  Mohammedan  mosque,  and  a 
khan.  It  is  celebrated  as  the  residence  of 
Christ  during  the  first  30  years  of  his  life. 

NAZARETH,  a  village  of   Northampton   co., 
Pa.,  60  m.  N.  by  W.  of  Philadelphia  and  9  m. 
N.  W.  of  Easton ;  pop.  in  1870,  949.     It  was 
590  VOL.  xii.— 13 


founded  by  George  Whitefield  in  1740,  who, 
before  completing  an  edifice  in  course  of  erec- 
tion intended  as  a  school  for  the  instruction  of 
African  children,  sold  it  to  Count  Zinzendorf, 
who  finished  it  for  the  use  of  the  Moravians. 
The  village  contains  two  large  churches  and  a 
Moravian  academy  for  boys. 

NAZARITE  (Heb.  nazir\  under  the  Levitical 
law,  a  person  who  for  a  certain  period  was 
bound  by  a  vow  to  keep  his  hair  unshorn,  and 
to  abstain  from  wine  and  every  other  kind  of 
strong  drink  and  from  contact  with  the  dead. 
Samson  was  a  Nazarite. 

NEAL,  Daniel,  an  English  historian,  born  in 
London,  Dec.  14,  1678,  died  in  Bath,  April  4, 
1743.  He  spent  three  years  at  the  universities 
of  Utrecht  and  Leyden,  and  became  assistant 
pastor  of  an  Independent  congregation  in  Lon- 


192 


NEAL 


don.  Besides  several  published  sermons,  his 
principal  works  are  "  History  of  New  England  " 
(2  vols.,  London,  1720),  and  u  History  of  the 
Puritans"  (4  vols.,  1732-'8 ;  edited  by  Toul- 
min,  6  vols.,  1793,  and  3  vols.,  1837). 

NEAL,  Alice  Bradley.     See  HAVEN. 

NEAL,  John,  an  American  author,  born  in 
Falmouth  (now  Portland),  Me.,  Aug.  25,  1793. 
His  parents  were  members  of  the  society  of 
Friends,  with  which  he  also  was  connected 
until  the  age  of  25,  when,  principally  for  his 
inability  to  "live  peaceably  with  all  men,"  he 
received  his  formal  dismissal.  About  the  age 
.of  12  he  was  employed  in  Portland  as  a  shop 
boy ;  a  few  years  later  he  taught  drawing  and 
penmanship  in  the  principal  towns  of  Maine; 
in  1814-15  he  was  a  dry-goods  retailer  and 
jobber  in  Boston  and  New  York,  and  afterward 
established  himself  in  Baltimore  as  a  whole- 
sale dealer  in  partnership  with  John  Pierpont. 
In  1816  they  failed,  and  Neal  began  the  study 
of  the  law.  He  read  through  a  legal  course 
intended  to  embrace  a  period  of  several  years 
in  a  twelvemonth,  besides  attending  lectures 
and  studying  several  languages.  In  1816  he 
produced  a  review  of  the  works  of  Byron, 
written  it  is  said  in  four  days,  which  appeared 
from  month  to  month  until  completed  in  the 
"Portico,"  a  Baltimore  magazine.  In  1817  he 
published  his  first  novel,  "  Keep  Cool "  (2  vols., 
Baltimore),  originally  called  "  Judge  Not,"  fol- 
lowed the  next  year  by  "  The  Battle  of  Niag- 
ara, Goldau,  and  other  Poems."  In  1819  ap- 
peared "  Otho,  or  the  Bastard,"  a  five-act  trage- 
dy; and  about  the  same  time  he  assisted  Dr. 
Watkins  in  writing  the  "  History  of  the  Ameri- 
can Revolution  by  Paul  Allen."  Admitted  to 
the  Maryland  bar  in  1819,  he  entered  upon 
practice,  but  continued  his  literary  labors. 
Besides  preparing  an  index  for  "  Niles's  Re- 
gister," then  amounting  to  upward  of  50  vol- 
umes, he  published  in  1823  the  novels  "Sev- 
enty-Six, a  Romance  of  the  Revolution," 
"  Logan,"  "  Randolph,"  and  "  Errata."  They 
were  severally  written,  according  to  his  own 
account,  in  periods  of  from  27  to  39  days. 
He  went  to  England  in  January,  1824,  and 
wrote  articles  for  various  periodicals,  inclu- 
ding "  Sketches  of  the  five  American  Presidents 
and  the  five  Candidates  for  the  Presidency  " 
for  "Blackwood's  Magazine."  His  literary 
efforts  attracted  the  notice  of  Jeremy  Ben- 
tham,  who  invited  him  to  take  up  his  residence 
in  his  house,  of  which  he  remained  an  inmate 
during  a  considerable  portion  of  his  stay  in 
England.  In  1827  he  returned  to  America,  and 
settled  in  Portland,  where  he  employed  him- 
self in  practising  law,  writing,  and  lecturing ; 
"  and  that  no  superfluous  energy  might  run  to 
waste,  established  gymnasiums  and  gave  lessons 
to  large  classes  in  sparring  and  fencing."  This 
life  he  continued  till  1850,  when  he  gave  up 
his  profession.  He  also  published  "Brother 
Jonathan"  (3  vols.,  London  and  Edinburgh, 
1825);  "Rachel  Dyer"  (Portland,  1828); 
"  Bentham's  Morals  and  Legislation"  (Boston, 


NEANDER 

1830);  "Authorship,  a  Tale"  (1833);  "The 
Down  Easters"  (2  vols.,  New  York,  1833); 
"One  Word  More"  (1854),  essays  of  a  reli- 
gious character  ;  "  True  Womanhood,  a  Tale" 
(Boston,  1859);  "Wandering  Recollections  of 
a  Somewhat  Busy  Life"  (1869);  and  "  Port- 
land Illustrated  "  (1874). 

NEAL,  Joseph  Clay,  an  American  humorist,  born 
in  Greenland,  N.  H.,  Feb.  3,  1807,  died  in  Phil- 
adelphia, July  3,  1848.  He  resided  several 
years  in  Pottsville,  Pa.,  but  in  1831  became  the 
editor  of  the  "  Pennsylvanian,"  a  newspaper 
of  Philadelphia.  He  went  abroad  in  1841,  re- 
turned in  1842,  and  in  1844  established  "Neal's 
Saturday  Gazette,"  a  weekly  literary  journal. 
In  1837  he  published  "  Charcoal  Sketches,  or 
Scenes  in  a  Metropolis;"  in  1844  "Peter  Plod- 
dy  and  other  Oddities;"  and  subsequently  a 
new  series  of  "Charcoal  Sketches."  In  1846 
he  married  Emily  Bradley,  who  afterward  ac- 
quired distinction  as  an  author  under  the 
pseudonyme  of  "  Cousin  Alice."  (See  HAVEN, 
ALICE  BRADLEY.) 

NEALE,  John  Mason,  an  English  clergyman, 
born  in  London,  Jan.  24,  1818,  died  at  East 
Grinstead,  Sussex,  Aug.  6, 1866.  He  graduated 
in  1840  at  Trinity  college,  Cambridge,  where 
he  had  taken  the  members'  prize  in  1838,  and 
where  he  obtained  the  Seatonian  prize  for  a 
sacred  poem  nine  times  between  1845  and  1861. 
He  took  orders  in  1842,  and  became  incumbent 
of  Crawley  in  Sussex.  In  May,  1846,  he  was 
appointed  warden  of  Sackville  college,  East 
Grinstead.  He  was  allied  to  the  high  church 
party,  and  in  1855  founded  the  sisterhood  of 
St.  Margaret.  He  was  the  author  of  about  TO 
books,  of  which  the  most  important  are  the 
following:  "History  of  the  Holy  Eastern 
Church,  the  Patriarchate  of  Alexandria"  (2 
vols.,  1850-'51)  ;  Sequential  ex  Missalibus  Ger- 
manicis  (1852);  "Medieval  Preachers  and 
Mediseval  Preaching"  (1857) ;  "  History  of  the 
so-called  Jansenist  Church  of  Holland  "  (1858) ; 
"  Commentary  on  the  Psalms"  (1860) ;  Hymni 
Ecclesice  (new  ed.,  1865) ;  "  Essays  on  Litur- 
giology  and  Church  History"  (1863);  "The 
Liturgies,  in  Greek,  of  St.  Mark,  St.  James, 
St.  Clement,  St.  Chrysostom,  and  St.  Basil" 
(1868)  ;  "  Hymns  of  the  Eastern  Church,"  with 
notes  and  introduction  (1871). 

NEANDER,  Johann  August  Wilhelm,  a  German 
church  historian,  born  in  Gottingen,  Jan.  17, 
1789,  died  in  Berlin,  July  14,  1850.  His  origi- 
nal name  was  David  Mendel.  His  father  was 
a  Jewish  peddler ;  his  mother  was  an  intelli- 
gent and  pious  Jewess,  and  soon  after  the  birth 
of  David,  her  youngest  child,  removed  with 
him  to  Hamburg.  He  was  reared  in  poverty, 
but  by  the  assistance  of  friends  was  enabled 
to  satisfy  his  desire  for  a  liberal  education  in 
the  Johanneum  of  Hamburg.  He  soon  attract- 
ed the  notice  of  his  teachers  by  his  talent  and 
industry,  as  well  as  by  the  oddity  of  his  ap- 
pearance and  the  awkwardness  of  his  man- 
ner. He  looked  like  a  simpleton,  and  was  the 
source  of  much  amusement  to  his  fellow  stu- 


NEAPOLIS 


NEBRASKA 


193 


dents;  but  he  took  no  notice  of  it,  and  lived 
in  a  world  of  abstraction.  He  associated  espe- 
cially with  Varnhagen  von  Ense,  Ohamisso  the 
poet,  Wilhelm  Neumann,  Noodt,  and  Sieveking, 
and  formed  with  them  a  literary  association 
under  the  name  of  the  "Polar  Star."  Schlei- 
ermacher's  "Discourses  on  Keligion"  made 
a  powerful  impression  on  Neander;  and  in 
1806  he  publicly  renounced  Judaism  and  was 
baptized,  adopting  the  name  of  Johann  August 
Wilhelm  Neander,  from  his  teacher  Johann 
Gurlitt  and  his  friends  August  Varnhagen  and 
Wilhelm  Neumann  (in  Greek  vio$  avfip,  new 
man).  He  studied  theology  at  Halle  and  Got- 
tingen,  and  returned  to  Hamburg  to  enter  the 
ministry.  In.  1811  he  began  to  deliver  theo- 
logical lectures  in  Heidelberg,  and  in  1812  was 
called  to  the  newly  founded  university  of  Ber- 
lin as  professor  of  church  history.  He  soon 
became  one  of  the  theological  celebrities  of 
the  metropolis,  and  continued  to  labor  there  as 
teacher  and  writer  with  very  little  interruption 
till  his  death.  His  last  words,  addressed  to  his 
sister,  who  attended  to  his  wants  (for  he  never 
married),  were :  "  I  am  weary,  let  us  go  home !  " 
In  his  outward  appearance  he  was  of  middle 
size  and  slender  frame.  He  had  strongly  marked 
Jewish  features,  bushy  eyebrows,  and  weak 
sight,  being  at  last  blind.  He  dressed  care- 
lessly, with  jack-boots  and  a  shabby  hat.  In 
the  lecture  room  his  eccentricities  were  promi- 
nent, but  his  earnestness  and  enthusiasm  com- 
manded attention.  He  lectured  on  nearly  all 
branches  of  exegetical  and  systematic  theology, 
but  especially  on  history.  As  an  author  he 
won  the  honorable  title  of  "  father  of  church 
history."  His  reputation  mainly  rests  on  the 
"  General  History  of  the  Christian  Religion  and 
Church,"  from  the  close  of  the  apostolic  age 
to  the  council  of  Basel  in  1431  (6  vols.  in  11 
parts,  1825-'52;  3d  ed.,  1851-'6 ;  translated 
into  English,  in  part  by  Rose,  and  in  full  by 
Prof.  Torrey,  and  several  times  reprinted  in 
Boston,  Edinburgh,  and  London).  He  also 
wrote  on  Julian  the  Apostate  (1812),  St.  Ber- 
nard (1813),  Gnosticism  (1818),  St.  Chrysos- 
tom  (2  vols.,  1821-'2),  and  Tertullian  (1825) ; 
a  "History  of  the  Apostolic  Age"  (2  vols., 
1832-'3);  a  "Life  of  Jesus  Christ,"  in  refu- 
tation of  Strauss  (1837)  ;  and  on  "  Christian 
Life"  (3  vols.,  1840).  To  these  must  be  add- 
ed a  few  popular  practical  commentaries  on 
the  Epistle  to  the  Philippians,  on  the  Epis- 
tle of  St.  James,  and  the  first  Epistle  of  St. 
John  (translated  by  Mrs.  H.  0.  Conant).  His 
minor  essays  were  collected  by  Jacobi  (Berlin, 
1851).  After  his  death  were  published  his 
lectures  on  the  "History  of  Christian  Doc- 
trine" (1857),  and  on  the  "Epistles  to  the  Co- 
rinthians "  (1859).  A  complete  collection  of  his 
works  has  appeared  (13  vols.,  Gotha,  1862-'6). 
His  library  was  purchased  for  the  theological 
seminary  of  Rochester,  N.  Y. 

NEAPOLIS.  I.  An  ancient  town  of  Campa- 
nia. See  NAPLES.  II.  An  ancient  town  of  Pal- 
estine. See  NABLUS,  and  SHECHEM. 


NEARCHUS,  a  Greek  admiral  of  the  4th  cen- 
tury B.  C.  He  was  a  native  of  Crete,  was 
prominent  at  the  court  of  Macedon  during  the 
reign  of  Philip,  and  having  participated  in  the 
intrigues  of  Alexander  against  his  father,  he 
was  banished.  On  the  death  of  Philip  he  was 
recalled,  and  after  the  conquest  of  the  maritime 
provinces  of  Asia  was  made  governor  of  Lycia 
and  other  regions  S.  of  the  Taurus.  In  329 
he  joined  Alexander  in  Bactria  with  a  reen- 
forcement  of  Greek  mercenaries.  During  the 
Indian  expedition  he  was  intrusted  with  the 
command  of  the  fleet,  and  when  the  armament 
arrived  down  the  Indus  at  the  ocean,  he  offered 
to  conduct  the  ships  to  the  shores  of  Persia. 
He  began  his  voyage  Sept.  21,  325,  and  after 
encountering  numberless  dangers  reached  the 
mouth  of  the  Anamis,  a  river  of  Caramania, 
emptying  at  the  entrance  to  the  Persian  gulf, 
Dec.  9,  five  days'  journey  from  which  place 
Alexander  was  then  encamped.  Sailing  along 
the  N.  shore  of  the  Persian  gulf  to  the  Pasi- 
tigris,  Nearchus  ascended  that  stream  and  ar- 
rived at  Susa  in  February,  324.  Alexander 
had  already  arrived  there,  and  bestowed  upon 
the  admiral,  besides  other  marks  of  favor,  a 
crown  of  gold  and  the  daughter  of  the  Rho- 
dian  Mentor  in  marriage.  After  the  death  of 
Alexander,  Nearchus  was  restored  to  the  gov- 
ernment of  his  former  provinces,  which  he  held 
as  the  dependant  of  Antigonus.  The  latest 
mention  of  him  in  history  is  in  314,  when  An- 
tigonus appointed  him  to  attend  his  son  Deme- 
trius Poliorcetes  as  a  counsellor  on  his  first 
taking  command  of  an  army.  Nearchus  is 
said  to  have  written  an  account  of  his  voyage 
(IlapaTTylovf),  the  substance  of  which  has  been 
probably  preserved  in  the  Indica  of  Arrian. 

NEATH  (popularly  called  Castle  Nedd),  a 
town  of  Glamorganshire,  S.  Wales,  on  the  riv- 
er Neath,  30  m.  N.  W.  of  Cardiff;  pop.  in  1871, 
9,134.  It  occupies  the  site  of  a  Roman  station 
(Nidum),  and  contains  relics  of  an  old  castle 
and  abbey.  The  town  has  been  much  im- 
proved within  a  few  years.  The  port  is  acces- 
sory to  that  of  Swansea,  accommodating  ves- 
sels of  300  tons,  but  the  principal  trade  is 
carried  on  in  barges  to  Briton  Ferry,  2  m. 
below  the  town.  Large  iron,  copper,  and  tin 
works  are  in  the  vicinity,  and  besides  these 
metals  coal  and  other  articles  are  exported. 

NEBRASKA,  a  western  state  of  the  American 
Union,  the  24th  admitted  under  the  constitu- 
tion, lying  between  lat.  40°  and  43°  N.,  and 
Ion.  95°  25'  and  104°  W.  from  Greenwich.  It 
is  bounded  N.  by  Dakota,  E.  by  Iowa  and 
Missouri,  from  which  it  is  separated  by  the 
Missouri  river,  S.  by  Kansas  and  Colorado,  and 
W.  by  Colorado  and  Wyoming;  area,  75,995 
sq.  m.  The  width  from  N.  to  S.  is  about  210 
m.,  and  the  length  in  the  central  part  about 
420  m.  The  state  is  divided  into  64  counties 
(the  N.  W.  portion  being  unorganized),  viz. : 
Adams,  Antelope,  Boone,  Buffalo,  Burt,  But- 
ler, Cass,  Cedar,  Chase,  Cheyenne,  Clay,  Col- 
fax,  Cuming,  Dakota,  Dawson,  Dixon,  Dodge, 


194 


NEBRASKA 


Douglas,  Dundy,  Fillmore,  Franklin,  Frontier, 
Furnas,  Gage,  Garber,  Gosper,  Greeley,  Hall, 
Hamilton,  Harlan,  Hitchcock,  Holt,  Howard, 
Jefferson,  Johnson,  Kearney,  Keith,  Knox,  Lan- 
caster, Lincoln,  Madison,  Merrick,  Nemaha, 
Nuckolls,  Otoe,  Pawnee,  Pierce,  Phelps,  Platte, 
Polk  Red  Willow,  Richardson,  Saline,  Sarpy, 
Saunders,  Seward,  Sherman,  Stanton,  Thayer, 
Valley,  Washington,  Wayne,  Webster,  York. 
The  capital  is  Lincoln,  in  the  S.  E.  part  of  the 
state,  which  in  1870  had  2,441  inhabitants, 
and  in  1874  about  6,500.  Omaha,  on  the  E. 
border,  is  the  chief  city,  having  20,000  inhabi- 
tants in  1874;  next  in  importance  is  Nebras- 
ka City,  containing  6,050  inhabitants  in  1870. 
The  total  population  of  Nebraska  (exclusive  of 
Indians  not  taxed)  in  1860  was  28,841,  and  in 
1870,  122,993,  including  122,117  white,  789 
colored,  and  87  Indians;  70,425  males  and 
52,568  females;  92,245  of  native  and  30,748 
of  foreign  birth.  Of  those  of  native  birth, 
18,530  were  born  in  the  state,  9,655  in  Illinois, 


State  Seal  of  Nebraska. 

6,040  in  Indiana,  7,611  in  Iowa,  4,634  in  Mis- 
souri, 9,246,  in  New  York,  10,729  in  Ohio,  and 
6,991  in  Pennsylvania.  Of  the  foreigners, 
10,954  were  natives  of  Germany,  2,635  of  Brit- 
ish America,  3,603  of  England,  4,999  of  Ire- 
land, and  2,352  of  Sweden.  The  density  of 
population  was  1-62  to  a  square  mile.  In  1874 
the  total  population  was  returne.d  at  223,657, 
the  large  increase  since  1870  being  mainly  due 
to  the  construction  of  railroads.  In -1870  the 
number  of  male  citizens  21  years  old  and  up 
ward  was  36,169.  There  were  in  the  state 
34,524  persons  between  the  ages  of  5  and  18 
years ;  the  total  number  attending  school  was 
17,956;  2,365  persons  10  years  of  age  and  over 
were  unable  to  read,  and  4,681  could  not  write. 
The  number  of  illiterates  21  years  old  and  over 
was  2,125,  of  whom  1,169  were  females.  There 
were  22  blind,  55  deaf  and  dumb,  28  insane, 
and  25  idiotic.  Of  the  total  population  1 0  years 
old  and  over  (88,265),  there  were  engaged  in  all 
occupations  43,837;  in  agriculture,  23,115,  of 
whom  5,899  were  laborers  and  17,037  farmers 


and  planters ;  in  professional  and  personal  ser- 
vices, 10,331,  including  183  clergymen,  4,940 
laborers  not  specified,  204  lawyers,  247  physi- 
cians and  surgeons,  and  316  teachers  not  speci- 
fied ;  in  trade  and  transportation,  4,628 ;  and 
in  manufactures  and  mechanical  and  mining 
industries,  5,763.  The  total  number  of  deaths 
in  1870  was  1,000,  being  0'81  per  cent,  of  the 
population.  The  number  of  deaths  from  con- 
sumption was  87,  being  one  to  11 '5  deaths 
from  all  causes ;  from  pneumonia  88,  being  one 
to  11 '4  from  all  causes ;  from  whooping  cough 
37,  from  measles  41,  from  scarlet  fever  90,  and 
from  enteric  fever  52.  In  1873  there  were 
6,579  Indians  in  Nebraska,  on  reservations  com- 
prising 892,800  acres.  In  the  N.  W.  part  of  the 
state  were  917  Santee  Sioux,  occupying  83,200 
acres ;  in  the  central,  2,000  Pawnees  on  288,000 
acres;  in  the  N.  E.,  1,522  Winnebagoes  on  128,- 
000  acres,  and  1,001  Omahas  on  345,600  acres; 
in  the  S.  E.,  221  lowas  and  95  Sacs  and  Foxes 
of  Missouri,  on  32,000  acres;  and  in  the  S.,  447 
Otoes  and  Missouris,  on  a  reservation  of  16,000 
acres.  Schools  are  maintained  among  these 
tribes,  and  other  efforts  are  made  by  the  gen- 
eral government  to  civilize  them. — The  general 
surface  of  Nebraska  approximates  to  a  vast 
plain,  rising  gradually  from  the  Missouri  to- 
ward the  mountains.  The  bottoms  are  level ; 
the  prairies,  of  which  the  surface  mostly  con- 
sists, are  either  gently  undulating  or  broken 
into  low  hills  and  ridges.  There  are  few  hills 
of  magnitude,  and  no  mountains  except  at  the 
west  and  northwest,  where  the  land  rises  into 
the  Black  Hills  and  Rocky  mountains.  No 
large  lakes  have  been  discovered,  but  lakelets, 
rivers,  and  streams  are  numerous.  The  only 
navigable  river,  however,  is  the  Missouri,  which 
forms  the  N.  E.  and  E.  boundary  line.  Enter- 
ing the  state  near  the  N.  W.  corner,  and  flowing 
E.,  is  the  Niobrara,  which,  after  forming  a  por- 
tion of  the  N.  boundary,  empties  into  the  Mis- 
souri near  the  N.  E.  corner  of  the  state.  The 
Keya  Paha,  a  tributary  of  the  Niobrara,  also 
forms  the  boundary  line  for  a  short  distance  on 
the  north.  The  principal  river  is  the  Platte, 
which,  rising  in  the  Rocky  mountains  in  Col- 
orado, flows  E.  through  the  central  portion  of 
the  state,  and  empties  into  the  Missouri.  It  is 
wide,  rapid,  and  shallow,  and  passes  through  a 
valley  which  is  remarkable  for  its  fertility,  and 
which  for  200  m.  W.  from  Omaha  is  from  8  to 
10  m.  wide.  The  Platte  has  numerous  tribu- 
taries on  the  north,  the  chief  of  which  are 
Wood  river,  Loup  fork,  and  Elkhorn  river.  It 
has  no  important  tributary  from  the  south,  but 
that  portion  of  the  state  is  well  watered  by 
streams  flowing  into  Kansas,  the  chief  being 
the  Republican,  Little  Blue,  West  Blue,  and 
Big  Blue  rivers.  The  Great  Nemaha  and  Little 
Nemaha  are  small  rivers  in  the  S.  E.  part  of  the 
state,  flowing  into  the  Missouri.  —  Excepting 
that  made  in  1867  under  the  direction  of  the 
United  States  geologist,  Dr.  F.  V.  Hayden, 
there  has  been  no  geological  survey  of  Ne- 
braska. But  four  of  the  principal  geological 


NEBKASKA 


195 


formations  are  represented  in  the  state,  car- 
boniferous, Permian,  cretaceous,  and  tertiary. 
Of  the  carboniferous  strata  only  the  upper 
members  occur,  and  these  are  overlaid,  from 
the  longitude  of  Lincoln  west,  by  the  Permian, 
cretaceous,  and  tertiary  deposits.  Minerals 
have  not  yet  been  found  to  any  considerable 
extent.  Thin  beds  of  bituminous  and  block 
coal  exist  in  the  S.  E.  counties,  and  of  lignite 
in  the  cretaceous  and  tertiary.  The  scarcity 
of  coal  renders  more  valuable  the  extensive 
beds  of  peat  found  in  some  parts  of  the  state. 
Some  iron  ores  occur,  but  the  coal  yet  found  is 
not  sufficient  to  utilize  them.  Stone  for  build- 
ing purposes  is  found,  including  limestone,  dark 
yellowish  gray  sandstone,  and  a  dark  red  free- 
stone. Clay  for  the  manufacture  of  brick  is 
easily  obtained,  and  good  potter's  clay  is  abun- 
dant. In  the  S.  E.  portion  of  the  state  are  ex- 
tensive saline  deposits.  The  principal  basin  is 
in  Lancaster  co.  near  Lincoln,  and  embraces  an 
area  of  12  by  25  m.  These  springs  contain  by 
weight  29  per  cent,  of  remarkably  pure  salt. 
The  salt  is  obtained  by  solar  evaporation, 
which  is  facilitated  by  the  marked  dryness  of 
the  atmosphere.  Alum  has  also  been  discov- 
ered.— The  eastern  portion  of  Nebraska  is  a 
rich  agricultural  region,  while  the  western  half 
is  well  adapted  to  grazing.  The  line  of  division 
is  about  Ion.  99°  W.,  although  there  is  a  large 
amount  of  fine  agricultural  lands  W.  of  this  line, 
and  some  grazing  lands  E.  of  it.  The  agricul- 
tural region  embraces  about  30,000  sq.  m.,  ex- 
tending about  150  m.  W.  of  the  Missouri,  and 
in  the  valley  of  the  Platte  about  300  m.  It  is 
divided  into  bottom  and  prairie  lands.  The 
soil  of  the  latter  is  a  rich,  black  vegetable  mould 
from  2  to  5  ft.  deep,  slightly  impregnated  with 
lime,  and  withstands  great  extremes  of  drought. 
The  bottom  lands  along  the  river  banks  have 
a  rich  alluvial  soil.  Wheat,  corn,  barley,  oats, 
sorghum,  flax,  hemp,  and  all  vegetables  flourish, 
and  below  lat.  42°  sweet  potatoes  are  easily 
cultivated.  Wild  plums  and  grapes  are  found 
in  great  abundance,  while  raspberries,  straw- 
berries, gooseberries,  cherries,  and  other  small 
fruits  are  common.  Tobacco  also  finds  a  con- 
genial soil  and  climate.  Apples,  plums,  and 
pears  are  cultivated,  and  peaches  succeed  S.  of 
the  Platte  river.  The  wild  grasses,  of  which 
Dr.  Aughey  has  classified  150  species,  grow 
luxuriantly  upon  the  bottom  and  table  lands, 
yielding  from  one  and  a  half  to  three  tons  per 
acre ;  many  are  exceedingly  nutritious,  and  ad- 
mirably adapted  to  the  raising  of  sheep  and 
cattle.  Cultivated  grasses,  as  the  blue  grass  of 
Kentucky  and  timothy,  are  raised  with  great 
success.  Large  numbers  of  cattle  are  brought 
from  Texas  and  Kansas  to  be  fattened  on  the 
grasses  of  Nebraska,  preparatory  to  sale.  The 
grazing  region  comprises  about  23,000,000 
acres,  and  is  generally  well  watered.  Wood  is 
of  free  natural  growth  only  on  the  bluffs  and 
river  banks,  but  the  species  are  numerous. 
Cottonwood  is  the  most  common;  oak,  elm, 
maple,  black  walnut,  cedar,  hickory,  and  hack- 


berry  are  also  found.  Planted  timber  grows 
rapidly  on  the  prairie.  Forests  of  pine  are 
reported  to  exist  in  the  N.  W.  part  of  the 
state. — The  climate  is  dry  and  exhilarating; 
the  mean  temperature  in  winter  is  about  22°, 
and  in  summer  about  70°.  The  heat  of  the 
summer  is  tempered  by  the  prairie  winds,  and 
the  nights  are  generally  cool.  According  to 
the  observations  made  by  the  United  States 
signal  service  at  Omaha  (lat.  41°  16',  Ion.  96°), 
the  annual  mean  as  indicated  by  the  barometer 
was  29*9  inches;  thermometer,  48'1°;  total  fall 
of  rain,  including  snow,  34'8  inches ;  prevailing 
wind,  southeast.  The  greatest  amount  of  rain 
falls  in  May  and  June.  Of  the  total  area  of 
the  state  (48,636,800  acres),  29,651,220  acres 
had  been  surveyed  up  to  June  30,  1873.  The 
number  of  acres  of  improved  farm  land  in  1870 
was  647,031 ;  number  of  farms,  12,301,  of 
which  787  embraced  less  than  10  acres  each, 
1,541  from  10  to  20,  5,096  from  20  to  50,  3,379 
from  50  to  100,  1,487  from  100  to  500,  and  11 
from  500  to  1,000 ;  cash  value  of  farms,  $30,- 
242,186 ;  of  farming  implements  and  machinery, 
$1,549,716 ;  wages  paid  during  the  year,  in- 
cluding the  value  of  board,  $882,478;  esti- 
mated value  of  all  farm  productions,  including 
betterments  and  additions  to  stock,  $8,604,742 ; 
value  of  orchard  products,  $9,932  ;  of  produce 
of  market  gardens,  $30,649  ;  of  forest  products, 
$36,307 ;  of  home  manufactures,  $36,951 ;  of 
animals  slaughtered  or  sold  for  slaughter,  $854,- 
850;  of  live  stock,  $6,551,185.  The  produc- 
tions were  2,109,321  bushels  of  spring  and 
15,765  of  winter  wheat,  13,532  of  rye,  4,736,- 
710  of  Indian  corn,  1,477,562  of  oats,  216,481 
of  barley,  3,471  of  buckwheat,  3,332  of  peas 
and  beans,  739,984  of  Irish  potatoes,  762  of 
sweet  potatoes,  133  of  grass  seed,  404  of  flax- 
seed,  5,988  Ibs.  of  tobacco,  74,655  of  wool, 
1,539,535  of  butter,  46,142  of  cheese,  100  of 
hops,  24  of  flax,  10  of  maple  sugar,  707  of  wax, 
28,114  of  honey,  77,598  gallons  of  sorghum 
molasses,  470  of  wine,  95,059  of  milk  sold,  and 
169,354  tons  of  hay.  The  live  stock  consisted 
of  30,511  horses,  2,632  mules  and  asses,  28,940 
milch  cows,  5,931  working  oxen,  45,057  other 
cattle,  22,725  sheep,  and  59,449  swine,  besides 
3,390  horses  and  312,788  cattle  not  on  farms. 
There  were  670  manufacturing  establishments, 
having  63  steam  engines  of  1,865  horse  power 
and  67  water  wheels  of  1,446  horse  power; 
hands  employed,  2,665 ;  capital  invested,  $2,- 
169,963  ;  wages  paid  during  the  year,  $1,429,- 
913;  value  of  materials  used,  $2,902,074;  of 
products,  $5,738,512.  The  statistics  of  the 
principal  branches  are  as  follows : 


INDUSTRIES. 

Number 
of  estab- 
1'shments. 

,1 

If 

I! 

H 

90 

188 

$77,210 

$287,960 

Boots  and  shoes  
Bread    and    other   bakery 

60 
16 

125 

89 

74,110 
85,650 

195,722 
60,850 

Brick                         

IT 

109 

22,900 

61,866 

Butchering  .. 

9 

89 

58,700 

811.828 

196 


NEBRASKA 


INDUSTRIES. 

Number 

of  estab- 
lishments. 

•0 

if 

5.2 

Value  of 
products. 

Carpentering  and  building  . 
Clothing 

89 

37 

216 

78 

$45,435 
29,610 

$535,520 
106,005 

Flouring  mill  products  
Furniture  

60 
16 

188 

27 

591,900 
17,605 

1,516,150 
38,980 

Gas        

1 

9 

20,000 

44,955 

Iron  castings  

8 

14 

68 
32 

67,840 
71,100 

196,518 
67,200 

Liquors,  distilled  
"        malt  

15 

14 
89 

85,000 
52,400 

146,789 

83,832 

Lumber,  sawed  
Machinery,  railroad  repair- 

50 
4 

202 
701 

152,200 
363,810 

278,205 
797,423 

Paintin<r     

16 

35 

15,400 

46,250 

Printing     and     publishing, 

10 

94 

92,100 

161,400 

Saddlery  and  harness  

28 
3 

71 

7 

51,075 

8,800 

152,657 
25,900 

Tin,  copper,  and  sheet-iron 

27 

72 

43,650 

159,978 

12 

43 

29,400 

109,734 

Manufacturing  industries  and  trade  have  large- 
ly increased  since  1870.  Nebraska  has  only 
a  domestic  commerce.  In  1874  more  than 
1,500,000  bushels  of  grain  were  sent  to  market 
by  the  Burlington  and  Missouri  River  railroad 
alone.  Omaha  was  in  1870  made  a  United 
States  port  of  delivery,  belonging  to  the  cus- 
toms district  of  Louisiana.  In  November,  1874, 
10  national  banks  were  in  operation,  with  a 
paid-in  capital  of  $1,025,000  and  an  outstand- 
ing circulation  of  $895,900,  being  $7  28  per 
capita,  1*3  per  cent,  of  the  wealth  of  the  state, 
and  87*4  per  cent,  of  the  banking  capital.  The 
state  had  122  m.  of  railroad  in  1865,  473  in 
1867,  943  in  1871,  1,075  in  1873,  and  1,120  in 
1874.  In  the  last  named  year  several  impor- 
tant railroads  were  projected  and  in  process  of 
construction.  The  lines  in  operation  in  1874 
i  are  represented  in  the  following  statement : 


NAMES   OF  CORPORATTONS. 


Atchison  and  Nebraska 

Brownville  and  Fort  Kearney. . . 


Burlington  and  Missouri  River 

Leased,  Omaha  and  Southwestern 

Midland  Pacific 

Omaha  and  Northwestern ' 

St.  Joseph  and  Denver  City 

Sioux  City  and  Pacific ,  j 

Leased,*  Fremont,  Elkhorn,  and  Mo.  Valley . . . 
Union  Pacific 


Atchison,  Kan.,  and  Lincoln 

Brownville  and  Junction  of  St.  Joseph  and 

Denver  City  railroad 

Plattsmouth  and  Kearney  Junction 

Omaha  and  Oreapolis ' 

Crete  and  Beatrice 

Nebraska  City  and  Seward j 

Omaha  to  southern  line  of  Dakota j 

Elwood,  Kan.,  and  Hastings I 

Sioux  City,  la.,  and  Fremont 

Fremont  and  Wisner ' 

Omaha  and  Ogden,  Utah 


Miles  com- 
pleted  in  the 
state  in  1874. 


109 

10 
190 
18 


40 
89 
27 
51 
473 


Total  length  be- 
tween termini 
when  different 
from  preceding. 


147 


180 
227 
107 


— The  constitution  of  1866  limits  the  number 
of  senators  to  13  and  of  representatives  to  39 
until  1876,  when  the  number  may  be  increased 
by  the  legislature,  but  not  beyond  25  senators 
and  75  representatives.  Senators  and  repre- 
sentatives are  elected  biennially  on  the  second 
Tuesday  of  October  in  even  years,  and  hold 
office  for  two  years  from  the  first  of  January 
ensuing.  The  legislature  meets  biennially  on 
the  Thursday  after  the  first  Monday  in  January, 
odd  years.  Each  member  receives  $3  for  each 
day's  attendance  during  the  session,  and  10 
cents  for  every  mile  of  travel  in  going  to  and 
from  the  capital.  Compensation  is  not  allowed 
for  more  than  40  days  at  any  one  session.  The 
executive  department  comprises  a  governor, 
secretary  of  state,  auditor,  and  treasurer,  who 
are  chosen  at  the  same  time  as  members  of  the 
legislature  and  hold  their  offices  for  two  years, 
except  the  auditor,  whose  term  is  four  years. 
The  constitution  fixes  the  annual  salary  of  the 
governor  at  $1,000;  secretary  of  state,  $600; 
auditor,  $800;  treasurer,  $400.  The  judicial 
power  is  vested  in  a  supreme  court  and  dis- 
trict, probate,  and  justices'  courts.  The  su- 
preme court  comprises  a  chief  and  two  asso- 
ciate justices,  who  are  elected  by  the  people 
for  six  years,  and  receive  an  annual  salary  of 
$2,000  each.  All  other  judicial  officers  are  paid 
for  their  services,  the  fees  being  prescribed  by 
law.  Two  terms  of  the  supreme  court  are 
held  each  year  in  Lincoln.  The  state  is  divided 
into  three  judicial  districts,  in  which  the  courts 


are  held  by  the  justices  of  the  supreme  court. 
Each  county  has  a  probate  court,  which,  be- 
sides the  ordinary  duties  of  such  tribunals,  has 
jurisdiction  in  civil  actions  where  the  amount 
does  not  exceed  $500.  Probate  judges  and 
justices  of  the  peace  are  elected  by  the  people. 
The  property  owned  by  a  woman  at  her  mar- 
riage, and  any  property  which  she  may  subse- 
quently acquire,  except  from  her  husband,  is 
free  from  the  husband's  control  and  not  subject 
to  his  debts.  A  married  woman  may  convey 
her  separate  estate,  make  contracts,  carry  on 
a  trade  or  business,  and  sue  and  be  sued,  in 
the  same  manner  as  an  unmarried  woman.  The 
grounds  of  divorce  are:  adultery,  impotence, 
sentence  to  imprisonment  for  three  years  or 
more,  desertion  for  two  years,  habitual  drunk- 
enness, extreme  cruelty,  and  consent  obtained 
by  force  or  fraud.  The  legal  rate  of  interest 
in  absence  of  agreement  is  10  per  cent.,  and 
12  per  cent,  may  be  lawfully  agreed  upon. 
Nebraska  is  represented  in  congress  by  two 
senators  and  one  representative,  and  has  there- 
fore three  votes  in  the  electoral  college. — Prac- 
tically the  state  has  no  debt.  On  Nov.  30, 
1874,  the  outstanding  liabilities  amounted  to 
$352,400,  of  which  $342,957  was  held  by  the 
permanent  school  fund,  the  state  paying  in- 
terest ;  and  the  state  had  resources  to  the 
amount  of  $221,600,  consisting  of  unpaid  tax- 
es, &c.  The  receipts  and  disbursements  of  the 
state  government  for  the  eleven  months  end- 
ing Dec.  1,  1874,  were  reported  as  follows: 


NEBRASKA 


197 


FUNDS. 

Receipts. 

Disbursements. 

General  fund  

$529,704  95 

$507,534  87 

Sinking  fund 

117,558  69 

126,554  94     ! 

Permanent  school  fund  
Temporary  school  fund  ..'.... 
Temporary  university  fund.  .  . 
Judiciary  fund  .  

252,818  47 
467,008  38 
50,292  46 
12,773  41 

258,303  13 
364,337  93 
50,292  46 
11,488  86     1 

Penitentiary  building  fund...  . 
Insane  asylum  building  fund  . 
Normal  school  building  fund  . 
Normal  school  tuition  fund  .  .  . 
Salt  (royalty)  fund  
State  building  fund  
In  hand  Jan  1  1873 

27,223  47 
8650 
5,875  20 
4,733  85 
52  66 
1,280  00 
198287  65 

21,575  97     1 
50  00     | 

8,759  18     i 
4,597  82     j 
78,877  12 
1,280  00 

Total  

$1,667,695  69 

$1,483,152  28 

Balance  in  treasury  Nov 

30  1874 

$234,548  41 

TTm  -frvfal  TTalnafirk-n  r\f  1 

the  state  board  of  equalization,  was  $55,549,868 
in  1871,  $69,873,818  in  1872,  $78,419,480  in 
1873,  and  $81,218,813  in  1874.  In  the  last 
year  the  lands  held  by  private  owners  and  sub- 
ject to  taxation  amounted  to  11,000,579  acres, 
the  assessed  value  being  $43,004,800 ;  town  lots, 
$9,941,809 ;  money  used  in  merchandise,  $2,- 
448,235;  in  manufactures,  $522,410;  stocks  and 
shares,  $979,455  ;  moneys  and  credits,  $1,578,- 
329;  household  furniture,  $343,762.  There 
were  87,449  horses,  valued  at  $3,906,778 ;  229,- 
469  neat  cattle,  $2,973,221 ;  7,615  mules  and 
asses,  $417,911 ;  30,329  sheep,  $42,556 ;  and 
233,652  swine,  $367,576.  The  railroad  prop- 
erty was  valued  at  $11,183,114,  and  telegraph 
property  at  $61,555.  The  taxes  levied  for  1874 
amounted  to  $502,933  78,  being  6£  mills  on 
the  dollar,  viz. :  for  the  general  fund,  $200,- 
995  77,  2i  mills ;  sinking  fund.  $79,864  77,  1 
mill;  school  fund,  $161,507  89,  2  mills;  peni- 
tentiary fund,  $40,376  94,  £mill;  and  univer- 
sity fund,  $20,188  41,  J  mill.  The  property  of 
corporations  is  taxed  in  the  same  manner  as 
that  of  individuals.  The  institutions  supported 
by  the  state  are  the  institute  for  the  deaf  and 
dumb  opened  at  Omaha  in  1869,  the  asylum 
for  the  insane  opened  at  Lincoln  in  1871,  and 
the  penitentiary,  which  is  also  at  Lincoln.  In 
1875  an  act  was  passed  to  establish  an  asylum 
for  the  blind  at  Nebraska  City. — The  school 
lands  of  Nebraska  comprise  about  2,700,000 
acres,  which,  if  sold  at  the  minimum  price  ($7 
per  acre),  would  give  a  permanent  school  fund 
of  $18,900,000.  The  schools  are  supported  by 
the  proceeds  arising  from  the  sale  and  lease  of 
school  lands,  from  a  general  tax  of  two  mills, 
and  from  fines,  licenses,  and  dog  tax.  The  ap- 
portionment is  made  by  the  state  superinten- 
dent among  the  counties  according  to  the  num- 
ber of  children  between  the  ages  of  5  and  21 
years.  In  June,  1874,  $107,764  were  distribu- 
ted among  72,991  children.  To  be  entitled  to. 
a  share  of  the  state  fund,  districts  having  fewer 
than  75  pupils  must  support  a  school  not  less 
than  three  months,  those  having  between  75 
and  200  not  less  than  six  months,  and  those  hav- 
ing more  than  200  not  less  than  nine  months. 
There  is  no  state  board  of  education.  The 
superintendent  of  public  instruction  is  elected 


by  the  people  for  four  years,  and  receives  an 
annual  salary  of  $2,000.  County  superinten- 
dents are  also  elected  by  popular  vote.  The 
most  important  statistics  for  the  year  ending 
Jan.  1,  1875,  were  as  follows: 

I  Number  of  school  districts 2,215 

"       houses 1,516 

"       children 72,991 

"      attending  school 47,718 

"      of  male  teachers 1,252 

"      of  female  teachers 1,483 

Average  monthly  wages  of  male  teachers $37  98 

"     of  female  teachers $32  12 

Number  of  private  schools 80 

"      of  pupils  in  private  schools 863 

Tax  for  building  school  houses $204,998 

"     teachers' wages $73,920 

Amount  raised  from  all  other  sources $271,653 

Total  resources $888,740 

Total  expenditures  for  schools $1,004,957 

Amount  apportioned  by  state  superintendent $292,471 

"       per  pupil $4  00 

"      apportioned  by  county  superintendents. .  $201,871 

Value  of  school  houses  and  sites $1,546,480 

The  state  normal  school  is  at  Peru,  having  a 
fine  brick  structure  90  by  63  ft.  and  three 
stories  high  above  the  basement.  The  institu- 
tion comprises  a  model  school  with  primary, 
junior,  and  senior  departments,  and  a  normal 
school  with  a  three  years'  course  of  instruction. 
Tuition  is  free.  During  the  fall  term  of  1873 
there  were  201  pupils  in  the  model  and  60  in 
the  normal  department.  The  number  of  teach- 
ers in  the  latter  was  six.  Normal  institutes 
are  also  held  throughout  the  state,  but  not  at 
the  public  expense.  The  university  of  Nebras- 
ka, at  Lincoln,  constitutes  a  part  of  the  educa- 
tional system  of  the  state.  It  owes  its  exist- 
ence to  a  congressional  grant  of  44,800  acres 
of  land  for  the  support  of  a  state  university, 
and  the  donation  of  90,000  acres  granted  by 
congress  to  Nebraska  for  the  establishment  of 
a  state  college  of  agriculture  and  the  mechanic 
arts.  By  the  same  law  of  1869  the  regents 
were  authorized  to  establish  a  university  com- 
prising six  departments  or  colleges :  1,  a  college 
of  ancient  and  modern  languages,  mathematics, 
and  natural  science;  2,  of  agriculture;  3,  of 
law;  4,  of  medicine;  5,  of  practical  science, 
mechanics,  and  civil  engineering;  6,  of  fine 
arts.  The  institution  was  opened  in  the  au- 
tumn of  1871.  In  1872  the  department  of  lit- 
erature, science,  and  art  was  organized,  with 
two  courses  of  four  years  each,  and  in  1873 
that  of  agriculture,  with  courses  of  two,  three, 
and  four  years.  In  1873-'4  there  were  7  in- 
structors and  100  students.  Both  sexes  are 
admitted.  The  other  leading  educational  in- 
stitutions are  Nebraska  college  (Protestant 
Episcopal),  at  Nebraska  City,  and  Doane  col- 
lege (Congregational),  at  Crete.  The  former 
affords  instruction  in  classics,  mathematics, 
science,  and  business,  and  has  also  a  theologi- 
cal department.  In  1874  it  had  a  total  of  10 
instructors  and  88  students.  Doane  college 
had  4  instructors  and  50  students. — According 
to  the  census  of  1870,  there  were  in  the  state 
390  libraries,  having  147,040  volumes,  of  which 
219  with  95,125  volumes  were  private,  and 
171  with  51,915  volumes  were  other  than  pri- 


198 


NEBRASKA 


vate.  The  whole  number  of  newspapers  and 
periodicals  was  42,  having  an  aggregate  circu- 
lation of  31,600,  and  issuing  annually  3,388,- 
500  copies.  There  were  7  daily,  with  a  circu- 
lation of  6,850;  1  tri-weekly,  500;  30  weekly, 
22,400;  and  4  monthly,  1,850.  In  1874  the 
total  number  had  increased  to  95,  including 
10  daily,  1  semi- weekly,  77  weekly,  1  semi- 
monthly, and  6  monthly.  The  total  number  of 
religious  organizations  in  1870  was  181,  hav- 
ing 108  edifices,  with  32,210  sittings,  and  prop- 
erty valued  at  $386,000.  The  leading  denom- 
inations were  represented  as  follows: 


DENOMINATIONS. 

Organi- 
zations. 

Edifice*. 

Sittings. 

Property. 

Baptist,  regular  

26 

15 

5,400 

64,800 

Christian  
Congregational  
Episcopal,  Protestant.  .  . 
Evangelical  Association. 
Lutheran  

9 
10 
15 
5 
14 

4 
7 
12 
3 
7 

1,550 
2,050 
8,500 
600 
2,000 

14,500 
38,500 
81,000 
7,000 
27,900 

Methodist. 

50 

36 

10,150 

118,400 

1 

1 

200 

1,200 

Presbyterian,  regular  .  .  . 
Roman  Catholic 

24 
17 

9 
11 

8,125 
2,935 

48,800 
34,900 

Unitarian  

3 

8 

700 

4,500 

United  Breth'n  in  Christ 
Universalist  

4 

3 



— The  territory  of  Nebraska  was  formed  May 
30,  1854,  embracing  351,558  sq.  m.,  extending 
from  lat.  40°  N.  to  the  national  boundary,  and 
from  the  Missouri  river  W.  to  the  crest  of  the 
Rocky  mountains.  On  Feb.  28,  1861,  16,035 
sq.  m.  were  set  off  to  the  territory  of  Colorado, 
and  on  March  2,  228,907  sq.  m.  to  Dakota.  At 
the  latter  date  Nebraska  received  from  Wash- 
ington and  Utah  territories  a  triangular  tract 
of  15,378  sq.  m.  lying  on  the  S.  W.  slope  of 
the  Rocky  mountains  N.  of  the  41st  parallel 
and  E.  of  the  110th  meridian.  This,  however, 
was  included  in  the  45,999  sq.  m.  taken  from 
Nebraska  March  3,  1863,  to  form  the  territory 
of  Idaho.  Nebraska  was  thus  reduced  to  its 
present  limits.  In  March,  1860,  the  question 
of  forming  a  state  government  was  submitted 
to  the  people  and  disapproved  by  a  vote  of 
1,877  to  1,987. '  On  April  19, 1864,  an  enabling 
act  was  passed  by  congress,  providing  for  the 
admission  of  Nebraska  into  the  Union;  but 
the  necessary  action  for  admission  was  not 
taken  at  that  time  by  the  territory.  The  con- 
tinuance of  the  war  and  the  prevalence  of 
Indian  hostilities  checked  the  growth  of  Ne- 
braska; but  prosperity  came  with  the  return 
of  peace.  Early  in  1866  the  territorial  legis- 
lature framed  a  constitution,  which  was  rati- 
fied by  the  people  on  June  21.  The  first  legis- 
lature under  the  new  government  assembled 
July  4.  On  the  28th  a  bill  for  the  admis- 
sion of  Nebraska  as  a  state  was  passed  by  con- 
gress, but  did  not  receive  the  signature  of  the 
president.  In  January,  1867,  another  bill  for 
this  purpose  was  passed,  but  was  vetoed  by 
the  president  on  the  ground  that  it  embraced 
conditions  not  contained  in  the  enabling  act, 
that  the  proceedings  attending  the  formation 
of  the  constitution  were  different  from  those 


NEBUCHADNEZZAR 

prescribed,  and  that  the  population  of  the  ter- 
ritory did  not  justify  its  becoming  a  state. 
The  bill,  however,  was  passed  over  the  execu- 
tive veto  by  a  vote  of  30  to  9  in  the  senate, 
Feb.  8,  ajid  120  to  44  in  the  house  on  the  fol- 
lowing day.  The  act  was  not  to  take  effect 
"  except  upon  the  fundamental  condition  that, 
within  the  state  of  Nebraska,  there  shall  be 
no  denial  of  the  elective  franchise,  or  of  any 
other  right,  to  any  person  by  reason  of  race 
or  color,  except  Indians  not  taxed ;  and  upon 
the  further  fundamental  condition  that  the 
legislature  of  said  state,  by  a  solemn  public 
act,  shall  declare  the  assent  of  said  state  to  the 
said  fundamental  condition."  This  act  was 
ratified  by  the  legislature,  which  assembled  at 
Omaha  on  Feb.  20  for  that  purpose,  and  com- 
pliance with  the  congressional  conditions  waa 
announced  by  proclamation  of  the  president  of 
the  United  States,  March  1,  1867.  Soon  after 
Lincoln  was  chosen  as  the  seat  of  government. 
On  May  2,  1871,  delegates  were  elected  to  a 
convention  to  frame  a  new  state  constitution. 
This  convention  was  in  session  from  June  5  to 
Aug.  19,  and  completed  a  constitution  which  was 
rejected  by  the  people,  Sept.  19.  Another  con- 
vention was  ordered  by  the  legislature  of  1875. 

NEBRASKA  CITY,  a  city  and  the  capital  of 
Otoe  co.,  Nebraska,  on  the  Missouri  river,  at 
the  terminus  of  the  Midland  Pacific  railroad, 
35  m.  S.  of  Omaha,  and  45  m.  E.  by  S.  of 
Lincoln;  pop.  in  1860,  1,922;  in  1870,  6,050. 
The  Kansas  City,  SL  Joseph,  and  Council 
Bluffs  railroad  runs  along  the  opposite  bank. 
The  city  is  handsomely  situated  on  rising 
ground,  and  is  surrounded  by  a  fine  agricul- 
tural country.  It  has  a  beautiful  brick  court 
house,  an  opera  house,  gas  works,  two  nation- 
al banks,  a  private  bank,  an  elevator,  flouring 
mills,  a  distillery,  two  plough  manufactories, 
four  large  public  schools,  a  public  library,  two 
daily  and  four  weekly  (one  German)  newspa- 
pers, a  Catholic  convent,  and  13  churches.  It 
is  the  seat  of  Nebraska  college,  an  Episcopal 
institution,  which  was  organized  in  1865,  and 
has  theological,  collegiate,  and  preparatory  or 
business  departments.  In  1874-'5  it  had  10 
professors  and  instructors,  88  students  (most 
of  whom  were  in  the  business  department), 
and  a  library  of  1,500  volumes.  Nebraska 
City  was  founded  in  1855. 

NEBUCHADNEZZAR  (on  the  Babylonian  monu- 
ments, Nabu-lcuduri-uzur),  a  Chaldean  king 
of  Babylon,  born  about  645  B.  C.,  died  in  561. 
He  was  the  son  of  Nabopolassar,  who  toward 
the  close  of  his  reign  sent  him  to  repel  the  in- 
vasion of  the  Egyptian  king  Necho.  He  routed 
the  Egyptians,  and  pursued  them  through  Judea, 
which  he  reduced  to  a  Babylonian  dependency, 
but  was  recalled  to  Babylon  by  the  death  of  his 
father  (604),  whom  he'succeeded  as  king.  He 
brought  back  a  multitude  of  captives,  and  em- 
ployed them  as  slaves  in  the  construction  of 
gigantic  works,  the  remains  of  which  are  still 
visible.  He  rebuilt  all  the  cities  of  upper  Baby- 
lonia upon  a  magnificent  scale,  and  embellished 


NEBULA 


199 


them  with  temples,  palaces,  aqueducts,  and 
other  public  works.  The  ruins  of  more  than 
100  towns  and  cities  contain  inscriptions  of  his 
name.  (See  BABYLON,  and  BABYLONIA.) 
Early  in  his  reign  the  Jews  and  Phoe- 
nicians rebelled.  Nebuchadnezzar 
took  Jerusalem,  carried  many  of  its 
chief  people  away  captive,  including 
Jehoiachin  the  king,  and  made  Zede- 
kiah  king  as  his  vassal ;  and  when 
several  years  later  he  rebelled,  being 
aided  by  Egypt,  Nebuchadnezzar  again 
besieged  Jerusalem,  and  after  defeat- 
ing the  Egyptian  king  Apries  (the 
Pharaoh-Hophra  of  Scripture),  who 
came  to  its  relief,  compelled  it  to  sur- 
render. (See  HEBREWS,  vol.  viii.,  p. 
589.)  During  these  wars  his  armies 
invested  Tyre,  and  took  it  after  a 
siege  of  13  years.  Four  years  later 
he  marched  through  Palestine  into 
Egypt,  which  he  ravaged,  but  did  not 
completely  subjugate.  He  elevated 
Daniel  and  other  Hebrew  captives  to 
high  office  in  Babylon.  (See  DANIEL.) 
The  book  of  Daniel  relates  how  he  fell  under 
the  divine  judgment  on  account  of  his  pride, 
lost  his  reason,  was  deprived  of  his  kingdom, 
and  lived  the  life  of  a  beast ;  and  how  he  was 
restored  to  health  and  power,  and  acknowl- 
edged the  judgment  of  God.  It  has  been 
thought  that  his  malady  was  a  form  of  the 
madness  called  lycanthropy,  in  which  the  pa- 
tient imagines  himself  a  beast. 

NEBULA  (Lat.,  mist,  vapor),  an  aggregation 
of  stars  or  stellar  matter  having  the  appear- 
ance, through  an  ordinary  telescope,  of  a  small, 
cloud-like  patch  of  light.  An  enlargement  of 
telescopic  power  usually  converts  this  appear- 
ance into  a  cluster  of  innumerable  stars,  besides 
bringing  to  light  other  nebulae  before  invisible. 
These  in  turn  yield  to  augmented  magnifying 
power;  and  thus  every  increase  in  the  capa- 
city of  the  telescope  adds  to  the  number  of 
clusters  resolved  from  nebulae,  and  of  nebulae 
invisible  to  lower  powers.  Nebulae  proper,  or 
those  which  have  not  been  definitely  resolved, 
are  found  in  nearly  every  quarter  of  the  firma- 
ment, though  abounding  especially  near  those 
regions  which  have  fewest  stars.  Scarcely 
any  are  found  near  the  milky  way,  and  the 
great  mass  of  them  lie  in  th6  two  opposite 
spaces  furthest  removed  from  this  circle.  Their 
forms  are  very  various,  and  often  undergo 
strange  and  unexpected  changes  as  the  power 
of  the  telescope  with  which  they  are  viewed 
is  increased,  so  as  not  to  be  recognizable  in 
some  cases  as  the  same  objects.  The  spiral 
nebulae  are  an  example  of  this  transforma- 
tion. This  class  was  recognized  by  Lord  Rosse 
through  the  use  of  his  six-foot  reflector.  Many 
of  them  had  been  long  known  as  nebulae, 
but  their  characteristic  spiral  form  had  never 
been  suspected.  They  have  the  appearance  of 
a  maelstrom  of  stellar  matter,  and  are  among 
the  most  interesting  objects  in  the  heavens. 


There  is  another  class  of  nebulae  which  bear 
a  close  resemblance  to  planetary  disks,  and  are 
hence  called  planetary  nebulae.  They  are  very 


FIG.  1.— Spiral  Nebula  in  Canes  Venatici. 

rare.  Some  of  them  present  remarkable  pe- 
culiarities of  color.  Sir  John  Herschel  has 
described  a  beautiful  example  of  this  class,  sit- 


Fio.  2.— Stellar  Nebula.  FIG.  3.— Planetary  Nebula. 

uated  in  the  southern  cross.     But  in  telescopes 
of  the  highest  power  some  of  the  so-called 


FIG.  4. — Annular  Nebula  in  Lyra. 

planetary  nebulae  assume  a  totally  different 
appearance ;  and  many  of  them  are  singular- 
ly complicated  in  structure,  instead  of  being 


200 


NEBULA 


simple  globes  of  nebulous  matter,  as  was  for- 
merly supposed.  There  are  several  which 
have  perfectly  the  appearance  of  a  ring,  and 
are  called  annular  nebulae.  A  conspicuous  and 
beautiful  example  is  situated  in  Lyra.  Some 
appear  to  be  physically  connected  in  pairs  like 
double  stars.  Most  of  the  small  nebulas  have 
the  general  appearance  of  a  bright  central  | 
nucleus  enveloped  in  a  nebulous  veil.  This  nu-  j 
cleus  is  sometimes  concentrated  as  a  star  and 
sometimes  diffused.  The  enveloping  veil  is 
sometimes  circular  and  sometimes  elliptical, 
with  every  degree  of  eccentricity  between  a  cir- 
cle and  a  straight  line.  There  are  some  which, 
with  a  general  disposition  to  symmetry  of  form,  ! 
have  great  branching  arms  or  filaments  with  | 
more  or  less  precision  of  outline.  An  example  \ 
of  this  is  Lord  Rosse's  Crab  nebula.  Another  j 
remarkable  object  is  the  nebula  in  Andromeda,  ! 
which  is  visible  with  the  naked  eye,  and  is 
the  only  one  which  was  discovered  before  the 
invention  of  the  telescope.  Simon  Marius 
(1612)  describes  its  appearance  as  that  of  a 
candle  shining  through  horn.  Besides  the 
above,  which  have  comparatively  regular  forms, 
there  are  others  more  diffused,  and  devoid 
of  symmetry  of  shape.  A  remarkable  ex- 
ample is  the  great  nebula  in  Orion,  discov- 
ered by  Huygens  in  1656.  This  nebula  and 
that  in  Andromeda  have  been  admirably  de- 
lineated by  the  professors  Bond  of  Harvard 
observatory.  (See  "Memoirs  of  the  Amer- 
ican Academy  of  Arts  and  Sciences,"  new 
series,  vol.  iii.)  The  great  nebula  in  Argo, 
which  Sir  John  Herschel  has  charted  with 
exquisite  care  and  elaborateness  in  his  "Cape 
Observations,"  is  another  example  of  this  class. 
In  the  southern  firmament  there  are  two  ex- 
tensive nebulous  tracts  known  as  the  Ma- 


wonderful  objects  which  have  been  recognized 
in  all  the  heavens  is  upward  of  5,000.  Of 
these  fewer  than  150  were  known  prior  to  the 
time  of  Sir  William  Herschel.  In  1786  he 
communicated  to  the  royal  society  a  catalogue 
of  1,000  new  nebulae  and  clusters;  in  1789  a 


FIG.  5.— Great  Nebula  in  Orion. 

gellanic  clouds;  the  greater  called  Nubecula 
Major,  and  occupying  an  area  of  42  square 
degrees;  the  smaller  called  Nubecula  Minor, 
and  covering  about  10  square  degrees.  In 
these  tracts  are  found  -multitudes  of  small 
nebulas  and  clusters.  The  number  of  these 


FIG.  6.— Large  Magellanic  Cloud. 

second  catalogue  of  the  same  number  of  new 
objects;  and  in  1802  a  third  which  included 
500  more.  In  1833  Sir  John  Herschel  com- 
municated to  the  royal  society  a  catalogue  of 
2,306  nebulae  and  clusters  in  the  northern  hemi- 
sphere observed  by  him,  500  of  which  were 
new.  In  1847  appeared  his  "  Cape  Observa- 
tions," which  contained  catalogues  of  1,708 
nebulas  and  clusters  in  the  southern  heavens. 
— The  application  of  spectroscopic  analysis  to 
these  objects,  by  Huggins,  Secchi,  Vogel,  and 
others,  has  resulted  in  the  noteworthy  discov- 
ery that  while  some  among  the  nebulas  are 
really  clusters  of  stars,  others  consist  in  the 
main  of  gaseous  matter.  The  former  give 
spectra  resembling  in  their  general  character- 
istics the  spectra  of  stars;  the  latter  give  a 
spectrum  of  three  bright  lines  (occasionally 
four),  one  line  corresponding  in  position  to  a 
line  in  the  spectrum  of  hydrogen,  another  cor- 
responding to  a  line  in  the  spectrum  of  nitro- 
gen. The  resolvable  nebulas  mostly  give  spec- 
tra of  the  former  class,  while  the  bright-line 
spectrum  is  given  by  all  the  irregular  nebulre 
hitherto  examined,  and  by  the  planetary  nebulas. 
Of  about  70  nebulas  examined  by  Huggins, 
nearly  one  third  gave  the  spectrum  indicative 
of  gaseity,  the  rest  giving  a  stellar  spectrum. — 
As  to  the  nature  of  nebulas,  two  chief  theories 
have  been  advanced.  It  was  first  suggested  by 
Wright  of  Durham,  and  afterward  maintained 
by  Kant  and  Lambert,  that  the  nebulas  are 
stellar  galaxies  similar  to  our  own  star  system. 
Sir  W.  Herschel,  at  the  beginning  of  his  re- 
searches into  the  constitution  of  the  universe, 
adopted  this  view  as  respects  certain  nebulas 
which  he  regarded  as  external,  while  holding 


NEBULAR  HYPOTHESIS 


201 


(contrary  to  the  usual  statement  in  our  text 
books  of  astronomy)  that  many  nebulae  form 
parts  of  our  own  star  system.  At  a  later  stage 
of  his  labors  he  advanced  the  hypothesis  com- 
monly known  as  Herschel's  nebular  hypothe- 
sis, which  however  related  only  to  certain  or- 
ders of  nebulae.  At  this  stage  Herschel  for 
the  first  time  indicated  his  ideas  respecting  the 
arrangement  of  all  orders  of  stellar  aggrega- 
tions and  nebulous  matter.  At  the  lower  ex- 
tremity of  the  scale  he  placed  widely  spread 
luminosity,  such  as  he  had  first  described  in 
1802.  He  passed  from  this  irregularly  spread 
luminosity,  through  all  the  orders  of  gaseous 
nebulae  (irregular  nebulae,  planetary  nebulae, 
nebulous  stars)  formed  by  the  gradual  conden- 
sation of  the  gaseous  matter,  until  the  star  it- 
self is  formed ;  then  he  entered  on  the  part  of 
the  series  he  had  before  recognized,  passing  on 
to  the  various  orders  of  stellar  aggregation, 
diffused  clusters,  ordinary  stellar  nebulae,  and 
more  and  more  condensed  groups  of  stars,  up 
to  the  richest  star  clusters.  At  this  period 
(1814)  we  no  longer  find  him  speaking  of  ex- 
ternal nebulae ;  not,  it  is  to  be  presumed,  that 
he  no  longer  recognized  the  probability  that 
other  stellar  galaxies  besides  our  own  exist, 
but  that  he  no  longer  found  it  possible  to  dis- 
criminate those  nebulae  which  are  external 
from  the  far  greater  number  which  unques- 
tionably form  component  parts  of  our  own 
sidereal  system.  The  researches  of  the  pres- 
ent writer  into  the  subject  dispose  him  to 
believe  that  our  sidereal  system  extends  far 
beyond  the  limits  which  have  ordinarily  been 
assigned  to  it,  and  that  there  are  no  nebulae 
which  can  be  regarded  as  external  to  it. 

NEBULAR  HYPOTHESIS,  the  celebrated  spec- 
ulation of  Sir  William  Herschel,  adopted  and 
developed  by  Laplace,  assigning  the  genesis  of 
the  heavenly  bodies  to  the  gradual  aggrega- 
tion and  condensation  of  a  highly  attenuated 
self-luminous  substance  diffused  through  space. 
(See  "Philosophical  Transactions,"  1802  and 
1811.)  To  this  hypothesis  Herschel  was  led 
by  his  conclusion  that  there  were  nebulosities 
not  composed  of  stars.  The  Rosse  telescope 
having  decomposed  nebulae  hitherto  consider- 
ed to  be  irresolvable,  and  exhibited  symptoms 
of  resolvability  in  others  still  more  intracta- 
ble, it  was  assumed  that  all  nebulae  are  stellar, 
their  nebulosity  being  solely  a  question  of  dis- 
tance ;  and  thus,  the  basis  of  Herschel's  rea- 
soning failing,  the  fabric  of  his  hypothesis  was 
thought  to  be  demolished.  Mr.  Herbert  Spen- 
cer came  to  its  support  in  the  "  Westminster 
Review,"  No.  cxxxvii.  (July,  1858).  The  ar- 
gument in  its  favor  is  substantially  as  follows. 
The  assumption  that  all  nebulae  are  remote 
galaxies  does  not  invalidate  the  indications 
furnished  by  the  structure  of  the  solar  system, 
which  still  points  to  a  nebular  origin  just  as 
significantly  as  before.  But  the  assumption 
is  inadmissible.  The  mode  of  distribution  of 
the  nebulae  furnishes  evidence  of  a  physical 
connection  with  our  stellar  system;  and  this 


evidence  is  confirmed  by  the  fa«t  of  their  re- 
solvability  with  telescopic  power  which  fails 
to  make  individually  visible  the  most  distant 
stars  of  our  own  milky  way.  If  they  are  re- 
mote galaxies,  it  may  be  assumed  that,  speak- 
ing generally,  the  largest  are  the  nearest,  and 
therefore  the  most  resolvable.  But  the  fact 
is,  the  smallest  are  the  most  resolvable.  An- 
other difficulty  is  presented  by  the  Magellanic 
clouds.  (See  NEBULA.)  Sir  John  Herschel, 
considering  the  structure  of  the  larger  of  these 
clouds,  concludes  that  "it  must  be  taken  as 
a  demonstrated  fact  that  stars  of  the  seventh 
or  eighth  magnitude,  and  irresolvable  nebula, 
may  coexist  within  limits  of  distance  not  dif- 
fering in  proportion  more  than  as  9  to  10." 
("  Outlines  of  Astronomy,"  London,  1851,  p. 
615.)  This  clearly  supplies  a  reductio  ad  ab- 
surdum  of  the  popular  doctrine.  Assuming, 
for  the  sake  of  the  argument,  a  rare,  homo- 
geneous, nebulous  matter,  widely  diffused 
through  space,  the  following  successive  changes 
will,  on  physical  principles,  take  place  in  it: 
1,  mutual  gravitation  of  its  atoms:  2,  atomic 
repulsion ;  3,  evolution  of  heat,  by  overcoming 
this  repulsion ;  4,  molecular  combination,  at  a 
certain  stage  of  condensation,  followed  by,  5, 
sudden  and  great  disengagement  of  heat;  6, 
lowering  of  temperature  by  radiation  and  con- 
sequent precipitation  of  binary  atoms,  aggre- 
gating into  irregular  flocculi  and  floating  in 
the  rarer  medium,  just  as  water  when  precip- 
itated from  air  collects  into  clouds;  7,  each 
flocculus  will  move  toward  the  common  centre 
of  gravity  of  all ;  but  being  an  irregular  mass 
in  a  resisting  medium,  this  motion  will  be  out 
of  the  rectilinear,  that  is  to  say,  not  directly 
toward  the  common  centre  of  gravity,  but 
toward  one  or  other  side  of  it;  and  thus,  8, 
a  spiral  movement  will  ensue,  which  will  be 
communicated  to  the  rarer  medium  through 
which  the  flocculus  is  moving ;  and,  9,  a  pre- 
ponderating momentum  and  rotation  of  the 
whole  mass  in  some  one  direction,  converging 
in  spirals  toward  the  common  centre  of  grav- 
ity. Certain  subordinate  actions  are  to  be 
noticed  also.  Mutual  attraction  will  tend 
to  produce  groups  of  flocculi  concentrating 
around  local  centres  of  gravity,  and  acquiring 
a  subordinate  vertical  movement.  These  con- 
clusions are  shown  to  be  in  entire  harmony 
with  the  observed  phenomena.  In  this  ge- 
netic process,  when  the  precipitated  matter  is 
aggregating  into  flocculi,  there  will  be  found 
here  and  there  detached  portions,  like  shreds 
of  cloud  in  a  summer  sky,  which  will  not  coa- 
lesce with  the  larger  internal  masses,  but  will 
slowly  follow  without  overtaking  them.  These 
fragments  will  assume  characteristics  of  mo- 
tion strikingly  correspondent  to  those  of  the 
comets,  whose  physical  constitution  and  dis- 
tribution are  seen  to  be  completely  accordant 
with  the  hypothesis. — The  physical  characters 
resulting  from  the  hypothesis  are  found  to 
tally  with  the  facts.  In  a  rotating  spheroid 
of  aeriform  matter  in  the  latter  stages  of 


202 


NEBULAE  HYPOTHESIS 


concentration,  but  before  it  has  begun  to  take 
a  liquid  or  solid  form,  the  following  actions 
will  go  on:  1,  more  and  more  rapid  aggrega- 
tion of  its  atoms  into  a  smaller  and  denser 
mass,  as  the  common  centre  of  gravity  is  ap- 
proached; 2,  development  of  oblateness;  3, 
evolution  of  heat,  greatest  at  the  central  parts; 
and,  as  a  consequence,  4,  circulation — currents 
setting  from  the  centre  toward  the  poles  and 
thence  to  the  equator,  and  counter  currents 
from  the  equator  to  the  centre.  In  the  course 
of  this  round  there  will  be,  5,  an  oscillation  of 
temperature :  first,  from  the  centre  outward — 
expansion  by  diminished  pressure  and  other 
causes,  and  consequent  lowering  of  tempera- 
ture ;  secondly,  from  the  equator  inward — rise 
in  temperature  for  converse  reasons.  6.  As 
a  corollary  to  4  and  5,  external  condensation 
will  occur  according  to  the  laws  of  precipita- 
tion from  gases,  resulting  in  a  belt  of  vapor 
about  the  equator,  gradually  widening  and 
condensing  into  a  fluid ;  7,  this  fluid  film  will 
gradually  extend  itself  till  it  eventually  closes 
over  at  the  poles,  thus  forming  a  thin  hollow 
spheroid  filled  with  gaseous  matter;  8,  at 
length  the  liquid  shell  will  become  very  thick, 
the  outer  surface  will  experience  a  fall  of  tem- 
perature and  begin  to  harden  into  a  solid 
crust.  This  hypothesis  explains  the  relative 
specific  gravities  of  the  planetary  bodies,  the 
formation  of  the  asteroids,  the  earth's  sup- 
posed interior  structure,  indications  of  past  or 
present  high  temperature  throughout  the  solar 
system,  and  the  sun's  incandescence. — These 
considerations  relate  chiefly  to  the  physical 
changes  undergone  by  a  forming  system. 
Laplace's  nebular  hypothesis  deals  with  the 
changes  of  arrangement  in  the  distribution  of 
matter  forming  into  a  system  under  the  action 
of  dynamical  laws.  He  takes  as  the  basis  of 
his  theory  certain  features  of  our  solar  sys- 
tem which  are  not  explained  by  the  theory 
of  gravitation.  Gravity  accounts  for  Kepler's 
laws,  which  are  shown  to  be  among  its  neces- 
sary consequences.  No  system  could  circulate 
in  any  manner  around  a  centre,  for  instance, 
without  the  law  holding  that  the  numbers 
representing  the  cubes  of  the  mean  distances 
would  be  proportional  to  the  numbers  repre- 
senting the  squares  of  the  periodic  times.  But 
a  system  could  exist  under  gravity  in  which 
the  planets  would  travel  in  widely  eccentric 
orbits  or  in  planes  largely  inclined  to  each 
other.  Nor  has  it  been  proved  that  the  plan- 
ets might  not  safely  circulate  in  different  di- 
rections. Assuredly,  if  revolution  in  different 
directions,  or  in  planes  largely  inclined  to  each 
other,  or  in  very  eccentric  paths,  might  in  the 
long  run  result  in  collisions  and  therefore  in 
the  destruction  of  the  system  as  such,  there  is 
yet  no  reason  to  believe  that  all  the  axial  ro- 
tations need  take  place  in  the  same  direction  as 
the  motions  of  revolution.  But,  to  say  the 
truth,  none  of  those  laws  of  harmony  in  our 
solar  system,  except  the  laws  depending  di- 
rectly on  gravity,  can  be  regarded  as  essential 


to  the  well  being  of  the  system ;  nor,  as  will 
presently  appear,  would  the  difficulty  of  re- 
garding the  system  as  other  than  a  product  of 
evolution  be  appreciably  diminished  by  sup- 
posing that  without  those  laws  the  destruction 
of  the  system  must  inevitably  have  occurred 
in  the  course  of  time.  For  it  would  be  mani- 
festly unreasonable  to  regard  our  system  as 
one  in  which  the  original  arrangements  were 
fortuitously  so  happy  that  it  has  continued  to 
exist  as  a  system,  if  we  find  that  the  proba- 
bility of  these  arrangements  so  existing  by 
mere  coincidence  is  exceedingly  minute.  Now, 
how  small  this  probability  is  may  be  inferred 
by  considering  only  the  motion  of  the  planets 
in  one  common  direction.  There  are  known 
at  the  present  time  8  major  planets  and  137 
minor  planets  (the  number  of  these  is  increas- 
ing year  by  year).  Thus  there  are  145  known 
planets.  Taking  the  earth's  direction  of  revo- 
lution as  a  standard  direction,  the  chance  that 
any  one  of  the  remaining  144  planets  would 
have  this  direction  as  a  result  of  mere  chance 
is  of  course  one  half,  since  a  planet  must  re- 
volve in  one  of  two  ways.  Therefore,  by  the 
laws  of  probability,  the  chance  that  all  the  144 
other  planets  would  revolve  in  that  direction 
is  represented  by  a  fraction  whose  numerator  is 
unity  and  its  denominator  2  raised  to  the  144th 
power.  Now  144  times  the  logarithm  of  2, 
(or  -3010300)  =  43-3483200,  showing  that  the 
above  mentioned  denominator  is  a  number  of 
44  digits,  beginning  2230077  with  37  digits  to 
follow.  This  inconceivably  enormous  num- 
ber represents  the  odds  to  1  against  the  ob- 
served arrangement  being  the  result  of  chance, 
even  considering  only  one  relation  out  of 
several  mentioned  above,  all  of  which  present 
the  same  order  of  antecedent  improbability. 
Thus  Laplace  was  led  to  his  conception  of  a 
vast  rotating  nebulous  disk,  from  the  grad- 
ual contraction  of  which,  and  the  consequent 
throwing  off  of  rings,  breaking  up  into  globes, 
all  revolving  and  rotating  in  one  common  di- 
rection and  nearly  in  the  same  level,  the  solar 
system  was  formed.  This  hypothesis,  how- 
ever, does  not  explain  the  distribution  of  the 
masses  of  the  solar  system  ;  one  planet  (Jupi- 
ter), for  example,  containing  nearly  $  of  all 
the  matter  outside  the  sun,  and  Saturn  and 
Jupiter  together  containing  about  \%  of  all 
that  matter.  Accordingly,  the  present  writer 
has  suggested  a  modification  of  it,  in  which, 
starting  from  some  such  primary  condition  as 
that  assumed  by  Herbert  Spencer,  the  various 
parts  of  the  solar  system  were  formed  by  pro- 
cesses of  aggregation  such  as  are  still  going 
on  (though  now  with  extreme  slowness).  For 
the  motions  of  the  flocculi  of  Spencer  (or  of 
the  parts,  whatever  their  nature,  from  which 
the  system  was  to  be  formed)  would  be  more  and1 
more  rapid  with  proximity  to  the  central  aggre- 
gation,  according  to  well  known  dynamical  laws, 
Accordingly,  subordinate  aggregations  would 
form  with  difficulty  close  by  the  sun;  and 
hence  we  can  understand  the  smallness  of  the 


NECHO 


NEOKER 


203 


members  of  the  interior  family  of  planets,  com- 
prising Mercury,  Venus,  the  earth,  and  Mars. 
Again,  with  extreme  distance  from  the  centre, 
the  gravity  of  available  material  whence  aggre- 
gations could  form  would  be  so  far  reduced, 
that  for  that  reason  the  planets  so  formed 
would  be  smaller.  Hence  we  can  understand 
why  Uranus  and  Neptune  are  so  far  inferior 
to  Jupiter  and  Saturn.  These  two  giant  orbs 
are  thus  seen  to  occupy  the  space  where  the 
conditions  were  most  favorable  to  the  rapid 
development  of  subordinate  aggregations.  In 
this  intermediate  region  there  was  abundance 
of  material  while  yet  the  motions  were  not  so 
rapid  that  a  subordinate  aggregation  could  not 
readily  master,  so  to  speak,  the  matter  rushing 
past  toward  the  aphelion  of  its  orbital  motion 
round  the  sun.  The  theory  also  explains  well 
the  existence  of  a  zone  of  discrete  bodies  next 
within  the  path  of  Jupiter,  that  is,  in  a  region 
disturbed  at  once  by  his  attraction  and  that 
of  the  sun. — It  is  not  improbable,  as  remarked 
in  the  article  METEOR,  that  the  study  of  co- 
metic  and  meteoric  astronomy  may  before  long 
throw  considerable  light  on  the  interesting 
question  of  the  evolution  of  our  solar  system, 
and  may  enable  us  to  form  a  nebular  hypothe- 
sis on  safer  grounds  than  those  on  which  the 
theories  now  in  vogue  have  been  based. 

NECHO,  or  Neco  (in  the  Bible  also  Pharaoh 
Necho,  and  in  the  hieroglyphics  Neku),  an  Egyp- 
tian king  of  the  26th  dynasty,  who  reigned,  ac- 
cording to  Rawlinson,  from  610  to  594  B.  C. 
He  is  called  by  Herodotus  the  son  and  succes- 
sor of  Psammetichus  I.,  whose  northeastern 
conquests  he  followed  up  with  energy.  He 
built  a  navy  for  the  prosecution  of  maritime 
discovery,  and  began  a  canal  to  connect  the 
Nile  with  the  Arabian  gulf,  but  is  said  to  have 
abandoned  this  work  because  warned  by  an 
oracle  that  it  would  be  used  for  the  invasion 
of  his  country.  Under  his  directions  the  Phoe- 
nicians circumnavigated  Africa.  He  marched 
into  Assyria  to  attack  the  Babylonians,  and 
on  his  march  defeated  Josiah,  king  of  Judah, 
in  the  valley  of  Megiddo  (about  609).  Ad- 
vancing to  the  Euphrates,  he  took  Carche- 
mish  and  established  a  garrison  there.  On 
his  homeward  march  he  deposed  Jehoahaz, 
king  of  Judah,  putting  his  brother  Eliakim 
or  Jehoiakim  into  his  place,  as  a  vassal  of 
Egypt ;  and  it  is  thought  that  about  this  time 
he  took  Jerusalem.  Herodotus  says  that  he 
took  a  city  named  Cadytis,  but  its  identifica- 
tion with  Jerusalem  is  not  certain.  Three 
years  later  Carchemish  was  attacked  by  Nebu- 
chadnezzar, and  Necho  having  marched  to  its 
relief  was  defeated  and  lost  all  his  Asiatic 
dominions.  He  never  recovered  from  this 
blow,  the  rest  of  his  reign  being  distinguished 
only  by  a  weak  and  irresolute  attempt  to  pre- 
pare for  a  new  war  against  Babylon. 

NECKAR,  or  Necker,  a  river  of  Germany,  trib- 
utary to  the  Rhine,  rising  in  Wiirtemberg  E. 
of  the  Black  Forest,  near  Schwenningen,  on 
the  frontiers  of  Baden,  at  an  elevation  of  more 


than  2,000  ft.  above  the  sea.  It  first  flows  in 
a  N.  direction,  crossing  Hohenzollern,  then 
N.  E.  and  N.  through  Wiirtemberg,  and  final- 
ly N.  W.  through  Baden,  joining  the  Rhine  at 
Mannheim.  Its  chief  tributaries  are  the  Enz, 
Kocher,  and  Jaxt.  The  principal  places  on  its 
banks  are  Tubingen,  Canstatt,  near  Stuttgart, 
Heilbronn,  Heidelberg,  and  Mannheim.  The 
entire  length  of  the  Neckar  is  about  250  m., 
and  it  is  navigable  nearly  to  Canstatt  for  small 
craft  and  to  Heilbronn  for  steamers.  The 
Neckar  is  remarkable  for  its  lovely  scenery, 
and  excellent  wine  is  produced  along  its  shores. 
NECKER.  I.  Jacques,  a  French  statesman, 
born  in  Geneva,  Switzerland,  Sept.  30,  1732, 
died  at  Coppet,  in  the  same  country,  April  9, 
1804.  After  receiving  a  liberal  education,  he 
went  to  Paris  at  the  age  of  15,  was  employed 
as  a  clerk  in  a  banking  house,  became  a  part- 
ner in  the  banking  house  of  Thelusson,  and 
afterward  engaged  in  the  same  business  alone. 
Having  accumulated  a  fortune,  he  gave  up 
business  in  1764,  and  was  appointed  resident 
minister  of  Geneva  at  the  court  of  France. 
From  1764  to  1770  he  acted  as  syndic  of  the 
French  East  India  company.  His  reputation 
was  greatly  increased  by  several  publications, 
such  as  the  Eloge  on  Colbert,  to  which  the 
French  academy  awarded  a  prize,  and  an  Es- 
sai  sur  la  legislation  et  le  commerce  des  grains 
(1775);  and  in  1776  he  was  appointed  assis- 
tant to  the  comptroller  general  Taboureau,  with 
the  title  of  director  of  the  treasury,  and  in 
1777  director  general  or  minister  of  finance. 
These  appointments  he  accepted  on  condition 
that  he  should  receive  no  emoluments.  He 
introduced  order  and  economy  into  that  branch 
of  the  administration,  restored  confidence 
among  capitalists  by  securing  the  payment  of 
interest  on  loans,  restrained  the  prodigality  of 
the  court,  curtailed  the  expenses  of  the  admin- 
istration, reclaimed  many  public  estates  which 
had  been  unlawfully  alienated,  regulated  the 
assessment  of  taxes,  abridged  the  right  of 
mortmain,  established  a  uniform  excise  on  salt 
all  over  the  kingdom,  and  endeavored  to  sup- 
press statute  labor  and  tolls.  He  introduced 
improvements  in  the  government  of  several 
provinces,  and  assisted  in  establishing  the  mont 
de  piete  of  Paris  and  a  bank  of  discount,  out 
of  which  subsequently  grew  the  bank  of 
France.  By  his  management  a  deficit  of  over 
24,000,000  livres  was  made  up,  and  in  less 
than  five  years  the  annual  receipts  were  10,- 
000,000  in  excess  of  the  annual  expenditures. 
In  1781  he  published  his  Compte  rendu  au  roi 
sur  les  finances  de  Vetat,  an  exposure  which 
aroused  the  enmity  of  the  courtiers,  whose 
pensions  and  privileges  had  been  abridged,  and 
displeased  the  prime  minister  Maurepas.  Neck- 
er,  desiring  to  vindicate  his  measures  before 
the  king,  insisted  upon  a  seat  in  the  royal 
council,  from  which  he  had  been  excluded  on 
account  of  his  religious  persuasion.  His  claim 
being  disregarded,  he  sent  in  his  resignation. 
After  his  retirement  he  was  involved  in  a 


204 


NECKER 


NECROMANCY 


controversy  with  Calonne,  who  attacked  his 
financial  policy.  In  1784  he  published  his  Ad- 
ministration des  finances,  which  was  sold  to 
the  number  of  80,000  copies  in  a  few  days. 
When  his  successors,  Joly  de  Fleury,  Calonne, 
and  Lomenie  de  Brienne,  had  exhausted  all 
available  means  and  brought  the  exchequer  to 
a  crisis,  Necker  was  recalled  by  Louis  XVI., 
and  his  return  to  power,  Aug.  25,  1788,  was 
hailed  with  general  applause;  confidence  at 
once  revived  among  all  classes,  and  stocks  rose 
30  per  cent,  in  a  single  day.  But  it  was  not  a 
mere  financial  reform  that  was  now  needed ;  a 
political  revulsion  was  at  hand.  Necker,  rely- 
ing upon  his  popularity,  flattered  himself  that 
he  could  control  the  revolutionary  movement ; 
but  from  the  beginning  he  acted  timidly.  The 
assembling  of  the  states  general  had  been  prom- 
ised by  his  predecessor,  and  he  had  to  fulfil 
that  promise.  In  opposition  to  the  notables 
who  insisted  upon  preserving  the  ancient  mode 
of  holding  the  states,  he  procured  an  order  in 
council  allowing  the  third  estate  a  number  of 
delegates  about  equal  to  that  of  the  nobility 
and  clergy  combined.  On  the  opening  of  the 
states  general  he  made  a  report  upon  the 
condition  of  France,  full  of  good  wishes  for 
the  public  welfare,  but  almost  devoid  of  prac- 
tical suggestions.  After  the  royal  session  of 
June  23  he  advised  Louis  XVI.  to  order  the 
deputies  of  the  nobles  and  the  clergy  to  join 
those  of  the  third  estate.  He  was  looked  upon 
by  the  people  as  the  stanchest  supporter  of 
their  rights;  but  on  July  11,  1789,  he  was  dis- 
missed by  the  king  and  secretly  left  France. 
Paris  rose  at  once  in  the  wildest  excitement ; 
his  bust,  with  that  of  the  popular  duke  of 
Orleans,  was  carried  in  a  mourning  proces- 
sion through  the  streets;  an  insurrection  was 
organized,  and  on  the  14th  the  Bastile  was 
taken.  The  king,  yielding  to  popular  clamor, 
sent  immediately  for  his  exiled  minister,  who 
was  reinstated  in  office  after  an  absence  of  18 
days.  All  the  sources  of  public  revenue  were 
exhausted,  and  he  had  to  provide  for  daily 
necessities.  A  loan  for  30,000,000  livres  and 
another  for  80,000,000  were  proposed  by  him 
and  voted  by  the  constituent  assembly  on  Aug. 
9  and  27 ;  and  both  failed.  In  this  extremity 
he  moved  (Sept.  24)  that  a  tax  amounting  to 
the  fourth  part  of  all  incomes  should  be  levied, 
and  the  assembly  granted  it.  This  was  the 
last  financial  measure  he  proposed.  He  vainly 
tried  to  oppose  some  of  the  revolutionary 
measures  originating  in  the  constituent  assem- 
bly, such  as  the  seizure  of  church  property  and 
the  issuing  of  assignats.  This  made  him  un- 
popular, not  only  with  the  revolutionists,  but 
with  the  majority  of  the  deputies;  while  on 
the  other  hand  he  had  lost  the  confidence  of 
the  king  and  of  his  colleagues.  A  new  issue  of 
assignats  to  the  amount  of  800,000,000  having 
been  ordered  by  the  assembly  (Sept.  4,  1790), 
he  resigned  and  started  for  Switzerland.  On 
the  roads  where  a  year  previous  he  had  been 
welcomed  as  the  saviour  of  France,  he  was  in- 


sulted, threatened,  and  even  arrested ;  an  order 
from  the  assembly  was  necessary  to  procure 
his  release.  He  retired  to  his  estate  of  Cop- 
pet,  near  Geneva,  where  he  wrote  a  vindica- 
tion of  his  conduct,  De  V administration  de  M. 
Necker,  par  lui-meme  (1791).  In  1792  he  pub- 
lished deflexions  offertes  a  la  nation  francaise 
en  faveur  de  Louis  XVI.,  which  had  no  other 
result  than  to  cause  him  to  be  placed  upon  the 
list  of  emigres.  In  1796  he  published  an  essay, 
De  la  revolution  francaise,  in  which  he  severe- 
ly censured  the  directorial  government.  After 
the  accession  of  Bonaparte  to  power,  Neck- 
er dreamed  of  the  possibility  of  becoming  his 
minister  of  finance;  but  in  an  interview  he 
was  coldly  if  not  disdainfully  treated.  In  con- 
sequence he  published  (1802)  Dernieres  vue» 
de  politique  et  de  finances,  directed  against  the 
consular  government.  Among  his  miscella- 
neous writings  are  :  Le  bonheur  des  sots  and 
Fragments  sur  quelques  usages  de  la  societe 
francaise  en  1786,  both  humorous;  Du  pou- 
voir  executif  dans  les  grands  etats,  a  political 
essay  (1791) ;  and  Cours  de  morale  religieuse 
(1800).  His  (Euvres  completes  (17  vols.  8vo) 
appeared  at  Paris  in  1822.  II.  Snsanne  Cnrchod 
de  Aas.se,  wife  o£  the  preceding,  born  in  Gene- 
va in  1739,  died  at  Coppet  in  May,  1794.  She 
belonged  to  a  French  Protestant  family,  who 
on  the  repeal  of  the  edict  of  Nantes  took  ref- 
uge in  Switzerland.  Her  father,  a  clergyman, 
gave  special  attention  to  her  education;  and 
she  was  early  noticed  for  her  solid  and  ver- 
satile knowledge  no  less  than  her  beauty  and 
virtue.  The  historian  Gibbon  sought  her  in 
marriage,  but  desisted  in  consequence  of  his 
father's  opposition.  Having  married  Necker 
in  1764,  she  accompanied  him  to.  Paris,  where 
her  house  soon  became  the  resort  of  most  of 
the  distinguished  writers  of  the  time.  Buffon, 
Saint-Lambert,  Marmontel,  and  Thomas  were 
among  her  most  frequent  guests ;  and  in  this 
society  she  educated  her  daughter,  the  cele- 
brated Mme.  de  Stael.  She  was  much  occu- 
pied with  acts  of  benevolence,  and  was  the 
founder  of  the  hospital  which  bears  her  name 
(1778).  In  1794  she  published  her  Reflexions 
sur  le  divorce,  an  elaborate  plea  for  the  in- 
dissolubility  of  marriage.  A  selection  from 
her  writings  (Melanges)  was  published  by  her 
husband  after  her  death  in  5  vols.  8vo. 

NECROMANCY  (Gr.  veKpoftavrda,  from  venp6f, 
dead,  and  fj.avreia,  divination),  the  art  of  ob- 
taining knowledge  of  future  events  by  consult- 
ing the  spirits  of  the  dead.  From  the  treatise 
of  Tertullian  De  Anima  it  appears  that  the 
common  practice  of  necromancy  in  his  day 
consisted  in  eliciting  an  oracular  response  from 
a  dead  body.  It  is  generally  thought,  how- 
ever, that  the  term  necromancy  anciently  des- 
ignated the  evocation  of  departed  spirits,  and 
"necyomancy"  (Gr.  veKvoftavreia,  from  veuvs, 
a  corpse,  and  p,avrda)  a  descent  into  the  abode 
of  the  dead.  This  latter  form  of  divination  is 
a  favorite  one  with  epic  and  dramatic  poets  of 
every  period ;  but  no  trace  of  it  exists  outside 


NECROMANCY 


NECROSIS 


205 


of  their  fictions.  On  the  other  hand,  necro- 
mancy or  the  calling  up  of  the  dead  appears  to 
have  been  a  practice  and  a  profession  from  the 
earliest  historical  times.  In  Greece  the  necro- 
manteum  (yeapofjiavreiov)  was  a  place  conse- 
crated to  the  performance  of  necromantic  rites. 
There  were  several  such  places,  as  the  cave  of 
Trophonius  in  Boeotia,  the  banks  of  the  Ache- 
ron in  Epirus  inhabited  by  the  Thesprotians, 
various  localities  in  Thessaly,  Hierapolis  in 
Phrygia,  and  wherever  the  Cabiric  associations 
prevailed  in  the  East  or  West,  Heraclea  on  the 
Propontis,  and  the  shores  of  Lake  Avernus  in 
southern  Italy.  It  has  been  conjectured,  from 
Deut.  xviii.  10,  11,  that  there  were  also  many 
in  Palestine  and  the  neighboring  countries, 
while  Endor  is  indicated  in  1  Sam.  xxviii. — 
The  most  ancient  Greek  poets  devote  to  necyo- 
mancy  or  the  descent  into  Hades  some  of  their 
most  remarkable  compositions,  thence  called 
veKviat,  their  counterparts  being  termed  v6oroi, 
''returns."  Homer,  Hesiod,  JEschylus,  Euri- 
pides, Aristophanes,  and  Lucian  among  the 
Greeks,  and  Virgil  and  Seneca  among  the  Ro- 
mans, employ  necyomancy  as  a  principal  part 
of  their  machinery,  and  some  of  them  devote 
whole  poems  exclusively  to  it.  Horace  in  sa- 
tire 8,  book  i.,  and  Lucan  in  his  Pharsalia, 
describe  forms  of  evocation.  The  calling  up  of 
Samuel  by  the  witch  of  Endor,  and  of  Melissa, 
queen  of  Corinth,  at  the  instance  of  her  husband 
Periander,  are  the  first  instances  of  necromancy 
mentioned  in  history.  It  is  commonly  admit- 
ted that  its  practice  was  frequent  in  all  known 
countries  at  the  dawn  of  Christianity.  Ter- 
tullian,  in  the  treatise  mentioned  above,  dis- 
cusses in  the  light  of  Christian  revelation  the 
prevailing  pagan  practice  of  necromancy  and 
the  belief  underlying  it.  He  speaks  of  dead 
bodies  reanimated  by  demons  and  delivering  ora- 
cles through  the  magic  arts  of  sorcerers,  as  well 
as  of  the  evocation  of  departed  spirits.  This 
demoniac  agency,  he  contends,  was  employed 
by  the  Egyptian  magicians,  Simon  Magus  and 
Elymas,  to  deceive  the  multitude ;  and  he  main- 
tains that  this  same  agency  was  employed  by 
the  witch  of  Endor.  He  concludes  by  assert- 
ing that  it  is  the  exclusive  prerogative  of  the 
Creator  to  recall  the  departed  soul  to  its  body ; 
and  that  similar  prodigies  performed  by  de- 
mons are  mere  illusions.  Necromantic  prac- 
tices were  forbidden  under  severe  penalties  by 
Constantine;  and,  as  forming  a  part  of  the 
magic  art,  they  had  been  rigorously  proscribed 
under  the  republic  and  the  pagan  emperors. 
They  were  half  encouraged  and  half  censured 
by  Julian  the  Apostate,  who  reproached  the 
sick  Christians  with  sleeping  near  the  monu- 
ments of  the  martyrs  in  the  hope  of  having 
a  remedy  for  their  ills  revealed  to  them.  The 
professional  necromancers  (-tyvxayuyoi)  contin- 
ued to  be  proscribed  by  the  successors  of 
Julian,  as  well  as  by  the  canons  of  the  west- 
ern and  oriental  churches.  Of  the  practice  of 
necyomancy  among  the  pagan  northern  nations, 
we  have  one  striking  indication  in  the  Ssemun- 


j  die  Edda,  in  which  is  narrated  the  descent  of 
i  Odin  to  the  Scandinavian  hell  in  order  to  con- 
j  suit  the  prophetess  Angarbodi. — In  the  prac- 
tice of  necromancy,  founded  as  it  is  in  the 
belief  of  a  future  life  in  which  the  departed 
spirits  preserve  their  identity  and  associate 
with  each  other,  while  holding  a  certain  com- 
munion with  their  living  kindred  on  earth, 
certain  ritualistic  forms  have  been  handed 
down  from  age  to  age  with  slight  or  no  sub- 
stantial variation.  The  poetic  forms  of  the 
necromantic  ritual,  reflecting  more  or  less  truly 
the  national  belief  of  the  writers,  are  to  be 
found  in  the  Odyssey  of  Homer,  books  x.  and 
xi.,  the  "  Frogs  "  of  Aristophanes,  the  "  Persae " 
of  JSschylus,  the  "Menippus"  or  "Necyo- 
manteia "  of  Lucian,  and  from  Virgil,  Lucan, 
and  Horace  as  above  quoted.  It  is  said  that 
colleges  of  the  necromantic  art  existed  in  Spain 
throughout  the  middle  ages  and  as  late  as  the 
16th  century ;  but  absolutely  nothing  deserving 
to  be  considered  as  fact  can  be  gathered  from 
contemporary  authors.  The  reports  made  to 
the  inquisitorial  courts,  or  said  to  be  gathered 
from  their  archives,  are  found  upon  close  ex- 
amination to  be  unworthy  of  serious  belief. 
That  necromantic  and  other  magical  practices 
always  existed  in  some  localities  in  every 
Christian  land,  is  probable ;  but  that  the  rites, 
forms,  and  incantations  attributed  to  necro- 
mancers, and  printed  in  various  compilations, 
are  genuine,  cannot  be  regarded  as  proved. 

NECROSIS  (Gr.  vtitpuaiG,  from  ve/c/avv,  to  cause 
to  die),  a  term  employed  to  denote  the  death 
or  mortification  of  bony  tissue.  It  bears  the 
same  relation  to  the  bones  that  gangrene  does 
to  the  soft  parts ;  the  part  of  the  bone  affected 
with  necrosis  becoming  a  foreign  body,  like 
the  eschar  in  gangrene,  which,  by  the  efforts  of 
nature  or  of  art,  must  be  removed.  Necrosis 
is  the  result  of  inflammation  of  bone  (ostitis), 
caused  by  injury  or  arrest  of  nutrition;  it 
frequently  follows  ill-treated  or  badly  per- 
formed amputations,  and  is  more  apt  to  occur 
in  scrofulous  and  debilitated  subjects.  (See 
AMPUTATION.)  Inflammation  of  bone  does 
not,  however,  always  end  in  necrosis ;  for  reso- 
lution may  take  place,  or  superficial  suppura- 
tion. The  bones  of  the  lower  extremity,  par- 
ticularly the  femur  and  tibia,  are  those  most  fre- 
quently attacked,  although  persons  engaged  in 
making  lucifer  matches,  or  otherwise  exposed 
to  the  fumes  of  phosphorus,  often  have  ne- 
crosis of  the  jaw  bones.  (See  MATCH.)  Ne- 
crosis may  be  traumatic  (from  mechanical  in- 
jury) or  ideopathic  (without  immediate  exci^ 
ting  cause)  ;  and  the  inflammation  from  which 
it  arises  may  be  either  acute  or  chronic.  The 
progress  of  the  necrosis  itself  (that  is,  the  sep- 
aration of  bone)  is  more  or  less  slow.  The  ex- 
tent varies;  sometimes  a  mere  leaf  of  bone 
may  perish  on  the  external  surface,  a  process 
termed  exfoliation ;  or  a  large  exterior  section 
or  the  cancellated  interior  may  perish.  (See 
BONE.)  The  dead  portion  is  called  a  sequestrum, 
its  position  depending  upon  whether  the  ne- 


206 


NECTAR 


NEDJED 


crosis  is  external,  from  periostitis,  or  internal, 
from  endostitis.  (See  OSTEO-MYELITIS.)  Ne- 
crosis usually  attacks  the  laminated  structure 
of  the  shaft  rather  than  the  cancellated  or 
spongy  portion,  this  being  more  liable  to  ca- 
ries. (See  CAEIES.)  By  avoiding  the  articu- 
lar extremities,  therefore,  necrosis  is  not  apt  to 
be  complicated  with  synovial  inflammation,  but 
it  occasionally  attacks  the  head  .of  the  tibia. 
Its  progress  may  be  divided  into  two  stages, 
the  inflammatory  stage  and  the  stage  of  sep- 
aration, the  latter  taking  place  when  the  in- 
flammation reaches  the  point  of  suppuration. 
When  the  necrosis  is  external  to  the  shaft,  the 
periosteum,  when  not  destroyed,  generally  se- 
cretes a  shell  of  bone  outside  of  the  dead  part, 
and  through  holes  in  this  the  pus  passes  out. 
When  the  inflammation  is  in  the  membrane  of 
the  canal,  or  endosteum,  and  is  followed  by 
necrosis,  the  sequestrum  will  be  surrounded  by 
a  shell  of  the  true  shaft. — The  symptoms  of 
necrosis  are  those  of  inflammation  of  bone  in 
general,  attended  by  other  distinguishing  phys- 
ical signs,  such  as  whiteness  of  the  exposed 
bone,  resonance  on  being  struck,  and  absence 
of  haemorrhage  if  scratched.  If,  however,  the 
bone  retains  its  vitality,  the  color  is  brown,  it 
is  covered  with  a  secretion  of  its  own,  and  it 
bleeds  when  scratched.  The  treatment  is  both 
expectant  and  active.  Time,  pain,  and  much 
suffering  may  be  saved  by  an  early  and  free 
incision  into  the  diseased  part.  The  detach- 
ment of  the  sequestrum  must  be  left  entirely 
to  nature,  or  assisted  only  by  constitutional 
treatment,  such  as  leeches,  fomentations,  and 
other  local  antiphlogistic,  but  often  general 
tonic  treatment,  great  attention  being  paid  to 
supporting  the  strength.  When  the  sequestrum 
has  become  wholly  detached  from  the  living 
bone,  nature  should  be  assisted  in  its  removal 
by  art.  There  is  error  in  waiting  too  long,  as 
the  irritation  of  the  dead  part  may  induce  too 
much  structural  change ;  but  there  is  greater 
danger  in  interfering  too  soon,  before  the  piece 
of  bone  becomes  loose.  When  a  careful  ex- 
amination has  indicated  the  proper  time,  an 
incision  is  made  through  the  superficial  soft 
parts ;  then,  through  the  cloacae  in  the  exterior 
shell  of  bone  formed  by  the  periosteum,  the 
form  and  position  of  the  sequestrum  may  be 
ascertained  with  a  probe.  If  necessary  the 
exterior  shell  must  be  divided  by  cutting  pliers, 
and  an  opening  sufficiently  large  made  to  ad- 
mit of  extraction  by  the  forceps,  which  must 
be  carefully  and  gently  done.  Amputation  is 
sometimes  required. 

NECTAR,  in  Greek  and  Roman  mythology, 
the  beverage  of  the  gods,  imparting  health, 
vigor,  youth,  and  beauty  to  all  who  drank  it. 
It  is  described  as  a  red  wine,  which  like  that 
of  mortals  was  drunk  mixed  with  water.  It 
was  served  at  the  banquets  of  the  immortals 
by  Hebe  or  Ganymede.  According  to  a  few 
ancient  writers  it  was  the  same  as  ambrosia, 
being  not  the  drink  but  the  food  of  the  gods. 
In  the  Iliad,  Thetis  is  represented  as  preserving 


the  body  of  Patroclus  from  decay  by  anointing 
it  with  both  ambrosia  and  nectar. 

NECTARINE  (Ital.  nettarino).  When  the  nec- 
tarine was  introduced  into  cultivation,  or 
whether  it  was  known  to  the  ancients,  is  not 
ascertained.  It  is  simply  a  peach  with  a  smooth 
skin  (see  PEACH),  and  nectarines  have  been 
raised  from  peach  stones  and  vice  versa.  As 
early  as  1741  Peter  Collinson,  in  his  corre- 
spondence with  Linnaeus,  cited  the  case  of  a 
peach  tree  producing  nectarines,  an  occurrence 
which  has  frequently  been  noticed  in  this  coun- 
try as  well  as  in  Europe ;  and  one  instance  is 
recorded  in  which  a  nectarine  tree  at  first  bore 
fruit  half  nectarine  and  half  peach,  and  sub- 
sequently bore  a  perfect  peach.  The  Boston 
nectarine,  one  of  the  esteemed  varieties,  is 
known  to  have  been  raised  from  a  peach  stone. 
As  with  peaches,  there  are  free-stone  and 
cling-stone  nectarines.  In  quality  the  nectarine 
is  not  so  rich  as  the  best  peaches,  but  its  flavor 
is  distinct,  and  frequently  strongly  marked 
with  the  bitter-almond  or  prussic-acid  flavor; 
but  no  fruit  exceeds  it  in  beauty,  the  wax-like 
skin  being  often  of  the  richest  shades  of  yellow 
and  carmine.  Something  over  30  varieties  are 
in  the  fruit  catalogues,  differing  in  size,  color, 
time  of  ripening,  &c.  The  Elruge  and  Violette 
Hative  are  the  varieties  most  generally  cul- 
tivated, the  popularity  of  the  latter  being 
shown  by  its  having  about  15  synonymes.  So 
far  as  climate  is  concerned,  the  nectarine  will 
succeed  wherever  the  peach  will,  but  it  is  much 
less  seen  in  our  gardens  than  formerly  on  ac- 
count of  the  destruction  of  the  fruit  by  the 
curculio  ;  its  smooth  shining  skin  seems  to  offer 
an  especially  tempting  place  for  the  female 
curculio  to  deposit  her  eggs;  by  systematic 
jarring  of  the  trees,  as  practised  with  the 
plum,  a  good  share  of  the  fruit  might  be  saved. 
Under  glass  the  nectarine  reaches  great  per- 
fection, and  there  are  few  finer  sights  in  hor- 
ticulture than  a  nectarine  house  in  full  bearing, 
at  the  time  the  fruit  is  ripening. 

NECTARY  (nectarium),  the  term  applied  by 
Linnaeus  to  the  parts  of  the  flower  in  which 
nectar  or  honey  is  secreted.  It  was  afterward 
used  for  any  anomalous  appendage  to  the  flow- 
er, or  for  any  unusual  development  of  its  parts, 
such  as  the  spurs  of  the  calyx  in  columbine 
and  the  curiously  modified  petals  of  the  aco- 
nites ;  it  was  also  given  to  the  cup  which  sur- 
rounds the  stamens  in  narcissus,  to  various 
disks  and  glands  of  the  flower,  and  in  fact  to 
all  parts  of  the  flower  not  properly  referred 
to  calyx,  corolla,  stamens,  and  pistils.  Having 
become  such  an  indefinite  term,  being  applied 
to  bodies  of  widely  different  nature  and  with- 
out regard  to  whether  they  secreted  honey  or 
not,  it  has  of  late  years  been  dropped  by  the 
best  authors,  and  may  be  regarded  as  obsolete. 

NEDJED,  or  Ncjd,  a  country  of  central  Arabia, 
the  dominion  of  the  sultan  of  the  Wahabees, 
between  lat.  19°  20'  and  29°  30'  N.,  and  Ion. 
40°  10'  and  50°  20'  E.,  bounded  K  by  Shomer, 
E.  by  the  Persian  gulf,  W.  by  Hedjaz,  and  S. 


KEDJED 


207 


by  the  Dahna  or  great  sandy  desert ;  pop.  in 
1862,  according  to  Palgrave,  1,219,000.  The 
country  is  divided  into  11  provinces,  and  the 
population  is  distributed  in  316  towns  or  vil- 
lages. Nedjed  is  traversed  from  N.  E.  to  S. 
W.  by  a  range  of  mountains  called  Jebel  To- 
weik,  whose  general  form  is  that  of  a  crescent. 
It  is  a  wide  and  flat  chain,  or  rather  plateau, 
with  an  elevation  of  from  1,000  to  2,000  ft. 
above  the  surrounding  country,  or  about  3,000 
ft.  above  the  sea.  The  extreme  verge  is  gen- 
erally abrupt,  the  chalky  cliffs  rising  from  the 
plain  500  or  600  ft.  Then  succeeds  a  table 
land,  nearly  level ;  then  another  steppe  of  300 
or  400  ft.,  followed  by  a  second  table  land; 
and  occasionally  a  third  and  loftier  one  crowns 
the  whole.  The  entire  plateau  is  intersected 
by  numerous  valleys  of  various  breadth  and 
length,  but  nearly  all  of  which  are  bordered 
with  steep  and  sometimes  precipitous  banks. 
The  plateaus  are  for  the  most  part  clothed 
with  fine  pasture,  which  lasts  throughout  the 
year ;  but  the  greater  the  elevation,  the  less 
is  the  fertility  and  the  drier  the  soil.  Trees, 
solitary  or  in  groups,  are  common.  Little 
water  is  to  be  found,  the  torrents  that  pour 
down  the  cliffs  in  winter  being  soon  absorbed. 
In  the  valleys  the  underground  supply  is  con- 
stant and  copious.  Jebel  Toweik  is  of  cal- 
careous formation,  and  not  granitic  like  the 
mountains  of  Shomer,  although  in  the  south- 
east peaks  of  granite  are  intermixed  some- 
times with  the  limestone  rock.  Iron  ore  is 
found  in  the  W.  part  of  the  range.  The  soil 
of  the  valleys  is  light,  a  combination  of  marl, 
$and,  and  little  pebbles  washed  down  from  the 
heights.  In  these  valleys  are  concentrated  the 
fertility  and  the  population  of  central  Nedjed. 
The  climate  of  the  N".  part  of  the  range,  where 
the  mountains  are  the  highest,  particularly  in 
the  province  of  Sedeyr,  is  as  healthy  as  any  in 
the  world,  and  the  inhabitants  are  remarkable 
for  their  ruddy  complexions  and  well  developed 
forms.  The  principal  towns  of  this  province 
are  Atalah  and  Toweym,  the  latter  having  12,- 
000  inhabitants.  West  of  Sedeyr  lies  Woshem, 
the  chief  town  of  which  is  Shakra ;  and  S.  of 
it  are  Aared  and  Yemamah,  in  the  former  of 
which  is  Riyad,  the  capital  of  Nedjed.  Through- 
out this  central  region  there  is  abundant  pas- 
ture, and  the  sheep,  camels,  horses,  and  cattle 
excel  those  in  other  parts  of  Arabia.  There 
is  a  broad-tailed  breed  of  sheep,  yielding  good 
mutton  and  remarkably  fine  wool.  Camels 
abound,  and  dromedaries  are  more  frequently 
seen  than  in  Shomer.  Cows  and  oxen  are  com- 
mon, of  a  prevailing  dun  color,  small-limbed, 
and  having  a  hump  like  the  cattle  of  India. 
The  horses  are  the  perfection  of  the  Arab 
breed,  but  are  not  common,  for  none  but  chiefs 
or  men  of  wealth  and  rank  possess  them.  They 
are  small,  but  of  exquisite  shape,  and  generally 
of  chestnut  or  gray  color.  Wild  boars  and 
pigs  are  sometimes  seen  in  the  mountains,  and 
gazelles  are  numerous.  Game  is  abundant,  es- 
pecially of  the  feathered  kind,  such  as  par- 
591  VOL.  xn. — 14 


tridges,  quails,  and  pigeons,  but  is  seldom  hunt- 
ed. There  are  no  venomous  insects,  and  flies 
are  almost  unknown. — On  the  N.  boundary  of 
Nedjed,  on  the  borders  of  Shomer,  is  the  prov- 
ince of  Kasim,  separated  from  central  Nedjed  by 
a  nefood  or  sand  pass,  stretching  from  N.  E.  to 
S.  W,  and  almost  impassable  in  the  hot  months. 
Kasim  is  a  large  plain,  about  60  m.  in  width 
and  twice  as  much  or  more  in  length,  studded 
with  towns  and  villages,  towers  and  groves. 
Besides  four  or  five  large  towns  and  more  than 
50  villages,  its  surface  is  strewn  with  smaller 
hamlets  and  isolated  wells  and  gardens,  con- 
nected with  each  other  by  a  maze  of  paths  and 
tracks.  From  here  to  Jebel  Toweik  extends 
a  series  of  high  watch  towers,  that  afford  the 
means  of  discerning  the  approach  of  invasion. 
The  soil,  a  red  or  yellow  sand,  gives  little  prom- 
ise to  the  eye,  but  wherever  irrigated  pro- 
duces a  rich  vegetation.  Water  is  abundant. 
The  date  palm  is  the  staple  article  of  cultiva- 
tion, but  the  peach,  apricot,  fig,  and  grape  are 
also  raised.  Cotton  grows  well,  but  none  is 
raised  for.  export.  An  important  commerce 
was  once  carried  on  between  Kasim  and  Da- 
mascus, but  it  has  ceased  to  exist  under  Wa- 
habee  rule.  The  principal  walled  towns  of 
Kasim  are  Bereydah  (pop.  25,000),  and  Oneysa 
(30,000).  Hasa,  another  province  of  Nedjed, 
lies  on  the  Persian  gulf.  Its  N.  part  consti- 
tutes the  province  of  Katif,  but  the  two  are 
considered  as  one  district  by  the  government. 
The  chief  town  is  Hofhuf.  Katif,  the  princi- 
pal seaport  of  Nedjed,  about  80  m.  N.  by'E. 
of  Hofhuf,  was  once  a  place  of  considerable 
commerce,  but  the  neighboring  island  of  Bah- 
rein, in  the  dominions  of  the  sultan  of  Oman, 
has  absorbed  most  of  its  trade.  The  vegetation 
of  Hasa  differs  in  many  respects  from  that  of 
central  Nedjed.  The  date  palm  still  predom- 
inates, but  the  nabalc,  a  mere  bush  inland,  be- 
comes here  a  stately  tree.  Indigo  is  cultivated, 
and  cotton  is  more  widely  grown  than  in  Ye- 
mamah or  Kasim ;  rice  fields  abound,  and  the 
sugar  cane  is  raised.  Almost  all  the  legumi- 
nous plants  and  the  cereals,  barley  excepted, 
grow  to  perfection,  and  under  a  different  gov- 
ernment could  be  raised  with  profit ;  but  heavy 
taxes  and  arbitrary  contributions  have  ruined 
agriculture.  Hasa  was  once  noted  for  its  man- 
ufactures. Its  cloths  of  silk  and  wool  mixture, 
of  a  delicacy  of  work  and  elegance  of  pattern 
unknown  elsewhere  save  in  Cashmere,  and  its 
embroidered  cloaks  of  brilliant  colors,  bordered 
with  gold  and  silver  threads,  were  famed  in 
the  eastern  world.  Its  artisans  in  the  precious 
metals,  copper,  and  brass  were  unrivalled.  But 
Wahabee  fanaticism  and  proscription  of  all 
luxuries  has  cut  off  these  branches  of  labor, 
which  once  supplied  an  important  commerce. 
The  climate  of  the  coast  is  not  so  healthy  as 
that  inland,  and  the  people  are  more  sallow  in 
complexion,  and  have  less  physical  activity. 
A  large  part  of  the  remainder  of  Nedjed  is  a 
desert  interspersed  with  occasional  oases.  The 
great  pilgrim  routes  from  Persia  to  the  holy 


208 


NEEDLE 


cities  lie  across  Nedjed;  the  more  northerly 
one,  to  Medina,  through  the  province  of  Ka- 
sim,  that  to  Mecca  along  the  N.  base  of  Jebel 
Toweik.  The  caravans  are  made  to  pay  ex- 
orbitant tribute,  for  the  Persians  and  all  others 
who  are  not  strict  Wahabees  are  regarded  as 
heretics  whom  it  is  right  to  despoil. — Nedjed 
contains  two  diverse  elements  in  its  popula- 
tion, those  who  are  strict  "Wahabees  in  faith  and 
those  who  are  Wahabees  by  subjection  only. 
The  former  class  predominates  in  the  provinces 
of  Aared,  Woshem,  Sedeyr,  Aflaj,  Dowasir, 
and  Yemamah.  In  the  other  provinces  there 
is  not  much  attachment  to  the  reigning  dynas- 
ty, and  the  people  are  unsettled  in  their  opin- 
ions. Hasa,  Katif,  and  Kasim  are  subject  to 
Nedjed  only  because  they  are  unable  to  free 
themselves,  the  majority  of  the  people  being 
Mohammedans,  but  not  Wahabees.  The  gov- 
ernment is  a  pure  despotism.  The  military 
muster  of  the  sultanate  is  about  50,000  men. 
Two  or  three  miserable  vessels  at  Katif  con- 
stitute the  navy.  The  annual  revenue  is  esti- 
mated by  Palgrave  at  about  £100,000,  with  a 
nearly  equal  income  from  extraordinary  con- 
tributions, fines,  spoils  of  war,  &c. — For  the 
earlier  history  of  Nedjed  see  WAHABEES.  In 
1834  Turky,  the  sultan  of  Nedjed,  who  was  ac- 
tively engaged  in  reconstructing  his  kingdom, 
ruined  by  the  Egyptian  invasion,  was  assassi- 
nated by  his  cousin  Mashary,  who  usurped  the 
throne.  Faisul,  Turky 's  son,  returned  at  once 
from  Hasa,  where  he  had  been  besieging  Hof- 
huf,  slew  Mashary,  and  assumed  the  sover- 
eignty. The  Egyptians  again  overran  Nedjed 
in  1838,  and  Faisul  surrendered  to  their  com- 
mander ;  but  in  1843  he  returned  to  Riyad  and 
reestablished  himself  as  the  legitimate  head  of 
the  Wahabees.  He  died  in  1865,  and  was  suc- 
ceeded by  his  son  Abdallah,  against  whom  his 
younger  brother  Turky  successfully  revolted. 
Abdallah,  expelled,  sought  aid  from  the  Sublime 
Porte,  which  sent  an  armed  force  and  in  1874 
took  possession  of  Hasa  on  the  east,  while  on 
the  west  another  body  of  troops  occupied  Lahe, 
but  with  what  result  so  far  as  Nedjed  is  con- 
cerned is  not  now  (February,  1875)  known. — 
See  Palgrave's  "  Journey  through  Central  and 
Eastern  Arabia"  (London,  1865),  and  Pelly's 
"  Visit  to  the  Wahabee  Capital,"  in  the  "Journal 
of  the  London  Geographical  Society  "  (1865). 

NEEDLE,  a  slender  steel  instrument,  pointed 
at  one  end  and  with  an  eye  at  the  other,  used 
for  carrying  the  thread  in  sewing.  Among 
uncivilized  people,  at  a  very  early  period,  rude 
attempts  were  made  to  form  needles  or  bod- 
kins of  bone  and  ivory,  by  means  of  which 
their  garments  might  be  stitched  together ;  but 
among  the  more  refined  nations  of  antiquity, 
as  the  Chinese,  Hindoos,  Egyptians,  Assyrians, 
and  Hebrews,  fine  needles  must  have  been  in 
common  use.  Pliny  mentions  needles  of  bronze 
for  sewing  and  knitting  as  being  in  use  in  his 
day,  and  bronze  needles  of  large  size  have  been 
found  in  Egyptian  tombs,  which  must  have 
been  made  4,000  years  ago.  Fine  needles  could 


not  of  course  resist  the  consuming  action  of 
air  and  moisture  for  so  great  a  length  of  time. 
The  Spanish  or  steel  needle  was  introduced 
into  England  in  the  time  of  Queen  Elizabeth ; 
but  the  process  by  which  it  was  made  was 
kept  secret,  and  the  art  was  unknown  till  the 
year  1650,  when  it  was  revived  by  Christopher 
Greening  at  Long  Crenden  in  Buckingham- 
shire. Great  improvements  have  since  been 
introduced  in  needle  making;  and  the  "fine 
steel  needles  "  of  that  period  bear  but  a  faint 
resemblance  to  the  delicate  and  highly  temper- 
ed needles  of  the  present  time.  The  manufac- 
ture of  needles  is  now  carried  on  to  a  great  ex- 
tent in  many  villages  in  England,  but  princi- 
pally at  Redditch,  about  12  m.  from  Birming- 
ham, and  from  this  obscure  place  a  large  por- 
tion of  Europe,  the  British  colonies,  and  the 
United  States  are  supplied.  They  are  also 
made  at  Aix-la-Chapelle  and  its  suburb  Bor- 
cette,  the  latter  place  being  the  principal  seat 
of  the  manufacture  on  the  continent. — Though 
extremely  simple  in  its  form  and  appearance, 
the  needle  requires  many  operations  for  its 
construction,  passing  through  the  hands  of 
nearly  100  workmen.  The  wires  of  various 
sizes  "being  furnished  in  coils  to  the  needle 
maker,  he  selects  such  as  are  of  equal  diameter 
and  clips  them  into  pieces,  each  of  the  length 
of  two  needles,  with  large  shears,  which  are 
fastened  to  the  wall  of  the  cutting  room. 
After  being  straightened,  they  are  pointed 
by  applying  them  to  small,  rapidly  revolving 
grindstones.  The  wires  being  pointed  at  both 
ends,  the  centre  of  each  is  flattened,  and  a 
groove  is  formed  on  either  side,  with  a  small 
indentation  at  the  spot  where  the  eye  of  the 
needle  is  to  be  made,  which  operation  is  per- 
formed by  means  of  a  stamping  machine.  A 
bed  of  iron  which  contains  the  under  half  of 
the  die  or  stamp  is  supported  on  a  heavy 
stone,  the  upper  half  being  attached  to  the 
bottom  of  a  hammer,  of  about  12  Ibs.  weight, 
which  is  raised  with  the  foot  by  means  of  a 
lever.  The  wires  are  dropped,  one  at  a  time, 
upon  the  iron  bed,  and  the  hammer  is  made 
to  fall  upon  them  with  a  sharp  blow.  The 
raised  faces  of  the  stamp  produce  indenta- 
tions on  the  opposite  sides  of  the  wire ;  and 
though  the  operator  adjusts  each  piece  sepa- 
rately, yet  he  can  stamp  2,000  wires  or  4,000 
needles  in  an  hour.  The  work  of  eyeing  the 
needles  is  performed  by  boys,  who  use  small 
hand  presses  for  the  purpose.  The  lengths  are 
next  separated  between  the  eyes  by  bending 
the  lines  of  needles  backward  and  forward. 
The  points  then  being  held  firmly  in  a  hand 
vice,  the  heads  are  filed  to  their  proper  shape. 
This  completes  the  soft  work,  as  it  is  called. 
The  next  process  is  hardening.  The  needles 
are  now  in  a  black,  soft,  dingy  state ;  and  in 
order  to  harden  them  they  are  placed  on  iron 
plates  and  brought  to  a  red  heat,  when  they 
are  plunged  into  cold  oil,  after  which  they 
are  again  heated  to  a  less  temperature  and 
more  gradually  cooled.  The  scouring  or  clean- 


NEEDLES 

ing  is  accomplished  by  laying  the  needles  in 
heaps  upon  pieces  of  canvas,  scattering  them 
upon  a  quantity  of  soft  soap,  emery,  and  oil, 
and  rolling  them  into  bundles,  which  are  close- 
ly wound  with  twine.  Each  bundle  is  from  2 
to  3  ft.  long  and  from  3  to  4  in.  thick.  These 
are  placed  in  a  scouring  machine,  which  resem- 
bles a  common  mangle,  and  rolled  backward 
and  forward  for  50  or  60  hours.  The  scouring 
and  cleaning  is  continued  for  the  best  needles 
seven  or  eight  days.  When  taken  out  of  the 
canvas  they  are  laid  on  tin  plates,  and  a  little 
girl  is  employed  to  place  the  heads  all  one  way. 
This  is  done  simply  by  wrapping  a  piece  of 
wash  leather  around  the  fore  finger,  and  press- 
ing it  against  one  end  of  the  pile  of  needles, 
thus  catching  all  the  points  which  lie  in  that 
direction.  All  the  imperfect  needles  are  then 
removed,  the  remainder  are  placed  in  rows 
upon  metal  plates  with  the  eyes  projecting 
over  the  edge,  and  a  red-hot  iron  plate  is 
brought  sufficiently  near  to  produce  a  dark 
blue  film  upon  the  heads,  which  indicates  a 
proper  temper.  The  very  delicate  operation 
of  drilling,  or  removing  the  jagged  portions 
from  the  interior  of  the  eye,  follows.  This 
is  performed  by  a  woman  who  has  before 
her  a  three-sided  steel  drill,  revolving  rapidly. 
Taking  the  needles  in  her  hand  and  arranging 
them  in  the  form  of  a  fan,  she  brings  them 
successively  under  the  action  of  the  drill,  first 
on  one  side  and  then  on  the  other,  after  bevel- 
ling off  the  sharp  edge  of  the  eye  where  it 
communicates  with  the  groove,  which  is  called 
counter-sinking.  The  drilling  of  the  eye  is 
a  modern  improvement,  and  requires  a  very 
steady  hand.  The  points  are  finished  upon  a 
small  rotating  stone,  and  then  polished  on  a 
wheel  covered  with  buff  leather,  slightly  coated 
with  polishing  paste.  Lastly  they  are  counted 
into  quarters  of  hundreds,  folded  in  colored 
papers,  and  labelled.  For  exportation  these 
are  made  up  into  packets  containing  from 
20,000  to  60,000  each.  The  processes  above 
described  apply  only  to  the  finer  sorts  of  nee- 
dles. In  the  heavier  kinds,  such  as  harness, 
upholsterers',  sail,  mattress,  and  bookbinding 
needles,  many  of  these  operations  are  omitted. 
The  French  needles  are  generally  made  of  iron 
wire  which  is  converted  in  the  course  of  the 
process  by  cementation  into  steel.  The  man- 
ufacture by  this  method  is  less  difficult,  but  the 
needles  are  decidedly  inferior  to  the  English. 

NEEDLES,  The,  a  cluster  of  five  pyramidal 
rocks  in  the  English  channel,  lying  off  the  W. 
extremity  of  the  isle  of  Wight.  They  are  com- 
posed of  thick  strata  of  chalk  alternating  with 
very  thin  strata  of  black  flint.  The  waves  are 
continually  producing  changes  in  their  form, 
and  only  three  of  the  pyramids  now  stand 
prominently  out  of  the  water.  In  1764  the 
principal  one,  which  was  120  ft.  high,  fell 
down,  and  almost  entirely  disappeared. 

NEEF,  or  Neefs,  Pieter,  the  elder,  a  painter 
of  the  Flemish  school,  born  in  Antwerp  about 
1570,  died  in  1651.  He  was  a  pupil  of  Hendrik 


NEES  VON  ESENBECK        209 

Steenwyck  the  elder,  and  like  him  was  distin- 
guished for  his  excellence  in  perspective  and 
architectural  views.  He  painted  principally 
the  interiors  of  churches  and  temples.  Many 
of  these  views  are  represented  by  torchlight. 
As  he  was  deficient  in  the  designing  of  fig- 
ures, he  often  employed  the  Francks,  Van 
Thulden,  Jan  Breughel,  or  Teniers  to  paint 
them ;  and  his  pictures  decorated  by  the  two 
last  are  very  valuable. 

NEELE,  Henry,  an  English  author,  born  in 
London,  Jan.  29,  1798,  committed  suicide  in  a 
fit  of  insanity,  Feb.  7,  1828.  He  was  the  son 
of  an  engraver  in  the  Strand,  and  in  early  life 
was  articled  to  an  attorney.  He  published 
"Odes  and  other  Poems"  (1817),  "Dramatic 
and  Miscellaneous  Poetry"  (1823),  and  "Ro- 
mance of  English  History  "  (1827).  In  1827  he 
delivered  a  series  of  lectures  on  English  poe- 
try from  Chaucer  to  Cowper,  which  were  pub- 
lished after  his  death,  under  the  title  of  "  Lit- 
erary Remains;"  and  a  volume  of  "Tales" 
and  other  miscellaneous  pieces  in  prose  and 
verse  was  published  in  1830. 

NEES  VON  ESENBECK,  Christian  Gottfried  Daniel, 
a  German  botanist,  born  near  Erbach  in  the 
Odenwald,  Feb.  14, 1776,  died  in  Breslau,  March 
16,  1858.  He  was  educated  at  the  gymnasium 
of  Darmstadt  and  the  university  of  Jena,  and 
after  practising  for  a  time  as  a  physician  was 
appointed  in  1818  professor  of  botany  at  Er- 
langen,  and  subsequently  was  elected  president 
of  the  Leopoldine  academy  of  naturalists.  In 
the  same  year  he  was  appointed  professor  of 
botany  in  Bonn,  where,  with  the  help  of  his 
brother  and  of  Sinning,  the  gardener  of  the 
botanic  garden,  he  was  the  means  of  founding 
a  new  institution  for  the  science.  In  1830 
he  went  to  Breslau  as  professor  of  botany  and 
director  of  the  botanic  garden.  Shortly  before 
the  political  commotions  of  1848  he  became  an 
active  member  of  the  newly  formed  Breslau 
religious  association  called  ChristTcatholiken, 
whose  aim  was  to  utilize  the  working  power  of 
the  congregation  by  organizing  among  them- 
selves associations  for  various  benevolent  pur- 
poses. In  1848  he  went  to  Berlin,  where  he 
was  active  in  the  cause  of  democracy,  and  on 
his  return  founded  at  Breslau  a  society  called 
the  fraternity  of  laborers  for  the  promotion  of 
their  education,  domestic  comfort,  and  business 
relations.  The  government  ordered  him  to  re- 
sign its  presidency.  He  was  soon  afterward 
prosecuted  for  living  with  a  woman  without 
having  been  divorced  from  his  third  wife,  and 
in  1851  he  was  suspended  and  in  the  follow- 
ing year  deposed  from  his  professorship.  His 
prosecution  was  generally  considered  to  be 
merely  a  pretext  in  order  to  interfere  with  his 
reformatory  labors.  He  was  also  a  believer 
in  spiritualism,  and  some  of  his  children  were 
reported  to  be  clairvoyants.  For  the  support 
of  his  numerous  family,  he  was  obliged  to  sell 
his  valuable  library,  and  his  herbarium,  con- 
sisting of  80,000  specimens.  One  of  the  most 
distinguished  of  German  botanists,  he  was  hon- 


210 


NE  EXEAT 


ored  with  numerous  dignities,  and  was  elected 
a  member  of  77  learned  societies.  Goethe,  in 
his  "Metamorphosis  of  Plants,"  had  advanced 
the  theory  that  the  various  parts  of  the  flower 
are  all  modifications  of  one  common  type,  the 
leaf ;  and  this  theory  Nees  von  Esenbeck  de- 
monstrated to  be  scientifically  true  in  his  Hand- 
buck  der  Botanik  (2  vols.,  Nuremberg,  1820-'21). 
Among  his  other  botanical  works  are :  Die  Al- 
gen  des  sussen  Wassers  (Bamberg,  1814);  Das 
System  der  Pilze  und  Schwamme  (Wiirzburg, 
1816);  Die  Pflanzensubstanz,  written  in  con- 
junction with  Bischof  and  Rothe  (Erlangen, 
1819);  Bryologia  Germanica,  with  43  colored 
plates,  in  conjunction  with  Hornschuh  and 
Sturm  (2  vols.,  Nuremberg,  1823-'31);  Agrosto- 
logia  Brasiliensis,  forming  the  first  part  of  Mar- 
tius's  Flora  Brasiliensis  (Stuttgart,  1829),  to 
which  he  appended  a  poem  of  16  pages,  enti- 
tled De  SaccJiaro  Opificio  Carmen ;  Enumera- 
tio  Plantarum  Cryptogamicarum  Java  et  Insu- 
larum  adjacentium  (Breslau,  1830);  Genera  et 
Species  Asterearum  (Nuremberg,  1833) ;  Syste- 
ma  Laurinarum  (Berlin,  1836);  Flora  Africa 
Australioris  Illustrationes  Monographic®  (Glo- 
gau,  1841) ;  and  Sy sterna  Hepaticarum,  in  con- 
junction with  Gottsche  and  Lindenberg  (Ham- 
burg, 1844-7).  In  1852  he  published  the  first 
volume  of  a  projected  illustrated  manual  of 
universal  natural  history,  entitled  Die  allge- 
meine  FormenleJire  der  Natur  (2d  ed.,  Breslau, 
1861).  He  early  applied  himself  to  the  study 
of  cryptogamous  plants,  in  regard  to  which  his 
researches  were  minute  and  extensive.  His 
great  work  in  this  department  is  the  Natur- 
gescMchte  der  europaischen  Lebermoose,  also 
known  under  the  title  of  Erinnerungen  aus 
dem  RiesengeMrge  (4  vols.,  Berlin  and  Breslau, 
1833-'8).  In  the  sphere  of  speculative  thought 
he  published  Die  NaturphilosopJiie  (1841), 
which  he  intended  as  the  first  part  of  a  "  Sys- 
tem of  Speculative  Philosophy." 

NE  EXEAT.  The  writ  ne  exeat  regno  in  Eng- 
land, and  ne  exeat  republica  in  the  United 
States,  is  issued  by  the  court  of  chancery  to 
restrain  a  defendant  in  a  pending  suit  from 
leaving  the  country.  It  is  directed  to  the 
sheriff  of  the  proper  county,  and  commands 
the  arrest  of  the  defendant  and  his  detention 
until  he  shall  give  security  in  a  sum  specified 
not  to  depart  from  the  jurisdiction  of  the  court 
without  its  permission.  The  writ  is  not  allow- 
ed until  after  bill  filed,  nor  without  a  showing 
under  oath  both  of  a  good  cause  of;  action,  and 
of  a  threat  or  design  on  the  part  of  the  de- 
fendant to  go  abroad,  by  means  whereof  the 
purpose  of  the  action  may  be  defeated.  It  is 
not  often  resorted  to,  and  indeed  since  impris- 
onment for.  debt  has  been  almost  universally 
abolished  there  are  only  a  few  cases,  such  as 
those  of  fraud  in  fiduciary  relations,  and  others 
standing  on  like  reasons,  in  which  the  court 
could  be  justified  in  awarding  it.  From  the 
foregoing  statement  that  this  remedy  has  be- 
come an  unusual  one  should  perhaps  be  ex- 
«epted  the  state  of  New  York,  in  which  a 


NEGLIGENCE 

question  seems  to  have  been  made  whether  the 
province  of  the  writ  is  not  extended  by  the 
abolition  of  distinctions  between  legal  and 
equitable  remedies.  There  is  a  conflict  in  the 
rulings  of  the  courts  whether  the  writ  is  not 
abolished  by  the  code,  but  in  the  supreme  court 
a  very  liberal  use  has  of  late  been  made  of  it.  * 

NEFF,  Felix,  a  Swiss  missionary,  born  in  Ge- 
neva, Oct.  8,  1798,  died  there,  April  12,  1829. 
He  entered  the  army,  and  reached  the  rank 
of  sergeant,  but  left  the  service  in  1819  to  be- 
come a  missionary  in  the  valleys  of  the  upper 
Alps.  In  1821-'2  he  visited  the  destitute  dis- 
tricts of  Grenoble  and  Mens  in  France;  and 
in  April,  1823,  went  to  England,  where  he  was 
ordained  an  Independent  minister.  He  after- 
ward resumed  his  labors  in  the  Alpine  glens, 
dedicating  churches,  organizing  schools,  and 
aiming  incessantly  to  benefit  the  people ;  and 
the  hardships  to  which  he  subjected  himself 
finally  destroyed  his  health.  His  life  has  been 
written  by  A.  Bost  (London,  1855). 

NEGAITNEE,  a  city  of  Marquette  co.,  Michi- 
gan, situated  in  the  midst  of  the  iron  region, 
at  the  junction  of  the  Marquette,  Houghton, 
and  Ontonagon  railroad  with  the  Peninsular 
division  of  the  Chicago  and  Northwestern  line, 
12  m.  "W.  by  S.  of  Marquette;  pop.  in  1874, 
3,741.  On  the  south  and  west  are  large  hills 
containing  immense  deposits  of  iron  ore,  and 
on  the  N.  border  is  Teal  lake,  a  beautiful  body 
of  water  2  m.  long  by  £  m.  wide.  There  are 
productive  mines  and  several  large  blast  fur- 
naces within  the  city  limits.  Negaunee  has  a 
number  of  stores  doing  a  large  business  with 
the  surrounding  mines,  a  national  and  two 
state  banks,  a  weekly  newspaper,  good  public 
schools,  and  three  churches.  Previous  to  1865 
it  contained  only  a  few  cabins. 

NEGLIGENCE,  in  law,  primarily  the  want  of 
care,  caution,  attention,  diligence,  skill,  or  dis- 
cretion in  the  performance  of  an  act  by  one 
having  no  positive  intention  to  injure ;  and 
secondarily  the  omission  to  perform  a  duty  im- 
posed by  law  for  the  avoidance  of  injury  to 
persons  or  property  of  others.  In  the  civil  law 
negligence  is  classed  as  slight,  ordinary,  and 
gross ;  the  first  being  the  want  of  great  care 
and  diligence,  the  second  the  want  of  ordinary 
care  and  diligence,  and  the  last  the  want  of 
even  slight  care  and  diligence.  The.  propriety 
of  this  classification  has  often  been  denied  by 
common  law  judges;  but  as  the  degree  of  care, 
caution,  and  diligence  required  of  parties  is 
different  under  different  circumstances,  so  that 
the  same  want  of  caution  and  prudence  which 
under  one  set  of  circumstances  would  render 
the  parties  chargeable  with  it  liable  as  for  neg- 
ligence, would  give  no  right  of  action  under 
another,  the  classification  is  found  useful  as 
indicating  the  different  degrees  of  diligence 
required  by  the  law  in  different  cases.  Thus, 
if  for  the  mere  accommodation  of  my  neighbor 
I  loan  to  him  the  use  of  my  horse,  for  which 
he  is  to  make  no  compensation,  it  is  reasonable 
that  he  should  take  the  highest  care  of  him, 


NEGLIGENCE 


211 


and  that  he  should  respond  to  me  for  any  dam- 
ages occasioned  by  even  a  slight  want  of  care 
and  diligence ;  while,  on  the  other  hand,  if  I 
desire  him  to  keep  my  horse  for  me  a  short 
time,  without  compensation  and  solely  for  my 
accommodation,  it  would  be  unreasonable  to 
charge  him  with  an  obligation  for  the  like  ex- 
treme care,  or  to  hold  him  responsible  for  any- 
thing short  of  serious  and  culpable  neglect. 
If,  however,  the  bailment  is  for  the  mutual 
accommodation  and  benefit  of  both  parties,  so 
that  he  has  the  use  of  the  horse  while  I  am 
compensated  for  it,  the  just  rule  would  seem 
to  be  that  he  should  take  such  care  of  the 
horse  as  a  prudent  man  would  of  his  own,  and 
that  anything  short  of  this,  resulting  in  inju- 
ry, should  be  accounted  actionable  negligence. 
The  rules  on  this  subject  have  been  explained 
to  some  extent  in  the  article  BAILMENT,  and 
the  liability  of  an  employer  for  the  negligence 
of  his  servant  is  stated  in  that  on  MASTEK  AND 
SERVANT.  In  general,  any  person  guilty  of 
negligence  in  the  exercise  of  his  rights,  or  fail- 
ing in  due  time  and  manner  or  with  due  care 
to  perform  a  duty,  whereby  another  person 
sustains  injury,  is  responsible  to  the  party  in- 
jured for  the  consequent  damage.  Thus,  if  an 
attorney  undertakes  the  management  of  a  suit, 
but  neglects  to  file  pleadings  in  due  time,  or  to 
attend  at  the  time  fixed  for  trial,  or  to  produce 
in  evidence  the  documents  in  his  possession 
proving  his  client's  right,  and  his  client  loses 
his  suit  in  consequence,  the  injured  party  by 
the  proper  action,  counting  on  this  negligence, 
may  recover  compensation  for  what  he  has 
suffered  thereby;  and  if  a  railway  company, 
owing  a  duty  to  the  public  to  propel  its  trains 
with  caution  and  prudence  through  a  village 
or  any  thickly  settled  neighborhood,  shall  run 
them  with  great  rapidity  and  without  signals, 
by  means  whereof  persons  passing  along  the 
streets  and  themselves  observing  ordinary  cau- 
tion are  struck  by  the  train  and  injured,  such 
persons  may  have  redress  in  a  like  action. 
The  chief  qualification  of  this  doctrine  is  that 
the  party  complaining  of  the  injury  must  not 
himself  have  contributed  to  it  by  his  own 
wrongful  or  wilful  act,  or  by  his  own  want 
of  ordinary  care ;  for  if  both  parties  were  in 
fault,  the  common  law  will  not  attempt  to  ap- 
portion the  culpability,  but  will  leave  each 
party  where  his  own  unwarrantable  conduct 
or  neglect  has  left  him.  In  this  regard  the 
rule  of  the  common  law  is  different  from  that 
which  prevails  in  admiralty  in  some  cases, 
where  the  consequences  of  the  concurring  fault 
of  two  parties  may  be  apportioned  between 
them  as  near  as  shall  be  found  practicable. 
The'  concurring  fault  or  negligence,  however, 
which  at  law  will  bar  an  action  for  redress, 
must  be  such  as  has  contributed  proximately 
to  the  injury.  Thus,  if  one  drives  across  a 
railroad  track  without  looking  to  the  right  or 
left,  and  is  struck  by  a  passing  engine,  he  can 
have  no  redress,  because  he  failed  of  ordinary 
prudence  in  not  looking  to  see  whether  a  train 


was  near ;  but  if,  observing  due  care  and  pru- 
dence at  that  time,  he  is  nevertheless  injured, 
it  will  be  no  defence  to  the  railway  company 
that  some  want  of  proper  caution  may  re- 
motely have  contributed  to  the  accident.  The 
rule  of  contributory  negligence  imputes  to  one 
who  is  under  natural  or  legal  guardianship  the 
negligence  of  the  guardian ;  so  that  a  child  run 
over  in  the  street  may  not  recover  damages 
from  the  party  accidentally  running  over  him, 
if  the  parent  who  had  charge  of  him  was  care- 
less in  permitting  him  thus  to  wander  into  a 
place  of  danger;  and  an  insane  person  may 
not  recover  where  the  trustee  negligently  suf- 
fers him  to  be  abroad.  And  this  rule  is  ap- 
plicable where  one  temporarily  places  himself 
in  the  hands  or  under  the  control  of  another ; 
as  where  one  takes  a  seat  in  the  carriage  of 
another  and  is  carelessly  driven  by  the  latter 
into  danger,  the  negligence  of  the  driver  will 
preclude  recovery  for  accidental  injuries.  Cor- 
porations as  well  as  natural  persons  are  liable 
for  negligence,  and  municipal  corporations  as 
well  as  others,  with  this  restriction,  that  an  ex- 
ercise of  their  legislative  authority  is  not  im- 
putable  as  negligence.  But  if  the  corporation 
order  the  construction  of  a  public  work,  and 
the  execution  of  the  work  is  careless  and  im- 
perfect, and  injury  results,  an  action  will  lie, 
provided  it  is  constructed  by  the  corporation 
itself  through  its  own  agents ;  but  if  the  con- 
struction is  let  to  an  independent  contractor, 
he  alone  can  be  looked  to  for  redress  for  his 
negligence.  Public  officers  are  in  general  lia- 
ble for  their  negligence,  not  only  to  parties  on 
whose  behalf  they  assume  to  perform  a  duty, 
but  also  to  third  persons  injured  by  their  ac- 
tion ;  but  from  this  must  be  excepted  the  chief 
executive  of  the  nation  or  state,  any  officers 
while  acting  in  a  legislative  capacity,  and  judi- 
cial officers  and  others  exercising  a  discretion- 
ary authority,  and  where  the  negligence  is 
predicated  of  their  discretionary  acts.  The 
owner  of  a  vicious  beast,  knowing  him  to  be 
such,  is  guilty  of  negligence  if  he  suffers  him 
to  be  at  large  without  a  keeper;  but  as  his 
liability  at  the  common  law  depends  upon  his 
knowledge  of  the  vicious  nature  of  the  animal, 
which  is  not  always  easy  of  proof  when  it  ex- 
ists, it  has  been  thought  proper  in  some  cases, 
especially  as  regards  dogs,  to  pass  statutes  dis- 
pensing with  this  proof,  and  making  the  owner 
liable  upon  proof  of  the  injury  alone. — Where 
negligence  results  in  the  death  of  a  human 
being,  the  common  law  gives  no  remedy ;  but 
this  has  been  found  a  great  hardship,  which 
was  remedied  in  England  by  statute  in  1846, 
and  the  substance  of  this  statute  has  been  re- 
enacted  in  the  several  states  of  the  Union,  the 
remedy  being  given  to  or  for  the  benefit  of  the 
parent,  husband,  wife,  child,  or  estate  of  the 
person  killed.  The  killing  of  a  person  by  wil- 
ful neglect  or  gross  carelessness  may  be  a  felo- 
nious homicide ;  as  where  a  mechanic  throws 
rubbish  from  a  roof  into  the  streets  of  a  vil- 
lage where  people  are  constantly  passing,  with- 


212 


NEGOTIABLE  PAPER 


out  looking  to  see  if  at  the  time  it  is  clear ; 
or  where  the  engineer  on  a  railway  train 
drives  it  furiously  through  a  town  without 
sounding  signals,  or  occupies  the  track  in  the 
time  of  an  approaching  train  without  taking 
steps  to  ascertain  whether  he  may  do  so  with 
safety.  If  in  any  of  these  cases  death  results 
from  the  negligence,  the  reckless  and  wanton 
conduct  will  stand  for  criminal  intent;  and 
in  any  case  of  a  clear  duty  imposed  by  law, 
if  death  result  from  a  neglect  of  the  duty, 
it  will  be  accounted  criminal  homicide.  (See 
HOMICIDE,  and  MANSLATTGHTEB.) — The  legal 
aspects  of  negligence  have  recently  been  fully 
considered  in  the  valuable  treatises  of  Shear- 
man and  Red  field  (New  York),  and  Francis 
Wharton  (Philadelphia). 

NEGOTIABLE  PAPER.  In  the  article  EX- 
CHANGE, BILL  OF,  some  of  the  general  rules  of 
the  law  of  negotiable  paper  have  been  stated. 
In  explanation  of  the  central  principle  and 
foundation  of  this  very  peculiar  system  of  law, 
we  will  briefly  consider  its  origin  and  history. 
The  earliest  commerce  must  have  been  by  bar- 
ter, and  therefore  limited  to  the  exchange  of 
superfluities  between  neighbors.  Then  money 
was  invented  and  used  as  the  representative 
of  all  value  and  all  property ;  and  he  who  had 
anything  to  spare  could  exchange  it  for  mon- 
ey, in  which  its  value  was  vested,  and  this  val- 
ue could  be  retained  by  him  who  held  it  until 
he  wished  to  exchange  it  for  something  he 
needed  to  use.  It  was  an  immense  step  thus 
to  obtain  a  representative  of  all  value ;  and  the 
utility  of  it  grew  with  the  increasing  commerce 
of  the  world,  and  was  found  adequate  to  the 
wants  of  this  commerce  until  a  few  centuries 
ago,  when  the  next  step  was  taken,  and  some- 
thing was  found  which  is  the  representative  of 
the  representative  of  all  value ;  and  to  this  last 
invention  the  enormous  increase  of  commerce 
since  it  came  into  use  must  be  ascribed.  As  a 
bag  of  coin  represented  the  value  of  100  oxen, 
now  a  strip  of  paper  represents  the  value  of 
barrels  of  gold.  But  while  the  principal  bene- 
fit of  negotiable  paper  is  due  to  the  fact  of  this 
perfect  representation  of  all  value,  there  are 
two  other  utilities  attached  to  it  of  almost 
equal  importance.  One  of  these  is  the  facil- 
ity it  offers  for  paying  distant  debts  without 
transfer  of  money  or  property,  by  making 
debts  in  one  place  pay  debts  in  another, 
through  the  instrumentality  of  bills  of  ex- 
change. The  other  is  the  method  it  offers  of 
accumulating  credit  and  employing  the  whole 
mass  as  money  by  means  of  successive  indorse- 
ments. The  origin  of  bills  of  exchange  has 
been  accounted  for  on  various  theories,  each 
having  perhaps  some  basis  in  truth;  but  when 
it  has  been  stated  that  some  six  centuries 
ago  they  came  into  general  use  in  Europe,  little 
more  can  be  said  with  certainty.  Negotiable 
notes  were  not  used  until  much  later,  and  not 
until  the  statute  of  3  and  4  Anne,  ch.  9,  which 
enacted  that  they  should  be  "assignable  and 
indorsable  over  in  the  same  manner  as  inland 


bills  of  exchange  are  or  may  be  by  the  custom 
of  merchants,"  was  their  negotiability  fully 
recognized  by  the  courts.  In  the  article  al- 
ready referred  to  the  chief  incidents  of  negotia- 
bility were  explained,  namely :  that  when  the 
paper  is  duly  assigned  the  assignee  is  entitled 
to  maintain  suit  upon  it  in  his  own  name,  and 
also  may  recover  the  sum  promised  to  be  paid 
by  it  notwithstanding  there  might  have  been 
defences  to  it  in  the  hands  of  the  assignor 
which  would  have  precluded  a  recovery  by  him. 
Let  us  see,  then,  of  what  paper  this  quality  of 
negotiability  may  be  predicated.  In  the  first 
place,  independent  of  statute  or  of  recent  usages 
(which  we  shall  refer  to  further  on),  it  must  be 
either  a  bill  of  exchange  or  a  promissory  note, 
which  instruments  are  sufficiently  explained 
under  those  heads.  In  the  next  place,  if  a  bill 
of  exchange,  it  must  direct  the  person  upon 
whom  it  is  drawn  to  pay  the  sum  of  money 
therein  specified  to  a  person  named  (who  is 
then  called  the  payee),  or  to  his  order;  and 
if  a  promissory  note,  it  must  promise  to  pay 
the  sum  specified  to  some  person  named  or  his 
order,  or  it  may  promise  to  make  payment  to 
the  bearer,  without  naming  any  person  whom- 
soever. In  the  case  last  mentioned  the  note 
is  in  contemplation  of  law  payable  to  any  one 
who  may  lawfully  become  the  owner  thereof, 
and  it  is  assigned  from  hand  to  hand  by  mere 
delivery,  and  any  person  receiving  delivery  on 
a  purchase  thereof  may  enforce  payment  as 
bearer.  With  a  bill  or  note  payable  to  the 
order  of  a  person  named  it  is  different.  Be- 
fore it  has  been  assigned  or  negotiated  only  the 
payee  can  demand  the  money  or  bring  suit; 
but  the  payee  may  assign  it  by  writing  his 
name  upon  the  back,  which  is  called  an  indorse- 
ment, and  by  delivering  it  to  the  intended  as- 
signee. There  are  several  methods  of  making 
this  indorsement,  and  one  or  another  will  be 
resorted  to  according  to  circumstances.  If 
nothing  more  is  written  upon  the  back  of  the 
paper  than  the  indorser's  name,  this  is  called 
a  general  indorsement,  and  it  is  equivalent  in 
legal  effect  to  a  direction  to  the  drawee  or 
maker  to  pay  the  bill  or  note  to  the  bearer 
thereof.  The  disadvantage  of  this  is  that  in 
case  the  paper  should  be  lost  or  stolen  the 
finder  or  thief  would  have  upon  it  the  evidence 
of  a  prima  facie  right  to  receive  and  collect 
the  money,  and  he  or  his  assignee,  under  the 
rules  laid  down  further  on,  might  actually  suc- 
ceed in  making  collection  to  the  exclusion  of 
the  real  owner.  To  guard  against  such  possi- 
ble consequences,  the  payee  in  assigning  may 
order  the  payment  to  be  made  to  a  person 
named,  thus :  "  Pay  A.  B.  or  order;"  and  this 
being  signed  by  him  and  delivered  to  A.'  B., 
who  is  thus  made  indorsee,  the  paper  is  pay- 
able to  the  indorsee  only  so  long  as  he  does 
not  order  it  paid  to  any  other  person ;  but  if 
he  by  a  like  indorsement  shall  order  it  paid  to 
the  order  of  another  person  named,  the  latter, 
until  he  shall  give  a  similar  order,  becomes  the 
only  person  entitled  to  demand  and  receive 


NEGOTIABLE  PAPER 


213 


payment.  In  this  way  the  paper  may  pass 
through  many  hands,  and  be  the  instrument  of 
many  payments ;  and  the  owner  for  the  time 
being  will  be  always  protected  against  the 
consequences  of  a  loss  of  the  instrument,  be- 
cause so  long  as  he  keeps  it  the  indorsements 
will  show  that  he  alone  has  legal  right  to  the 
money.  In  either  of  these  forms  of  indorse- 
ment the  indorser  is  held  to  undertake  to 
make  payment  of  the  bill  or  note  to  the  legal 
holder,  provided  the  drawee  or  maker  does 
not  meet  it  when  due,  and  the  indorser  is  duly 
notified  of  the  dishonor;  and  if  there  are 
several  indorsers,  the  undertaking  of  each  is 
the  same.  To  avoid  this,  the  indorsement  may 
be  without  recourse ;  that  is,  the  indorser  in 
writing  his  name  upon  the  paper  may  write 
over  it  "  without  recourse,"  or  any  other  words 
indicating  that  he  is  not  to  be  looked  to  for  pay- 
ment in  any  contingency.  This  does  not  affect 
the  negotiability  of  the  paper,  but  is  only  to 
shield  the  indorser  from  personal  responsibil- 
ity in  case  the  drawee  or  maker  fails  to  make 
payment.  In  order  to  understand  the  advan- 
tages to  the  holder  of  negotiable  paper  to  be 
derived  from  this  quality,  the  position  of  the 
holder  may  be  compared  with  that  of  the  as- 
signee of  other  rights  in  action.  Suppose,  for 
instance,  that  one  shall  give  his  creditor  a  pa- 
per in  these  words :  "  Due  A.  B.  five  dollars, 
payable  on  the  first  day  of  January  next," 
dated  and  signed  by  him;  this  paper  is  not 
negotiable,  because  it  is  payable  only  to  A.  B., 
and  not  to  his  order  or  to  the  bearer.  If  this 
paper  is  sold  by  the  payee,  and  suit  is  brought 
upon  it,  this  must  be  in  the  payee's  name,  as 
already  stated.  But  it  may  be  that  when  thus 
sued  the  maker  will  set  up  some  defence  to  it, 
as  that  it  was  obtained  by  fraud,  or  without 
consideration,  or  that  it  has  been  paid ;  and 
such  defence  would  be  equally  good  against 
the  paper  in  the  assignee's  hands  as  it  would 
be  were  the  payee  still  the  owner.  On  the 
other  hand,  suppose  the  paper  to  be  a  promise 
to  pay  five  dollars  to  A.  B.  or  order  on  the 
first  day  of  January  after  its  date ;  in  this  case, 
if  A.  B.  sells  the  note  and  indorses  and  deliv- 
ers it,  the  assignee  may  not  only  sue  upon  it 
in  his  own  name  if  it  is  not  paid  at  maturity, 
but  if  it  was  indorsed  to  him  before  it  fell 
due,  and  he  paid  value  for  it  in  good  faith  and 
without  notice  or  knowledge  of  any  defence 
to  it,  he  may  enforce  payment  regardless  of 
any  such  defence,  though  it  might  have  been 
one  that  was  perfectly  good  as  against  the 
payee  himself.  In  this  respect  negotiable  pa- 
per is  placed  on  the  footing  of  money.  If  a 
man  loses  his  watch,  or  is  robbed  of  it,  and 
the  finder  or  robber  sells  it  for  value  to  an 
innocent  purchaser,  who  sells  it  to  another, 
and  he  to  another,  and  so  on,  the  owner  can 
take  it  wherever  he  can  find  it,  for  no  buyer 
acquires  the  slightest  property  in  it  against 
the  owner.  But  if  a  man  loses  or  is  robbed 
of  gold  coins,  and  the  finder  or  robber  pays 
them  away  to  an  innocent  party  in  the  pur- 


chase of  goods,  the  owner  loses  his  money. 
He  cannot  reclaim  it  unless  by  proof  that  the 
receiver  of  it  knew  when  he  took  it  that  it 
belonged  to  some  one  other  than  the  holder. 
Now  this  is  precisely  so  in  relation  to  promis- 
sory notes  or  bills  of  exchange,  payable  to 
order  or  to  bearer.  A  familiar  example  may 
be  found  in  bank  notes,  which  are  only  prom- 
issory notes  payable  to  bearer,  and  which 
stand  exactly  on  the  footing  of  coined  money, 
in  that  any  one  receiving  them  innocently  for 
value  holds  them  against  any  original  owner. 
If  we  require  the  reason  for  this  doctrine,  it  is 
that  negotiable  paper  may  become  the  adequate 
instrument  of  business,  as  the  word  negotiable 
implies ;  and  for  this  end,  that  it  may  repre- 
sent money,  and  take  the  place  of  money,  and 
possess  in  all  the  transactions  of  business  all 
the  immunities  and  privileges  of  money.  If 
we  understand  clearly  this  principle  and  pur- 
pose of  negotiable  paper,  or  rather  of  the 
rules  of  law  in  relation  to  negotiable  paper, 
we  shall  be  able  to  understand  those  rules.  It 
is  for  this  purpose  that  all  those  rules  aim  at 
giving  to  negotiable  paper  the  certainty  of 
money;  at  making  it  tell  its  own  story  as 
money  does ;  and,  in  a  few  words,  at  enabling 
every  person  who  holds  it  to  use  it  precisely 
as  he  would  use  money,  with  the  additional 
advantage  that  he  may  by  his  indorsement 
add  his  own  credit  to  that  which  the  paper 
already  holds. — The  chief  rules  governing  ne- 
gotiable paper  may  be  here  stated.  No  espe- 
cial form  is  necessary  to  either  a  bill  or  a  note. 
The  essential  things  are,  a  distinct  promise, 
and  sufficient  certainty  as  to  the  payee,  the 
payer,  the  amount,  and  the  time  of  payment. 
The  paper  may  be  payable  to  any  body  or  num- 
ber of  persons,  if  sufficiently  designated,  as 
"  to  the  executors  of  A.  B.,"  &c. ;  but  if  pay- 
able "to  A.  or  B.,"  it  is  bad  for  want  of  cer- 
tainty. It  must  be  payable  in  money  and  -not 
in  property;  and  in  England  it  has  been  de- 
cided that  paper  payable  in  bank  of  England 
notes  was  not  negotiable,  because  such  notes 
were  not  money.  Similar  decisions  have  been 
made  in  some  of  the  states,  while  in  others  it 
is  held  otherwise  if  the  paper  is  payable  in 
what  passes  current  as  money  at  par.  It  is  not 
to  be  inferred  from  what  has  been  said  that 
those  only  can  be  indorsers  to  whom  or  to 
whose  order  the  paper  has  been  made  payable ; 
any  number  of  persons  may  indorse  paper  ^  in 
order  to  charge  themselves  contingently  with 
its  payment  under  the  rules  given  further  on. — 
As  soon  as  negotiable  paper  has  been  dishon- 
ored, or  is  over-due,  it  loses  almost  the  whole  of 
its  peculiar  character,  and  what  may  be  called 
its  privilege.  The  reason  is  the  obvious  one, 
that  it  is  no  longer  capable  of  negotiation  in 
the  proper  sense  of  the  word ;  that  is,  it  is  no 
longer  fit  to  be  an  instrument  of  business :  in 
the  first  case,  because  it  is  already  discredited, 
and  cannot  be  considered  the  equivalent  of 
money ;  and  in  the  second,  because  there  is  no 
longer  any  time  fixed  when  it  can  be  paid  or 


214: 


NEGOTIABLE  PAPER 


converted  into  money.  Hence  it  is  now  like 
paper  not  negotiable;  that  is,  it  may  be  sold 
or  transferred  as  before,  but  the  purchaser 
takes  it  now  subject  to  the  defence  which 
could  be  made  against  it  if  it  were  still  in 
the  hands  of  the  first  party  who  transferred 
it  after  dishonor  or  after  it  fell  due. — A  bill 
of  exchange  should  be  presented  for  accept- 
ance daring  the  usual  hours  of  business.  The 
drawee  may  answer  at  once,  or  he  may  take 
a  day  for  consideration ;  but  if  he  does  not 
accept  before  the  end  of  the  day  after  pre- 
sentation, he  refuses  to  accept.  If  not  accept- 
ed absolutely,  but  upon  some  terms  or  con- 
ditions, the  holder  may  assent  to  these,  and 
then  hold  the  acceptor ;  but  he  must  treat  it 
as  no  acceptance,  and  give  notice  accordingly 
in  order  to  hold  the  drawer.  When  a  bill  is 
accepted  it  becomes  like  a  note ;  and  every 
bill  and  every  note  must  be  presented  for  pay- 
ment, or  in  other  words,  payment  of  them 
must  be  demanded,  and  the  demand  must  be 
such  as  the  law  requires,  or  all  parties  except 
the  maker  or  acceptor  are  discharged.  The 
paper  must  be  so  presented  and  demanded 
at  maturity,  by  the  holder  or  his  authorized 
agent,  of  the  acceptor  or  maker,  on  the  very 
day  on  which  it  falls  due,  and  in  the  usual 
and  proper  business  hours  of  that  day.  Nei- 
ther the  bankruptcy,  nor  the  insolvency,  nor 
the  absence,  nor  the  death  of  the  acceptor  or 
maker  is  a  sufficient  excuse  for  not  making 
the  demand.  For  the  insolvent  may  pay  it, 
and  if  the  payer  is  absent  the  demand  must 
be  made  at  his  house  or  residence,  or  at  his 
place  of  business ;  and  if  he  is  dead,  it  must 
be  made  of  his  executors  or  administrators. 
If  the  holder  dies  before  the  paper  matures, 
and  his  executors  or  administrators  are  not 
appointed  until  after  it  matures,  they  must 
make  the  demand  as  soon  after  as  they  can ; 
and  if  they  make  it  without  unreasonable 
delay,  it  is  sufficient.  Generally,  when  the 
demand  cannot  be  made  in  the  usual  way 
at  the  time,  the  law  permits  it  to  be  made 
within  a  reasonable  time  after  the  obstruc- 
tion is  removed.  If  the  payer  has  abscond- 
ed, or  has  no  place  of  residence  or  business  in 
the  state,  or  is  absent  and  cannot  be  found 
by  diligent  inquiry,  demand  is  excused.  But 
the  same  notice  must  be  given  of  this  non- 
demand  as  of  non-payment;  for  the  parties 
liable  on  the  paper  have  not  only  a  right  to 
require  demand  upon  all  persons  liable  before 
them,  but  the  further  right  to  have  notice 
given  them  if  the  paper  is  not  paid.  The 
purpose  of  this  is  to  give  them  every  opportu- 
nity of  getting  such  security  or  indemnity  as 
they  can  from  the  parties  for  whom  they  are 
to  make  payment.  Once,  the  law  said  only 
that  the  notice  must  be  given  in  a  reasonable 
time ;  but  now,  all  over  the  commercial  world, 
the  law  itself  defines  this  reasonable  time.  It 
requires  that  this  notice  be  given  on  the  day 
of  non-acceptance  or  non-payment,  or  on  the 
day  immediately  following.  If  the  party  en- 


titled to  notice  lives  at  a  distance,  the  notice 
should  be  given  by  mail,  and  must  be  put  into 
the  mail  on  the  day  of  dishonor  or  the  next 
day,  if  there  be  such  a  mail,  and  otherwise 
into  the  first  mail  that  goes.  A  personal  notice 
is,  in  general,  good  wherever  given.  And  it 
should  be  personal,  or  in  writing  left  at  the 
residence  or  place  of  business,  if  the  person 
giving  the  notice  (as  the  notary  or  agent)  lives 
in  the  same  town  or  city  with  the  party  to 
whom  it  is  given.  He  may  send  it  even  then 
by  mail,  but  takes  the  risk  of  its  reaching  the 
party  in  season ;  but  if  it  is  sent  out  of  town 
he  may  send  it  by  mail,  and  this  risk  is  not  on 
the  sender. — As  the  holder  has  one  whole  day 
to  give  his  notice,  so  every  one  receiving  notice 
has  the  same  indulgence.  Thus,  if  a  note  with 
six  indorsers  falls  due,  and  the  indorsee  makes 
due  demand  of  the  maker,  he  must  give  no- 
tice of  the  non-payment  to  his  indorser  (who 
is  the  sixth)  on  the  next  day.  That  indorser 
has  also  until  the  next  day  to  notify  the  fifth, 
and  so  on.  Hence  the  first  indorser  will  not 
get  notice  until  the  sixth  day  after  non-pay- 
ment ;  but  now  he  will  be  held  not  only  to  his 
indorsee  but  to  all  persons  below  him,  because 
he  has  had  his  due  notice.  No  person,  how- 
ever, is  entitled  to  the  delay  of  more  days 
than  his  own  single  day.  Thus,  if  the  indor- 
see of  the  sixth  indorser  notifies  his  indorser 
on  the  next  day,  he  holds  him ;  but  if  that  in- 
dorser neglects  to  notify  others,  and  the  hold- 
er, learning  this,  on  the  third  day  notifies  all 
the  rest,  all  are  discharged  but  the  sixth  in- 
dorser. Hence,  it  is  usual  for  the  holder  not  to 
take  the  risk  of  this,  but  to  send  notice  him- 
self to  all  the  persons  whose  names  are  on 
the  paper.  (See  NOTARY  PUBLIC.)  There  is 
no  precise  form  necessary  for  the  notice.  It 
should,  however,  state  with  sufficient  distinct- 
ness what  the  paper  is,  its  dishonor,  and  who 
the  parties  are,  and  the  purport  of  the  notice. 
After  due  demand  and  due  notice  have  fixed 
the  liability  of  parties,  it  remains  in  force,  and 
there  is  no  need  of  immediate  suit.  This  right 
to  demand  and  notice  may  be  waived  by  any 
party  entitled  to  it,  and  he  may  do  this  by  any 
words  of  sufficient  meaning ;  the  usual  way  is 
by  writing  over  his  name  when  he  indorses: 
"Waives  demand  and  notice."  It  should  be 
remembered  that  a  waiver  of  notice  is  not  a 
waiver  of  demand ;  although  a  waiver  of  de- 
mand is  perhaps  a  waiver  of  notice. — The  de- 
mand must  be  made  when  the  note  falls  due, 
or,  to  use  the  common  phrase,  at  its  maturity. 
But  this  is  not  at  the  expiration  of  the  time 
when  the  note  is  made  payable  on  the  face  of 
it.  The  law  adds  three  whole  days,  which  are 
called  days  of  grace.  At  first  these  were,  as 
the  name  intimates,  days  of  favor  or  mere  in- 
dulgence ;  but  usage,  and  now  law,  have  con- 
verted them  into  an  absolute  right.  In  most 
of  the  states  statutes  provide  that  all  negotia- 
ble paper,  not  payable  at  sight  or  on  demand, 
is  entitled  to  three  days  of  grace,  unless  it  be 
expressly  agreed  otherwise.  This  is  sometimes 


NEGRELLI 


NEGRO 


215 


done,  but  not  often;  and  the  words  used  for 
this  purpose  are,  simply,  "  without  grace."  One 
distinction  is  important.  These  days  retain  so 
much  of  their  original  character  of  mere  in- 
dulgence, that  if  the  last  day  of  grace  falls  on 
Sunday,  or  on  any  holiday  on  which  payment 
cannot  be  demanded,  it  is  now  due,  and  de- 
mand must  be  made,  on  the  Saturday  or  other 
day  preceding.  But  if  paper  without  grace, 
or  any  payment  not  entitled  to  grace,  falls  due 
on  Sunday,  or  any  other  legal  holiday,  the 
payer  now  gains  a  day,  because  payment  can- 
not be  demanded  until  Monday,  or  the  day 
after  the  holiday.  When  and  in  what  manner 
negotiable  paper  should  be  protested  for  non- 
payment, and  how  payment  may  be  made  su- 
pra protest,  or  for  honor,  will  be  stated  in  the 
article  PROTEST. — It  should  be  added,  that  of 
late  years  some  other  instruments  besides  bills 
of  exchange  and  promissory  notes  have  been 
treated  by  courts  as  negotiable  paper.  Ex- 
chequer bills  in  England  were  so  held;  and 
then  the  bonds  of  foreign  states,  payable  to 
the  holder,  were  so  considered.  In  the  United 
States  the  same  doctrine  has  been  extended  to 
state  and  municipal  bonds  payable  to  bearer 
and  transferable  by  delivery ;  and  also  to  simi- 
lar bonds  of  private  corporations  and  their 
coupons.  In  some  states  all  demands  are  so 
far  negotiable  that  assignees  are  permitted  to 
sue  thereon  in  their  own  names. 

NEGRELLI,  Aloys  TOD,  an  Austrian  engineer, 
born  at  Primiero,  Tyrol,  Jan.  23,  1799,  died  in 
Vienna,  Oct.  1,  1858.  From  1832  to  1840  he 
was  employed  in  Switzerland,  and  constructed 
the  first  Swiss  railway,  from  Zurich  to  the 
German  frontier.  Subsequently  he  was  chief 
inspector  of  the  Austrian  northern  railway  till 
1849,  when  he  became  general  director  of  pub- 
lic works.  He  was  at  the  head  of  all  Austrian 
railways  from  1855  to  1857,  when  about  a  year 
before  his  death  the  viceroy  of  Egypt  placed 
him  in  charge  of  the  works  connected  with 
the  cutting  of  the  isthmus  of  Suez. 

NEGRITOS,  natives  of  the  Philippine  islands, 
usually  classed  with  Papuans.  They  in  a  mea- 
sure represent  the  people  called  negrillos  by  Dr. 
Pickering  in  his  "Races  of  Men  "  (1848),  where 
he  classes  them  as  a  subdivision  of  the  Papuan 
race,  and  of  the  melanic  or  black  family  of  man- 
kind. They  were  formerly  in  possession  of  the 
entire  group  of  islands,  but  are  now  found  only 
in  the  mountainous  districts  of  some  of  them, 
and  especially  in  the  northern  portion  of  Lu- 
zon, where  they  inhabit  also  the  coast  from 
Palanan  to  Cabo  Engano.  (Semper,  Die  Phi- 
lippinen  und  ihre  Bewohner,  Wlirzburg,  1869.) 
Fr.  Muller  in  his  Allgemeine  EthnograpJiie 
(Vienna,  1873)  classifies  them  among  the  Papu- 
ans of  the  pure  type,  while  A.  R.  Wallace  con- 
siders them  a  totally  distinct  race,  and,  con- 
necting them  with  the  inhabitants  of  the  An- 
daman islands  in  the  bay  of  Bengal,  is  of  opin- 
ion that  they  are  probably  of  Asiatic  rather 
than  Polynesian  origin;  and  Peschel  in  his 
VolkerTcunde  (2d  ed.,  Leipsic,  1875)  prefers  to 


call  them  Asiatic  Papuans,  in  distinction  from 
Australian  Papuans.  In  common  with  the  lat- 
ter, they  have  woolly  hair  and  a  flat  nose, 
broad  at  the  base.  They  are  not  black,  but  of 


Negrito. 

a  dark  copper  color.  The  lips  are  somewhat 
puffed,  and  the  jaws  are  slightly  projecting. 
Virchow's  measurements  of  some  skulls  have 
led  to  the  supposition  that  their  compressed 
form  is  of  artificial  origin.  (See  PAPUAN  RACE 
AND  LANGUAGES.) 

NEGRO  (Span,  and  Ital.,  from  Lat.  niger, 
black),  a  name  properly  applied  to  the  races  in- 
habiting the  African  continent,  principally  be- 
tween lat.  10°  K  and  20°  S.,  and  to  their  de- 
scendants in  the  old  and  new  world.  It  does 
not  include  the  northern  Africans  (like  the 
Egyptians,  Berbers,  Abyssinians,  Nubians,  &c.), 
nor  the  Hottentots  in  the  south,  although  in 
popular  language,  especially  in  the  older  wri- 
tings, it  comprises  these  and  other  dark-skinned 


Negro. 

nations,  who  are  not  characterized  by  the  crisp 
hair  of  the  true  negro;  in  some  of  the  bor- 
der countries  there  has  been  considerable  in- 
termixture of  negro  blood  and  dialects.  The 


216 


NEGRO 


term  negro,  therefore,  is  not  synonymous  with 
African,  and  is  not  a  national  appellation, 
but  denotes  an  ideal  type  distinguished  by  cer- 
tain physical  characters,  such  as  are  seen  in 
the  people  of  the  coast  of  Guinea,  viz. :  black 
skin,  woolly  hair,  flat  nose,  thick  everted  lips, 
and  a  prognathous  form  of  the  skull.  Ne- 
groes occupy  about  one  half  of  Africa,  exclu- 
ding the  northern  and  southern  extremities, 
but  including  its  most  fertile  portions.  Out 
of  Africa,  they  are  found  in  various  parts  of 
Asia  and  its  islands,  and  throughout  America 
and  the  West  Indies,  whither  they  were  origi- 
nally carried  chiefly  as  slaves  (see  SLAVERY)  ; 
they  are  rare  in  Europe.  They  were  nearly 
unknown  to  the  Hebrews  and  the  Homeric 
Greeks ;  the  Egyptians,  however,  about  2300 
B.  0.,  became  acquainted  with  negroes  through 
the  conquests  of  their  rulers,  and  represent- 
ed them  on  their  monuments  as  early  as  1600 ; 
for  nearly  35  centuries  the  type  has  remained 
unchanged  in  Egypt.  The  Greeks  first  knew 
them  in  the  7th  century  B.  0.,  their  Ethio- 
pians being  merely  any  people  darker  than 
the  Hellenic,  like  the  Arabs,  Egyptians,  Lib- 
yans, or  Carthaginians,  none  of  which  are 
negroes.  The  typical  negroes  of  the  Guinea 
coasts  are  generally  rude  and  nearly  naked  sav- 
ages, of  a  deep  black  color  and  ugly  features ; 
in  the  interior,  many  of  the  tribes,  like  the 
Fan  and  others  visited  since  1855  by  Paul  Du 
Ohaillu  and  Winwood  Reade,  are  fierce  canni- 
bals, but  fine-looking,  warlike,  ingenious,  and 
skilful  in  the  working  of  iron.  Those  on  the 
Slave  coast  are  the  most  degraded,  selling  their 
neighbors  to  slave  dealers.  In  the  vast  regions 
explored  by  Livingstone,  Barth,  Du  Chaillu, 
Burton,  Speke,  Baker,  Schweinfurth,  and  oth- 
er recent  travellers,  there  are  many  tribes  more 
or  less  savage,  for  an  account  of  which  the 
reader  is  referred  to  the  respective  special 
notices  in  this  work,  and  chiefly  to  the  narra- 
tives of  these  explorers.  The  Caffres  of  South 
Africa  may  also  be  classed  among  negroes, 
as  well  as  the  fine  and  ferocious  races  of  Mo- 
zambique and  the  E.  coast  of  Africa. — The 
skin  of  the  negro  is  soft  and  silky,  dull  cherry 
red  in  the  infant  and  growing  black  very 
soon ;  it  differs  from  that  of  the  whites  prin- 
cipally in  the  greater  amount  of  pigment  cells 
in  the  rete  Halpighii  (the  epidermis  being 
uncolored),  and  in  the  greater  number  of  cu- 
taneous glands.  The  hair,  though  called  wool, 
does  not  present  the  characters  of  the  latter, 
especially  the  imbricated  projecting  scales,  and 
differs  but  little  from  that  of  the  other  races 
except  in  color  and  in  its  curled  and  twisted 
form;  it  is  harsh  and  wiry,  and,  according 
to  some  inicroscopists,  more  or  loss  flattened, 
grooved  longitudinally,  lying  perpendicular- 
ly in  the  dermis  and  piercing  the  cuticle  in 
this  direction,  the  coloring  matter  being  dif- 
fused throughout  its  substance,  and  in  a  few 
instances  so  imbricated  as  to  be  capable  of 
felting  like  wool.  The  skull  is  long  and  nar- 
row, with  a  depressed  forehead,  prominent 


occiput  and  jaws,  a  facial  angle  of  70°  to  65°, 
and  an  internal  capacity  of  about  82  cubic  inch- 
es ;  a  peculiarity  of  some  negro  crania,  though 
by  no  means  constant,  is  that  the  sphenoid 
does  not  reach  the  parietal  bones,  the  coronal 
suture  joining  the  margin  of  the  temporals; 
the  skull  is  very  thick  and  solid,  as  would  be 
indicated  by  the  negro's  favorite  mode  of  fight- 
ing, both  sexes  butting  like  rams,  and  so  flat 
that  burdens  are  easily  carried  upon  it.  The 
stature  of  the  negro  is  seldom  6  ft.,  and  rare- 
ly below  5£;  some  of  their  figures  are  fine, 
especially  the  torso,  and  have  been  taken  by 
Ghantrey  and  other  sculptors  as  models ;  in 
the  female  the  development  is  so  rapid  that  it 
is  common  to  see  childhood's  natural  grace 
combined  with  the  prominent  characteristics 
of  maturity.  Seen  from  behind,  the  spine  usu- 
ally appears  depressed,  owing  to  the  greater 
curvature  of  the  ribs ;  the  nates  are  more  flat- 
tened than  in  other  races,  and  join  the  thighs 
almost  at  a  right  angle  instead  of  a  curve. 
Besides  the  characters  already  mentioned,  may 
be  noticed  the  projecting  upper  edge  of  the  or- 
bit ;  broad  retreating  chin ;  great  development 
of  lower  part  of  face ;  small  eyes,  in  which  but 
little  of  the  yellowish  white  ball  is  seen ;  small, 
thick  ears,  standing  off  from  the  head,  with  a 
small  lobe  and  a  general  stunted  look;  black 
iris ;  very  wide  zygomatic  arches,  giving  large 
space  for  the  muscles  of  the  lower  jaw  ;  large 
and  transverse  opening  of  the  nasal  cavity. 
The  pelvis  is  long  and  narrow,  its  average  cir- 
cumference being  from  26  to  28  in.  instead  of 
30  to  36  as  in  the  whites ;  this  shape  in  the 
female,  according  to  Vrolik  and  Weber,  cor- 
responds to  the  characteristic  shape  of  the 
negro  head;  those  writers  consider  it  a  type 
of  degradation,  as  it  approaches  that  of  the 
quadrumana  in  the  more  vertical  direction  of 
the  iliac  bones  and  their  less  width,  in  the 
smaller  breadth  of  sacrum,  and  in  the  conse- 
quent less  extent  of  the  hips.  The  bones  of 
the  leg  are  bent  forward  and  outward,  the 
tibia  and  fibula  being  more  convex  than  in 
Europeans ;  the  calves  are  very  high ;  the  feet 
and  hands  are  flatter ;  the  heel  bone,  instead 
of  being  arched,  is  continued  in  a  straight  line 
with  the  other  bones  of  the  foot,  causing  it  to 
project  more  behind;  in  consequence  of  the 
longer  lever  thus  obtained,  less  muscular  force 
is  necessary  in  the  movements  of  the  feet,  and 
the  muscles  of  the  calf  are  consequently  less 
developed ;  the  shoulder  blades  are  shorter  and 
broader ;  the  muscles  have  shorter  bellies  and 
longer  tendons,  as  is  very  evident  in  the  legs 
and  arms.  Negroes  have  less  nervous  sensi- 
bility than  the  whites,  and  are  not  subject  to 
nervous  affections ;  they  are  comparatively  in- 
sensible to  pain,  bearing  severe  surgical  opera- 
tions well ;  the  effects  of  opium  and  other  nar- 
cotics appear  rather  in  the  digestive,  circula- 
tory, and  respiratory  functions,  than  in  the 
cerebral  and  nervous  system ;  they  are  little 
subject  to  yellow  fever,  and  more  to  yaws  and 
other  cutaneous  affections ;  they  are  generally 


NEGRO 


NEHLIG 


217 


very  torpid  under  disease.  They  seldom  have 
a  fetid  breath,  but  transpire  much  excremen- 
titious  matter  by  means  of  the  glands  of  the 
skin;  there  is  also  much  oily  matter  in  the 
skin.  The  negro  flourishes  under  the  fiercest 
heats  and  unhealthy  dampness  of  the  tropics, 
withstanding  the  virulent  endemics  and  epi- 
demics of  the  country  where  the  white  man 
soon  dies  ;  and  the  race  does  not  diminish,  like 
the  aboriginal  American,  in  contact  with  civil- 
ization. The  senses  are  acute ;  the  voice  in 
the  males  is  hoarse  and  not  powerful,  and  in 
the  females  high  and  shrill.  Albinoes  are  not 
uncommon  among  negro  races  in  all  countries. 
Negroes  produce  with  the  white  and  other 
races  a  hybrid  race,  fertile  for  a  few  genera- 
tions; but,  unless  mixed  with  the  original 
stock,  tending  to  extermination  by  disease  and 
sterility.  The  offspring  of  a  negro  and  white 
is  called  a  mulatto ;  of  a  mulatto  and  white,  a 
quadroon;  a  greater  intermixture  of  white 
blood  than  this  can  with  difficulty  be  distin- 
guished by  the  ordinary  observer  from  a  dark- 
skinned  white. — The  African  negroes  display 
considerable  ingenuity  in  the  manufacture  of 
weapons,  in  the  working  of  iron,  in  the  weav- 
ing of  mats,  cloth,  and  baskets  from  dyed  grass- 
es, in  the  dressing  of  skins  of  animals,  in  the 
structure  of  their  huts  and  household  utensils, 
and  in  the  various  implements  and  objects  of 
use  in  a  barbarous  state  of  society.  Their  re- 
ligion consists  in  the  worship  of  idols  and  fe- 
tiches, representing  a  supreme  power  which 
they  all  acknowledge ;  they  believe  in  good  and 
evil  spirits,  in  witchcraft,  charms  and  spells, 
omens,  lucky  and  unlucky  days,  &c. ;  they  make 
fetiches  of  serpents,  elephants'  teeth,  and  many 
similar  objects,  and  reverence  wooden  images 
and  sacred  things,  which  they  think  have  re- 
ceived a  peculiar  power  from  their  divinities 
to  drive  away  evil  spirits,  and  protect  them 
from  danger,  disease,  and  witchcraft.  They 
make  prayers  and  offerings  to  their  idols,  and 
have  sacred  songs,  festivals,  dances,  ceremo- 
nies, and  places;  they  sacrifice  animals  and 
sometimes  human  victims,  especially  during 
obsequies;  they  have  priests  and  holy  men, 
who  are  also  magicians  and  doctors.  They 
believe  generally  in  an  after  life,  without  any 
distinct  idea  of  retribution,  and  some  tribes  in 
the  transmigration  of  the  human  soul  into  a 
gorilla,  or  other  beast,  bird,  reptile,  or  fish ; 
they  have  great  fear  of  ghosts  and  apparitions  ; 
they  become  ready  converts  to  foreign  reli- 
gions, whether  Islamism,  Catholicism,  or  Prot- 
estantism. Being  very  fond  of  music,  they 
have  many  ingeniously  contrived  musical  in- 
struments, generally  of  a  noisy  character ;  they 
have  a  keen  sense  of  the  ridiculous,  and  axe  of 
a  cheerful  disposition;  though  cruel  to  their 
enemies  and  prisoners,  and  setting  little  value 
on  human  life,  they  are  naturally  kind-hearted, 
hospitable  to  strangers,  and  communicative  of 
their  joys  and  sorrows;  the  females  are  re- 
markably affectionate  as  mothers  and  children, 
and  as  attendants  on  the  sick,  even  to  foreign- 


ers. They  are  less  dirty  in  their  persons  and 
dwellings  than  most  other  barbarous  races. 
They  are  ready  to  receive  instruction,  and  to 
profit  by  it  up  to  a  certain  point;  quick  to 
perceive  the  beauty  of  goodness,  they  generally 
appreciate  the  services  of  the  missionaries  in 
their  behalf,  and  were  not  their  teachings  coun- 
teracted by  the  intoxicating  drinks  brought 
by  traders,  they  would  probably  in  time,  in 
outward  observances  if  not  in  reality,  merit 
the  name  of  semi-Christian  communities. — For 
negro  languages,  see  AFEICA,  LANGUAGES  OF, 
and  articles  on  the  more  important  tribes. 

NEGRO,  Rio.    See  Rio  NEGEO. 

NEGROPONT.     See  EUBOZA. 

IVEIIEMIAII,  a  Jewish  governor  of  Judea 
under  the  Persians,  and  cup-bearer  to  King 
Artaxerxes  Longimanus.  He  was  the  son  of 
Hakaliah,  received  the  surname  or  title  of 
Tirshatha,  and  is  the  author  of  at  least  a 
portion  of  the  Scriptural  book  which  bears 
his  name,  a  continuation  of  the  historical 
book  of  Ezra.  It  gives  the  most  important 
events  in  the  life  of  Nehemiah,  very  full  ac- 
counts of  the  rebuilding  of  the  gates  and 
walls  of  Jerusalem,  statistical  information  on 
the.  increase  of  the  people,  and  lists  of  priests 
and  Levites.  The  authorship  of  chapters  i.  to 
vii.  is  generally  ascribed  to  Nehemiah,  while 
the  following  chapters  are  assumed  by  De 
Wette,  Havernick,  and  others,  to  have  been 
written  by  some  other  author.  According 
to  Ewald,  Bertheau,  and  others,  the  books  of 
Nehemiah,  Ezra,  and  the  Chronicles  were  ori- 
ginally one  work.  All  the  questions  relating 
to  the  book  of  Nehemiah  are  fully  discussed  in 
De  Wette's  Einleitung  in  das  Alte  Testament 
(8th  ed.,  revised  by  Dr.  Schrader).  The  dates 
of  his  birth  and  death  are  unknown.  In  the 
history  of  his  people,  in  which  he  played  a 
prominent  part  during  the  period  of  the  resto- 
ration under  the  Persians,  he  first  appears  in 
445  B.C.  (See  HEBEEWS,  vol.  viii.,  p.  590.) 

NEHER,  Bernliard  TOD,  a  German  painter,  born 
at  Biberach,  Wurtemberg,  in  1806.  He  studied 
under  his  father,  Joseph  Neher,  and  in  Stutt- 
gart, Munich,  and  Rome,  where  the  king  of 
Wurtemberg  enabled  him  to  spend  four  years. 
After  his  return  to  Munich  he  executed,  from 
cartoons  which  he  had  prepared  in  Italy,  a 
stupendous  fresco  on  the  Isar  gate  of  Munich, 
representing  the  entrance  of  the  emperor  Louis 
of  Bavaria,  which  gave  him  a  wide  reputa- 
tion, but  was  unfortunately  partly  destroyed. 
In  1836  he  went  to  Weimar  to  embellish  the 
grand-ducal  palace  with  frescoes  illustrative 
of  Schiller  and  Goethe.  In  1844  he  became 
director  of  the  art  school  at  Leipsic,  and  in 
1846  of  that  of  Stuttgart.  He  was  made  a  di- 
rector of  the  latter  in  1854,  and  decorations 
were  conferred  upon  him  in  1865  and  1869. 

NEHLIG,  Victor,  an  American  painter,  born  in 
Paris  in  1830.  He  studied  under  Abel  de  Pujol 
and  Cogniet,  removed  in  1856  to  the  United 
States,  spent  some  time  in  Cuba,  became  a 
resident  of  New  York,  and  in  1870  was  chosen 


218 


NEILGHERRY  HILLS 


a  member  of  the  national  academy  of  design. 
In  1872  he  visited  England.  Among  his  pic- 
tures are  "  The  Artist's  Dream,"  "  The  Captive 
Huguenot,"  "  Gertrude  of  Wyoming,"  "  Hia- 
watha and  Minnehaha,"  and  "  Pocahontas." 

NEILGHERRY  HILLS  (Sansk.^  Nilgiri,  blue 
mountains),  a  group  of  mountains  in  southern 
India,  comparatively  isolated  from  the  other 
mountain  systems  of  the  country,  but  connected 
by  an  elevated  ridge  with  the  adjacent  table 
land  of  Mysore,  and  thus  with  the  Western 
Ghauts,  and  by  hill  ranges  also  with  the  East- 
ern. They  are  situated  between  lat.  11°  10' 
and  11°  38'  K,  and  Ion.  76°  30'  and  77°  10'  E., 
in  the  W.  part  of  the  province  of  Madras,  of 
which  they  form  a  political  district  (pop.  in 
1872,  50,194).  The  region  to  which  they  be- 
long was  transferred  to  the  British  in  1799  on 
the  downfall  of  Tippoo  Sahib.  At  an  elevation 
of  5,000  ft.  the  group  has  a  maximum  length  of 
42  m.  measured  from  N".  E.  to  S.  W.,  and  aver- 
ages 14  m.  in  width.  Its  general  outline  is  tri- 
angular, with  one  side  fronting  Mysore  and  the 
other  Malabar.  On  the  south,  at  Palghat,  the 
Neilgherries  overlook  the  pass  known  as  the  gap 
of  Coimbatore,  which  separates  them  from  the 
hill  region  at  the  S.  extremity  of  the  peninsnla. 
The  surface  of  the  mountains  varies  greatly  in 
aspect  and  elevation,  from  undulating  slopes 
and  low  ridges  to  grand  peaks  of  lofty  height. 
The  highest  is  Dodabetta,  8,760  ft.  above  the 
sea,  which  was  long  supposed  to  be  the  loftiest 
summit  in  India  S.  of  the  Himalaya,  but  is  now 
known  to  be  surpassed  by  a  mountain  in  the 
Annimalli  range  further  S.,  which  is  a  few 
hundred  feet  higher.  Of  the  other  peaks  in 
the  Neilgherry  hills,  five  are  more  than  8,000 
ft.  high,  four  exceed  7,000  ft.,  and  there  are  six 
over  6,000  ft.  Granite  is  the  prevailing  geolo- 
gical formation,  and  the  soil  generally  is  black, 
rich,  and  fertile.  Peat  occurs  in  some  locali- 
ties. The  unhealthy  forest  belt  at  the  base  of 
the  group  was  long  an  obstacle  to  exploration ; 
it  is  the  haunt  of  numerous  wild  beasts,  inclu- 
ding the  elephant  and  the  tiger.  In  the  hills  the 
wood  districts  are  open  and  park-like,  while  at 
the  higher  elevations  is  a  well  watered  grass 
country  with  the  vegetation  of  the  temperate 
zone.  The  native  Todas  of  this  region  differ 
both  in  appearance  and  language  from  all  other 
races  in  India.  They  are  tall  and  well  formed, 
with  light  complexions  and  strongly  marked 
Jewish  features.  Infanticide  and  polygamy 
prevail  among  them.  A  Hindoo  tribe  known 
as  the  Badakars,  however,  constitutes  a  pros- 
perous, influential,  and  numerous  portion  of 
the  population.  Several  other  tribes  are  met 
with,  sunk  in  the  depths  of  degradation  and 
superstition.  The  most  important  pursuit  in 
the  Neilgherry  district  is  the  cultivation  of  cin- 
chona, introduced  by  the  British  government 
in  1860,  and  now  also  carried  on  by  private 
planters.  In  187l-'2  the  government  planta- 
tions covered  950  acres,  and  contained  more 
than  2,500,000  plants,  which  yielded  72,983  Ibs. 
of  bark.  There  is  also  a  government  teak  plan- 


NELSON 

tation ;  and  magnificent  plantations  of  Austra- 
lian gum  trees  (eucalyptus)  have  been  formed 
under  the  direction  of  the  Madras  forest  de- 
partment. The  principal  European  station  is  at 
Utakamund,  a  small  town  7,300  ft.  above  the 
sea,  in  lat.  11°  24'  K,  Ion.  76°  47'  E.,  near 
the  centre  of  the  group. 

NEISSE,  a  fortified  town  of  Prussian  Silesia, 
on  the  southern  Neisse  at  its  confluence  with 
the  Biela,  30  m.  S.  W.  of  Oppeln ;  pop.  in  1871, 
19,376.  The  fortress,  one  of  the  most  impor- 
tant in  Prussia,  was  built  by  Frederick  the 
Great.  The  town  is  clean  and  well  built,  and 
contains  two  Lutheran  and  eight  Roman  Cath- 
olic churches,  a  Roman  Catholic  gymnasium 
and  other  schools,  several  manufactories  of  lin- 
ens and  woollens,  arms,  and  gunpowder,  and 
a  number  of  distilleries.  Neisse  was  besieged 
three  times  in  1428  by  the  Hussites,  taken  by 
Frederick  the  Great  in  1741,  unsuccessfully 
besieged  by  the  Austrians  in  1758,  and  reduced 
by  the  French  in  1807.  In  February,  1873, 
it  was  proposed  to  dismantle  the  fortifications. 

NELATON,  Angnste,  a  French  surgeon,  born  in 
Paris,  June  17,  1807,  died  there,  Sept.  21,  1873. 
He  studied  under  Dupuytren,  took  his  degree  in 
1836,  and  was  surgeon  of  prominent  hospitals, 
adjunct  professor  in  the  faculty  of  Paris  from 
1839  to  1851,  and  subsequently  regular  profes- 
sor of  clinical  surgery  till  1867.  In  1868  he 
was  made  senator,  lie  was  also  a  member  of 
the  academy,  and  the  favorite  surgeon  of  Napo- 
leon III.  He  invented  a  remarkable  method 
for  the  immediate  extraction  of  calculi,  distinct 
from  all  the  processes  of  lithotrity,  and  effected 
many  successful  operations  in  this  and  other 
branches  of  his  profession.  With  Velpeau  and 
others  he  published  Rapport  sur  les  pr ogres  de 
la  cUrurgie  (1867) ;  but  his  principal  work  is 
Elements  de  pathologie  chirurgicale  (5  vols., 
1844-'60;  2d  ed.,  1867-'70),  of^  which  vol.  v., 
and  according  to  some  authorities  also  vol.  iv., 
were  written  by  Dr.  A.  Jamain. 

NELSON.  I.  A  central  county  of  Virginia, 
bordered  S.  E.  by  the  James  river  and  N.  W. 
by  the  Blue  Ridge,  and  drained  by  the  Rock- 
fish,  Rock,  and  Tye  rivers ;  area,  340  sq.  m. ; 
pop.  in  1870,  13,898,  of  whom.  6,312  were 
colored.  The  surface  is  hilly  and  the  soil  fer- 
tile. A  canal  extending  along  the  James  river 
connects  it  with  Richmond,  and  it  is  intersected 
by  the  Washington  City,  Virginia  Midland,  and 
Great  Southern  railroad.  The  chief  produc- 
tions in  1870  were  77,106  bushels  of  wheat, 
186,858  of  Indian  corn,  98,771  of  oats,  12,707 
of  Irish  and  4,374  of  sweet  potatoes,  1,199,182 
Ibs.  of  tobacco,  6,629  of  wool,  111,524  of  but- 
ter, and  5,122  gallons  of  sorghum  molasses. 
There  were  1,952  horses,  2,246  milch  cows, 
707  working  oxen,  3,073  other  cattle,  3,048 
sheep,  and  8,423  swine.  Capital,  Lovingston. 
II.  A  central  county  of  Kentucky,  drained  bj 
Rolling  fork  and  Beech  fork  of  Salt  river; 
area,  about  350  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  14,804, 
of  whom  3,918  were  colored.  It  has  an  undu- 
lating surface  and  a  fertile  soil,  especially  to- 


NELSON 


219 


ward  the  north.  It  is  traversed  by  the  Louis- 
ville and  Nashville  and  Great  Southern  rail- 
road, and  its  Lexington  division.  The  chief 
productions  in  1870  were  148,294  hushels  of 
wheat,  22,085  of  rye,  774,315  of  Indian  corn, 
151,589  of  oats,  25,583  of  sweet  potatoes,  5,150 
tons  of  hay,  28,282  Ibs.  of  wool,  205,289  of 
butter,  and  8,713  gallons  of  sorghum  and  10,052 
of  maple  molasses.  There  were  5,406  horses, 
1,542  mules  and  asses,  3,364  milch  cows,  7,916 
other  cattle,  11,096  sheep,  and  35,534  swine; 
4  manufactories  of  carriages  and  wagons,  8 
distilleries,  3  flour  mills,  14  saw  mills,  and  2 
wool-carding  and  cloth-dressing  establishments. 
Capital,  Bardstown. 

NELSON.  I.  A  province  of  New  Zealand, 
forming  the  N.  W.  part  of  South  island,  bound- 
ed E.  by  the  province  of  Marlborough,  and 
S.  by  Canterbury;  area,  11,000  sq.  m. ;  pop. 
in  1871,  22,501.  A  portion  of  the  W.  part 
is  mountainous.  Iron,  copper,  and  gold  are 
found.  The  exports  of  gold  from  April  1, 
1857,  to  Dec.  31,  1871,  amounted  to  1,126,504 
oz.,  valued  at  £4,458,000.  II.  A  seaport  town, 
capital  of  the  province,  on  a  small  harbor  at 
the  bottom  of  Blind  bay,  78  m.  (150  m.  by 
water)  W.  of  Wellington,  and  1,280  m.  S.  E.  of 
Sydney,  Australia;  pop.  about  6,000;  with 
suburbs,  8,000.  It  is  the  seat  of  an  Anglican 
bishop,  and  has  a  literary  institute  and  mu- 
seum, numerous  public  and  private  schools,  a 
college,  several  churches,  and  three  branch 
banks.  The  chief  manufactures  are  cloth  and 
leather.  Steamers  ply  regularly  to  the  neigh- 
boring ports  and  Melbourne,  and  periodically 
to  Sydney.  Four  newspapers  were  published 
in  1873,  one  of  which  was  a  daily. 

NELSON,  David,  an  American  clergyman,  born 
near  Jonesborough,  Tenn.,  Sept.  24,  1793,  died 
at  Oakland,  111.,  Oct.  17,  1844.  He  was  edu- 
cated at  Washington  college,  Ya.,  and  studied 
medicine  in  Danville,  Ky.,  and  at  Philadelphia. 
He  joined  a  Kentucky  regiment  as  a  surgeon 
in  the  war  of  1812,  and  proceeded  to  Canada. 
On  his  return  he  resumed  the  practice  of  medi- 
cine. After  making  a  profession  of  religion 
in  early  life,  he  relapsed  into  infidelity,  but  at 
length  returned  to  his  religious  convictions,  be- 
came a  minister  in  the  Presbyterian  church,  and 
was  licensed  to  preach  in  1825.  He  preached 
for  nearly  three  years  in  Tennessee,  and  was 
engaged  in  the  publication  of  a  periodical 
called  "The  Calvinistic  Magazine."  In  1828 
he  succeeded  his  brother  Samuel  as  pastor  of 
the  Presbyterian  church  in  Danville,  Ky.  In 
1830  he  removed  to  Missouri,  establishing  a 
college  in  Marion  co.,  12  m.  from  Palmyra,  of 
which  he  became  the  first  president.  In  1836, 
owing  to  the  slavery  question,  Dr.  Nelson,  who 
was  a  warm  emancipationist,  removed  to  the 
neighborhood  of  Quincy,  111.,  and  established 
an  institute  for  the  education  of  young  men. 
In  the  latter  part  of  his  life  he  was  subject  to 
epilepsy,  which  gradually  impaired  his  faculties. 
He  published  "The  Cause  and  Cure  of  Infi- 
delity," which  passed  through  many  editions. 


NELSON,  Horatio,  Viscount  Nelson  of  the  Nile, 
a  British  admiral,  born  at  Burnham  Thorpe, 
Norfolk,  Sept.  29,  1758,  killed  in  the  battle  of 
Trafalgar,  Oct.  21,  1805.  His  childhood  was 
marked  by  the  fearless  spirit  for  which  he  after- 
ward became  distinguished.  He  left  school  at 
the  age  of  12,  and  became  a  midshipman  on 
board  a  ship  destined  for  an  attack  on  the 
Falkland  islands;  but  this  expedition  having 
been  given  up,  he  went  in  a  merchant  ship  to 
the  West  Indies.  In  1773,  although  a  boy,  he 
sailed  as  coxswain  of  one  of  the  two  ships  of 
Capt.  Phipps's  arctic  expedition.  On  return- 
ing he  was  placed  on  board  the  man-of-war 
Seahorse,  which  sailed  for  the  East  Indies; 
but  the  climate  soon  prostrated  him,  and  with- 
in 18  months  he  was  compelled  to  return  to 
England.  Eecovering  his  health  on  the  voyage 
home,  he  passed  with  credit  an  examination 
for  a  lieutenancy,  April  8,  1777,  and  was  ap- 
pointed second  lieutenant  on  the  Lowestoffe, 
which  was  employed  against  the  French  and 
American  privateers,  who  were  harassing  the 
British  trade  in  the  West  Indies.  He  soon 
afterward  became  first  lieutenant  on  board  the 
Bristol  flag  ship ;  in  December,  1778,  was  ap- 
pointed commander  of  the  Badger  brig,  and 
post  captain  on  June  11,  1779,  when  he  was 
assigned  to  the  Hinchinbrook,  28,  in  which  he 
distinguished  himself  at  the  siege  of  Fort  San 
Juan  and  took  the  island  of  St.  Bartholomew. 
But  the  crew  of  the  Hinchinbrook  were  deci- 
mated by  fever,  and  its  commander  was  forced 
to  return  to  England.  He  was  next  appointed 
to  the  Albemarle,  28,  in  the  winter  of  1781-'2 
cruised  in  the  North  sea,  sailed  for  Quebec  in 
April,  1782,  and  thence  with  a  convoy  to  New 
York ;  he  there  joined  the  fleet  under  Sir 
William  Hood,  and  with  him  went  to  the  West 
Indies,  where  he  remained  till  the  peace  of 
1783.  After  his  arrival  in  England  he  retired 
to  St.  Omer,  but  in  the  spring  of  1784  "took 
command  of  the  Boreas,  28,  ordered  to  the 
West  Indies.  At  Nevis  he  captured  four  Amer- 
ican vessels  for  violating  the  navigation  laws. 
At  the  same  island,  March  11, 1787,  he  married 
a  widow,  the  daughter  of  the  governor,  Mr. 
Herbert.  After  his  return  to  England  a  writ 
was  served  upon  him  on  the  part  of  the  Amer- 
ican captains,  who  laid  their  damages  at  £20,- 
000.  But  the  government  protected  him,  and 
he  had  no  more  trouble  with  the  suit.  When 
the  war  with  France  broke  out  he  was  ap- 
pointed, Jan.  30,  1793,  to  the  Agamemnon,  64, 
and  joined  the  Mediterranean  fleet  commanded 
by  Lord  Hood.  By  him  he  was  sent  with 
despatches  to  Naples,  where  he  made  the  ac- 
quaintance of  Sir  William  and  Lady  Hamilton. 
Subsequently  he  commanded  a  small  squadron 
sent  to  Corsica  to  cooperate  with  Paoli  against 
the  French,  and  took  Bastia,  May  19,  1794, 
after  a  siege  of  seven  weeks.  The  Agamemnon 
was  then  ordered  to  Calvi  to  assist  Gen.  Sir 
Charles  Stuart  in  the  siege  of  that  place. 
Here  Nelson  lost  an  eye  from  sand  and  small 
gravel  driven  into  it  by  a  shot  striking  the 


220 


NELSON 


ground  near  where  he  stood.  His  name  was 
not  mentioned  in  the  "Gazette,"  however, 
and  he  keenly  felt  the  neglect.  Afterward 
serving  under  Admiral  Hotham,  who  had  suc- 
ceeded Lord  Hood,  he  distinguished  himself  in 
the  engagement  with  the  French  fleet,  which 
had  come  out  from  Toulon  to  give  battle  to 
the  English,  and  hoarded  the  Qa  Ira  and  the 
Censeur,  the  only  two  ships  taken.  About 
this  time  he  was  made  colonel  of  marines, 
and,  hoisting  a  commodore's  pennant,  pro- 
ceeded to  the  coast  of  Italy,  blockaded  Leg- 
horn, and  superintended  the  evacuation  of  Cor- 
sica. In  sailing  with  a  convoy  to  Gibraltar, 
he  saw  the  Spanish  fleet  at  the  mouth  of  the 
straits,  and  on  Feb.  13,  1797,  brought  the  intel- 
ligence to  Admiral  Sir  John  Jervis,  then  com- 
manding the  Mediterranean  squadron.  By  him 
he  was  appointed  to  the  Theseus,  74,  and  par- 
ticipated in  the  battle  of  Cape  St.  Vincent  on 
the  morning  of  the  14th.  In  this  battle  Nel- 
son disobeyed  the  admiral's  orders  to  tack  in 
succession,  and,  seconded  by  Trowbridge  in 
the  Culloden  and  Oollingwood  in  the  Excel- 
lent, bore  down  upon  seven  of  the  enemy's 
fleet,  attacked  the  Santissima  Trinidada,  136, 
passed  on  to  the  San  Nicolas,  84,  which  he  car- 
ried by  boarding,  and  led  his  men  on  to  the 
San  Josef,  112,  lying  alongside,  and  compelled 
it  to  surrender.  For  his  conduct  Nelson,  who 
had  been  created  rear  admiral  before  the  ac- 
tion was  known  in  England,  was  knighted  and 
made  a  companion  of  the  order  of  the  bath. 
In  April  he  was  sent  to  bring  away  the 
troops  from  Porto  Ferrajo,  and  shortly  after 
commanded  the  inner  squadron  in  the  block- 
ade of  Cadiz.  On  July  14  he  was  sent  to 
attack  Santa  Cruz,  Teneriffe,  and  carried  the 
place,  but,  not  being  able  to  capture  the  cita- 
del, was  forced  to  retire.  In  the  attack  his 
right  arm  was  shattered  by  a  grape  shot,  ma- 
king amputation  necessary,  and  he  returned  to 
England,  where  honors  were  showered  upon 
him.  Congratulatory  letters  were  addressed 
to  him  by  the  first  lord  of  the  admiralty  and 
the  duke  of  Clarence ;  the  freedom  of  the  cit- 
ies of  London  and  Bristol  was  conferred  upon 
him ;  he  was  made  a  knight  of  the  bath,  and 
received  a  pension  of  £1,000.  In  April,  1798, 
hoisting  his  flag  in  the  Vanguard,  74,  he  re- 
joined Earl  St.  Vincent  at  Gibraltar,  and  on 
May  9  sailed  from  that  place  with  a  small 
squadron  to  ascertain  the  design  of  the  vast 
armament  fitting  out  at  Toulon.  On  the  22d 
he  encountered  in  the  gulf  of  Lyons  a  sudden 
storm  by  which  his  ship  was  dismasted,  and 
in  the  fog  that  followed  he  missed  the  French 
fleet,  which  had  sailed  for  Egypt  with  Bona- 
parte and  his  army  on  board.  Having  received 
a  reinforcement  of  ten  ships  of  the  line  and 
one  of  50  guns,  he  sailed  for  Alexandria,  but 
failed  to  find  the  enemy.  After  obtaining  sup- 
plies at  Syracuse,  he  sailed  again  for  Egypt, 
and  on  the  morning  of  Aug.  1  descried  the  tri- 
color floating  from  the  walls  of  Alexandria  and 
the  bay  of  Aboukir  covered  with  ships.  The 


fleets  joined  battle  at  6£  P.  M.,  and,  with  an 
interruption  of  ten  minutes,  when  the  French 
flag  ship  L'Orient  blew  up,  maintained  it  till 
daybreak.  (See  ABOUKIE.)  Nelson  declared 
victory  a  too  feeble  word  for  the  result  of  this 
battle,  and  called  it  a  conquest.  Had  he  been 
provided  with  small  craft,  he  could  have  de- 
stroyed in  a  few  hours  the  store  ships  and 
transports  in  the  harbor  of  Alexandria;  and 
so  deeply  did  he  feel  the  want  of  these,  that 
in  a  despatch  to  the  admiralty  he  declared: 
"  Were  I  to  die  this  moment,  want  of  frigates 
would  be  engraven  on  my  heart."  During  the 
engagement  Nelson  received  a  severe  though 
not  dangerous  wound  on  the  head  from  a  lang- 
ridge  shot.  The  news  of  the  battle  of  the  Nile 
was  received  with  boundless  enthusiasm  by 
the  enemies  of  France,  and  congratulations  and 
rewards  without  number  were  showered  upon 
the  victorious  commander.  He  was  created 
Baron  Nelson  of  the  Nile,  with  a  pension  of 
£2,000  to  himself  and  his  two  immediate  suc- 
cessors; received  magnificent  presents  from 
the  sultan,  the  king  of  Sardinia,  the  king  of 
Naples,  the  emperor  of  Russia,  and  the  East 
India  company ;  and  the  thanks  of  parliament 
and  gold  medals  were  voted  to  him  and  the 
captains  engaged  in  the  action.  Seventeen 
days  after  the  battle  Nelson  sailed  for  Naples, 
and  was  received  with  great  demonstrations  of 
joy  both  by  the  populace  and  the  court.  En- 
couraged by  his  victory,  the  Neapolitan  gov- 
ernment broke  openly  with  the  directory,  and 
sent  an  army  under  Gen.  Mack  against  the 
French  troops  occupying  the  Papal  States. 
But  an  incapable  commander  and  cowardly 
soldiers  were  no  match  for  the  forces  of  France. 
The  invading  army  was  beaten  back,  Naples 
was  entered  in  turn,  the  royal  family  compelled 
to  flee,  and  the  short-lived  Parthenopean  re- 
public established.  The  king  and  queen  and 
their  suite  were  conveyed  by  Nelson  to  Pa- 
lermo. The  royalists,  however,  soon  took  the 
field  under  the  lead  of  Cardinal  Ruffo,  and  ad- 
vanced upon  the  city  of  Naples.  The  gar- 
risons of  the  castel  Nuovo  and  the  castel  dell' 
6vo,  consisting  of  Neapolitan  insurgents,  ca- 
pitulated to  the  cardinal,  June  23,  1799,  on 
condition  that  they  should  be  allowed  to  march 
out  with  all  the  honors  of  war,  and  that  the 
persons  in  the  forts  and  all  prisoners  taken  by 
the  king's  troops  should  be  unmolested  or  con- 
veyed to  Toulon  and  there  set  at  liberty.  The 
part  taken  by  Nelson  in  annulling  this  capitu- 
lation has  been  condemned  as  an  ineffaceable 
blot  upon  his  fame  by  Southey  and  nearly  all 
his  other  biographers ;  but  the  publication  by 
Sir  Harris  Nicolas  of  the  "  Nelson  Despatches  " 
places  his  conduct  in  a  much  more  favorable 
light.  On  the  24th  Nelson  arrived  in  the  bay, 
and  immediately  ordered  the  flag  of  truce  to 
be  pulled  down,  on  the  ground  that  the  action 
of  the  cardinal  in  granting  a  capitulation  was 
not  only  unauthorized  but  in  direct  opposition 
to  the  commands  of  the  king,  whose  orders 
were  explicit  not  to  treat  with  the  rebels.  On 


NELSON 


221 


the  next  day,  no  steps  having  yet  been  taken 
to  carry  the  capitulation  into  effect,  he  ad- 
dressed a  note  to  the  garrisons,  stating  that  he 
would  not  permit  them  to  embark  or  leave 
those  places,  and  their  surrender  must  be  at 
discretion.  On  the  26th  the  insurgents  sub- 
mitted, with  full  knowledge  that  the  cardinal's 
conditions  had  been  annulled,  and  were  de- 
tained as  prisoners  until  the  arrival  of  the 
king,  July  10,  when  they  were  given  up  to  the 
Neapolitan  authorities.  That  Nelson  was  jus- 
tifiable in  this  transaction  is  now  generally  ad- 
mitted ;  that  he  did  not  act  without  regard  to 
honor  and  good  faith  is  apparent  from  his 
treatment  of  the  garrison  of  Castellamare,  who 
having  surrendered  before  his  arrival  were 
permitted  to  go  free,  although  the  officer  who 
received  their  capitulation  had  no  authority 
to  grant  them  terms.  The  hanging  of  Prince 
Caraccioli,  the  Neapolitan  admiral,  who  had 
joined  the  insurgents  and  served  under  the 
"  Parthenopean  republic,"  is  another  event 
which  clouds  Nelson's  memory.  Caraccioli 
was  accused  of  being  a  traitor,  and  having  been 
captured  and  given  up  to  Nelson  was  tried  by 
a  Neapolitan  court  martial,  who  condemned 
him  to  death,  and  submitted  their  sentence  to 
Nelson  as  superior  officer  for  confirmation.  It 
has  been  charged,  though  perhaps  without  suf- 
ficient proof,  that  in  these  transactions  the 
British  admiral  acted  under  the  baneful  in- 
fluence of  Lady  Hamilton,  with  whom  his  il- 
licit connection  had  already  commenced.  Al- 
though ordered  by  Lord  Keith  to  sail  with  his 
whole  force  for  the  protection  of  Minorca,  he 
continued  in  the  bay  of  Naples,  and  succeeded 
in  restoring  the  king  to  his  dominions.  For 
his  services  he  received  a  sword  splendidly  en- 
riched with  diamonds,  and  was  rewarded  with 
the  dukedom  of  Bronte,  with  a  revenue  of 
£3,000  a  year.  He  soon  after  assisted  Capt. 
Ball  in  the  siege  of  Malta ;  but,  mortified  by 
the  appointment  of  Lord  Keith  to  the  chief 
command  in  the  Mediterranean,  he  returned  to 
England  through  Germany  in  company  with 
Sir  William  and  Lady  Hamilton,  and  landed  at 
Yarmouth,  Nov.  6,  1800,  after  an  absence  of 
three  years.  Honors  of  every  kind  awaited 
him ;  but  within  three  months  he  was  separa- 
ted from  his  wife  on  account  of  his  infatuated 
attachment  to  Lady  Hamilton.  His  last  words 
to  his  wife  were :  "  I  call  God  to  witness  that 
there  is  nothing  in  you  or  in  your  conduct 
that  I  wish  otherwise."  In  December,  1800, 
a  maritime  alliance  was  formed  between  Rus- 
sia, Prussia,  Denmark,  and  Sweden  in  regard 
to  the  rights  of  neutral  nations  in  war.  For 
the  purpose  of  breaking  up  this  confederacy, 
a  fleet  of  52  sail  was  sent  in  March,  1801,  to 
the  Baltic  under  Sir  Hyde  Parker,  Nelson  con- 
senting to  act  as  second  in  command.  The 
squadron  passed  the  Sound  on  the  30th,  and 
entered  the  harbor  of  Copenhagen.  To  Nelson, 
at  the  head  of  12  ships  of  the  line  and  smaller 
vessels,  making  36  in  all,  was  assigned  the  at- 
tack; against  him  were  opposed  18  vessels 


mounting  628  guns,  moored  in  a  line  a  mile  in 
length,  and  flanked  by  two  batteries.  The  ac- 
tion began  about  10  A.  M.,  April  2,  and  lasted 
five  hours.  About  1  o'clock  Sir  Hyde  Parker 
made  the  signal  for  discontinuing.  Nelson 
ordered  it  to  be  acknowledged,  but,  putting  the 
glass  to  his  blind  eye,  exclaimed:  "I  really 
don't  see  the  signal.  Keep  mine  for  closer  bat- 
tle still  flying.  That's  the  way  I  answer  such 
signals.  Nail  mine  to  the  mast."  By  2  o'clock, 
the  Danish  fleet  being  almost  entirely  taken  or 
destroyed,  he  wrote  to  the  crown  prince  the 
following  note :  "  Vice  Admiral  Lord  Nelson 
has  been  commanded  to  spare  Denmark  when 
she  no  longer  resists.  The  line  of  defence 
which  covered  her  shores  has  struck  to  the 
British  flag ;  but  if  the  firing  is  continued  on 
the  part  of  Denmark,  he  must  set  on  fire  all  the 
prizes  he  has  taken,  without  having  the  power 
of  saving  the  men  who  have  so  nobly  defended 
them.  The  brave  Danes  are  the  brothers  and 
should  never  be  the  enemies  of  the  English." 
An  armistice  of  14  weeks  was  agreed  to,  and 
in  the  mean  time  the  policy  of  Alexander,  the 
new  emperor  of  Russia,  broke  up  the  confeder- 
acy, and  left  matters  on  their  old  footing.  For 
this  battle,  which  Nelson  said  was  the  most 
terrible  of  all  in  which  he  had  ever  been  en- 
gaged, he  was  raised  to  the  rank  of  viscount. 
On  July  24  he  was  made  commander-in-chief, 
from  Orfordness  to  Beachy  Head,  of  the  squad- 
ron for  the  defence  of  England ;  and  on  Aug.  15 
he  attacked  the  flotilla  at  Boulogne,  but  was 
forced  to  retreat  with  considerable  loss.  After 
the  treaty  of  Amiens  he  retired  with  Sir  Wil- 
liam and  Lady  Hamilton  to  his  seat  at  Merton 
in  Surrey.  But  war  breaking  out  again,  he 
was  appointed  commander  of  the  Mediterra- 
nean fleet,  and  set  sail  May  20,  1803.  He  im- 
mediately blockaded  Toulon,  but  in  spite  of 
his  utmost  vigilance  a  fleet  escaped  out  of  that 
port  on  Jan.  18,  1805,  and  shortly  afterward 
joined  the  Cadiz  squadron.  Nelson  followed 
in  pursuit  to  the  West  Indies,  and  back  again 
to  Europe,  but  being  unsuccessful  he  returned 
to  England.  Upon  the  receipt  of  the  intelli- 
gence that  the  combined  French  and  Spanish 
fleets  were  in  Cadiz,  he  resumed  his  command 
of  the  Mediterranean  fleet,  and  encountered 
the  enemy  off  Cape  Trafalgar,  Oct.  21,  1805. 
The  force  under  him  consisted  of  27  ships  of 
the  line  and  4  frigates ;  the  force  opposed  of 
33  ships  of  the  line  and  7  frigates.  On  that 
day  he  wore  his  admiral's  coat,  bearing  upon 
his  left  breast  the  insignia  of  the  orders  with 
which  he  had  been  invested.  To  all  remon- 
strance against  wearing  so  conspicuous  a  uni- 
form he  replied,  referring  to  the  insignia :  "  In 
honor  I  gained  them,  and  in  honor  I  will  die 
with  them."  At  11.40  A.  M.,  while  bearing 
down  on  the  enemy,  he  hoisted  the  signal, 
"  England  expects  every  man  to  do  his  duty," 
which  was  received  with  tremendous  cheering 
by  the  whole  fleet.  At  10  minutes  after  noon 
the  action  began.  In  the  heat  of  the  battle, 
about  li  P.  M.,  he  was  struck  in  the  shoul- 


222 


NELSON 


der  by  a  musket  ball.  "  They  have  done  for 
me  at  last,  Hardy,"  said  he,  as  he  was  raised 
up  from  the  deck;  "my  backbone  is  shot 
through."  He  was  carried  below,  and  the 
surgeon  examining  his  wound  pronounced  it  to 
be  mortal.  He  continually  expressed  the  great- 
est anxiety  as  to  the  result  of  the  battle.  At 
length  Capt.  Hardy  came  down  from  the  deck, 
and  congratulated  his  dying  commander  on 
having  gained  a  complete  victory.  He  did  not 
know  how  many  had  struck,  but  14  or  15  at 
least  had  surrendered.  "  That's  well,"  an- 
swered Nelson,  "  but  I  had  bargained  for  20." 
Anxious  that  the  vessels  taken  should  be  saved 
from  the  possible  danger  of  a  storm,  he  added 
in  a  stronger  voice  :  "  Anchor,  Hardy,  anchor. 
Do  you  make  the  signal."  The  order  was  not 
obeyed,  and  in  the  gale  that  came  up  the  fol- 
lowing night  all  but  four  of  the  prizes  were 
destroyed  or  lost.  Next  to  his'country,  Lady 
Hamilton  occupied  his  thoughts.  "  Take  care 
of  my  dear  Lady  Hamilton,  Hardy ;  take  care 
of  poor  Lady  Hamilton."  A  few  minutes  be- 
fore he  died,  he  turned  to  the  chaplain,  and 
said :  "  Doctor,  I  have  not  been  a  great  sinner. 
Remember  that  I  leave  Lady  Hamilton  and  my 
daughter  Horatia  as  a  legacy  to  my  country." 
He  then  frequently  repeated  :  "  Thank  God,  I 
have  done  my  duty."  These  were  the  last 
words  he  uttered,  and  at  4J  P.  M.  he  expired 
without  a  groan.  The  body  was  placed  in  a 
coffin  made  out  of  the  mast  of  the  L'Orient. 
This  singular  gift  had  been  presented  him  by 
Capt.  Hallowell,  and  before  Nelson  left  Lon- 
don for  the  last  time  he  had  called  at  his  up- 
holsterer's and  told  him  to  get  it  ready,  for  he 
should  soon  require  it.  He  was  buried  in  St. 
Paul's  cathedral,  Jan.  8,  1806,  and  his  funeral, 
conducted  at  the  public  expense,  was  the  most 
solemn  and  magnificent  spectacle  which  had 
ever  been  witnessed  in  England.  Honors  were 
heaped  upon  his  family.  His  brother,  the  Rev. 
"William  Nelson,  D.  D.,  was  created  Earl  Nelson 
of  Trafalgar  and  Merton,  with  an  annual  grant 
of  £6,000,  and  permission  to  inherit  the  duke- 
dom of  Bronte ;  £10,000  were  voted  to  each 
of  his  two  sisters,  besides  £100,000  for  the 
purchase  of  an  estate.  A  few  hours  before 
his  death  he  appended  a  codicil  to  his  will,  in 
which  he  left  Lady  Hamilton  as  a  legacy  to  his 
king  and  country,  and  his  "  adopted  daughter, 
Horatia  Nelson  Thompson,"  to  the  beneficence 
of  his  country.  "  These,"  continues  the  docu- 
ment, "are  the  only  favors  I  ask  of  my  king 
and  country  at  this  moment,  when  I  am  going 
to  fight  their  battle."  This  codicil  his  broth- 
er concealed  until  the  parliamentary  grant  to 
himself  had  been  completed  ;  and  to  it  and  his 
dying  request  in  behalf  of  the  same  persons 
the  British  people  paid  no  attention. — Nelson 
is  the  greatest  name  in  the  naval  annals  of  Eng- 
land. "  He  annihilated  the  French  navy,"  says 
Alison,  "by  fearlessly  following  up  the  new 
system  of  tactics,  plunging  headlong  into  the 
enemy's  fleet,  and  doubling  upon  a  part  of  their 
line,  in  the  same  manner  as  Napoleon  practised 


in  battles  on  land."  As  he  left  no  legitimate 
children,  his  viscounty  became  extinct,  but  the 
barony  devolved  by  limitation  upon  his  broth- 
er William,  whose  grandnephew  Horatio,  Earl 
and  Baron  Nelson  and  Viscount  Merton,  is  the 
present  representative  of  the  family.  Horatia 
Nelson  was  the  admiral's  natural  daughter, 

Erobably  by  Lady  Hamilton ;  for  it  is  a  singu- 
ir  fact  that  while  he  is  universally  considered 
her  father,  her  maternity  is  doubted,  and  there 
are  not  wanting  patriotic  British  critics  who 
maintain  that  the  attachment  between  Nelson 
and  Lady  Hamilton  was  purely  Platonic.  Ho- 
ratia was  married  to  the  Rev.  Philip  "Ward,  an 
English  clergyman. — Among  the  biographies  of 
Lord  Nelson  we  may  cite  Clarke  and  MacAr- 
thur's  "  Life  of  Admiral  Lord  Nelson  "  (2  vols. 
4to,  1809)  ;  Robert  Southey's  "  Life  of  Nelson  " 
(2d  ed.,  8vo,  1831);  Pettigrew's  "Memoirs  of 
the  Life  of  Vice  Admiral  Lord  Viscount  Nel- 
son "  (2  vols.  8vo,  1849) ;  and  E.  De  Forgues, 
Histoire  de  Nelson,  from  official  documents  and 
Nelson's  private  correspondence  (Paris,  1860). 
His  letters  to  Lady  Hamilton  (2  vols.  8vo) 
were  published  in  1814,  and  the  "  Letters  and 
Despatches  of  Lord  Nelson,"  edited  by  Sir 
Harris  Nicolas  (7  vols.  8vo),  in  1844-'6. 

NELSON,  Samuel,  an  American  jurist,  born  at 
Hebron,  N.  Y.,  Nov.  10, 1792,  died  at  Coopers- 
town,  Dec.  13,  1873.  His  father,  a  farmer, 
emigrated  to  the  United  States  from  the  north 
of  Ireland  in  the  latter  part  of  the  18th  cen- 
tury. He  graduated  at  Middlebury  college, 
Vt.,  in  1813,  studied  law  at  Salem,  N.  Y.,  was 
admitted  to  the  bar  in  1817,  and  commenced 
practice  at  Cortland.  In  1820  he  was  a  presi- 
dential elector.  From  1823  to  1831  he  was 
circuit  judge,  after  which  he  became  associate 
justice,  and  in  1837  chief  justice  of  the  supreme 
court  of  the  state  of  New  York.  In  1844  he 
was  appointed  associate  justice  of  the  United 
States  supreme  court.  In  1846  he  was  a  mem- 
ber of  the  state  constitutional  convention,  and 
in  1871  of  the  joint  high  commission  to  set- 
tle the  Alabama  claims.  In  October,  1872,  he 
was  compelled  by  declining  health  to  retire 
from  the  bench.  He  resided  for  more  than 
50  years  at  Cooperstown. 

NELSON,  Thomas,  an  American  statesman, 
born  in  York  co.,  Va.,  Dec.  26,  1738,  died 
there,  Jan.  4,  1789.  His  father,  William  Nel- 
son, for  many  years  president  of  the  colonial 
council,  sent  him  in  his  14th  year  to  Cambridge, 
England,  where  he  was  educated  at  Trinity 
college.  In  his  24th  year  he  married,  and  set- 
tled at  Yorktown,  where  he  possessed  a  great 
estate  and  led  a  life  of  leisure.  He  became  a 
decided  partisan  of  the  American  cause,  and 
rendered  efficient  service  in  the  house  of  bur- 
gesses. He  was  a  member  of  the  provincial  con- 
ventions of  1774  and  1775,  and  in  that  which 
met  in  May,  1776,  to  frame  a  constitution  for 
Virginia,  in  which  he  offered  the  resolution  in- 
structing the  Virginia  delegates  in  congress  to 
propose  a  declaration  of  independence.  Hav- 
ing been  elected  a  delegate  to  congress,  he 


NELSON  KIVER 

signed  the  declaration  of  July  4,  1776.  In 
May,  1777,  he  was  obliged  by  indisposition  to 
resign  his  seat.  In  the  following  August,  du- 
ring the  alarm  occasioned  by  the  entry  of  the 
British  fleet  under  Admiral  Howe  within  the 
capes  of  Virginia,  he  was  appointed  cominand- 
er-in-chief  of  the  state  forces ;  and  soon  after, 
in  response  to  an  appeal  from  congress,  he 
raised  a  troop  of  cavalry  which  he  led  to  Phila- 
delphia. The  danger  apprehended  from  Howe's 
expedition  having  been  averted,  his  corps  was 
disbanded,  and  he  resumed  his  duties  as  a  mem- 
ber of  the  legislature.  He  strongly  opposed 
the  proposition  to  sequestrate  British  property, 
on  the  ground  that  it  would  be  an  unjust  re- 
taliation of  public  wrongs  on  private  individ- 
uals. In  February,  1779,  he  again  took  his 
seat  in  congress,  but  was  soon  obliged  by  ill- 
ness to  resign.  In  May,  however,  he  was  sud- 
denly called  upon  to  organize  the  militia  to 
repel  a  marauding  expedition  which  was  rava- 
ging the  Virginia  coast.  Congress  having  called 
for  contributions  to  provide  for  the  French 
fleet  and  armament,  the  general  assembly  of 
Virginia  resolved  early  in  June,  1780,  to  bor- 
row $2,000,000  to  be  deposited  in  the  conti- 
nental treasury  by  the  middle  of  the  month. 
The  public  credit,  however,  was  so  low  that 
there  seemed  little  probability  that  the  required 
sum  could  be  obtained.  Gen.  Nelson  on  his 
personal  security  raised  a  considerable  portion 
of  the  loan.  About  the  same  time  he  advanced 
money  to  pay  two  Virginia  regiments  ordered 
to  the  south,  which  had  refused  to  march  until 
their  arrears  were  discharged.  His  ample  for- 
tune was  so  seriously  impaired,  that  he  was 
involved  in  pecuniary  embarrassments  in  the 
latter  part  of  his  life.  In  1781  he  succeeded 
Jefferson  as  governor  of  the  state,  and  to  repel 
the  invasion  of  the  enemy  was  compelled  to 
assume  dictatorial  powers;  and  it  was  in  no 
small  degree  owing  to  his  exertions  that  the 
American  army  was  kept  together  during  its 
stay  in  Virginia.  His  extra-legal  acts  were 
subsequently  approved  by  the  Virginia  legis- 
lature. He  participated  in  the  siege  of  York- 
town  as  commander  of  the  Virginia  militia, 
and  directed  that  his  own  house,  the  largest 
and  best  in  the  place,  should  be  bombarded. 
He  resigned  his  office  in  November,  1781,  and 
passed  the  rest  of  his  life  in  retirement. 

NELSON  RIVER,  of  British  North  America, 
issues  from  the  N.  extremity  of  Lake  Winni- 
peg, passes  through  a  series  of  lakes,  and  falls 
into  Hudson  bay,  N.  of  Fort  York,  after  a  N.  E. 
course  of  about  350  m.  It  discharges  a  great 
volume  of  water,  but  its  navigation  is  almost 
impossible,  owing  to  numerous  rapids  and  falls. 

NELOIBIUM.     See  WATER  LILT. 

NEMAHA.  I.  A  S.  E.  county  of  Nebraska, 
separated  from  Missouri  by  the  Missouri  river, 
and  intersected  by  the  Little  Nemaha;  area, 
about  400  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  7,593.  The 
surface  is  diversified  by  undulating  prairies, 
bluffs,  bottom  lands,  and  groves  of  oak,  hick- 
ory, walnut,  &c.,  along  the  streams.  The 
592  VOL,  xn. — 15 


NEMESIANUS 


223 


underlying  rocks  are  limestone  and  sandstone, 
and  the  soil  is  fertile.  The  chief  productions 
in  1870  were  33,790  bushels  of  wheat,  224,695 
of  Indian  corn,  35,831  of  oats,  16,140  of  pota- 
toes, 49,425  Ibs.  of  butter,  and  3,015  tons  of 
hay.  There  were  728  horses,  539  milch  cows, 
1,587  other  cattle,  454  sheep,  and  1,483  swine. 
Capital,  Brownville.  II.  A  N.  E.  county  of 
Kansas,  bordering  on  Nebraska,  and  watered 
by  numerous  streams ;  area,  720  sq.  m. ;  pop. 
in  1870,  7,339.  It  is  traversed  by  the  St.  Jo- 
seph and  Denver  City  railroad,  and  by  the  Cen- 
tral branch  of  the  Union  Pacific  line.  The 
surface  is  undulating,  the  soil  fertile.  The 
productions  in  1870  were  112,612  bushels  of 
wheat,  26,840  of  rye,  358,871  of  Indian  corn, 
107,737  of  oats,  50,074  of  potatoes,  12,018  Ibs. 
of  wool,  28,285  of  cheese,  200,460  of  butter, 
and  17,167  tons  of  hay.  There  were  3,307 
horses,  3,405  milch  cows,  5,815  other  cattle, 
3,591  sheep,  and  4,119  swine.  Capital,  Seneca. 

NEMEAN  GAMES,  one  of  the  four  great  national 
festivals  of  the  Greeks,  so  called  from  Nemea 
in  Argolis,  where  they  were  held  every  second 
year.  The  first  one  the  date  of  which  can 
be  fixed  approximately  on  historical  authority 
occurred  in  the  52d  or  53d  Olympiad  (572-565 
B.  C.).  The  period  from  one  celebration  to 
another  was  called  a  Nemead.  They  were  in- 
stituted by  the  seven  against  Thebes  in  com- 
memoration of  the  death  of  the  infant  Ophel- 
tes,  which  had  been  destroyed  by  a  dragon 
while  Hypsipyle  its  attendant  had  gone  to 
show  the  seven  a  well.  On  their  return  they 
slew  the  dragon  and  instituted  funeral  games. 
Other  legends  ascribe  them  to  Hercules  in 
honor  of  his  destruction  of  the  Nemean  lion. 
It  is  probable,  however,  that  these  refer  to  a 
restoration  of  the  ancient  festival,  and  its  al- 
teration to  a  celebration  in  honor  of  Jupiter. 
At  first  they  were  of  a  warlike  character,  only 
warriors  and  their  sons  participating,  but  they 
were  afterward  thrown  open  to  all  the  Greeks. 
The  exercises  consisted  of  horse  racing,  run- 
ning in  armor  in  the  stadium,  wrestling,  chariot 
racing,  quoit  throwing,  boxing,  throwing  the 
spear,  archery,  and  musical  contests.  The 
prize  was  at  first  a  chaplet  of  olive  branches, 
but  afterward  one  of  parsley.  The  manage- 
ment of  these  games  belonged  at  different 
times  to  Cleonas,  Corinth,  and  Argos.  Philip 
of  Macedon  was  once  honored  by  the  Argives 
with  the  presidency  of  the  Nemean  games ; 
and  at  their  celebration  in  195'B.  C.,  Quintius 
Flamininus  proclaimed  the  freedom  of  Argos. 

NEMESIANUS,  Marcus  Aurelins  Olyinpins,  a  Latin 
poet  of  the  latter  half  of  the  3d  century  A.  D., 
supposed  to  have  been  a  native  of  Africa.  He 
was  the  most  successful  poet  at  the  court  of 
the  emperor  Carus,  and  wrote  on  fishing,  hunt- 
ing, and  aquatics ;  but  all  his  works  have  per- 
ished except  a  fragment  of  the  Cynegetica,  on 
hunting,  consisting  of  325  hexameter  verses, 
remarkable  for  neatness  and  purity  of  style. 
It  was  first  printed  at  Venice  in  1534;  the 
best  edition  is  that  of  Stern  (Halle,  1832). 


224 


NEMESIS 


NEMESIS,  in  Grecian  mythology,  a  daughter 
of  Night,  though  sometimes  called  a  daughter 
either  of  Erehus  or  of  Oceanus.  She  was  a 
personification  of  conscience,  and  is  mentioned 
by  Hesiod  in  connection  with  JEdos  (Shame). 
It  was  believed  by  the  Greeks  that  the  gods 
were  enemies  of  excessive  human  happiness, 
and  that  there  was  a  power  which  preserved  a 
proper  compensation  in  human  affairs,  from 
which  it  was  impossible  for  the  sinner  to  es- 
cape. This  power  was  embodied  in  Nemesis, 
who  was  in  a  special  manner  the  avenger  of 
family  crimes  and  the  humbler  of  the  over- 
bearing, and  was  particularly  worshipped  at 
Rhamnus,  Patrse,  and  Oyzicus.  She  was  usu- 
ally represented  in  works  of  art  as  a  virgin, 
sometimes  standing  in  a  thoughtful  attitude, 
holding  in  her  left  hand  a  bridle  or  branch  of 
an  ash  tree,  and  in  her  right  a  wheel  with  a 
sword  or  scourge. 

NEMESIUS,  bishop  of  Emesa,  a  Greek  phi- 
losopher who  flourished  about  400.  He  has 
been  identified  by  some  writers  with  another 
Nemesius,  a  friend  of  Gregory  Nazianzen,  and 
governor  of  Cappadocia.  Nemesius  wrote  a 
complete  treatise  on  anthropology  (Ilepi  Qvaeo? 
'Avdp&Trov),  in  which  the  Neo-Platonic  philoso- 
phy predominates.  He  maintains  the  preex- 
istence  of  souls  and  the  freedom  of  the  will, 
affirms  that  this  world  is  not  to  be  destroyed, 
and  denies  the  existence  of  a  world-soul  and 
the  transmigration  of  spirits.  Passages  of  this 
work  are  considered  by  some  modern  writers 
to  indicate  a  knowledge  of  the  circulation  of 
the  blood  and  the  functions  of  the  liver.  It 
was  first  attributed  to  Gregory  Nazianzen,  and 
a  Latin  translation  of  it  was  published  under 
his  name  by  Burgundius  Pisanus  (fol.,  Stras- 
burg,  1512),  and  a  second 'Latin  translation 
by  Giorgio  Valla  (Lyons,  1538).  The  Greek 
text,  with  the  true  authorship,  was  published 
separately  by  Nicasius  Ellebodius  (Antwerp, 
1565),  by  Matthaus  (Halle,  1802),  and  in  vol. 
xl.  of  Migne's  Patrologie  grecque.  There  are 
translations  into  English  by  George  Wither 
(London,  1636),  into  German  by  Osterham- 
mer  (Salzburg,  1819),  and  into  French  by  J. 
B.  Thibault  (Paris,  1844). 

NEMI  (anc.  lacm  Nemorensis  and  Speculum 
Diance,  mirror  of  Diana),  a  lake  of  Italy,  17  m. 
S.  E.  of  Rome,  famous  in  antiquity  for  a  temple 
of  Diana.  This  was  situated  3  m.  from  Aricia 
(now  La  Eiccia),  an  ancient  city  of  Latium, 
which  thence  received  the  surname  Nemoralis. 
On  the  N.  E.  shore  of  the  lake  is  the  village  of 
Nemi,  on  the  site  of  the  ancient  town  of  Nemus. 
Lake  Nemi  is  smaller  than  Lake  Albano,  and 
of  a  more  regular  shape,  and  is  surrounded 
in  every  direction  by  steep,  high,  and  wooded 
hills.  It  was  once  the  crater  of  a  volcano. 
The  lake  has  no  visible  natural  outlet,  the  wa- 
ters being  carried  off  by  an  ancient  artificial 
passage.  It  is  a  favorite  subject  of  painters. 

NEMOURS,  Louis  Charles  Philippe  Raphael  d'Or- 
tfans,  duke  de,  a  French  prince,  the  second 
son  of  Louis  Philippe,  born  in  Paris,  Oct.  25, 


NEO-PLATONISM 

1814.  He  was  in  February,  1831,  elected  king 
of  the  Belgians  by  the  national  congress  as- 
sembled at  Brussels,  but  his  father  prohibit- 
ed him  from  accepting  the  crown.  He  served 
in  the  Belgian  campaign  of  1831,  and  subse- 
quently in  Algeria,  where  he  gained  in  1837 
the  rank  of  lieutenant  general.  The  chamber 
declined  in  1840  to  grant  him  500,000  francs, 
which  led  to  the  overthrow  of  the  Soult  cabi- 
net. He  married  in  the  same  year  the  prin- 
cess Victoria  of  Saxe-Ooburg-Gotha.  In  1841 
he  returned  to  the  army  in  Algeria.  The  death 
of  his  elder  brother,  the  duke  of  Orleans  (July 
13,  1842),  led  to  a  proposition,  which  was  not 
adopted,  to  make  him  regent  in  the  event  of 
his  father's  death.  On  the  outbreak  of  the 
revolution  of  1848  he  accompanied  the  duch- 
ess of  Orleans  on  her  fruitless  errand  to  the 
chamber,  and  subsequently  he  remained  with 
the  rest  of  the  Orleans  family  in  England  till 
1871,  when  they  were  permitted  to  reside  in 
France.  The  duchess  died  Nov.  10, 1857,  leav- 
ing two  sons :  the  count  d'Eu,  husband  of  the 
presumptive  empress  of  Brazil,  and  a  marshal 
in  the  Brazilian  army;  and  the  duke  d'Alen- 
con  (born  at  Neuilly,  July  12,  1844),  a  naval 
officer,  who  married  a  Bavarian  princess  in 
1868.  The  princess  Marguerite,  the  eldest  of 
the  duke's  two  daughters,  married  the  Polish 
prince  Ladislas  Czartoryski,  Jan.  15,  1872. 

NENA  SAHIB.    See  NANA  SAHIB. 

NENNIUS,  a  doubtful  British  historian,  sup- 
posed to  have  flourished  in  the  early  part  of 
the  9th  century,  though  Vossius  places  him  in 
the  7th.  According  to  several  passages  of  the 
work  attributed  to  him,  he  was  a  monk  of  Ban- 
gor  in  Wales.  This  work  is  entitled  ffistoria 
Britonum,  or  Eulogium  Britannim,  and  relates 
the  history  of  Britain  from  the  arrival  of  Bru- 
tus the  Trojan,  grandson  of  ^Eneas,  to  A.  D. 
655.  The  best  edition  is  that  of  Stevenson 
(London,  1838).  An  English  translation  by  the 
Rev.  W.  Gunn  has  been  republished  in  Bohn's 
"  Antiquarian  Library"  (London,  1848). 

NEOGRAD.     See  N6GRAD. 

NEO-PLATONISM,  a  system  of  philosophy  and 
theosophy  whose  original  seat  was  Alexandria, 
where  it  sprang  up  toward  the  end  of  the  2d 
century.  Its  founder  was  Ammonius  Sac- 
cas,  who  was  brought  up  by  his  parents  in  the 
Christian  faith,  but  renounced  it  and  became 
a  Hellenist.  He  died  A.  D.  243.  His  most 
distinguished  disciples  were  Plotinus,  Longi- 
nus  the  philologist,  and  two  Origens,  one  of 
whom  surnamed  Adamantius  was  the  famous 
father  of  the  church.  About  two  centuries  ear- 
lier Philo,  an  Alexandrian  Jew,  born  probably  a 
few  years  before  Christ,  had  promulgated  a  sys- 
tem by  which  he  sought  to  reconcile  the  phi- 
losophy of  Plato  with  the  teachings  of  Moses. 
He  held  that  the  Hebrew  Scriptures  contained 
an  internal  sense  in  which  were  hidden  all 
the  doctrines  of  the  Greek  philosophy.  (See 
PHILO  JUD^US.)  Ammonius  endeavored  to  rec- 
oncile the  doctrines  of  Aristotle  with  those  of 
Plato,  and  both  with  Christianity,  and  hence 


KEOPTOLEMUS 

his  school  was  called  eclectic.    He  taught  that 
God    is    primarily    essence,   and    secondarily 
knowledge  and  power,  and  that  asceticism  is 
the  true  way  to  attain  to  a  knowledge  of  the 
infinite.      Little  however   is   known    of    his 
teachings,  as  he  left  no  writings,  and  his  dis- 
ciples bound  themselves  not  to  divulge  his 
doctrines.     Plotinus  was  the  first  to  put  the 
new  philosophy  into  writing,  and  to  teach  it 
at  Rome,  where  he  went  to  live  in  244.     He 
taught  that  the  One  or  the  Good,  which  with 
Plato  was  the  highest  of  the  Ideas,  is  elevated 
above  the  sphere  of  the  Ideas,  and  above  all 
the  objects  of  rational  apprehension,  and  that 
the  Ideas,  to  which  Plato  ascribed  independent 
existence,  are  emanations  from  this  One,  the 
soul  an  emanation  from  the  Ideas,  and  so  on. 
The  One,  or  the  Good,  is  neither  reason  nor  an 
object  of  rational  cognition.    From  the  excess 
of  its  energy  it  sends  forth  an  image  of  itself. 
This  image  is  Nous  or  mind.     The  Nous  in  turn 
produces  as  its  image  the  soul  which  exists  in 
it,  as  itself  exists  in  the  One.     The  body  is  in 
the  soul  and  depends  on  it ;  but  the  soul  is  ab- 
solutely separable  from  the  body,  not  only  in 
its  thinking  power,  but  also  in  its  lower  facul- 
ties.   It  precedes  and  survives  the  body.    The 
business  of  man  is  to  return  to  God,  whom  he 
as  a  sensuous  being  has  estranged  from  himself. 
The  means  for  this  return  'are  virtue,  philoso- 
phic thought,  and  above  all  the  ecstatic  intui- 
tion of  God  and  the  becoming  one  with  him. 
Prominent  among  the  disciples  of  Plotinus  was 
Porphyry,  who  died  about  304.     He  appears 
to  have  taught  more  distinctly  than  his  master 
the  doctrine  of  the  emanation  of  matter  from 
the  soul.     He  also  maintained  that  the  world 
was  without  beginning  in  time.     He  attacked 
Christianity,  and  especially  the  divinity  of  Je- 
sus,    lamblichus,  who  died  about  830,  employ- 
ed the  Neo-Platonic    philosophy  in  support 
of  paganism,  and  relied  more  on  Pythagorean 
speculations  as  to  the  mystical  powers  of  num- 
bers than  on  Platonic  ideas.    Among  his  dis- 
ciples was  the  emperor  Julian  the  Apostate. 
The  attempt  to  overthrow  Christianity  and  re- 
vive paganism  failed,  and  the  Neo-Platonists 
now  applied  themselves  to  scientific  studies, 
and  especially  to  commentaries  on  Plato  and 
Aristotle.     Proclus  was  the  most  important 
of  these  later  writers. — Some  writers  give  to 
Neo-Platonism  a  much  wider  scope  than  that 
of  the  school  of  Ammonius  and  his  disciples. 
They  include  in  it  not  only  Philo-Judseus,  but 
several  of  the  Christian  fathers  besides  Origen, 
as  for  instance  Clement  of  Alexandria,  Greg- 
ory Nazianzen,  and  Cyril  of  Alexandria.     (See 
ALEXANDBIAN  SCHOOL.) 

NEOPTOLEMIJS.  I.  The  son  of  Achilles  and 
Deidamia,  originally  called  Pyrrhus  from  his 
red  hair.  When  it  was  prophesied  that  Troy 
could  not  be  taken  without  the  aid  of  the  son 
of  Achilles,  Ulysses  and  Diomedes  were  sent 
to  bring  him  thither.  He  was  one  of  the  war- 
riors concealed  in  the  wooden  horse.  He  slew 
Priam,  sacrificed  Polyxena  on  the  tomb  of 


NEPAUL 


225 


Achilles,  and  married  Andromache,  who  bore 
him  several  sons.  II.  An  officer  of  Alexander 
the  Great,  who  first  distinguished  himself  at 
the  siege  of  Gaza  in  332  B.  C.  After  the 
death  of  the  conqueror,  Armenia  was  assigned 
to  Neoptolemus.  When  the  Macedonian  gen- 
erals took  up  arms  to  contend  for  the  empire, 
he  refused  to  support  Perdiccas,  and  he  was 
finally  killed  in  battle  by  Eumenes. 

NEOSHO,  a  S.  E.  county  of  Kansas,  intersect- 
ed by  the  Neosho  river;  area,  576  sq.  m.; 
pop.  in  1870,  10,206.  It  is  traversed  by  the 
Missouri,  Kansas,  and  Texas,  and  the  Leaven- 
worth,  Lawrence,  and  Galveston  railroads. 
The  surface  is  undulating  or  level,  and  the  soil 
is  fertile.  The  chief  productions  in  1870  were 
27,466  bushels  of  wheat,  199,997  of  Indian 
corn,  48,241  of  oats,  27,522  of  potatoes,  59,025 
Ibs.  of  butter,  and  4,943  tons  of  hay.  There 
were  1,981  horses,  2,257  milch  cows,  5,589 
other  cattle,  1,712  sheep,  and  2,700  swine. 
Capital,  Erie. 

NEPAUL,  an  independent  kingdom  of  India, 
bounded  N.  by  the  Himalaya  mountains,  which 
separate  it  from  Thibet,   E.  by  the  British 
district  of  Darjeeling  and  the  protected  na- 
tive state  of  Sikkim,  and  S.  and  W.  by  Ben- 
gal, Oude,  and  the  Northwest  Provinces.    It  is 
included  between  lat.  26°  25'  and  30°  15'  K, 
and  Ion.  79°  45'  and  88°  20'  E. ;  length  W. 
K  W.  and  E.  S.  E.  about  500  m.,  greatest 
breadth  150  m. ;  area  estimated  at  50,000  sq. 
m. ;  pop.  estimated  at  2,000,000.    The  largest 
town  is  Katmandu,  the  capital.    Nepaul  is  in- 
tersected by  several  large  rivers,  some  of  which 
have  their  sources  on  the  table  land  of  Thibet, 
beyond  the  Himalaya,  through  which  they  force 
their  way  by  narrow  chasms  of  great  depth. 
The  three  great  river  systems  of  Nepaul  com- 
prise the  Gogra  and  its  tributaries  in  the  west, 
the  Gunduk  and  its  feeders  in  the  middle  re- 
gion, and  in  the  east  the  alpine  basin  of  the 
Coosy  or  Cosi.     There  are  very  few  lakes  in 
the  country.     The  greater  part  of  the  kingdom 
belongs  to  the  Himalaya  region,  which  pre- 
sents a  succession  of  vast  ridged  mountain  slopes 
with  narrow  glens  between  them ;  but  the  Ne- 
paulese  territory  also  includes  a  tract  about 
20  m.  in  width  lying  within  the  plain  which 
stretches  southward    from    the  base  of  the 
mountains.    In  respect  to  elevation  the  coun- 
try is  naturally  divisible  into  a  lower  region, 
extending  from  the  great  plain  of  India  to  a 
height  of  4,000  ft.  above  the  sea  level ;  a  cen- 
tral region,  comprising  all  between  4,000  and 
10,000  ft. ;    and   an  upper  region,   reaching 
thence  to  the  highest  peaks.    There  are  sever- 
al summits  of  stupendous  height,  among  which 
is  Mt.  Everest  (29,002  ft.),  the  highest  known 
mountain  in  the  world.    From  the  N.  boundary, 
which  lies  within  the  limit  of  perpetual  snow, 
the  elevations  gradually  sink  into  lower  and 
lower  hills,  among  which  lies  the  great  valley 
of  Nepaul,  in  which  is  situated  the  capital. 
It  is  4,500  ft.  above  the  sea,  measures  16  m.  in 
each  diameter,  and  is  watered  by  the  Bagmutty 


226 


NEPAUL 


river,  flowing  southward.  At  the  foot  of 
these  hills  a  helt  of  forest  occurs,  running  E. 
and  W.  throughout  the  length  of  the  country, 
and  reaching  within  10  m.  of  the  S.  frontier. 
Although  a  dry  region,  this  line  of  forest  is 
exceedingly  malarious.  It  is  rich  in  valuable 
timber,  of  which  the  saul  tree  is  the  most  im- 
portant. Succeeding  this  on  the  south  is  the 
Terai  or  Tarai  (a  Turanian  word  signifying 
lowlands),  a  black,  level,  humid,  malarious  re- 
gion, from  10  to  20  m.  broad,  skirting  the 
frontier  of  the  Bengal  provinces  and  Oude,  an 
open  waste  covered  with  heavy  grass.  The 
Terai,  the  forest  belt,  and  a  low  sandstone 
range  just  above  the  latter,  all  belong  to  the 
lower  region  of  elevation,  throughout  which 
malaria  prevails.  Above  these  tracts  the  cli- 
mate is  remarkably  equable  and  healthful. 
During  the  N.  E.  monsoon,  from  October  to 
March,  the  weather  is  cold  and  dry,  while  it  is 
wet  and  hot  from  April  to  September,  during 
the  prevalence  of  the  S.  "W.  monsoon.  In  the 
central  region  the  temperature  for  months  at 
a  time  will  vary  but  a  few  degrees  from  55°  F. 
While  these  are  the  general  characteristics  of 
the  climate,  great  differences,  due  to  variations 
of  altitude  and  local  causes,  will  be  found  be- 
tween different  districts.  The  geological  for- 
mation of  the  central  region  consists  of  granite, 
gneiss,  and  schists.  Iron,  lead,  copper,  and 
sulphur  are  found ;  and  gold  and  silver  have 
also  been  said  to  exist,  but  it  is  thought  that 
they  are  very  scarce  if  not  entirely  wanting. 
The  soil  is  remarkably  rich,  and  the  produc- 
tions vary  with  the  degrees  of  elevation.  The 
bamboo,  rattan,  sugar  cane,  pineapple,  and  va- 
rious other  tropical  fruits  between  the  ridges 
of  the  hills  and  mountains,  in  the  lowlands, 
give  place  to  the  oak,  pine,  barley,  and  millet, 
as  the  country  rises  toward  the  interior.  Much 
land  is  cultivated  in  terraces,  great  attention 
being  paid  to  its  irrigation.  Rice,  maize, 
wheat,  cotton,  three  kinds  of  pulse,  and  tobac- 
co are  grown.  Rice  is  the  staple  food ;  several 
varieties  of  it  are  cultivated  in  cold  and  dry 
places,  and  even  where  snow  falls.  Various 
roots  and  herbs  form  a  considerable  part  of 
the  sustenance  of  the  poorer  inhabitants.  The 
number  of  horned  cattle  is  not  great,  but  there 
are  large  flocks  of  sheep,  some  of  great  size 
with  fine  wool,  from  whose  milk  the  Nepaulese 
make  cheese.  Horses  are  brought  from  Thi- 
bet. Among  the  wild  animals,  the  elephant, 
the  tiger,  the  leopard,  deer,  antelopes,  and  mon- 
keys are  found  in  the  lower  region ;  the  sun 
bear,  wild  cats,  and  wild  dogs,  in  the  middle  re- 
gion ;  and  in  the  upper  region,  the  Indian  bull 
(bos  gaunis),  the  true  bear,  wild  goats,  wild 
sheep,  ounces,  and  foxes.  The  woods  are  in- 
habited by  great  numbers  of  peculiar  birds,  and 
the  rivers  are  abundantly  stocked  with  fish.— 
The  inhabitants  consist  of  a  variety  of  races,  the 
dominant  people  being  the  Gorkhas,  a  tribe  of 
Mongol  origin,  Hindoos  in  religion,  who  con- 
quered the  country  about  the  close  of  the  18th 
century.  They  have  enlisted  in  large  numbers 


in  the  British  Indian  army,  and  their  services 
during  the  sepoy  mutiny  of  1857,  particularly 
at  the  siege  of  Delhi,  have  caused  them  since 
to  be  regarded  as  valuable  soldiers.  They  are 
faithful  and  courageous,  though  not  very  ca- 
pable of  endurance.  (See  GORKHAS.)  Many 
Hindoos  from  Chitore  settled  in  Nepaul  at  the 
time  of  the  Mohammedan  invasion,  and  some 
of  them  have  preserved  their  blood  pure  to  the 
present  time,  while  others  have  intermarried 
with  Chinese  and  Tartars.  The  Hindoos  are 
found  chiefly  in  the  west;  the  east  is  popu- 
lated by  aboriginal  tribes,  among  which  are 
the  Newars,  Magars,  Gurungs,  Jariyas,  Dhen- 
wars,  Booteas,  Mhanjees,  and  Bhanras.  The 
Newars,  who  are  the  most  important  of  these, 
are  an  industrious  agricultural  and  commercial 
people,  more  advanced  in  the  mechanical  arts 
than  the  mountain  tribes,  ingenious  and  peace- 
able, excessively  dirty,  of  middle  size  and  great 
strength,  with  round  flat  faces,  small  eyes, 
broad  noses,  and  open  countenances.  They 
are  Buddhists,  but  have  a  priesthood  of  their 
own,  and  reject  the  Thibetan  model  of  Buddh- 
ism .which  prevails  among  the  other  aboriginal 
tribes  of  Nepaul.  Most  of  their  arts  appear 
to  have  been  introduced  from  Thibet.  Poly- 
andry prevails  to  a  limited  extent.  Thirteen 
dialects  are  spoken  in  the  kingdom,  of  which 
but  two  possess  any  literature:  the  Newari, 
or  language  of  the  Newars,  and  the  Parbattia, 
an  Indian  Prakrit,  spoken  by  the  Gorkhas. 
Some  coarse  cotton  cloth  is  made,  and  the 
natives  work  very  well  in  iron,  copper,  and 
brass,  and  are  good  carpenters,  though  they 
never  use  the  saw.  The  trade  of  the  country 
is  not  of  much  importance,  being  injured  by 
numerous  government  monopolies.  A  con- 
siderable quantity  of  timber  is  floated  down 
the  rivers,  and  finds  a  market  principally 
at  Calcutta.  The  government  is  strictly  des- 
potic, and  essentially  military  in  its  charac- 
ter. Every  male  inhabitant  is  liable  to  mili- 
tary duty  for  one  year,  and  there  is  a  stand- 
ing army  of  about  35,000  men,  armed  and  dis- 
ciplined in  some  measure  after  the  model  of 
European  troops. — Of  the  history  of  Nepaul 
little  is  known  until  the  invasion  of  the  Gor- 
khas (1768) ;  it  seems  never  to  have  been  sub- 
ject to  the  Moguls  or  any  other  great  Asiatic 
conquerors.  A  war  in  which  it  became  in- 
volved with  Thibet  in  1790  led  to  hostilities 
with  the  emperor  of  China,  who,  regarding 
himself  as  the  protector  of  the  lamas,  in  1792 
sent  an  army  of  70,000  men  against  the  Nepau- 
lese  and  checked  the  extension  of  their  territory 
to  the  northward.  A  treaty  of  commerce  was 
concluded  with  the  British  in  1792,  and  from 
1802  to  1804  a  political  resident  at  the  court  of 
Katmandu  represented  the  British  government. 
In  the  mean  time  the  country  had  been  a  prey 
to  intestine  feuds,  during  which  it  is  remark- 
able that  its  boundaries  were  enlarged  on  all 
sides,  except  toward  Thibet.  In  consequence 
of  the  repeated  encroachments  of  the  rajah 
upon  the  East  India  company's  territories,  the 


NEPENTHE 


NEPTUNE 


227 


British  declared  war  in  1814,  and  invaded  the 
country  on  the  "W.  frontier,  where  their  troops 
met  with  repeated  losses,  and  their  commander, 
Gen.  Gillespie,  was  slain.  In  the  following 
year,  however,  the  campaign  under  Sir  David 
Ochterlony  was  attended  with  very  different 
results.  The  victory  of  Malown,  the  capitula- 
tion of  the  famous  Nepaulese  commander 
Ameer  Singh,  and  finally  the  rapid  advance  of 
the  victors  toward  Katmandu,  obliged  the  Ne- 
paulese monarch  to  make  peace,  and  a  treaty 
was  signed  very  favorable  to  the  British  in 
March,  1816.  Throughout  the  mutiny  of  1857 
the  Nepaulese  cultivated  the  friendship  of  the 
British,  and  the  prime  minister  Jung  Baha- 
door  defeated  the  last  remnant  of  the  rebels  in 
December,  1859.  The  policy  of  the  govern- 
ment toward  foreigners,  however,  is  exceed- 
ingly exclusive.— Much  valuable  information 
concerning  the  country  is  contained  in  the 
work  on  Nepaul  and  Thibet  by  B.  H.  Hodg- 
son, formerly  British  minister  at  Katmandu 
(1874).  See  also  Oliphant,  "A  Journey  to 
Katmandu"  (1852). 

NEPENTHE  (Gr.  v#,  not,  and  Trfctfo?,  grief), 
a  soothing  drug  known  to  the  Egyptians,  from 
whom,  according  to  Homer,  Helen  learned  the 
art  of  compounding  it.  According  to  Diodorus 
Siculus,  the  Theban  women  also  possessed  the 
secret  of  its  preparation. 

NEPENTHES,  in  botany.    See  PITCHER  PLANTS. 

NEPHRITE.     See  JADE. 

NEPOMUCEN,  John,  or  John  of  Nepomnk,  a  saint 
of  the  Eoman  Catholic  church,  born  at  Nepo- 
muk  or  Pomuk,  Bohemia,  about  1330,  died  in 
Prague  in  1383  or  1393.  He  graduated  at  the 
university  of  Prague,  and  was  successively  rec- 
tor of  the  church  of  St.  Gall  in  Prague,  canon 
of  the  metropolitan  chapter,  and  rector  of  Tein. 
In  1378  he  was  chosen  court  preacher  by  the 
emperor  Wenceslas,  and  appointed  almoner  and 
chaplain  to  the  empress  Johanna.  He  was  im- 
prisoned for  reproving  the  emperor's  cruelty, 
and  was  offered  his  liberty  on  condition  of  re- 
vealing to  Wenceslas  the  confession  of  the  em- 
press. Eefusing  to  do  this,  he  was  inhumanly 
tortured.  Being  released  at  the  solicitation  of 
Johanna,  he  was  urged  anew  to  disclose  the 
desired  secret,  and  finally,  bound  hand  and 
foot,  was  cast  into  the  Moldau.  The  body 
was  taken  from  the  river  and  buried  amid  a 
vast  concourse  and  universal  grief.  The  mira- 
cles said  to  be  performed  at  his  tomb  attracted 
pilgrims  from  all  parts.  He  was  regarded  as  a 
martyr  by  the  Bohemians,  and  was  canonized 
by  Benedict  XIII.,  March  19,  1729,  and  des- 
ignated as  the  patron  saint  of  Bohemia.  His 
festival  is  celebrated  on  May  16.  Since  his 
canonization  several  writers  have  contested 
the  authenticity  of  the  facts  recited  in  the  le- 
gend of  John  Nepomucen.  Some  maintain 
that  two  personages  named  John  of  Nepomuk 
existed  nearly  at  the  same  time;  and  that  a 
great  similarity  in  the  circumstances  attending 
their  death  caused  much  confusion  in  the  pop- 
ular traditions  concerning  them. — See  Berg- 


hauer,  Protomartyr  Pcenitentia  (Augsburg, 
1736);  Marne,  Vie  de  St.  Jean  Nepomucene 
(Paris,  1741);  Pubitschka,  Ehrenrettung  des 
heiligen  Johannes  von  Nepomuk  (Prague, 
1791);  and  Abel,  Die  Legende  des  heiligen 
Johannes  von  Nepomulc  (Berlin,  1855). 

NEPOS,  Cornelius,  a  Roman  author,  probably  a 
native  of  Verona  or  its  vicinity,  died  in  the 
reign  of  Augustus.  Nearly  all  his  works  have 
perished.  He  wrote  Chronica,  an  epitome  of 
universal  history ;  Exemplorum  Libri,  a  col- 
lection of  remarkable  sayings  and  doings ;  Le 
Historicis,  and  De  Viris  Illustribus.  Two  of 
the  lives  comprised  in  the  last  named  work, 
those  of  Cato  and  Atticus,  are  extant.  The 
well  known  Excellentium  Imperatorum  Vita, 
first  printed  at  Venice  in  1471,  and  long  as- 
cribed to  ^Emilius  Probus,  is  now  considered 
an  abridgment  by  him  of  the  work  of  Nepos. 
It  has  passed  through  numberless  editions, 
and  has  been  translated  into  most  European 
languages. 

NEPTUNE  (NEPTUNUS  ;  called  by  the  Greeks 
Poseidon),  in  mythology,  the  principal  god  of 
the  sea,  and  originally  also  of  the  rivers  and 
springs.  He  was  a  son  of  Saturn  and  Ehea, 
and  a  brother  of  Jupiter,  Pluto,  Ceres,  Vesta, 
and  Juno.  Like  his  brothers  and  sisters,  he 
was  swallowed  by  his  father  as  soon  as  he 
was  born,  and  thrown  up  again;  or  accord- 
ing to  another  account,  his  mother  saved  his 
life  by  hiding  him  among  a  flock  of  lambs,  and 
offering  to  Saturn  a  young  horse  to  which  she 
feigned  to  have  given  birth.  After  Jupiter 
hadtoverthrown  his  father,  the  empire  of  the 
sea  fell  by  lot  to  Neptune.  He  is  represented 
as  being  of  equal  dignity  with  his  brother  Ju- 
piter, but  of  inferior  power,  though  he  some- 
times threatened  him,  disputed  the  possession 
of  ^Egina  with  him,  and  once  conspired  against 
him.  His  palace  was  in  the  sea,  near  Eubcea, 
and  he  was  the  especial  ruler  of  the  Mediter- 
ranean. He  assisted  in  building  the  walls  of 
Troy,  and  being  refused  the  reward  promised 
by  Laomedon,  ever  after  bore  an  implacable 
hatred  to  the  Trojans,  and  in  the  war  against 
Troy  sided  with  the  Greeks,  often  fighting  on 
their  side,  causing  the  earth  to  tremble,  and 
encouraging  them  with  the  signs  of  his  favor. 
He  had  power  over  the  clouds  and  storms,  over 
ships  and  mariners,  and  over  all  other  sea 
divinities.  He  was  the  creator  of  the  horse, 
and  the  teacher  of  horsemanship.  There  were 
many  legends  about  him :  with  Jupiter  he  fought 
against  Saturn  and  the  Titans ;  he  crushed  the 
centaurs  under  a  mountain  in  Leucosia ;  and 
he  sought  the  hand  of  Thetis,  but  refused  it 
through  fear  when  Themis  foretold  that  the 
son  of  Thetis  would  be  greater  than  his  father. 
The  wife  of  Neptune  was  Amphitrite,  by  whom 
he  had  three  children,  Triton,  Rhode,  and  Ben- 
thesicyme,  besides  a  large  number  of  other 
children  by  divine  and  mortal  women.  He 
was  worshipped  in  Argolis,  in  the  Corinthian 
isthmus,  and  in  Ionia,  and  had  a  temple  in 
Rome,  in  the  Campus  Martius.  The  sacrifices 


228 


NEPTUNE 


offered  to  him  were  bulls,  bears,  rams,  and 
bridled  horses,  and  horse  and  chariot  races 
were  held  in  his  honor.  He  had  many  sur- 
names in  allusion  to  his  various  attributes.  In 
works  of  art  his  emblems  are  the  trident,  the 
horse,  and  the  dolphin ;  and  he  is  portrayed 
sometimes  in  a  state  of  calm,  sometimes  in 
agitation,  corresponding  to  the  different  aspects 
of  the  sea  over  which  he  presides. 

NEPTUNE,  the  most  distant  known  planet, 
and  the  eighth  in  order  of  distance  from  the 
sun,  omitting  the  asteroids.  Neptune  travels 
at  a  mean  distance  of  about  2,745,998,000 
m.  from  the  sun.  The  eccentricity  of  his  or- 
bit is  less  than  that  of  any  other  in  the  solar 
system  (excluding  the  asteroids)  save  that  of 
Venus.  It  amounts  only  to  0-008720;  that 
is,  his  greatest,  mean,  and  least  distances  are 
proportional  respectively  to  1-008720,  1,  and 
0-991280.  But  though  the  eccentricity  itself  is 
small,  yet  the  distance  of  Neptune  is  so  enor- 
mous that  the  actual  displacement  of  the  centre 
of  his  orbit  measured  in  miles  is  considerable. 
His  greatest  distance  from  the  sun  amounts  to 
2,771,190,000  m.,  his  least  to  2,720,806,000  m., 
and  the  linear  eccentricity  amounts  to  25,592,- 
000  m.  As  the  earth's  mean  distance  from  the 
sun  is  91,430,000  m.,  the  distance  of  Neptune 
from  the  earth  varies  between  2,863,000,000 
and  2,629,000,000m.  The  inclination  of  his 
orbit  to  the  plane  of  the  ecliptic  is  1°  47'.  He 
travels  around  the  sun  in  a  mean  sidereal  pe- 
riod of  60,126-7200  days  or  164  tropical  years 
and  226*8  days.  So  slow  is  his  motion  around 
the  sun  that  his  synodical  period  only  exceeds 
a  year  by  2-25  days ;  that  is  to  say,  in  the 
course  of  one  year  from  opposition  he  advances 
through  so  small  an  arc  that  the  earth  over- 
takes him  and  he  is  again  in  opposition  in  2J- 
days.  His  diameter  is  estimated  at  about  37,- 
000  m.,  though  very  little  reliance  can  be  placed 
on  any  telescopic  measures  of  so  distant  an 
orb.  His  volume  exceeds  the  earth's  about  105 
times ;  but  his  density  (assuming  his  diameter 
to  be  correctly  estimated)  is  only  0*16  of  that 
of  the  earth ;  accordingly  his  mass  only  exceeds 
that  of  the  earth  about  16|  times. — The  most 
interesting  part  of  the  history  of  this  planet  is 
that  which  relates  to  its  discovery,  which  can- 
not but  be  regarded  as  among  the  greatest  tri- 
umphs of  astronomy.  After  Uranus  had  been 
watched  for  about  a  quarter  of  a  century,  it 
was  noticed  that  the  path  pursued  by  this  plan- 
et was  not  strictly  in  accordance  with  calcu- 
lations in  which  the  perturbations  produced 
by  Jupiter  and  Saturn  were  duly  taken  into 
account.  Accordingly  Bouvard,  the  author  of 
excellent  tables  of  the  three  planets,  Jupiter, 
Saturn,  and  Uranus,  expressed  the  opinion  that 
a  planet  of  considerable  size  exists  outside 
Uranus,  and  by  its  action  on  Uranus  produced 
these  perturbations.  The  Rev.  T.  J.  Hussey  of 
Hayes  seems  even  earlier  to  have  adopted  this 
view,  and  he  wrote  in  1834  to  Sir  G.  B.  Airy, 
the  present  English  astronomer  royal,  suggest- 
ing that  the  external  planet  might  be  detect- 


ed by  its  action.  Airy  replied  that  he  did 
not  think  the  irregularity  of  Uranus  was  in 
such  a  state  as  to  give  the  smallest  hope  of 
making  out  the  nature  of  any  external  action 
on  the  planet.  He  expressed  his  belief  also 
that  there  was  no  such  action,  and  that  the 
earlier  observations  of  Uranus  must  have  been 
erroneous.  In  1837  and  in  1842  the  astrono- 
mer royal  was  again  addressed  by  E.  Bouvard, 
nephew  to  the  Bouvard  just  named,  and  by 
Bessel,  on  the  subject  of  an  external  planet, 
but  he  expressed  the  same  opinion  as  before. 
In  1844  Prof.  Challis  applied  to  Airy  for  the 
Greenwich  observations  of  Uranus,  for  "a 
young  friend  of  his,  Mr.  J.  0.  Adams,  who  was 
at  work  on  the  theory  of  Uranus."  These 
were  sent,  and  in  September,  1845,  Challis 
wrote  to  say  that  "  Mr.  Adams  had  completed 
his  calculation  of  the  perturbations  of  Uranus 
by  a  supposed  ulterior  planet."  In  October, 
1845,  Adams  left  his  paper  with  Airy,  in  which 
the  place  was  indicated  where  the  new  planet 
would  probably  be  found.  Airy  seems  to  have 
placed  little  reliance  on  the  calculations  of 
Adams,  who  in  fact  had  then  but  recently 
taken  his  degree,  and  took  no  measures  to 
verify  his  calculations.  In  June,  1846,  Le- 
verrier  published  his  own  independent  cal- 
culation of  the  place  of  a  disturbing  planet, 
very  nearly  agreeing  with  the  place  assigned 
by  Adams  in  1845.  Then  Airy  admitted  that 
Adams  might  after  all  have  accomplished  the 
task  which  he  himself  had  deemed  beyond  the 
power  of  any  mathematician;  and  at  his  re- 
quest Challis  undertook  to  search  for  the  new 
planet.  He  actually  saw  it,  yet  failed  to  rec- 
ognize it.  In  the  mean  time  Dr.  Galle  of 
Berlin  had  found  the  planet  on  Sept.  23,  1846. 
The  announcement  now  made  by  Airy  that 
Adams  had  anticipated  Leverrier  in  the  calcu- 
lation of  the  place  of  the  disturbing  planet 
led  to  angry  complaints  from  Arago  and  some 
other  French  astronomers.  But  of  course  no 
doubt  exists  as  to  the  justice  of  the  claim  made, 
when  too  late,  for  Adams ;  in  fact  Airy  admit- 
ted that  "a  publication  of  the  elements  of  the 
planet's  orbit  obtained  in  October,  1845  "  (from 
Mr.  Adams)  "might  have  led  to  the  discov- 
ery of  the  planet  in  November,  1845."  The 
planet  eventually  received  the  name  Neptune. 
It  was  found  to  have  a  distance  far  less  than 
either  Adams  or  Leverrier  had  hypothetically 
assigned  to  it  (following  Bode's  law).  In  fact, 
instead  of  having  a  distance  represented  by  388 
(where  the  earth's  distance  is  10),  the  actual 
mean  distance  of  Neptune  amounts  to  only  300. 
The  motions  and  period  of  a  planet  at  this 
mean  distance  are  quite  unlike  those  of  the 
hypothetical  planet  of  Adams  and  Leverrier ; 
and  Prof.  Peirce  of  Harvard  college  published 
in  1848  a  paper  tending  to  show  that  the  suc- 
cess of  the  two  European  mathematicians  was 
merely  a  lucky  accident.  In  one  sense  this  was 
doubtless  true.  Fifty  years  hence  the  position 
of  Neptune  will  be  utterly  unlike  that  which 
the  hypothetical  Neptune  would  by  that  time 


NERAC 


NEREUS 


have  reached.  But  as  the  calculations  of  Ad- 
ams and  Leverrier  were  based  on  the  pertur- 
bations produced  by  Neptune  while  traversing 
but  a  small  portion  of  his  orbit,  and  as  his  ap- 
parent position  in  that  portion  is  nearly  the 
same  as  that  of  the  hypothetical  Neptune,  it 
does  not  appear  that  the  credit  due  to  Adams 
and  Leverrier  can  be  appreciably  diminished. 
Were  it  not,  indeed,  for  the  lucky  chance  that 
a  planet's  action  could  explain  the  observed 
discrepancies,  whether  that  planet  moved  in 
the  actual  or  hypothetical  orbit,  neither  Adams 
nor  Leverrier  could  have  solved  the  problem 
without  first  abandoning  their  estimate  of  the 
mean  distance.  But  it  has  not  been  shown 
that  in  this  case  they  would  not  have  modified 
their  assumption  to  correspond  with  the  facts 
before  them.  An  investigation  of  the  orbits 
of  Neptune  and  Uranus,  with  general  tables  of 
the  planet's  motions,  has  been  published  by 
Prof.  S.  Newcomb  in  the  "  Smithsonian  Contri- 
butions to  Science  "  (May,  1865,  and  October, 
1873).  In  these  papers  he  discusses  the  ele- 
ments of  the  orbit  of  Neptune,  the  existence 
of  an  extra- Neptunian  planet,  the  theoretical 
place  of  the  planet  between  the  years  1600 
and  2000,  and  many  other  questions  of  great 
interest,  with  a  profundity  and  elegance  which 
has  elicited  the  highest  commendation.  At 
least  one  satellite  attends  on  Neptune,  discov- 
ered by  Mr.  Lassell  of  Liverpool  in  1847.  It 
travels  around  the  planet  in  a  period  of  5d. 
21h.  8m.,  at  a  distance  from  his  centre  equal 
to  12  times  his  estimated  radius,  the  maxi- 
mum observed  elongation  of  the  satellite  from 
Nepjbune's  centre  amounting  to  18". 

NERAC  (anc.  Neracurri),  a  town  of  France,  in 
the  department  of  Lot-et-Garonne,  on  the  Baise, 
16  m.  S.  W.  of  Agen;  pop.  in  1866,  7,717. 
The  new  town  is  handsome,  and  larger  than  the 
older  part,  with  which  it  is  connected  by  stone 
bridges.  N6rac  contains  a  large  church  and 
several  other  public  buildings,  and  a  statue  of 
Henry  IV.,  who  spent  a  part  of  his  youth  here. 
It  has  manufactures  of  various  articles,  espe- 
cially corks  for  wine  bottles.  It  was  once  the 
capital  of  the  duchy  of  Albret,  and  has  in- 
teresting relics  of  an  old  castle  where  Margaret 
of  Navarre  held  her  court,  and  where  Calvin 
and  other  eminent  reformers  found  an  asylum. 
The  former  royal  park  now  forms  the  prome- 
nade of  La  Garenne. 

NERBUDDA,  a  river  of  Hindostan,  which  rises 
about  lat.  22°  40'  N.,  Ion.  81°  50'  E.,  nearly 
3,500  ft.  above  the  sea,  and  after  a  course 
of  800  m.,  generally  W.,  through  the  Central 
Provinces,  Indore,  and  Bombay,  falls  into  the 
gulf  of  Cambay  about  lat.  21°  40'  N.,  Ion.  73° 
E.  During  the  rains  it  rises  in  some  places 
TO  ft.  and  in  others  20  above  its  level  in  the 
dry  season.  The  Nerbudda  has  no  tributaries 
worthy  of  notice.  There  are  extensive  forests 
on  its  banks.  It  flows  rapidly,  and  in  Malwa 
its  channel  is  worn  to  a  great  depth  through 
columnar  basalt.  The  upper  part  of  its  course 
is  obstructed  by  numerous  rapids  and  falls. 


Near  the  foot  of  the  Vindhya  hills  the  Holkar 
State  railway  crosses  the  Nerbudda  by  means 
of  an  iron  bridge  2,755  ft.  long,  resting  on  13 
brick  piers. 

NEREIDS,  in  mythology.     See  NERETJB. 

NEREIDS,  the  name  of  the  sea  centipedes  of 
the  dorsibranchiate  order  of  annelids,  of  which 
the  genus  nereis  (Cuv.)  is  one  of  the  best  known 
forms.  The  class  and  ordinal  characters  are 
given  under  ANNELIDA.  In  the  true  nereids 
the  tentacles  are  of  even  number;  there  is  a 
single  pair  of  maxillae  in  the  proboscis;  the 
branchiae  are  small  plates  in  which  a  network 
of  blood  vessels  is  disposed ;  each  of  the  nu- 
merous feet  has  two  tubercles,  two  bundles  of 
bristles,  and  an  under  and  an  upper  cirrus; 
the  body  is  like  that  of  a  centipede,  with  many 
joints.  They  are  active,  crawling  and  swim- 
ming with  facility;  some  live  in  crevices  in 
rocks  near  the  shore,  in  sponges,  corals,  desert- 
ed shells  under  stones,  or  wherever  they  can 
find  a  shelter ;  others  burrow  in  mud  or  sand, 
occasionally  making  tubes  or  sheaths,  from 
which  they  protrude  the  anterior  part  of  the 
body,  and  into  which  they  retreat  quickly 
when  alarmed;  some  of  the  tropical  species 


Common  Sea  Mouse  (Aphrodita  aculeata). 

are  very  large,  and  vividly  phosphorescent  at 
night.  Their  food  consists  of  living  and  dead 
animal  substances,  such  as  marine  worms  and 
soft-bodied  invertebrates.  The  species  are  nu- . 
merous,  and  are  found  on  almost  all  coasts. — 
The  sea  mice  (aphrodita,  Linn.)  belong  to  the 
same  order ;  the  body  is  broad  and  flat,  with 
two  longitudinal  rows  of  wide  membranous 
scales  covering  the  back  and  concealing  the 
branchiaa.  The  common  sea  mouse  (A.  acu- 
leata, Linn.)  is  6  or  7  in.  long  and  2  broad, 
the  back  covered  with  a  flax-like  substance  in 
which  are  mixed  spines  and  softer  bristles,  the 
latter  shining  with  all  the  tints  of  the  rainbow, 
and  rivalling  in  beauty  the  lustre  of  the  hum- 
ming bird  or  the  sparkling  of  the  most  bril- 
liant gems. 

NEREIS,  a  marine  divinity  in  Greek  and  Ro- 
man mythology,  son  of  Pontus  amd  Gaea  (or, 
in  the  Roman  myth,  of  Oceanus  and  Terra), 
and  husband  of  Doris,  who  bore  him  50  daugh- 
ters, the  Nereids.  Nereus  was  represented  as 
a  benevolent,  wise,  and  gentle  old  man,  one  of 
the  most  unerring  prophets  among  the  minor 
divinities.  He  dwelt  at  the  bottom  of  the  sea 
(according  to  most  authors,  of  the  ^Egean  sea, 


230 


NERI 


over  which  he  especially  ruled).  His  attribute 
was  the  trident,  and  he  frequently  appears  in 
ancient  works  of  art.— The  Nereids  were  the 
nymphs  of  the  Mediterranean,  as  the  Naiads 
were  of  the  fresh  water,  and  the  Oceanides  of 
the  outer  ocean.  Their  individual  names  are 
given  by  several  authors,  but  are  not  always 
the  same  in  different  passages.  They  were 
represented  as  beautiful  girls,  generally  grouped 
about  the  cars  of  marine  divinities,  or  in  dances 
or  revels  with  tritons  and  monsters;  some- 
times they  are  represented  as  mermaids.  They 
were  thought  to  be  especially  propitious  to 
sailors,  and  were  widely  worshipped  in  the 
Greek  seaports.  Perhaps  the  most  celebrated 
of  the  Nereids  was  Thetis,  the  wife  of  Peleus 
and  mother  of  Achilles. 

NERI,  Filippo  de>  (commonly  called  in  English 
ST.  PHILIP  NEEI),  a  saint  of  the  Roman  Catho- 
lic church,  born  in  Florence  in  July,  1515, 
died  in  Rome,  May  26,  1595.  He  was  the 
adopted  heir  of  a  rich  uncle,  but  secretly  left 
his  house  and  went  to  Rome,  and  while  fulfil- 
ling there  the  duties  of  tutor  studied  philos- 
ophy, theology,  and  canon  law.  In  1538  he 
sold  all  that  he  possessed,  distributed  the  pro- 
ceeds among  the  poor,  and  devoted  himself  to 
serving  the  sick  in  the  hospitals  and  the  pil- 
grims who  flocked  to  Rome.  He  founded, 
with  the  help  of  Ignatius  Loyola,  a  guild  of 
nobles,  to  provide  hospitality  for  pilgrims,  and 
obtain  lodging  and  work  for  destitute  young 
people.  In  June,  1551,  he  received  holy  orders, 
took  up  his  abode  in  the  monastery  of  San 
Girolamo,  and  gave  his  whole  time  to  instruct- 
ing youth  and  children.  Several  young  clerics 
joined  him  in  this  labor,  and  stationed  them- 
selves each  morning  and  evening  on  Sundays 
and  festivals  before  the  door  of  some  church, 
rang  a  bell  to  attract  the  crowd,  sang  psalms 
and  hymns,  or  persuaded  people  to  enter  the 
chapel.  To  make  these  assemblies  more  at- 
tractive, he  invited  the  most  eloquent  men  to 
preach,  and  the  best  singers  and  musicians 
volunteered  their  services.  He  had  dramas, 
with  rnusiCj  on  Scriptural  subjects,  performed 
in  an  adjoining  monastery.  The  efforts  of  the 
guild  were  next  directed  to  securing  perma- 
nent employment  for  the  reclaimed.  The  aid 
of  such  companions  as  Baronius  and  Salviati, 
afterward  cardinals,  enabled  Philip  to  found 
a  society  of  priests,  called  from  their  prayer 
meetings  and  sacred  concerts  "  the  Priests  of 
the  Oratory,"  which  soon  had  branches  in  many 
cities.  This  foundation  was  approved  by  Greg- 
ory XIII.  in  1575.  (See  OBATOEIANS.)  Phil- 
ip was  canonized  in  1622  by  Gregory  XV.,  and 
his  feast  is  celebrated  on  May  26.  His  litera- 
ry remains  consist  of  letters,  poems,  and  advice 
to  youth.— See  F.  W.  Faber,  "Spirit  and  Ge- 
nius of  St.  Philip  Neri "  (London,  1850). 

NERIUM.     See  OLEANDER. 

NERO,  a  Roman  emperor,  born  at  Antium 
on  the  coast  of  Latium,  probably  Dec.  15,  A. 
D.  37,  died  by  his  own  hand,  June  9,  68.  He 
was  the  son  of  Oneius  Domitius  Ahenobarbus, 


NERO 

by  Agrippina,  the  sister  of  Caligula,  and  liis 
original  name  was  Lucius  Domitius  Ahenobar- 
bus. When  he  was  12  years  of  age  his  mother 
married  her  uncle  the  emperor  Claudius,  who 
four  years  afterward  gave  his  daughter  Octavia 
to  Nero  in  marriage,  having  formally  adopted 
him  under  the  name  of  Nero  Claudius  Cassar 
Drusus  Germanicus.  Under  the  care  of  the 
philosopher  Seneca  he  is  said  to  have  made 
some  progress  in  learning,  and  in  his  16th 
year  he  delivered  an  oration  in  Greek  in  be- 
half of  the  inhabitants  of  Ilium  and  Rhodes. 
In  54  the  murder  of  Claudius  by  Agrippina 
placed  him  on  the  throne,  his  mother  causing 
the  emperor's  death  to  be  kept  secret  until 
he  could  be  safely  proclaimed  by  the  soldiers. 
The  senate  and  the  provinces  at  once  submit- 
ted to  him,  and  no  attempt  was  made  to  se- 
cure the  purple  for  Claudius's  own  son  Bri- 
tannicus,  who  was  four  or  five  years  his  ju- 
nior. The  first  five  years  of  his  reign  were 
distinguished  for  clemency  and  justice,  though 
his  private  life  was  from  the  first  extreme- 
ly licentious.  The  conduct  of  affairs  was  left 
principally  to  Seneca  and  Burrhus,  under 
whose  influence  many  reforms  were  intro- 
duced into  the  state,  and  Nero  daily  rose  in 
popularity;  but  the  jealousy  of  Agrippina, 
who  found  herself  shut  out  from  power,  soon 
overthrew  the  ascendancy  of  Seneca,  though 
it  did  not  establish  her  own.  She  threatened 
to  disclose  the  circumstances  of  Claudius's 
death,  and  to  incite  the  legions  to  support  the 
claims  of  Britannicus;  she  abused  Nero  and 
upbraided  him  for  his  disgraceful  amour  with  a 
low-born  woman  named  Acte.  Nero  retaliated 
by  causing  Britannicus  to  be  poisoned,  and  by 
plunging  into  still  lower  depths  of  immorality. 
In  company  with  other  dissolute  young  men 
he  roamed  the  city  by  night,  beating  and 
robbing  passengers  and  breaking  into  houses. 
One  of  his  boon  companions  was  Otho,  with 
whose  beautiful  but  profligate  wife  Poppsea 
Nero  became  enamored,  and  sent  Otho  to  Lusi- 
tania  to  get  him  out  of  the  way ;  but  Poppaea, 
who  aspired  to  share  the  imperial  throne,  en- 
countered in  Agrippina  an  enemy  who  thwart- 
ed all  her  plans.  Persuading  the  emperor  that 
his  mother  entertained  designs  upon  his  life, 
she  finally  procured  an  order  for  her  assassi- 
nation (59),  and  her  death  was  communicated 
to  the  senate  by  Seneca,  who  was  an  accom- 
plice in  the  crime.  (See  AGEIPPINA.)  This 
was  followed  by  the  divorce  of  Octavia,  who 
was  soon  afterward  put  to  death,  and  the 
marriage  of  the  emperor  to  Poppsea.  In  62 
Burrhus  died,  and  Seneca  wisely  asked  leave  to 
retire.  Two  years  afterward  a  dreadful  con- 
flagration raged  in  Rome  for  a  week,  total- 
ly destroying  three  of  the  14  districts  of  the 
city,  and  leaving  only  a  few  half -ruined  houses 
in  seven  of  the  others.  Dion  Cassius  and 
Suetonius  relate  that  Nero  fired  it  himself,  and 
it  is  said  that,  as  he  watched  the  progress 
of  the  flames  from  the  top  of  a  high  tower, 
he  amused  himself  with  chanting  to  his  OWD 


NERO 


NERVA 


231 


lyre  verses  on  the  destruction  of  Troy.  The 
truth  of  the  story  is  doubtful,  but  it  was  be- 
lieved at  the  time,  and  Nero  sought  to  transfer 
the  odium  of  the  conflagration  to  the  Chris- 
tians, many  of  whom  he  caused  to  be  put  to 
death.  Some  were  covered  with  the  skins  of 
wild  beasts  and  torn  to  pieces  by  dogs,  and 
others  were  crucified  and  set  on  fire  by  night 
in  the  imperial  gardens,  while  the  emperor 
drove  his  chariot  by  the  light  of  the  flames. 
The  tyrant  was  liberal  to  the  sufferers  by  the 
conflagration,  and  upon  the  ruins  of  the  old  city 
built  a  much  finer  one  on  a  different  plan,  one 
of  its  most  striking  features  being  a  vast  pal- 
ace for  himself,  which  was  called  "  the  golden 
house,"  and  the  cost  of  which  he  defrayed  by 
robbery  and  extortion.  The  discovery  of  a  con- 
spiracy against  him  served  to  develop  his  fero- 
city. C.  Calpurnius  Piso,  Plautius  Lateranus, 
the  poet  Lucan,  and  Seneca  were  put  to  death 
for  alleged  complicity  in  it.  The  senate  was 
induced  to  receive  the  intelligence  of  their  fate 
as  the  news  of  a  great  victory,  and  triumphal 
honors  were  decreed  to  the  infamous  Tigellinus, 
the  emperor's  principal  instrument.  Having 
killed  Poppsea  by  a  kick  when  she  was  with 
child,  Nero  now  proposed  to  marry  Antonia, 
his  sister  by  adoption,  and  on  her  refusal  or- 
dered her  to  be  put  to  death.  He  then  bestowed 
his  hand  upon  Statilia  Messalina,  whose  hus- 
band Vestinus  he  had  assassinated  for  marry- 
ing Messalina  after  the  emperor  had  cohabited 
with  her.  The  jurist  Longinus  was  exiled,  and 
the  most  virtuous  citizens  were  put  to  death. 
In  the  midst  of  these  executions  Nero's  high- 
est ambition  seemed  to  be  to  excel  in  the  games 
of  the  circus.  He  visited  Greece  to  display  his 
skill  as  a  musician  and  charioteer,  and  the 
Olympic  games  were  delayed  two  years  (from 
65  to  67)  that  he  might  be  present  at  them.  At 
the  Isthmian  games  he  ordered  the  death  of  a 
singer  whose  voice  overpowered  his  own.  He 
returned  to  Rome  as  a  conqueror,  entering  the 
city  through  a  breach  in  the  wall,  riding  in 
the  chariot  of  Augustus,  with  a  musician  by 
his  side,  and  the  1,800  crowns  which  he  had 
won  at  the  games  displayed  as  the  trophies  of 
his  expedition.  He  had  already  appeared  upon 
the  stage  in  Rome  and  other  cities  of  Italy, 
and  chariot  racing,  music,  and  every  frivolous 
amusement  now  engrossed  his  time.  But  in 
the  mean  while  a  formidable  insurrection  was 
preparing.  It  broke  out  in  Gaul,  under  Julius 
Vindex,  governor  of  the  Celtic  province,  who 
raised  an  army  and  offered  the  purple  to  Galba, 
then  governor  of  Hispania  Tarraconensis.  Gal- 
ba accepted  the  proposal,  but  the  troops  of  Vin- 
dex were  defeated  before  Vesontio  (Besancon), 
and  their  general  was  killed.  There  is  little 
doubt  that  Galba  would  have  yielded  had  not 
Nero,  who  had  reluctantly  left  his  extravagances 
in  Naples  to  assume  the  consulship  alone  at 
the  capital,  been  deserted  by  the  pratorian 
guard,  condemned  to  death  by  the  senate,  and 
forced  to  flee  to  the  house  of  one  of  his  crea- 
tures in  the  suburbs.  Here,  after  spending  in 


an  agony  of  fear  and  irresolution  the  night  and 
part  of  the  next  day,  he  committed  suicide, 
and  died  in  the  presence  of  the  soldiers  who 
had  come  to  seize  him.  His  corpse  received 
an  honorable  burial  from  his  concubine  Acte 
and  two  of  his  nurses. — The  military  events 
of  Nero's  reign  were  upon  the  whole  glorious 
to  the  Roman  arms.  In  Armenia,  which  had 
been  occupied  by  the  Parthians,  a  war  com- 
menced in  55,  and  was  terminated  in  58  by 
Domitius  Corbulo,  who  destroyed  Artaxata, 
the  capital,  and  captured  the  city  of  Tigrano- 
certa,  thus  rendering  the  Romans  masters  of 
the  whole  country.  Tiridates,  the  king,  who 
had  been  set  up  there  by  the  Parthians,  sub- 
sequently renewed  the  struggle,  and  after  tem- 
porary successes  was  compelled  to  submit  and 
go  in  person  to  Rome  to  do  homage  for  his 
kingdom.  Nero,  however,  soon  afterward 
condemned  Corbulo  to  death,  a  sentence  which 
the  old  soldier  anticipated  by  suicide.  In  61 
a  great  rising  in  Britain  under  Boadicea  was 
put  down  by  Suetonius  Paulinus.  A  revolt 
also  broke  out  in  Judea,  and  Vespasian  was 
sent  to  suppress  it;  but  the  history  of  this 
war,  terminating  with  the  conquest  of  Jerusa- 
lem, belongs  to  subsequent  reigns. 

NERO,  Clandins.     See  CLAUDIUS  NERO. 

NERO,  Clandins  Drnsus.    See  DEUSUS. 

NERO,  Claudius  Tiberias.  See  CLAUDIUS  NERO, 
TIBERIUS. 

NERO  GERMANIC!  S,  Tiberias  Clandins  Drusus. 
See  CLAUDIUS  I. 

NEROLI.    See  ORANGE. 

NERTCHINSK,  a  town  of  eastern  Siberia,  in 
the  province  of  Transbaikalia,  about  530  m.  E. 
of  Irkutsk;  pop.  in  1869,  3,938.  The  military 
post  of  Nertchinsk  commands  the  frontier  of 
China.  It  is  situated  on  low  ground,  subject 
to  inundation.  Most  of  the  houses  are  built  of 
wood.  It  contains  churches  and  schools,  and 
has  an  extensive  fur  trade.  The  first  boundary 
treaty  between  Russia  and  China  was  conclu- 
ded here  in  1689. — The  celebrated  Nertchinsk 
government  mines  are  situated  100  m.  E.  of 
the  town,  in  the  Nertchinskoi  mountains. 
More  than  4,000  persons  were  in  former  years 
employed  in  the  silver  mines  alone.  Lead,  tin, 
cinnabar,  and  zinc  mines  also  exist,  and  gold 
was  largely  produced  in  the  years  1846-'56. 

NERVA,  Marcos  Cocceios,  a  Roman  emperor, 
born  probably  in  Narnia,  Umbria,  A.  D.  32, 
died  in  Rome,  Jan.  23,  98.  He  was  twice 
consul  before  his  accession  to  the  purple,  in  71 
with  Vespasian,  and  in  90  with  Domitian.  On 
the  assassination  of  Domitian,  in  September, 
96,  Nerva  was  proclaimed  emperor  by  the  peo- 
ple and  soldiers.  He  discontinued  Domitian's 
prosecutions  for  treason,  discountenanced  in- 
formers, permitted  exiles  to  return,  distributed 
land  among  the  poor,  and  made  occasional  do- 
nations of  money  and  corn.  By  suppressing 
many  public  shows  and  festivals,  and  diminish- 
ing the  expense  of  such  as  were  tolerated,  he 
economized  the  revenue,  and  increased  the  re- 
sources of  his  empire.  In  the  second  year  of 


232 


NERVAL 


his  reign  a  conspiracy  was  formed  against  him, 
at  the  head  of  which  was  a  descendant  of  the 
triumvir  Crassus.  It  was  discovered  in  time ; 
but  Nerva  having  sworn,  when  accepting  office, 
that  no  senator  should  suffer  death  under  his 
rule,  the  leader  was  only  hanished  to  Tarentum 
and  the  other  conspirators  were  pardoned. 

NERVAL,  Gerard  de.     See  GERARD  DE  NERVAL. 

NERVE  (Gr.  vevpov,  a  string  or  sinew),  a  white 
cord-like  bundle  of  filaments,  distributed  to 
sensitive  or  contractile  organs  of  the  body,  and 
capable  of  transmitting  the  nervous  influence. ; 
so  called  because  the  Greek  anatomists,  misled 
by  the  aspect  of  the  nerves  proper,  did  not  dis- 
tinguish them  from  the  tendons.  Externally  a 
nerve  is  white  and  glistening,  and  of  consider- 


FIG.  1.— Transverse  Section  of  the  Ischiatic  Nerve. 

a.  Neurilemma.    6.  Internal  Fibrous  Partitions,    c.  Bundles 

of  Nervous  Filaments,  cut  across. 

able  toughness  and  consistency.  These  qualities 
are  due  to  its  being  covered  everywhere  with  a 
layer  of  white  fibrous  tissue,  of  the  same  kind 
as  that  of  the  tendons  and  ligaments,  which 
serves  to  support  the  softer  parts  within  and 
protect  them  from  injury.  This  protective  in- 
vestment is  termed  the  neurilemma.  It  sends 
everywhere  longitudinal  partitions  into  the  in- 
terior of  the  nerve,  in  which  are  contained  the 
small  blood  vessels  destined  to  nourish  its  tis- 
sue, dividing  it  into  a  number  of  parallel  pas- 
sageways or  channels,  of  a  nearly  cylindrical 
form.  In  these  channels  are  contained  the 
nervous  filaments  or  nerve  fibres,  the  essen- 
tial anatomical  elements  of  the  nerve.  They 
are  cylindrical  filaments,  averaging  in  the  main 
trunks  and  branches  2  ^  6  of  an  inch  in  diame- 
ter, and  consisting  of  a  fine  structureless  invest- 
ing membrane,  a  layer  of  semi-fluid,  transpa- 
rent, highly  refracting  substance,  the  "  medul- 
lary layer,"  and  a  central,  soft,  faintly  granular 
mass,  the  "axis  cylinder."  They  are  similar 
to  the  nerve  fibres  in  the  brain  and  spinal  cord 
(see  BRAIN),  except  that  they  are  larger  in  size, 
and  are  invested  by  the  fibrous  neurilemma, 
which  is  wanting  in  the  interior  of  the  nervous 
centres.  The  presence  of  the  highly  refracting 
medullary  layer  gives  to  each  filament  a  dis- 
tinctly marked  double  contour,  which  renders 
it  easily  distinguishable  under  the  microscope. 
The  filaments  in  the  interior  of  the  nerve  are 
thus  arranged  in  parallel  bundles,  each  bundle 
surrounded  by  its  own  layer  of  white  fibrous 
tissue,  and  the  whole  surrounded  and  strength- 
ened by  the  external  investment  of  neurilemma. 
As  the  nerves,  after  originating  from  the  brain 
or  spinal  cord,  pass  outward  toward  the  organs 


NERVE 

to  which  they  are  to  be  distributed,  they  divide 
into  smaller  and  smaller  branches,  and  some- 
times send  to  each  other  reciprocal  branches 
of  communication,  thus  forming  nervous  plex- 
uses, which  have  received  distinct  names,  cor- 
responding with  their  location.  Thus  we  find 
the  cervical  plexus  in  the  neck,  and  the  brachi- 
al  plexus,  from  which  are  given  off  the  nerves 
going  to  the  arm.  But  in  these  cases  the 
branching  and  intermingling  of  the  nerves  is 
only  apparent,  and  is  simply  due  to  the  separa- 
tion of  certain  bundles  of  filaments  from  those 
with  which  they  were  previously  associated, 
and  their  passing  off  in  a  different  direction. 
The  nervous  filaments  themselves  do  not  in 
these  instances  split  up  or  lose  their  identity. 
But  when  a  nerve  has  finally  reached  the  organ 
in  which  it  is  to  be  distributed,  and  when  by 
successive  ramification  its  branches  have  be- 
come reduced  to  a  few  filaments  each,  these 
filaments  themselves  divide  and  multiply,  per- 
haps several  times  in  succession,  and  often 
without  diminishing  very  perceptibly  in  size, 
although  at  the  point  of  division  they  usually 
exhibit  a  well  marked  constriction.  The  ner- 
vous filaments  finally  terminate  by  free  ex- 
tremities, both  in  the  muscular  and  sensitive 


FIG.  2.— Division  of  Nervous  Filaments,  from  one  of  the  Cu- 
taneous Muscles  of  the  Frog,  magnified  350  times. 

tissues.  In  the  voluntary  muscles  the  terminal 
extremity  of  a  nervous  filament  becomes  at- 
tached to  a  muscular  fibre,  its  investing  tubular 
membrane  becoming  continuous  at  the  point  of 
junction  with  the  sarcolemma,  its  medullary 
layer  disappears,  and  its  axis  cylinder  spreads 
out  upon  the  surface  of  the  contractile  sub- 
stance of  the  muscular  fibre,  in  the  form  of  a 
thin,  granular,  oval  spot.  In  the  skin  and  sensi- 
tive membranes  generally  the  ultimate  nervous 
filaments  end  in  minute  rounded  or  ovoid  mass- 
es termed  tactile  corpuscles,  within  which  they 
lose,  as  in  the  case  of  the  muscular  nerves, 
their  investing  membrane  and  medullary  layer, 
and  become  reduced  to  the  axis  cylinder  alone, 


NERVE  CELL 


NERVOUS  SYSTEM 


233 


which  is  usually  terminated  by  a  slightly  round- 
ed extremity. — Nerves  are  divided-  into  motor 
and  sensitive,  according  to  the  preponderance 
of  the  two  kinds  of  nervous  filaments  in  their 
tissue,  and  whether  they  are  distributed  to 
muscular  or  sensitive  organs.  A  nerve  distrib- 
uted to  muscles  is  a  motor  nerve,  and  its  irrita- 
tion produces  a  muscular  contraction ;  one  dis- 
tributed to  the  integument  is  a  sensitive  nerve, 
and  its  irritation  causes  a  painful  sensation. 
Thus  the  seventh  pair  of  cranial  nerves,  or 
the  facial,  belongs  to  the.  motor  nerves,  and 
animates  the  superficial  muscles  of  the  face. 
The  fifth  pair,  on  the  contrary,  belongs  to  the 
sensitive  nerves,  and  communicates  sensibility 
to  the  integument  of  that  part  of  the  body. 
In  point  of  fact,  however,  but  few  if  any  of 
the  nervous  trunks  are  exclusively  motor  or 
exclusively  sensitive,  since  they  generally  re- 
ceive filaments  of  both  kinds,  either  from 
their  own  roots  or  from  other  neighboring 
nerves.  Thus  the  facial  nerve  has  a  certain 
degree  of  sensibility,  which  it  derives  from 
communications  with  the  fifth  pair ;  and  one 
portion  of  the  fifth  pair  itself  is  motor  in 
character,  and  animates  the  muscles  of  mastica- 
tion. When  both  kinds  of  filaments  are  min- 
gled together  in  a  nerve  in  similar  or  nearly 
similar  proportions,  it  is  said  to  be  a  "mixed 
nerve,"  and  is  at  the  same  time  motor  and  sensi- 
tive. This  is  the  case  with  all  the  spinal  nerves, 
the  branches  of  which  are  distributed  both  to 
the  muscles  and  the  integument  of  the  body 
and  limbs. — When  cut  across,  a  nerve  at  once 
ceases  to  perform  its  functions.  It  can  no 
longer  transmit  the  nervous  influence  in  either 
direction,  and  accordingly  the  parts  to  which 
it  is  distributed  become  paralyzed  and  insensi- 
ble. The  nerve  may  however  reunite  after 
such  an  injury,  and  its  natural  functions  thus 
become  reestablished.  The  substance  may  even 
be  regenerated  when  a  considerable  portion 
has  been  cut  out.  This  reunion  and  regenera- 
tion of  divided  nerves  takes  place  most  readi- 
ly in  young  animals.  Vulpian  has  found  the 
sciatic  nerve  regenerated,  in  very  young  rats, 
after  the  excision  of  a  little  more  than  two 
inches  of  its  length,  in  17  days ;  and  in  young 
cats  sensibility  has  returned  in  the  tongue,  after 
excision  of  one  inch  of  the  lingual  nerve,  in  14 
days.  In  adult  animals,  however,  and  in  the 
human  subject,  a  longer  time  is  required  for 
the  regeneration  of  a  divided  nerve ;  and  the 
full  restoration  of  its  function  is  often  not 
complete  until  after  the  lapse  of  several  months. 
(See  NERVOUS  SYSTEM.) 

NERVE  CELL,  a  form  of  animal  cell  found  in 
the  gray  nervous  matter  of  the  nervous  centres 
(see  GANGLION),  and  also  in  the  peripheral  ex- 
pansion of  some  of  the  cranial  nerves.  Nerve 
cells  are  rounded  or  ovoid-shaped  bodies,  often 
with  slender,  elongated,  tapering  or  branching 
processes  extending  from  their  periphery  in  va- 
rious directions.  They  vary  in  size  from  ^^ 
to  vws  of  an  inch  in  diameter.  They  consist  of 
a  soft  granular  substance,  usually  containing  a 


considerable  quantity  of  gray  pigment,  and  a 
well  defined  round  or  oval  nucleus,  with  a  large 
and  distinct  nucleolus.  Their  branching  pro- 
cesses often  become  continuous  with  the  ulti- 


Nerve  Cells  from  the  Eetina  of  the  Ox,  magnified  850 
times. 

mate  nerve  fibres,  which  are  mingled  in  profu- 
sion with  the  nerve  cells  in  the  gray  substance 
of  nervous  centres.  They  are  regarded  as  the 
most  important  anatomical  elements  of  the  ner- 
vous centres,  where  nervous  power  originates, 
or  the  nervous  impressions  are  finally  received. 

NERVII,  an  ancient  people,  one  of  the  most 
warlike  tribes  of  Belgic  Gaul.  Their  territory 
extended  from  the  Sambre  to  the.  ocean,  and 
was  partly  covered  by  the  Ardennes.  Baga- 
cum  (Bavay)  was  their  capital,  and  Camaracum 
(Oambrai)  one  of  their  towns.  They  claimed 
a  Germanic  origin.  They  joined  the  Belgic 
league  against  Caesar,  and,  though  numbering 
60,000  men  capable  of  bearing  arms,  were 
almost  annihilated  by  him  (57  B.  C.). 

NERVOUS  SYSTEM.  One  of  the  most  impor- 
tant and  remarkable  characteristics  that  distin- 
guish the  physical  organization  of  animals  from 
that  of  plants,  is  the  existence  in  the  former 
of  a  peculiar  tissue  or  substance  called  nerve. 
The  special  endowment  of  this  substance  is 
what  is  termed  sensibility,  or  that  faculty  by 
which  an  animal  is  capable  of  receiving  impres- 
sions from  external  objects,  and  by  which  con- 
sequently it  is  brought  into  relation  with  the 
surrounding  world.  In  most  animals  this  tis- 
sue is  so  disposed  as  to  form  a  distinct  and 
complete  apparatus  called  the  nervous  system. 
Its  development  is  always  in  direct  relation  to 
the  complexity  of  the  physical  organization 
and  the  degree  of  physical  endowment.  In  the 
lowest  forms  of  animal  creation  the  existence 
of  nervous  matter  is  as  yet  undemonstrated, 
but  it  no  doubt  exists  in  many  species  where  it 
has  not  yet  been  discovered,  owing  to  the  deli- 
cacy of  its  tissues  and  the  imperfect  means 
of  observation.  The  tissue  out  of  which  the 


234: 


NERVOUS  SYSTEM 


nervous  system  is  constructed  presents  two 
varieties,  described  by  anatomists  as  the  white 
or  fibrous  matter,  and  the  gray,  cineritious,  or 
vesicular  matter.  The  white  matter  is  devel- 
oped in  the  form  of  fibres  or  filaments,  bound 
together  in  fasciculi  or  bundles,  which  consti- 
tute what  are  called  nerves ;  their  function  is 
internuncial  or  conducting.  The  gray  matter 
is  accumulated  in  masses  called  centres  or  gan- 
glia ;  their  office  is  dynamic,  originating  the  so- 
called  nervous  force.  (For  a  more  particular 
description  of  the  microscopical  anatomy  and 
chemical  analysis  of  nerve  tissue,  see  BRAIN.) — 
Examining  the  nervous  system  in  its  compara- 
tive development  in  the  animal  creation,  we 
find  four  principal  types  exhibited  in  the  four 
great  classes  radiata,  mollusca,  articulata,  and 
vertebrata.  We  will  briefly  examine  these 
in  succession.  1.  Nervous  System  of  Radiata. 
In  this  class  we  find  the  simplest  form  of  ner- 
vous system,  and  one  which  corresponds  with 
the  simplicity  of  the  physical  organization,  the 
animal  being  formed  by  a  series  of  similar 
parts.  Thus  in  the  asterias  or  five-rayed  star 
fish  we  have  a  chain  of  five  ganglia  surround- 
ing the  central  mass,  or  body  which  contains 
the  mouth  and  digestive  cavity.  These  ganglia 
are  united  to  each  other  by  nervous  arcs  called 
commissures,  and  each  sends  into  the  ray  or 
limb  opposite  to  which  it  is  placed  nervous 
prolongations.  2.  Nervous  System  of  Mollusca. 
In  these  animals  we  have  several  separate  and 
distinct  organs,  such  as  a  digestive  apparatus,  a 
liver,  gills,  ovaries,  and  testicles,  the  male  and  fe- 
male functions  generally  coexisting  in  the  same 
animal ;  we  have  besides  a  muscular  mantle  and 
a  foot  or  organ  of  locomotion.  The  necessi- 
ties of  this  physical  organization  are  met 
by  a  corresponding  arrangement  of  the  ner- 
vous system.  Thus  in  aplysia  there  is  an 
anterior  or  cerebral  ganglion  resulting  from 
the  junction  of  two  above  the  oesophagus ; 
this  ganglion  represents  the  brain,  and  is 
doubtless  connected  with  whatever  sensitive 
or  volitional  endowment  the  animal  pos- 
sesses. From  this  small  nerves  pass  to  form 
the  pharyngeal  ganglion,  which  supplies  in- 
nervation  to  the  digestive  apparatus ;  from 
this  two  nerves  pass  backward  to  form  the 
pedal  ganglion,  which  also  gives  nerves  to 
supply  the  mantle;  and  in  the  posterior 
part  of  the  body  there  is  an  additional  gan- 
glion, called  the  branchial,  the  nerves  of 
which  are  distributed  to  the  gills.  3.  Ner- 
vous System  of  Articulata.  In  this  class 
we  observe  that  the  body  is  divided  into 
a  certain  number  of  similar  segments,  of 
which  the  anterior,  called  the  head,  pre- 
sents the  greatest  development.  The  ner-  a 
vous  system  in  this  class  corresponds  to 
their  anatomical  structure.  Thus  in  the 
common  centipede,  scolopendra,  the  nervous 
system  consists  in  a  double  nervous  cord  run- 
ning along  the  ventral  surface  of  the  ani- 
mal, and  presenting  opposite  to  each  articu- 
lation ganglionic  enlargements ;  these  ganglia 


send  off  lateral  prolongations,  which  unite 
with  each  other  on  the  upper  surface  of  the 
body,  forming  a  series  of  circular  commis- 
sures. At  the  head  there  is  a  ganglion  at  the 
Eoint  of  junction  of  the  lateral  prolongations 
rom  the  infra-cesophageal  ganglia,  called  the 
supra-cesophageal  ganglion,  and  from  this  ring 
or  collar  arise  the  optic  nerves  and  the  other 
nerves  that  are  distributed  about  the  head.  In 
insects  we  find  a  somewhat  more  complicated 
arrangement  of  the  same  type  of  nervous  sys- 
tem, and  one  whicji  presents  very  important 
analogies  to  the  nervous  system  of  the  verte- 
brata. It  consists  in  a  ganglionic  nervous 
cord,  but  the  ganglia  are  arranged  so  as  to  cor- 
respond with  the  anatomical  division  of  the 
animal  into  three  distinct  cavities,  the  head, 
chest,  and  abdomen.  In  the  head  we  have  the 
ganglia  presiding  over  the  functions  of  special 
sense,  prehension,  and  mastication ;  in  the 
chest  those  that  control  respiration  and  the 
locomotive  organs,  the  legs  and  wings ;  and  in 
the  abdomen  those  that  are  connected  with  the 
digestive  and  reproductive  functions.  4.  Ner- 
vous System  of  Vertebrata.  The  nervous  sys- 
tem, as  we  find  it  developed  in  the  mammalia, 
the  last  and  highest  class  of  the  vertebrata, 
consists  of  an  axis  of  nerve  matter,  called  the 
cerebro-spinal  axis,  which  is  enclosed  in  the 
cavities  of  the  cranium  and  spinal  canal.  This 
axis  is  constituted  of  ganglia  and  of  longitudi- 
nal and  transverse  commissures,  and  gives  off 
nerves  which  are  distributed  to  the  organs  of 
special  sense,  of  ordinary  sensation  and  motion. 
This  cerebro-spinal  axis,  however,  with  its 
centres,  commissures,  and  nerves,  forms  but 
one  portion  of  the  nervous  system  in  the  ver- 


The  Brain  enclosed  in  its  Membranes,  and  the  Skull, 
ft,   c.   Convolutions   of  the  cerebrum,     d.   Cerebellum.     « 
Medulla  oblongata.   /.  Upper  extremity  of  the  spinal  cord. 
g.  Tuber  annulare.    A,  »,  k.  Central  parts  of  the  cerebrum. 

tebrata,  that  which  presides  over  the  purely 
animal  functions  of  locomotion,  respiration, 
sensation,  and  intelligence.  A  separate  and 
distinct  system,  called  the  ganglionic  or  sym- 
pathetic, controls  the  functions  of  organic  or 


1STERVOUS  SYSTEM 


235 


d 


vegetative  life;  its  centres  are  located  in  the 
visceral  cavities  of  the  body;  they  are  con- 
nected with  each  other  by  longitudinal  and 
transverse  commissures,  and 
send  filaments  to  all  the 
viscera.  The  cerebro-spinal 
axis,  as  it  is  developed  in 
man,  may  be  briefly  described 
as  follows.  The  principal 
ganglion  is  placed  at  the  su- 
perior extremity  of  the  axis, 
and  is  called  the  brain  or  en- 
cephalon.  This  is  enclosed 
in  the  cavity  of  the  cranium, 
and  is  enveloped  by  three 
membranes,  the  pia  mater, 
the  arachnoid,  and  dura  ma- 
ter. The  encephalon  consists 
of  a  series  of  ganglia  con- 
nected with  each  other,  and 
designated,  counting  from 
before  backward,  as:  1,  the 
olfactory  ganglia ;  2,  the  ce- 
rebrum or  hemispheres;  3, 
the  corpora  striata;  4,  the 
optic  thalami;  5,  the  tuber- 
cula  quadrigemina  ;  6,  the 
cerebellum;  7,  the  ganglion 
of  the  tuber  annul  are ;  and  8, 
the  ganglion  of  the  medulla 
oblongata.  The  cerebrum 
and  the  cerebellum  present 
a  convoluted  surface;  the 
others  are  smooth  and  irreg- 
ularly rounded.  The  supe- 
rior aspect  of  the  brain  pre- 
sents a  deep  longitudinal  fis- 
sure, which  divides  the  cere- 
brum into  two  lateral  halves, 
called  the  cerebral  hemi- 
spheres; these  hemispheres, 
however,  are  united  at  their 
middle  by  a  transverse  com- 
missure, designated  as  the 
corpus  callosum.  Upon  its 
inferior  surface  each  hemi- 
sphere is  seen  to  be  divided 
into  an  anterior,  middle,  and 
posterior  lobe.  The  remain- 
der of  the  axis,  called  the 
spinal  cord,  is  a  cylinder 
of  nerve  matter,  extending 
through  the  entire  length  of 
the  vertebral  canal,  where 
it  is  enveloped  by  a  prolonga- 
tion of  the  membranes  of 
the  brain.  Upon  the  ante- 
rior and  posterior  aspects  of 
the  spinal  cord  are  two  lon- 
gitudinal fissures,  which  in- 
dicate the  two  lateral  halves 
of  which  the  organ  is  com- 
From  the  brain  and  spinal  cord  there 
arise  44  pairs  of  nerves,  perfectly  symmetri- 
cal in  their  course  and  distribution.  These 
nerves  are  distinguished  as  cranial  and  spinal. 


The  Spinal  Cord  and 

Nerves,   posterior 

view. 
a.    Upper  extremity 

of  spinal  cord.    b. 

Lower  extremity. 

c.  Cervical  portion. 

d.  Dorsal  portion. 

e.  Lumbar  portion. 


The  cranial  nerves,  of  which  .there  are  12 
pairs,  are  distributed  mainly  to  the  organs  of 
sense,  and  to  those  of  respiration,  voice,  and 
speech;  they  emerge  from  the  skull  by  the 
several  openings  at  its  base.  The  spinal  nerves, 
of  which  there  are  32  pairs,  arise  from  the  cord 
by  two  roots,  one  from  the  anterior  and  the 
other  from  the  posterior  portion.  They  es- 
cape from  the  spinal  canal  through  the  inter- 
vertebral  openings,  and  are  distributed  prin- 
cipally to  the  voluntary  muscles  and  the  in- 
teguments of  the  neck,  body,  and  extremities. 
The  cerebro-spinal  axis,  or  the  nervous  system 
of  animal  life,  as  it  is  called  in  contradistinction 
to  the  sympathetic  system,  or  that  of  organic 
life,  presents  certain  peculiarities  in  the  several 
classes  of  vertebrata  which  deserve  to  be  briefly 
mentioned.  As  we  descend  in  the  series  of 
vertebrate  animals,  we  are  struck  with  the  dif- 
ference in  the  relative  size  and  development  of 
the  brain  and  spinal  marrow.  The  annexed 
table  will  show  the  proportion  which  the  one 


bears  to  the  other  in  weight  in  the  four  classes  : 

CLASS. 

SPECIES. 

Proportion  of 
*""        Hn±t 

Pisces. 

Lamprey 

100                 750 
100                 180 
100                   80 
100                   22 

Reptilia  

Triton.  . 

Aves  

Pigeon  

Mammalia. 

Mouse 

The  following  table  shows  the  relative  propor- 
tions of  the  body  and  brain  in  the  same  classes  : 

CLASS. 

SPECIES. 

Proportion  of 
brain     to     body. 

Pisces 

Lamprey. 

100          142  500 

Eeptilia  

.    Turtle  

..     100          454,500 

Aves 

Pigeon  

.  .     100             9,100 

Mammalia 

Mouse 

100             8,500 

This  diminution  in  the  size  of  the  brain  in 
the  lower  vertebrata  is  observed  chiefly  in  the 
cerebral  hemispheres,  the  centres  of  the  intel- 
lectual faculties.  A  few  words  will  describe 
some  of  the  more  important  anatomical  differ- 
ences in  the  cerebro-spinal  axes  of  the  three 
lower  classes  of  vertebrata.  The  brain  of  birds 
presents  a  perfectly  smooth  surface,  and  is 
composed  of  six  masses,  viz.,  beginning  ante- 
riorly :  the  two  lateral  hemispheres,  the  optic 
tubercles,  the  cerebellum,  and  the  medulla  ob- 
longata. The  cerebellum  is  compressed  later- 
ally and  convoluted  transversely.  The  braia 
of  birds  has  in  common  with  reptiles  and  fishes 
certain  peculiarities  never  observed  in  the  brain 
of  mammalia.  They  are :  1,  the  absence  of  the 
corpus  callosum  or  transverse  commissure  of 
the  cerebral  hemispheres ;  2,  the  separation  of 
the  optic  tubercles  from  the  hemispheres ;  and 
3,  the  existence  of  two  ventricles  in  the  optic 
tubercles.  In  reptiles,  as  in  birds,  the  brain 
is  without  convolutions.  The  optic  tubercles, 
instead  of  being  smaller,  are  sometimes  larger 
than  the  cerebral  hemispheres,  and  placed  as 
usual  behind  them.  The  cerebellum  is  behind 


236 


NERVOUS  SYSTEM 


the  optic  tubercles,  and  is  generally  small. 
The  olfactory  nerves  are  apparently  continuous 
with  the  anterior  or  cerebral  ganglia.  The 
brain  of  fishes  is  composed  of  lobes  placed 
one  behind  the  other  so  as  to  form  a  sort  of 
knotted  cord.  The  optic  tubercles,  called  also 
tulercula  quadrigemina,  and  the  cerebellum, 
are  placed  behind  the  cerebral  ganglia,  and  are 
larger  in  proportion  to  the  latter  than  in  rep- 
tiles. The  spinal  cord  differs  essentially  in  the 
different  classes  of  vertebrata  only  in  the  num- 
ber of  pairs  of  nerves  which  arise  from  it,  this 
number  being  always  proportioned  to  that  of 
the  vertebrae. — Functions  of  the  several  parts 
of  the  Nervous  System.  The  first  question  that 
meets  us  in  this  inquiry  is :  What  are  the  vital 
endowments  of  nerves  and  nervous  centres? 
"When  we  expose  and  irritate  a  nerve  by  chem- 
ical, mechanical,  or  electrical  stimulus,  we  ob- 
serve no  visible  change  in  the  nerve  itself,  but 
we  produce  indications  of  pain  and  contrac- 
tion of  the  muscles  to  which  the  nerve  is  dis- 
tributed. We  infer  therefore  from  the  effects 
of  the  irritation  that  it  has  produced  some 
change  in  the  nerve,  or  excited  in  it  some  vital 
endowment.  This  change  has  been  compared 
to  that  wrought  in  a  piece  of  malleable  iron 
by  the  galvanic  current ;  and  the  analogy  has 
suggested  the  term  polarity  or  polar  force,  as 
applicable  to  the  condition  produced  in  nerves 
by  the  application  of  a  stimulus.  This  property 
of  nerves,  by  which  they  respond  to  external 
irritation,  producing  pain  or  muscular  contrac- 
tion, is  called  irritability ;  and  one  of  its  most 
remarkable  characteristics  is  the  instantane- 
ousness  with  which  the  effect  follows  the  irri- 
tation. This  irritability  or  nervous  force,  as 
it  is  also  called,  can  be  excited  at  the  centres 
and  extremities  as  well  as  in  the  course  of  the 
nerves.  The  effects  of  irritation  vary  consid- 
erably, however,  in  different  parts  of  the  ner- 
vous system.  There  are  certain  ganglia  and 
nerves,  the  irritation  of  which  produces  effects 
that  are  entirely  peculiar  to  themselves.  Thus, 
irritation  of  the  optic  tubercles  or  nerves  causes 
the  sensation  of  light,  irritation  of  the  auditory 
nerve  gives  rise  to  the  sensation  of  sound,  and 
irritation  of  the  olfactory  and  gustatory  nerves 
to  the  sensations  of  smell  and  taste.  This  dif- 
ference in  the  effects  produced  by  the  irri- 
tation of  different  nerves  is  the  basis  of  the 
division  of  the  nerves  into :  1,  motor  nerves, 
or  those  in  which  irritation  produces  muscular 
contraction;  2,  sensitive  nerves,  or  nerves  of 
common  sensibility,  in  which  irritation  is  fol- 
lowed by  an  agreeable  or  painful  feeling,  ac- 
cording to  the  nature  or  degree  of  the  stimu- 
lation;  and  3,  nerves  of  special  sense,  in  which 
irritation  excites  the  peculiar  sensations  of 
light,  sound,  taste,  &c.  Many  sensitive  nerves 
arise  from  nervous  centres  in  such  close  prox- 
imity to  motor  nerves,  that  a  stimulus  applied 
to  the  former  will  react  upon  the  latter,  and 
produce  not  only  a  direct  sensation,  but  what 
is  technically  called  a  reflex  action.  This 
property  of  reflection  was  supposed  by  Mar- 


shall Hall  to  reside  in  special  nerve's  which 
possessed  both  an  incident  and  a  reflected 
fibre,  or,  as  they  are  called,  an  afferent  sensi- 
tive nerve  leading  to  the  centre,  and  an  effer- 
ent motor  nerve  coming  from  the  centre; 
these  nerves  he  styled  excito-motory.  Prob- 
ably the  majority  of  all  the  nerves  in  the  body 
are  compound  in  their  constitution ;  i.  e.,  they 
are  formed  of  sensitive  and  motor  filaments 
combined  in  the  same  sheath,  or  fibrous  cover- 
ing, called  the  neurilemma.  There  is  no  ap- 
preciable difference  to  the  eye  in  the  structure 
of  sensitive  and  motor  nerves.  The  difference 
in  their  endowments  can  only  be  ascribed,  in 
the  present  state  of  our  knowledge,  to  the  dif- 
ferent nature  of  their  central  or  peripheral 
connections.  It  is  a  remarkable  fact  that 
whatever  part  of  a  sensitive  nerve  be  irritated, 
whether  it  be  the  centre,  the  middle,  or  the 
extremity,  the  same  sensation  will  be  pro- 
duced. There  are  many  familiar  illustrations 
of  this  fact.  For  years  after  the  amputation 
of  limbs,  patients  will  experience  the  sensa- 
tion of  fingers  and  toes;  and  when  the  trunk 
of  a  nerve  is  irritated,  they  will  complain 
of  pains  or  tingling  in  the  extremities.  The 
same  law  applies  to  nerves  of  special  sense. 
Ordinarily  their  peculiar  irritability  is  excited 
by  stimuli  applied  to  the  periphery  or  ultimate 
distribution  of  the  fibres ;  but  occasionally,  in 
consequence  of  disease,  we  have  these  special 
sensations  caused  by  stimulation  applied  at 
the  centre  or  origin  of  the  nerves.  Thus,  dis- 
turbance of  the  circulation  in  the  brain,  or 
the  existence  of  tumors  or  other  local  disease 
in  the  neighborhood  of  the  centres  of  the 
nerves  of  special  sense,  gives  rise  to  optical 
illusions,  singular  noises,  disagreeable  odors, 
&c.  The  stimuli  that  excite  the  nervous  force 
or  irritability  are  of  two  kinds,  physical  and 
mental.  Physical  stimuli  embrace  all  exter- 
nal excitants  of  whatever  nature — light,  heat, 
sound,  odor,  and  every  variety  of  chemical, 
mechanical,  and  galvanic  irritant.  Mental 
stimuli  result  from  the  exercise  of  the  will 
and  thought.  In  all  voluntary  movements  the 
mind  is  the  direct  stimulus  of  the  motor 
nerve ;  and  in  certain  deranged  states  of  the 
nervous  system,  as  in  hysteria,  the  mind  also 
seems  to  affect  directly  the  nerves  of  sensation 
so  as  to  excite  pain.  Motor  nerves  are  never 
directly  excited  by  physical  stimuli.  The  lat- 
ter act  always  on  motor  nerves  through  the 
medium  of  sensitive  nerves,  and,  as  before 
stated,  the  actions  so  produced  are  termed 
reflex  actions.  The  most  remarkable  of  the 
physical  stimuli,  and  the  one  most  analogous 
in  its  effects  to  the  stimulus  of  the  will,  is 
galvanism.  The  effect  of  this  stimulus  is  mus- 
cular contraction,  and  there  are  certain  pe- 
culiarities in  its  mode  of  action  that  are  wor- 
thy of  mention.  1.  If  the  current  be  made  to 
cross  a  nerve  at  right  angles  to  it,  no  effect 
is  produced ;  but  if  it  be  made  to  pass  along 
the  fibre,  for  the  smallest  fraction  of  an 
inch,  it  will  excite  more  or  less  violent  con- 


NERVOUS  SYSTEM 


237 


traction  of  the  muscles  to  which  the  nerve 
is  distributed.  2.  These  contractions  occur  at 
the  moment  of  making  and  breaking  the  cur- 
rent, and  not  while  it  is  passing.  3.  "When 
the  current' is  made  to  pass  from  the  centre  to- 
ward the  periphery,  it  is  called  the  direct  cur- 
rent; when  from  the  periphery  toward  the 
centre,  the  inverse  current ;  and  it  is  observed 
that  contractions  occur  at  the  moment  of  ma- 
king the  direct  current,  and  at  that  of  break- 
ing the  reverse.  4.  Continuance  of  the  direct 
current  exhausts  the  power  of  the  nerve,  but 
the  reversal  of  the  current  will  restore  it; 
hence  the  value  of  the  interrupted  current,  ob- 
tained from  the  electro-magnetic  machines,  as 
a  remedial  agent. — Nature  of  Nervous  Force. 
We  can  judge  of  the  nature  of  the  nervous  force 
only  by  its  effects.  The  muscular  contraction 
caused  by  the  irritation  of  a  nerve  is  due  to 
the  development  of  a  peculiar  vital  force  in 
the  nerve  structure,  which  is  unlike  any  of  the 
known  physical  forces.  It  bears  certain  anal- 
ogies to  electricity,  and  by  some  authors  has 
been  supposed  to  be  identical  with  it.  The  rea- 
sons for  this  supposition  are:  1,  the  identity 
of  their  effects  on  muscular  fibre ;  2,  the  rapid- 
ity of  their  action  without  producing  any  ap- 
preciable effect  on  the  parts  between  the  point 
of  irritation  and  the  point  affected ;  3,  the  ex- 
treme sensibility  of  nerves  to  the  electric  cur- 
rent ;  and  4,  the  phenomena  of  electrical  fishes. 
None  of  these  reasons  are  sufficient  to  establish 
the  identity  of  the  nervous  and  electrical  forces, 
while  the  experiments  of  Longet,  Matteucci, 
Prevost,  Dumas,  and  others,  showing  that  the 
more  delicate  tests  can  detect  no  galvanic  cur- 
rent in  the  nerves,  and  that  they  are  inferior 
to  some  other  substances  as  conductors,  prove 
conclusively  that  they  are  essentially  distinct 
and  different  forces.  With  regard  to  the  in- 
disputable electrical  phenomena  that  are  ob- 
served in  the  torpedo  and  gymnotus,  it  is  well 
ascertained  that  they  depend  on  the  existence 
in  these  animals  of  a  special  organ  which  gen- 
erates electricity.  The  function  of  nerves,  as 
has  been  remarked,  is  internuncial.  They 
possess  only  limited  capacity  for  the  develop- 
ment of  nervous  force.  Their  office  seems  to 
be  to  conduct  sensations  from  the  periphery  to 
the  centre,  and  impulses  from  the  centre  to  the 
periphery.  Their  connection  with  a  centre  is 
essential  for  the  appreciation  of  external  im- 
pressions or  the  exercise  of  mental  stimulus. 
The  determination  of  the  sensitive  or  motor 
character  of  a  nerve  is  effected  by  direct  experi- 
ment on  living  animals,  and  by  the  effects  of 
disease  or  injury  of  the  nerves.  The  different 
properties  belonging  to  the  two  roots  of  the 
spinal  nerves  were  discovered  by  Sir  Charles 
Bell  about  1810,  and  established  by  Magen- 
die  in  1822.  Magendie  operated  by  dividing, 
in  the  living  animal,  first,  the  posterior  roots 
of  the  lumbar  and  sacral  nerves,  after  which 
sensibility  was  lost  in  the  corresponding  limbs, 
while  the  power  of  motion  remained ;  second- 
ly, the  anterior  roots  only,  after  which  the 


power  of  motion  was  abolished,  but  sensjU 
bility  remained ;  and  finally,  at  the  same  time 
both  anterior  and  posterior  roots,  after  which 
motion  and  sensibility  were  alike  destroyed. 
These  experiments  have  been  repeated  by  nu- 
merous observers,  and  the  conclusion  is  es- 
tablished that  the  anterior  root  of  each  spinal 
nerve  is  motor  and  the  posterior  sensitive. 
(For  a  description  of  the  functions  of  the 
encephalic  nervous  centres  and  the  cranial 
nerves,  see  BRAIN.) — Functions  of  the  Spinal 
Cord.  The  spinal  cord  consists  of  two  anterior 
and  two  posterior  columns  made  up  of  longi- 
tudinal nerve  fibres.  Each  lateral  half  encloses 
a  crescentic  mass  of  gray  vesicular  nerve  matter. 
The  fibres  of  the  spinal  nerves  originate  from 
the  gray  matter  within  the  cord,  while  others 
extend  longitudinally  through  the  cord,  and  are 
connected,  either  directly  or  indirectly,  with 
the  brain.  The  discovery  of  the  separate  func- 
tion of  the  roots  of  the  spinal  nerves  was  the 
first  step  in  unravelling  the  important  offices 
of  the  spinal  cord.  Experiments  on  living  ani- 
mals have  established  the  following  points  in 
its  physiology :  1.  That  the  anterior  and  pos- 
terior columns  of  the  cord  correspond  in  their 
properties  to  the  anterior  and  posterior  roots 
of  the  spinal  nerves;  for  when  the  anterior 
column  is  irritated,  convulsive  motion  is  pro- 
duced in  the  parts  below  the  point  of  division ; 
and  when  the  posterior  column  is  irritated,  a 
painful  sensation  is  produced.  2.  When  the 
anterior  and  posterior  columns  are  both  divided, 
it  is  found  that  irritation  of  the  portion  of  the 
anterior  column  attached  to  the  brain  produces 
no  effect,  while  irritation  of  the  lower  segment 
causes  convulsive  action,  showing  that  in  the 
anterior  column  the  nervous  force  travels  from 
within  outward  and  not  from  without  in- 
ward. When,  on  the  other  hand,  the  portion 
of  the  posterior  column  attached  to  the  brain 
is  irritated,  pain  is  produced,  while  irritation 
of  the  portion  below  the  division  causes  no 
pain,  showing  that  in  the  posterior  column  the 
nervous  force  travels  from  without  inward 
and  not  from  within  outward.  3.  The  motor 
nerves  derived  from  the  right  side  of  the  body 
enter  the  right  lateral  half  of  the  cord,  and 
make  their  connections  from  below  upward 
on  the  same  side  until  they  reach  the  medulla 
oblongata,  where  they  cross  over  to  the  left 
side ;  the  same  course  is  followed  by  the  mo- 
tor nerves  of  the  opposite  side,  which  pass  up 
the  left  anterior  column  till  they  reach  the 
medulla,  when  they  cross  to  the  right  side. 
This  crossing  of  the  motor  nerves  in  the  an- 
terior columns  of  the  medulla  is  termed  decus- 
sation.  The  consequence  of  this  arrangement 
is,  that  when  an  injury  is  inflicted  on  the  right 
half  of  the  anterior  column  below  the  medulla 
oblongata,  the  paralysis  is  on  the  same  side ;  but 
when  the  injury  is  above  the  point  at  which 
decussation  commences,  the  paralysis  will  be 
on  the  opposite  side.  4.  The  experiments  of 
Dr.  Brown-Sequard  show  that  there  is  a  cross- 
ed action  in  the  sensitive  as  well  as  in  the 


238 


NERVOUS  SYSTEM 


motor  fibres  of  the  cord.  The  decussation  of 
the  sensitive  fibres,  however,  exists  through  the 
entire  length  of  the  spinal  cord,  and  not  in  the 
medulla  alone,  as  in  the  anterior  columns.  The 
effect  of  this  is  shown  when  one  lateral  half  of 
the  spinal  cord  of  a  dog  is  divided ;  sensation 
remains  on  the  corresponding  side  of  the  body, 
but  is  lost  on  the  opposite  side. — Reflex  Action 
of  the  Spinal  Cord.  Thus  far  the  spinal  cord 
has  been  considered  as  a  bundle  of  sensitive  and 
motor  nerves  connecting  the  brain  with  the 
muscles  and  periphery  of  the  body ;  but  we  find 
that  the  central  portion  of  the  cord  contains  a 
considerable)  amount  of  gray  matter,  and  that 
it  possesses  in  consequence  the  capacity  of  a 
nervous  centre.  When  a  frog  has  been  decap- 
itated, sensation  and  volition  are  of  course  de- 
stroyed, the  communication  between  the  body 
and  the  centres  in  which  these  powers  reside 
being  cut  off ;  but  it  will  be  found,  nevertheless, 
that  irritation  of  either  lower  or  upper  extrem- 
ity will  be  followed  by  muscular  contraction  on 
the  corresponding  side ;  and  when  the  irrita- 
tion is  excessive,  contractions  will  occur  in  all 
the  limbs.  These  phenomena,  which  are  due 
to  the  action  of  the  cord  as  a  nervous  centre, 
are  not  unfrequently  observed  as  a  consequence 
of  disease  or  injury  of  the  spinal  cord.  When- 
ever communication  is  cut  off  between  any 
portion  of  the  cord  and  the  brain  by  disease, 
such  as  softening,  or  by  fracture  of  the  spine, 
sensibility  and  the  power  of  motion  are  lost  in 
the  parts  below  the  point  of  disease  or  injury ; 
but  involuntary  and  uncontrollable  contractions 
occur  in  response  to  any  irritation  applied  to 
the  surface,  such  as  tickling  of  the  soles  of  the 
feet,  a  draft  of  air,  or  the  application  of  the 
galvanic  current.  For  the  production  of  these 
reflex  phenomena  it  is  necessary :  1,  that  the 
cord  be  in  a  state  of  integrity ;  and  2,  that  the 
continuity  of  the  spinal  nerves  be  unbroken. 
If  the  spinal  cord  be  broken  up  in  the  frog  by 
the  passage  of  a  needle  through  the  spinal  canal, 
irritation  of  the  extremities  will  produce  no 
effect;  and  if  the  sciatic  nerve,  for  example,  be 
divided,  the  cord  remaining  perfect,  no  contrac- 
tion can  be  produced  on  the  side  of  the  division. 
It  is  inferred  then  from  direct  experiments  and 
from  the  evidence  furnished  by  disease  that 
the  spinal  cord  is  a  nervous  centre,  which  sup- 
plies innervation  to  the  muscular  and  cutaneous 
systems  through  the  medium  of  sensitive  and 
motor  filaments;  the  sensitive  filaments  con- 
veying impressions  from  the  surface  to  the 
centre,  and  the  motor  filaments  transmitting 
impulses  from  the  centre  to  the  surface. — Sym- 
pathetic or  Ganglionic  System.  This  system, 
which  is  sometimes  called  the  nervous  system 
of  organic  life,  consists  in  a  double  chain  of 
nervous  ganglia  occupying  the  visceral  cavities 
of  the  body,  and  extending  along  the  front 
and  sides  of  the  vertebral  column  from  its 
anterior  to  its  posterior  extremity.  There  are 
four  symmetrical  pairs  of  ganglia  in  the  head, 
three  pairs  in  the  neck,  ten  pairs  in  the  chest, 
an  irregular  aggregation  of  ganglia  in  the  abdo- 


men called  the  semilunar  ganglion,  and  five  pairs 
in  the  pelvis.  These  ganglia  are  all  connected 
with  each  other  by  transverse  and  longitudi- 
nal commissural  fibres,  and  they  send  off  some 
filaments  to  join  nerves  from  the  cerebro-spi- 
nal  system,  and  others  to  be  distributed  to  all 
the  viscera  which  are  concerned  in  the  main- 
tenance of  organic  or  purely  vegetative  life. 
The  state  of  knowledge  concerning  the  special 
properties  and  functions  of  the  sympathetic 
system  of  nerves  is  less  advanced  than  that 
which  relates  to  the  cerebro-spinal  system.  The 
reasons  for  this  imperfect  knowledge  are,  the 
difficulties  of  experimenting  on  this  system 
from  the  peculiarities  of  its  situation,  and  the 
very  complex  connections  of  the  sympathetic 
and  cerebro-spinal  systems. — For  further  in- 
formation, see  Longet,  Anatomie  et  physiolo- 
gie  du  systeme  nerveux  (1842),  and  Traite  de 
physiologic  (1850-'70) ;  Mayo  "On  the  Ner- 
vous System"  (1842);  Carpenter,  "Principles 
of  Human  Physiology"  (1846;  7th  ed.,  1869); 
Todd's  "  Cyclopaedia  of  Anatomy  and  Phys- 
iology;" Todd  and  Bowman,  "Physiological 
Anatomy  and  Physiology  of  Man "  (1850) ; 
Bernard,  Lecons  sur  la  physiologic  et  la  patho- 
logic du  systeme  nerveux  (1858) ;  Vulpian,  Le- 
fons  sur  la  physiologic  generale  et  comparee  du 
systeme  nerveux  (1866);  Dalton,  "Treatise  on 
Human  Physiology"  (1859;  5th  ed.,  1871); 
Flint,  "Physiology  of  Man,"  vol.  iv.  (1872); 
and  other  systematic  works  on  physiology. — 
NERVOUS  DISEASES  are  properly  divided  into  the 
functional  and  structural  diseases  of  the  ner- 
vous system.  The  functional  diseases  are  those 
in  which  there  is  no  morbid  change  or  lesion 
in  the  nerve  structures  to  account  for  the 
symptoms ;  they  manifest  themselves  by  irreg- 
ular, depressed,  or  exalted  conditions  of  the 
pecular  functions  of  the  nervous  system,  viz., 
sensibility  and  motion.  They  may  be  enumer- 
ated as  follows :  1.  The  numerous  varieties 
of  neuralgia  which  are  independent  of  dis- 
ease of  the  nerves  or  their  centres.  2.  The 
various  forms  of  insanity,  as  delirium,  mono- 
mania, dementia,  and  general  paralysis,  where 
no  morbid  change  occurs  in  the  brain  to  ac- 
count for  the  symptoms.  3.  The  protean 
nervous  phenomena,  neuralgia,  paralysis  of 
sensation  and  motion,  convulsions,  and  the 
various  exhibitions  of  mental  and  moral  per- 
versity, constituting  the  disease  known  as  hys- 
teria. 4.  Delirium  tremens,  that  derange- 
ment of  the  nervous  functions,  manifested 
by  optical  illusions,  hallucinations,  mania,  and 
muscular  trembling,  which  arises  from  ex- 
haustion of  the  nervous  power  produced  by 
prolonged  stimulation  by  alcohol.  5.  Chorea 
or  St.  Vitus's  dance,  an  affection  occurring 
generally  in  young  girls  between  the  period  of 
dentition  and  puberty,  and  consisting  in  irreg- 
ular contractions  of  the  voluntary  muscles. 
This  disease  has  been  graphically  termed  "  in- 
sanity of  the  muscles."  6.  The  convulsions  and 
paralyses  that  occur  in  infancy  and  childhood 
from  the  irritation  of  teething  or  from  gastric 


NESHOBA 


NESSELRODE 


239 


and  intestinal  derangements.  7.  Tetanus  or 
locked- jaw,  a  rigid  spasm  of  the  voluntary  mus- 
cles arising  from  an  exalted  state  of  the  reflex 
function  of  the  spinal  cord,  sometimes  sponta- 
neous, but  more  often  the  result  of  punctured 
or  lacerated  wounds.  8.  The  rare  and  curious 
derangements  known  as  catalepsy  and  ecstasy. 
It  is  doubtful  whether  in  all  these  cases  struc- 
tural disease  of  the  nervous  tissues  do  not  real- 
ly exist,  and  may  not  be  discoverable  by  more 
complete  examination.  Accounts  of  these  dis- 
eases will  be  found  under  appropriate  heads. 
Structural  diseases  of  the  nervous  system,  or 
those  in  which  the  nervous  symptoms  arise 
from  some  morbid  change  or  lesion  in  the  nerve 
structures,  may  be  divided  into :  1,  diseases 
of  the  brain  and  spinal  cord  and  their  cover- 
ings or  membranes  (see  BEAIN,  DISEASES  OF 
THE)  ;  and  2,  diseases  of  the  nerves.  The  lat- 
ter are  not  numerous.  (See  NEURALGIA.)  Epi- 
lepsy, sometimes  a  purely  functional  disease  of 
the  nervous  system,  and  sometimes  organic  in 
its  origin,  is  described  under  its  own  head. 

NESHOBi,  an  E.  county  of  Mississippi,  inter- 
sected by  Pearl  river  and  drained  by  its  branch- 
es; area,  600  sq.  m.;  pop.  in  1870,  7,439,  of 
whom  1,703  were  colored.  Much  of  the  land 
is  uncultivated.  The  chief  productions  in  1870 
were  176,189  bushels  of  Indian  corn,  27,624 
of  sweet  potatoes,  2,971  Ibs.  of  tobacco,  2,492 
bales  of  cotton,  6,471  Ibs.  of  wool,  and  5,438 
gallons  of  sorghum  molasses.  There  were 
1,549  horses,  513  mules  and  asses,  2,813  milch 
cows,  4,773  other  cattle,  4,409  sheep,  and  11,- 
774  swine.  Capital,  Philadelphia. 

NESS,  a  W.  central  county  of  Kansas,  water- 
ed by  Walnut  creek  and  PawnBe  fork,  affluents 
of  the  Arkansas ;  area,  900  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in 
1870,  2.  The  surface  consists  of  rolling  prai- 
ries, and  the  soil  is  productive. 

NESSELRODE,  Karl  Robert  TOD,  count,  a  Rus- 
sian statesman,  born  on  board  a  Russian  frig- 
ate in  the  port  of  Lisbon,  Dec.  14,  1780,  died 
in  St.  Petersburg,  March  23,  1862.  He  was 
baptized  in  the  Protestant  faith  on  board  an 
English  ship.  He  belonged  to  a  noble  Ger- 
man family  settled  in  Livonia,  and  at  the  time 
of  his  birth  his  father  was  ambassador  to  Por- 
tugal. He  began  his  career  in  the  military 
service,  but  early  became  attache  to  the  vari- 
ous embassies  of  his  father.  Subsequently  he 
served  in  that  capacity  with  the  embassies  at 
Paris  and  the  Hague.  He  gained  the  favor  of 
the  emperor  Alexander  by  the  brilliant  style 
of  his  diplomatic  compositions  (which  how- 
ever were  drawn  up  by  his  secretary),  and 
received  an  appointment  in  the  ministry  of 
foreign  affairs  in  St.  Petersburg.  As  coun- 
cillor of  the  cabinet  he  was  frequently  brought 
into  personal  contact  with  the  emperor,  who 
learned  to  appreciate  his  knowledge  of  in- 
ternational law  and  of  European  affairs.  At 
the  same  time  he  knew  how  to  disguise  his 
superiority  under  an  appearance  of  modesty, 
and  to  make  the  ideas  which  originated  from 
his  own  mind  appear  to  proceed  from  his 
593  VOL.  XIL— 16 


master.  The  favorable  impression  he  thus 
produced  led  to  his  being  intrusted  with  the 
ministry  of  foreign  affairs  before  he  was  32 
years  old  (1812),  at  first  under  Count  Razu- 
movski ;  and  he  began  from  that  time  to  con- 
trol the  relations  of  Russia  with  foreign  coun- 
tries. He  formed  the  coalition  with  England 
and  Prussia  in  1813,  and  the  negotiations 
and  treaties  with  England,  Sweden,  Prussia, 
and  Austria,  which  determined  the  result  of 
the  conflict  with  France,  were  almost  all 
concluded  under  his  influence.  In  the  night 
of  March  30-31,  1814,  he  signed  the  capitula- 
tion of  Paris,  which  put  an  end  to  the  wars 
of  the  first  French  empire  (excepting, the  hun- 
dred days);  and  42  years  afterward  he  re- 
tired from  public  service  after  the  signing  of 
the  treaty  of  peace  in  Paris,  March  80,  1856, 
which  terminated  the  war  with  Napoleon  III. 
and  his  allies.  At  the  congress  of  Vienna 
(1814-'15)  Nesselrode  was  the  first  to  assume 
for  Russia  that  attitude  of  superiority  which, 
combined  with  a  tone  of  courteous  and  bland 
moderation  in  communicating  with  other  na- 
tions, has  since  given  to  Russian  statecraft  a 
distinguished  position  in  the  diplomatic  world. 
Sympathizing  most  with  Austria,  he  endeav- 
ored at  the  same  time  to  maintain  intimate 
relations  with  Prussia,  and  also  showed  great 
moderation  toward  France,  effectually  oppo- 
sing at  the  congress  of  Aix-la-Chapelle  (1818) 
Great  Britain's  desire  of  prolonging  the  oc- 
cupation of  France  by  foreign  garrisons,  and 
exerting  himself  to  obtain  a  reduction  of  the 
enormous  fines  imposed  upon  her  after  the  bat- 
tle of  Waterloo.  Louis  XVIII.  and  his  minis- 
ter Richelieu  showed  their  gratitude  to  Nes- 
selrode and  his  colleague  Pozzo  di  Borgo,  and 
immense  amounts  of  money  passed  into  the 
hands  of  both.  The  great  wealth  secured  by 
him  on  that  and  other  occasions  made  him 
one  of  the  richest  men  of  Europe.  He  was 
one  of  the  most  extensive  sheep  graziers  in 
Russia,  his  flocks  amounting  to  more  than 
150,000,  and  his  personal  property  was  enor- 
mous. But  the  prosaic  tenor  of  his  mind  was 
not  congenial  to  the  poetical  and  mystical  dis- 
position of  Alexander,  who  regarded  the  holy 
alliance  as  a  religious  matter,  while  Nesselrode 
looked  upon  it  merely  as  a  political  power. 
While  preserving  the  first  place  in  the  foreign 
ministry,  he  was  to  some  extent  supplanted 
for  a  while  in  the  emperor's  confidence  by 
Count  Capo  d'Istria,  who  was  appointed  as  his 
colleague ;  but  the  outbreak  of  the  Greek  rev- 
olution led  to  his  withdrawal  and  left  Nessel- 
rode sole  master  of  the  foreign  office.  The 
revolutionary  movements  which  at  the  same 
period  agitated  Italy,  Spain,  and  Portugal, 
caused  Nesselrode  and  Metternich  to  adopt  a 
stringent  policy,  which  had  reached  its  climax 
at  the  time  of  the  death  of  Alexander  I.  in 
1825.  Nesselrode  continued  to  enjoy  the  con- 
fidence of  the  new  czar  Nicholas,  whose  en- 
ergy and  commanding  individuality,  however, 
made  his  position  less  influential  than  it  had 


240 


NESTOR 


been  under  Alexander.  Nesselrode's  policy 
having  always  been  marked  by  moderation  and 
caution,  the  hostile  attitude  assumed  toward 
Turkey  soon  after  the  accession  of  Nicholas 
was  attributed  rather  to  the  emperor  than  to 
his  minister ;  while  the  skill  which  the  latter 
manifested  in  the  negotiations,  from  those 
which  preceded  the  battle  of  Navarino  to  the 
peace  of  Adrianople,  contributed  to  strengthen 
the  political  influence  of  Russia.  In  1844  he 
was  promoted  to  the  rank  of  chancellor  of  the 
empire.  From  that  time  his  influence  con- 
stantly increased.  His  administration,  distin- 
guished for  unity  of  spirit  and  perfect  mech- 
anism, was  weakened  by  his  inflexible  adhe- 
rence to  the  policy  of  the  holy  alliance,  but 
tempered  by  his  desire  of  maintaining  friendly 
relations  with  France  and  the  other  Europe- 
an powers.  This  peaceful  disposition  clashed 
with  the  impetuous  character  of  Nicholas,  par- 
ticularly during  the  complications  which  led 
to  the  Crimean  war ;  and  although  Nesselrode 
continued  to  conduct  the  foreign  affairs  du- 
ring the  lifetime  of  Nicholas  and  while  the 
war  was  in  progress,  he  retired  soon  after  the 
accession  of  Alexander  II.  Throughout  his 
official  career  he  was  noted  for  kindness  to- 
ward his  subordinates.  Conspicuous  among 
his  personal  habits  was  his  fondness  for  cook- 
ing; in  his  daily  consultations  his  cooks  are 
said  to  have  had  the  precedence  over  all  others, 
and  the  invention  of  many  dishes  is  attributed 
to  him,  among  which  is  the  pudding  d  la  Nes- 
selrode. His  only  son  is  now  one  of  the  "  mas- 
ters of  the  court "  at  St.  Petersburg. 

NESTOR,  a  legendary  Grecian  hero,  son  of 
Neleus  and  Chloris,  and  king  of  Messenian  or 
of  Triphylian  Pylos.  Previous  to  going  to 
Troy  he  had  taken  part  in  wars  with  the  Ar- 
cadians and  Eleans,  and  in  the  conflict  of  the 
Lapithsa  with  the  Centaurs;  and  he  is  also 
enumerated  among  the  Calydonian  hunters 
and  the  Argonauts.  He  went  to  Troy  with 
60  ships,  at  a  great  age,  having  ruled  three  gen- 
erations of  men,  and  during  the  siege  figured 
as  soldier,  councillor,  and  orator ;  his  superior 
wisdom  was  appealed  to  in  all  dissensions 
among  the  Grecian  commanders.  In  the  fa- 
mous quarrel  between  Agamemnon  and  Achil- 
les, he  effected  their  reconciliation.  He  re- 
turned home  in  safety  after  the  fall  of  Troy. 

NESTOR,  the  earliest  Russian  chronicler,  born 
about  1056,  died  about  1114.  In  the  17th 
year  of  his  age  he  entered  the  Petcherskoi 
convent  of  Kiev,  where  he  wrote  his  annals  of 
Russia,  commencing  with  the  first  appearance 
of  the  Varangians  in  that  country  about  the 
middle  of  the  9th  century,  and  bringing  the 
history  down  to  his  own  times,  various  events 
of  which  he  described  from  personal  observa- 
tion. He  wrote  in  the  old  Slavic  church  dia- 
lect, and  both  as  regards  the  language  and  the 
contents  the  original  work  has  been  consider- 
ably altered  by  the  modifications  and  interpo- 
lations of  various  continuators,  so  that  the  real 
merits  of  Nestor  can  hardly  be  ascertained. 


NESTORIANS 

The  best  edition  of  the  text  is  that  by  Byk- 
koff,  chief  librarian  of  the  imperial  library  (St. 
Petersburg,  1873).  The  principal  translation 
and  critical  illustration  of  the  text  are  by 
Schlozer,  Nestors  RussiscJie  Annalen,  &c.  (5 
vols.,  Gottingen,  1802-'9). 

NESTORIANS,  a  sect  of  early  Christians,  so 
called  after  Nestorius,  bishop  of  Constanti- 
nople in  the  5th  century.  (See  NESTOEIUS.) 
They  claim  a  still  earlier  origin,  ascribing  their 
conversion  to  the  preaching  of  the  apostle 
Thomas.  According  to  a  very  common  tradi- 
tion, they  are  also  of  Jewish  descent,  claiming 
that  their  ancestors  came  from  Ur  of  the  Chal- 
dees,  and  from  the  loins  of  Abraham;  hence 
they  sometimes  call  themselves  Chaldeans.  The 
council  of  Ephesus  (431),  which  condemned 
and  banished  Nestorius,  declared  the  true  sense 
of  the  church  to  be  that  Christ  consists  of  one 
divine  person,  yet  of  two  natures,  not  mixed 
and  confounded,  although  intimately  united, 
forming  what  is  known  to  theologians  as  the 
hypostatical  union.  But  this  definition  did  not 
end  the  controversy.  John,  bishop  of  Antioch, 
and  several  other  eastern  prelates,  held  another 
council  at  Ephesus,  and  issued  a  severe  sen- 
tence against  Cyril  of  Alexandria ;  and  though 
a  reconciliation  was  effected  between  John  and 
Cyril  in  433,  the  disciples  of  Nestorius  con- 
tinued to  propagate  his  doctrines  throughout 
the  East.  Before  the  close  of  the  6th  century 
his  followers  were  numerous  in  most  coun- 
tries of  the  East,  penetrating  even  to  India, 
Tartary,  and  China.  The  Nestorian  church 
had  patriarchs  a  part  of  the  time  at  Babylon, 
but  occupying  successively  the  cities  of  Seleu- 
cia,  Ctesiphon,  Bagdad,  and  Mosul.  Schools 
for  the  training  of  their  clergy  and  mission- 
aries were  established  at  Edessa,  Nisibis,  Se- 
leucia,  Bagdad,  and  many  other  places.  They 
were  almost  from  the  first  divided  among  them- 
selves, and  at  various  synods  adopted  doctrines, 
such  as  the  existence  of  two  distinct  per- 
sons in  Christ  as  well  as  two  distinct  natures, 
which  it  is  not  agreed  that  Nestorius  himself 
ever  taught.  A  portion  of  them  adhered  to 
the  Monophysite  heresy.  (See  CHRISTIANS  OF 
SAINT  THOMAS.)  The  Nestorians  were  espe- 
cially strong  in  Persia,  where  at  one  time  they 
were  the  dominant  sect.  But  in  consequence 
of  dissensions  which  arose  in  1551,  70,000 
or  80,000  of  them,  dwelling  on  the  west  side 
of  the  Kurdish  mountains  and  on  the  plains 
of  Mesopotamia,  were  led  to  unite  with  the 
church  of  Rome.  Their  descendants  are  not 
to  be  confounded  with  the  Nestorians  proper ; 
they  call  themselves  Chaldeans,  although  their 
exclusive  right  to  that  title  is  disputed.  Many 
of  them  still  speak  Syriac,  though  the  com- 
mon speech  around  them  is  Arabic.  The 
Jacobites,  who  also  are  numerous  in  Mesopo- 
tamia, were  originally  of  the  same  stock,  but 
are  now  quite  unlike  the  Nestorians,  and  have 
no  fellowship  with  them ;  they  call  themselves 
Syrian  Christians.  Some  of  them  are  subject 
to  the  Roman  see.  As  Mohammedanism  ad- 


NESTORIANS 


NESTORIUS 


241 


vanced  eastward,  the  Nestorians  were  borne 
down  before  it ;  some  were  converted  by  the 
sword,  and  others  killed.  Still  later  Tamerlane 
destroyed  a  large  portion  of  those  who  were 
not  subdued  by  Mohammed ;  so  that  the  Nesto- 
rians  of  to-day,  about  150,000,  are  but  a  feeble 
remnant  of  a  once  powerful  people.  They 
dwell  in  the  northwestern  districts  of  Persia, 
spreading  westward  into  the  Kurdish  moun- 
tains, a  small  portion  residing  within  the  bor- 
ders of  the  Turkish  empire.  About  40,000 
are  on  the  plain  of  Oroomiah,  inhabiting  300 
villages,  and  chiefly  occupied  in  agriculture. 
Their  condition  is  seldom  better  than  that 
of  serfs  under  their  Mohammedan  masters. 
Many  of  the  mountain  districts  inhabited  by 
the  Nestorians  are  so  rugged  that  a  beast 
of  burden  can  hardly  travel  over  them.  The 
people  subsist  chiefly  by  the  pasturage  of 
their  flocks,  sometimes  cultivating  little  ter- 
raced patches  of  land  a  few  rods  square.  They 
are  miserably  poor,  and  often  subject  to  the 
most  cruel  oppressions  from  their  Kurdish 
neighbors,  who  inhabit  the  same  mountains. 
A  bloody  onset  was  made  upon  them  by  the 
Kurds  in  1843  ;  nearly  10,000  Nestorians  were 
slain,  and  many  were  sold  into  slavery.  A 
little  further  south,  in  the  deep,  rugged  valley 
of  the  Zab,  a  tributary  of  the  Tigris,  their 
condition  is  a  little  better,  and  they  manifest 
more  of  the  independent  spirit  of  their  ances- 
tors. They  have  often  successfully  resisted  the 
attacks  of  the  Kurds,  and  they  subsist  more 
by  the  cultivation  of  the  soil.  Attention  was 
particularly  called  to  the  Nestoriansin  1831  by 
the  "  Researches  "  of  Messrs.  Smith  and  Dwight, 
missionaries  of  the  American  board,  on  a  tour 
of  observation  in  that  region.  They  found  them 
substantially  maintaining  their  ancient  faith, 
but  sunk  in  ignorance  and  degradation.  Few 
even  of  the  men  couM  read  intelligently,  and 
only  one  woman  was  found  who  could  read  at 
all,  she  being  the  sister  of  the  patriarch.  They 
had  no  printed  books,  and  only  a  few  manu- 
script copies  of  the  Scriptures  and  other  works, 
and  these  only  in  the  ancient  Syriac,  which 
was  virtually  a  dead  language,  studied  only  by 
the  priests  and  a  few  others.  The  Bible  was 
venerated  as  a  relic,  and  the  few  copies  exist- 
ing were  wrapped  in  cloth  and  laid  away  in 
the  dingy  churches,  and  brought  out  on  great 
saints'  days,  to  be  kissed,  but  not  to  be  read. 
All  were  enslaved  by  onerous  fasts.  Lewd 
dances  formed  their  most  popular  social  amuse- 
ment, and  drunkenness  was  so  common  as 
hardly  to  excite  notice.  The  condition  of  wo- 
man generally  was  that  of  degradation  and 
servitude.  The  birth  of  a  daughter  was  re- 
garded as  a  calamity.  The  abode  of  a  family, 
often  embracing  several  generations,  consisted 
of  a  single  room  of  the  poorest  description. 
Printing  was  unknown,  and  the  spoken  lan- 
guage had  not  been  reduced  to  writing.  The 
library  of  the  patriarch,  which  was  considered 
enormous,  consisted  of  less  than  60  volumes,  in- 
cluding several  duplicates.  Many  of  the  priests 


scarcely  understood  the  meaning  of  the  words 
they  used  in  their  church  service,  and  to  the 
people  generally  they  were  entirely  unintelli- 
gible. Theirs  was  virtually  a  dead  church. 
And  yet  they  still  held  tenaciously  to  the  Chris- 
tian name  and  substantially  to  the  Christian 
doctrine,  and  their  forms  of  worship  were  com- 
paratively simple.  Professing  the  N  icene  creed 
with  a  few  modifications,  asserting  the  distinc- 
tion of  person  and  natures  in  Christ,  refusing 
the  title  of  "  Mother  of  God "  to  the  Virgin 
Mary,  rejecting  the  doctrine  of  purgatory,  yet 
praying  for  the  dead,  they  acknowledged  seven 
sacraments,  though  it  was  not  always  clear 
which  they  all  were,  burial  being  sometimes 
reckoned  as  one ;  they  allowed  marriage  to  all 
the  clergy  except  bishops  and  the  patriarch 
(though  this  restriction  was  violated  by  Bishop 
Mar  Yohanan  in  1859),  and  discarded  auricular 
confession,  though  it  is  prescribed  in  their  an- 
cient books.  They  were  found  to  be  frank  and 
manly.  In  stature  and  complexion,  though 
somewhat  darker,  they  differ  little  from  Amer- 
icans. American  missionaries  began  to  reside 
among  them  in  1833,  and  were  kindly  wel- 
comed by  priests  and  people.  The  first  work 
of  the  missionaries,  after  mastering  the  native 
tongue,  was  to  reduce  the  spoken  language  to 
writing,  to  translate  the  Scriptures  into  it,  and 
to  establish  schools,  some  of  the  native  cler- 
gy being  among  their  best  scholars  and  most 
efficient  helpers.  They  also  prepared  school 
books  in  the  vernacular,  translated  works  of 
general  interest  into  Syriac,  and  became  teach- 
ers of  the  people.  Their  first  aim  was  to  re- 
form the  Nestorian  church,  not  to  plant  any 
other,  and  for  a  time  many  of  the  best  of 
the  native  ecclesiastics  worked  cordially  with 
them.  But  after  a  while  many  of  these  drew 
back,  and  most  of  those  who  were  regarded 
as  real  converts  have  come  out  from  the  -old 
church  and  organized  new  societies.  These 
are  now  IV  in  number,  with  Y3  congregations, 
simpler  forms  of  worship,  and  T67  members. 
There  are  YO  schools  and  1,124  pupils,  and 
110,000  volumes  have  been  issued.— See  "A 
Residence  of  Eight  Years  in  Persia,"  by  Jus- 
tin Perkins  (Andover,  1843),  and  Anderson's 
"Oriental  Churches"  (1872). 

KESTOBIUS,  a  Syrian  bishop,  born  near  the 
close  of  the  4th  century,  died  in  Libya  about 
the  year  440.  He  was  a  disciple  of  Theodore 
of  Mopsuestia,  became  a  presbyter  of  Anti- 
och,  and  was  made  patriarch  of  Constanti- 
nople in  428.  He  was  distinguished  for  his 
zeal  against  the  prevailing  heresies,  particularly 
those  of  the  Apollinarians.  In  his  opposition 
to  their  doctrine,  Nestorius  maintained  that 
there  was  a  great  distinction  between  Christ 
as  the  Son  of  God  and  Christ  as  the  son  of 
man;  that  the  actions  and  sensations  of  the 
one  person  were  to  be  carefully  discriminated 
from  those  of  the  other ;  and  that  the  Virgin 
Mary  could  not  be  called  6eor<ko?,  "  mother  of 
God,"  but  only  X/a^rord/cof,  "  mother  of  Christ," 
because  it  was  only  the  human  nature  of  Jesus 


242 


NETHERLANDS 


Christ  that  was  born  of  her,  since  God  could 
neither  be  born  nor  die.  His  opinions  were 
vigorously  combated  by  Oyril,  bishop  of  Alex- 
andria, who  by  advice  of  Pope  Oelestine  called 
a  council  at  Alexandria  in  430  to  determine 
the  controversy.  By  this  assembly  Nestorius 
was  judged  guilty  of  blasphemy  and  anathe- 
matized. He  retorted  by  charging  Oyril  with 
confounding  the  two  natures  of  Christ,  and 
anathematized  him  in  turn.  Cyril,  jealous  of 
the  overshadowing  power  of  the  see  of  Con- 
stantinople, induced  the  emperor  Theodosius 
II.  to  call  a  general  council  at  Ephesus  in  431, 
at  which  Cyril  presided.  Nestorius  was  per- 
emptorily summoned  before  it ;  but  as  the  bish- 
op of  Antioch  and  others  from  the  East  who 
were  friendly  to  him  had  not  yet  arrived,  and 
the  council  had  been  improperly  organized,  he 
refused  to  appear  and  protested  against  their 
action.  But  he  was  again  condemned,  deprived 
of  his  bishopric,  and  banished  from  Constanti- 
nople. He  was  sent  first  to  Arabia  Petra3a, 
and  afterward  to  one  of  the  oases  of  Libya. 
(See  CYBIL  OF  ALEXANDRIA,  and  NESTORIANS.) 
NETHERLANDS,  or  Low  Countries  (Dutch,  Ne- 
derlanden  ;  Fr.  Pays-Baa),  a  country  of  west- 
ern Europe,  formerly  comprising  Belgium  as 
well  as  the  present  kingdom  of  the  Nether- 
lands. The  term  is  applied  to  this  region  be- 
cause a  large  portion  of  the  surface  is  a  dead 
plain,  and'  much  of  it  lies  below  the  level  of 
the  sea,  from  which  it  is  protected  partly  by 
natural  sand  hills  and  partly  by  vast  artificial 
dikes  or  embankments.  The  kingdom  of  the 
Netherlands  as  it  was  before  1830  was  bound- 
ed N.  and  W.  by  the  North  sea,  E.  by  Prussia, 
and  S.  by  France,  from  which  countries  it  was 
not  separated  by  any  great  natural  barriers. 
It'  is  the  western  termination  of  the  vast  plain 
which  stretches  across  Europe  to  the  Ural 
mountains.  Three  great  rivers,  the  Rhine,  the 
Maas,  and  the  Scheldt,  flow  through  it,  and 
their  mud,  mixing  with  the  sand  banks  thrown 
up  by  the  ocean  around  their  mouths,  has 
formed  the  country,  which,  excepting  the  S.  E. 
portion,  is  nothing  but  the  delta  of  those  riv- 
ers. It  was  by  nature  a  wide  morass,  which 
man  has  made  fertile  and  habitable  by  labori- 
ously protecting  it  by  embankments  from  the 
overflow  of  the  rivers  and  the  frequent  inun- 
dations of  the  sea.  At  present  this  region  is 
divided  into  two  kingdoms  of  nearly  equal  size, 
the  Netherlands  in  the  north  and  Belgium  in 
the  south.  (See  BELGIUM.) — The  present  king- 
dom of  the  Netherlands  lies  between  lat.  50° 
45'  and  53°  35'  N.,  and  Ion.  3°  24'  and  7°  12' 
E.,  and  is  bounded  N.  and  W.  by  the  North 
sea,  E.  by  Germany,  and  S.  by  Belgium.  Its 
length  from  N.  to  S.  is  about  190  m.,  and  its 
breadth  from  about  60  to  120  m.,  with  an  area 
of  12,680  sq.  m.  It  is  divided  into  11  prov- 
inces, which  with  their  respective  areas,  their 
population  in  1873  (according  to  the  annual 
official  calculation,  the  last  decennial  census 
having  been  taken  in  1869),  and  their  capitals, 
are  as  follows : 


PROVINCES. 

Area, 

square  miles. 

Population 
in  1873. 

Capitals. 

North  Brabant  
Gelderland  

1,980 
1,964 

443,045 
441  088 

Bois-le-Duc. 
Arnhem. 

South  Holland  .   ... 

1,155 

721464 

The  Hague. 

North  Holland  
Zealand  

1,054 
680 

610,990 
182865 

Amsterdam. 
Middelburg. 

Utrecht 

534 

179  465 

Utrecht 

Friesland         

1,264 

307'390 

Leeuwarden. 

1,282 

260533 

Zwolle. 

•     885 

232  739 

Groningen 

Drenthe  

1,031 

109'454 

Assen. 

Ldmbur"1 

851 

227  469 

Maestricht. 

Total  

12,680 

3,716,002 

The  grand  duchy  of  Luxemburg,  though  it  is 
governed  by  the  king  of  the  Netherlands  as 
grand  duke,  is  in  point  of  administration  en- 
tirely separate.  (See  LUXEMBURG.)  The  Neth- 
erlands possess  important  colonies  in  various 
parts  of  the  world,  whose  aggregate  popula- 
tion far  exceeds  that  of  the  mother  country. 
The  principal  of  these  are :  in  the  East  Indies, 
Java,  Madura,  Bali,  Lombok,  Banca,  Ternate, 
Amboyna,  Banda,  Timor,  and  extensive  terri- 
tories in  Sumatra,  Borneo,  and  Celebes,  with 
a  total  population  in  1872  of  24,300,000;  in 
America,  Surinam  (Dutch  Guiana),  Curac,oa, 
and  the  islands  of  St.  Eustatius,  Aruba,  Bo- 
naire, St.  Martin,  and  Saba,  with  a  total  popu- 
lation of  nearly  100,000.  The  former  pos- 
sessions in  W.  Africa,  comprising  a  few  posts 
on  the  coast  of  Guinea,  were  by  a  treaty  con- 
cluded in  1871,  and  ratified  in  February,  1872, 
ceded  to  Great  Britain.  The  Hague  is  the 
residence  of  the  king  and  the  seat  of  the  legis- 
lature, and  Amsterdam  the  nominal  capital  of 
the  kingdom ;  the  other  principal  cities  are 
Rotterdam,  Utrecht,  Leyden,  Groningen,  Arn- 
hem, Middelburg,  Haarlem,  Maestricht,  Leeu- 
warden, Dort,  Bois-le-Duc,  Nimeguen,  Delft, 
Zwolle,  and  Breda. — The  seacoast  of  the  Neth- 
erlands is  lined  in  great  part  by  sand  banks 
cast  up  by  the  waves  of  the  ocean,  and,  where 
these  have  not  been  formed,  by  vast  (jlikes, 
built  partly  of  granite  blocks  brought  from 
Norway,  and  partly  of  timbers,  fagots,  turf, 
and  clay.  These  embankments  are  usually  30 
ft.  high,  70  ft.  broad  at  the  bottom,  and  wide 
enough  at  the  top  for  a  roadway.  They  have 
been  constructed  by  the  labor  of  many  gener- 
ations, at  a  cost  estimated  at  not  less  than 
$1,500,000,000,  and  are  maintained  by  an  an- 
nual expenditure  of  upward  of  $2,000,000. 
Great  pains  and  much  expense  are  bestowed 
to  keep  them  in  order,  and  their  supervision  is 
intrusted  to  a  board  of  commissioners,  under 
whom  there  are  many  boards  of  sub-commis- 
sioners for  particular  districts,  who  from  time 
to  time  report  to  the  central  board  the  condi- 
tion of  the  dikes  under  their  care.  (See  DIKE.) 
The  principal  rivers  of  the  Netherlands  are 
the.  Rhine,  the  Maas  or  Meuse,  the  Scheldt, 
and  the  Vecht,  though  only  the  lower  parts  of 
these  streams  are  within  the  limits  of  the 
country.  The  Ehine  enters  from  Germany  on 
the  east  with  a  breadth  of  nearly  half  a  mile, 


NETHERLANDS 


243 


and  divides  into  two  branches,  of  which  the 
southern,  taking  the  name  of  the  Waal,  runs 
"W.  for  a  considerable  distance  till  it  joins  the 
Maas.     The  N.  branch,  after  running  N.  W.  a 
few  miles,  divides  into  two  streams,  of  which 
one,  called  the  Leek,  runs  W.  and  joins  the  N. 
branch  of  the  Maas  near  Rotterdam ;  and  the 
other,  called  the  Yssel,  runs  N.  and  falls  into 
the  Zuyder  Zee.    The  Maas  enters  the  Nether- 
lands from  Belgium  near  the  S.  E.  corner  of 
the  kingdom,  and  flows  at  first  N.,  then  N. 
W.,  and  finally  W.,  and  below  Gprkum  divides 
into  two  branches,  one  of  which,  the  Mer- 
wede,  again  divides,  and  after  flowing  around 
the  island  of  Ysselmonde  falls  into  the  North 
sea;  the  other  branch,  flowing  more  to  the 
south,  also  divides  into  two  smaller  streams 
and  falls  into  the  same  sea.     The   Scheldt 
enters  from  Belgium  in  the  southwest,  and 
divides  into  two  branches,  one  of  which,  called 
the  Eastern  Scheldt,  flows  N.  between  Zea- 
land and  North  Brabant,   and  then  W.   by 
many  channels,  enclosing  numerous  islands,  to 
the  sea ;  the  other  branch,  the  Western  Scheldt, 
flows  W.  in  a  broad  estuary  to  the  sea.    The 
Vecht  enters  from  Germany  on  the  northeast, 
and  falls  into  the  Zuyder  Zee  at  no  great  dis- 
tance from  the  mouth  of  the  Yssel.    All  these 
rivers  are  kept  within  prescribed  channels  by 
embankments,  and  are  connected  by  canals, 
which  serve  not  only  for  navigation  but  to  pre- 
vent inundations  by  draining  off  the  superfluous 
waters.    The  Netherlands  originally  abound- 
ed in  lakes,  about  90  of  which  have  been  arti- 
ficially drained  and  converted  into  cultivable 
land,  while  others  by  inundations  have  been 
changed  into  gulfs  of  the  sea.     Among  the 
latter  is  supposed  to  be  that  great  inlet  of  the 
North  sea,  the  Zuyder  Zee,  which  covers  about 
1,200  sq.  m.  in  the  N.  part  of  the  kingdom, 
and  is  thought  to  have  been  originally  a  large 
fresh-water  lake.     The  lake  of  Haarlem,  be- 
fore it  was  drained,  covered  70  sq.  m.     (See 
DRAINAGE,  and  HAARLEM  MEEE.)    The  Dollart, 
a  lake  between  Groningen  and  the  Prussian 
province  of  Hanover,  was  formed  by  irrup- 
tions of  the  sea  in  1277  and  1287,  and  oc- 
cupies about  60  sq.  m. — The  surface  of  the 
country  is  almost  everywhere  a  dead  level, 
and  such  natural  elevations  as  exist  are  little 
more   than    small  sandy  hillocks.      But  the 
monotony  of  the  surface  is  relieved  by  the 
numerous  canals  crossed  by  frequent  bridges, 
and  lined  with  willows  and  other  trees,  with 
which  also  the  roads  are  bordered ;  by  large 
and  handsome  towns  at  short  intervals;  and 
by  countless  villas  and  farm  houses,  all  of 
which  are  kept  in  a  state  of  the  utmost  order 
and  neatness.    The  country  is  everywhere  well 
peopled,  and  no  population  in  the  world  exhib- 
its a  more  uniform  appearance  of  wealth,  com- 
fort, and  contentment.    The  soil  in  some  places, 
especially  in  the  waste  lands  of  Gelderland 
and  Drenthe,  is  naturally  poor,  but  by  cultiva- 
tion has  been  rendered  as  rich  and  productive 
as  the  other  parts.    Wheat,  rye,  barley,  oats, 


peas,   beans,   buckwheat,  madder,  rape  seed, 
hops,  tobacco,  clover  seed,  mustard  seed,  flax, 
and  hemp  are  extensively  raised.    Dutch  hor- 
ticulture has  long  been  famous,  and  among 
the  flowers  tulips  and  hyacinths  are  especially 
cultivated.     Pulse  and  garden  vegetables  are 
everywhere  raised  in  great  abundance.    Very 
large  orchards  of  apple,  pear,  and  cherry  trees 
are  found,  especially  in  Gelderland.     Of  the 
entire  area  about  three  fourths  is  productive 
land,  and  more  than  one  half  of  this  consists 
of  meadows  and  pasture.     The  woodland  com- 
prises only  about  9  per  cent,  of  the  produc- 
tive soil.     In  South  Holland  the  pasture  land 
is  twice  as  extensive  as  the  arable,  while  in 
Friesland  the  proportion  is  more  than  8  to  1, 
and  the  rearing  of  live  stock  and  dairy  hus- 
bandry are  more  productive  and   profitable 
than  tillage.     In  1870  the  country  had  252,054 
horses,    1,410,822  cattle,    900,187  sheep,  and 
329,058  hogs.     Upon  the  excellent  meadows 
created  by  draining  bogs  and  lakes  vast  herds 
of  cattle,  some  of  which  are  brought  from 
Denmark  and  Germany  in  a  lean  state,  are 
fattened  for  market.    Immense  quantities  of 
butter  and  cheese  of  the  best  quality  are  pro- 
duced and  exported  at  high  prices.     Another 
important  product  of  the  soil  is  peat,  which  is 
largely  used -for  fuel. — The  climate  is  variable, 
and  subject  to  great  extremes  of  heat  and  cold. 
The  temperature  has  sometimes  fallen  to  23° 
below  zero,  and  risen  to  102°.    In  winter  the 
rivers  and  canals  are  sometimes  frozen  for 
three  months.     The  country,  is  subject  to  vio- 
lent gales ;  the  atmosphere  is  generally  damp, 
dense  fogs  prevail,  and  agues,  pleurisies,  and 
rheumatisms  are  frequent.      Consumption  is 
not  uncommon.     The  pleasantest  months  are 
August  and  September.     From  the  nature  of 
the  soil,  which  is  almost  everywhere  alluvial 
clay  and  sand,  there  are  necessarily  no  mines, 
though  a  little  bog  iron  has  been  found.     The 
eastern  provinces,  especially  Gelderland  and 
Overyssel,  have  some  forests  of  oak,  elm,  and 
beech,  but  in  general  the  country  is  destitute 
of  trees  except  those  which  have  been  plant- 
ed by  man.     Plantations,  however,  are  very 
numerous,  and  serve  greatly  to  embellish  the 
vicinity  of  the  towns  and  villages ;  and  the  level 
scenery  is  also  diversified  by  groups  of  wind 
mills,  mostly  employed  in  draining  the  low 
grounds.     There  are  no  large  wild  animals  and 
few  game  birds,  though  partridges,  hares,  and 
rabbits  are  plentiful.     Storks  are  very  numer- 
ous, and  remain  from  the  middle  of  February 
till  the  middle  of  August.     They  are  favorites 
with  the  people,  and  severe  penalties  are  im- 
posed  on  those  who  destroy  them.     Water 
fowl  are  extremely  abundant,  and  the  waters 
of  the  coast  are  frequented  by  vast  shoals  of 
cod,  turbot,  and  other  fish. — The  population  of 
the  Netherlands  is  composed  mainly  of  Dutch, 
with  about  250,000  Walloons,   Frisians,   and 
ermans,  and  about  68,000  Jews.     The  Dutch 
belong  to  the  great  Germanic  family  of  man- 
dnd.    The  men  are  generally  of  middle  stature, 


244 


NETHERLANDS 


stout  form,  and  fair  complexion.  The  women 
are  tall  and  handsome,  are  very  domestic  in 
their  habits,  and  pay  the  most  scrupulous  at- 
tention to  the  cleanliness  of  their  houses.  So- 
briety, steadiness,  economy,  perseverance,  and 
industry  are  the  most  striking  features  of  the 
national  character.  Even  the  youth  of  both 
sexes  are  as  sedate  and  cautious  as  the  older 
people  of  other  nations.  Smoking  is  very  com- 
mon. Brandy,  gin,  and  beer  are  favorite  bev- 
erages, but  intoxication  is  said  to  be  very  rare. 
There  is  great  wealth  in  the  Netherlands,  and 
it  is  widely  diffused,  but  there  is  little  ostenta- 
tious display  of  it.  The  people  generally  live 
well,  but  frugally.  The  houses  in  the  towns 
are  plainly  built  and  furnished.  The  country 
abounds  in  villas  called  pleasure  houses  (lust- 
Tiuizeri),  which  are  usually  built  of  brick,  plas- 
tered and  painted. — There  are  more  than  600 
ship  yards  in  the  country.  Among  the  chief 
branches  of  industry  are  the  iron  and  brick 
manufactories,  the  oil  mills,  and  the  tobacco 
manufactories.  The  fabrication  of  earthen- 
ware at  Delft  is  extensive  and  celebrated. 
This  country  has  long  been  noted  for  its  dis- 
tilleries of  spirits,  and  especially  of  gin,  for 
which  Schiedam  is  peculiarly  famous.  The 
manufacture  of  paper  is  extensive,  and  there 
are  in  the  provinces  of  Friesland,  Groningen, 
Gelderland,  and  North  Brabant  many  estab- 
lishments for  the  manufacture  of  shoes  for  ex- 
portation. The  Dutch  linens  are  of  superior 
quality,  and  the  manufacture  of  linen  and  cot- 
ton goods  is  carried  on  extensively  in  most  of 
the  provinces.  The  cotton  manufacture  in  1873 
employed  about  230,000  spindles.  At  Tilburg 
there  are  woollen  manufactories  employing  sev- 
eral thousand  persons,  and  there  are  extensive 
silk  manufactories  at  Amsterdam,  Haarlem, 
and  Breda.  The  fisheries  of  Holland  have 
long  been  famous  for  their  extent  and  produc- 
tiveness, especially  the  herring  fishery,  which 
has  been  carried  on  since  the  12th  century, 
and  has  been  termed  the  Dutch  gold  mine.  It 
is  a  common  saying  among  the  people  that 
"  the  foundations  of  Amsterdam  are  laid  on 
herring  bones."  In  the  middle  of  the  18th 
century  the  number  of  men  employed  in  the 
herring,  cod,  and  whale  fisheries  was  computed 
at  100,000.  In  the  first  half  of  the  19th  cen- 
tury the  fisheries  greatly  declined,  and  in  1854 
the  number  of  vessels  of  all  kinds  employed 
was  1,375,  of  men  7,753,  and  the  value  of  the 
produce  about  $15,000,000.  Since  then  it  has 
again  improved,  and  the  total  number  of  fam- 
ilies supported  by  the  fisheries  was  in  1872 
estimated  at  20,000. — The  commerce  of  the 
Netherlands,  though  not  as  extensive  as  for- 
merly, is  still  great  and  active.  In  1871  the 
imports  were  valued  at  586,800,000  florins,  and 
the  exports  at  460,500,000.  Commerce  is  car- 
ried on  chiefly  with  Great  Britain,  Germany, 
Java,  Belgium,  France,  and  Russia.  The  ex- 
ports to  the  United  States  from  the  Nether- 
lands and  the  Dutch  colonies  during  the  year 
ending  June  30, 1873,  were  valued  at  $11,700,- 


000,  and  the  imports  at  $12,500,000.  The  mer- 
cantile marine  in  December,  1874,  comprised 
1,804  vessels,  with  an  aggregate  tonnage  of 
495,285.  In  1873  the  entrances  of  shipping 
into  the  Dutch  ports  amounted  to  8,762  ves- 
sels of  2,968,404  tons,  and  the  clearances  to 
8,765  vessels  of  3,029,646  tons.— The  internal 
intercourse  and  commerce  of  the  country  are 
chiefly  carried  on  by  means  of  the  canals, 
which  communicate  with  the  Rhine  and  other 
large  rivers,  and  afford  an  easy  and  cheap 
conveyance  for  merchandise  and  passengers. 
The  usual  mode  of  travelling  on  the  canals  was 
formerly,  and  in  a  very  few  districts  is  still, 
by  trekschuits  or  draught  boats,  which  are 
dragged  by  horses  at  the  rate  of  4  m.  an  hour ; 
but  small  steamboats  are  now  commonly  used. 
The  principal  canal,  the  North  Holland,  runs 
N.  from  Amsterdam  to  the  harbor  of  Nieuwe- 
diep  on  the  Helder  point,  where  it  joins  the 
sea  and  thus  affords  Amsterdam  an  easy  in- 
tercourse with  the  ocean.  (See  CANAL,  vol. 
iii.,  p.  688.) — A  large  part  of  the  foreign  com- 
merce of  the  Netherlands  is  conducted  by  the 
Handel  Maatschapij,  or  trading  association, 
which  in  1824  took  the  place  of  the  Dutch 
East  India  company,  which  had  for  two  cen- 
turies monopolized  the  trade  with  the  East. 
(See  EAST  INDIA  COMPANIES.)  The  Handel 
Maatschapij  is  the  agent  for  the  sale  of  the 
government  colonial  produce  in  Europe,  of 
which  it  is  also  the  carrier,  and  farms  some 
branches  of  the  public  revenue  of  the  East  In- 
dia colonies.  Two  thirds  of  the  exports  of  the 
colonies  pass  through  its  hands,  though  it  has 
no  exclusive  trading  privileges.  Another  great 
association  is  the  "  Society  for  the  Promotion 
of  the  Public  Good  "  {Maatschapij  tot  nut  van 
Jt  algemeen\  which  was  organized  in  1784  by 
a  few  benevolent  persons,  and  has  spread  till 
it  has  upward  of  200  branches  throughout  the 
country,  with  many  thousand  members,  each 
of  whom  contributes  to  its  funds  a  small  sum 
annually.  Its  object  is  to  promote  the  estab- 
lishment of  schools,  hospitals,  asylums,  and  oth- 
er works  of  public  utility.  Its  sections  hold 
meetings  once  a  fortnight,  at  which  questions 
and  measures  tending  to  advance  the  common 
welfare  are  discussed,  politics  and  ecclesias- 
tical matters  being  excluded.  Institutions  for 
the  relief  of  the  destitute  and  suffering  are 
abundant,  though  in  general  the  poor  are  taken 
care  of  by  the  churches  to  which  they  belong. 
The  number  of  savings  banks  in  1870  was  206, 
of  which  162  belonged  to  the  society  of  public 
good;  169  savings  banks,  from  which  official 
reports  had  been  received,  had  91,565  depos- 
itors, whose  aggregate  credits  amounted  to 
11,933,086  florins.  There  are  three  great  alms- 
houses,  one  each  at  Amsterdam,  Middelburg, 
and  Groningen,  which  afford  shelter,  food,  and 
clothing  to  a  large  number  of  persons.  Pauper 
colonies  have  also  been  formed  on  the  waste 
lands  of  the  country,  and  the  able-bodied  men 
employed  in  reclaiming  them.  The  expense  of 
these  colonies  is  about  $1,000,000  per  annum, 


NETHERLANDS 


245 


and  the  total  annual  revenues  of  the  charitable 
institutions  of  the  kingdom  exceed  $5,000,000. 
The  total  number  of  persons  receiving  aid 
from  the  state  in  1869  was  213,620.  Education 
is  provided  for  by  a  non-sectarian  primary 
instruction  law,  passed  in  1857.  It  is  under 
the  care  of  the  department  of  the  interior,  and 
is  compulsory.  In  January,  1871,  there  were 
2,608  public  and  1,119  private  schools,  the  for- 
mer numbering  390,129  and  the  latter  111,762 
pupils.  The  teachers  are  superintended  by  94 
district  school  inspectors,  who  are  under  11 
provincial  superintendents.  The  proportion 
of  the  pupils  of  the  primary  schools  to  the 
entire  population  is  1  in  8.  Higher  education 
is  imparted  by  81  schools  of  middle  instruc- 
tion, with  7,047  pupils,  and  55  Latin  schools 
and  gymnasia,  with  1,128  pupils.  There  are 
three  universities,  at  Leyden,  Groningen,  and 
Utrecht,  with  1,339  students  in  January,  1871 ; 
two  collegiate  institutions  called  Athenaeums, 
at  Amsterdam  and  Deventer ;  and  a  polytech- 
nic institution  at  Delft. — By  the  constitution 
of  the  Netherlands  full  religious  liberty  is 
guaranteed  to  the  people,  and  all  churches  are 
equal  before  the  law.  On  Dec.  1,  1869,  the 
population  was  thus  divided :  Dutch  Reformed, 
1,956,852  ;  Walloon  Reformed,  5,371 ;  Remon- 
•strants,  5,486;  Christian  Reformed,  107,123; 
Mennonites,  44,227 ;  Evangelical  Lutheran, 
57,545;  Reformed  Lutheran,  10,522;  Mora- 
vians, 371  ;  Anglican  Episcopal,  456  ;  church 
of  Scotland,  84;  English  Presbyterians,  417; 
Roman  Catholics,  1,307,765  ;  Old  Catholics 
(Jansenists),  5,287 ;  Greek  church,  32  ;  Dutch 
Israelites,  64,478 ;  Portuguese  Israelites,  3,525 ; 
unknown,  5,161.  The  government  partly  pays 
the  salaries  of  the  ministers,  priests,  and  rabbis 
of  recognized  congregations.  The  Reformed 
church  holds  to  the  "  Confession  of  Faith " 
drawn  up  in  the  16th  century  according  to 
the  doctrines  of  Zwingli  and  Calvin.  It  has 
a  presbyterian  form  of  government,  and  is 
ruled  by  a  consistory  in  each  congregation,  by 
classes  composed  of  the  ministers  of  several 
contiguous  parishes,  together  with  one  elder 
from  each,  by  provincial  synods,  and  by  a 
general  synod  which  meets  annually  at  the 
Hague.  The  number  of  ministers  in  the  church 
in  1873  was  1,596.  There  is  a  Roman  Catholic 
archbishop  at  Utrecht,  and  bishops  at  Haarlem, 
Bois-le-Duc,  Breda,  and  Roermond.  The  ma- 
jority of  the  Roman  Catholics  are  in  North 
Brabant  and  Limburg.  The  church  in  Octo- 
ber, 1873,  had  973  congregations  and  2,023 
priests.  The  Old  Catholics  have  an  archbishop 
of  Utrecht,  and  bishops  of  Haarlem  and  Deven- 
ter.— The  government  of  the  kingdom  of  the 
Netherlands  is  a  constitutional  monarchy,  of 
which  the  crown  is  hereditary  in  the  house  of 
Orange-Nassau.  All  the  inhabitants  without 
distinction  are  entitled  to  protection  for  per- 
son and  property,  and  all  natives  are  eligible 
to  offices  and  public  employment.  Freedom  of 
the  press  and  the  right  of  the  people  to  assem- 
ble and  to  petition  are  inviolable.  The  eldest 


son  of  the  king  bears  the  title  of  prince  of 
Orange.  The  king  possesses  the  executive 
power,  declares  war,  concludes  peace,  and 
makes  treaties,  commands  the  army  and  navy, 
fixes  the  salaries  of  all  officers,  and  confers 
titles  of  nobility.  He  proposes  projects  of  law 
to  the  legislature,  whose  chambers  he  can  dis- 
solve at  pleasure,  though  he  must  command 
new  elections  in  the  course  of  40  days  after  the 
dissolution,  and  must  convene  the  new  cham- 
bers within  two  months.  He  has  a  council  of 
state,  consisting  in  1873  of  15  members  besides 
the  princes  of  the  royal  house,  which  may  be 
consulted  on  extraordinary  occasions.  In  1874 
there  were  seven  heads  of  departments  in  the 
ministerial  council,  viz.,  the  ministers  of  the 
interior,  of  finance,  of  justice,  of  the  colonies, 
of  foreign  affairs,  of  marine,  and  of  war.  The 
king,  the  ministers,  a  secretary,  and  two  royal 
princes  constitute  at  present  the  members  of 
the  cabinet  council.  The  legislative  power  is 
intrusted  to  the  states  general,  composed  of  two 
chambers.  The  members  of  the  upper  house 
(called  eerste  Tcamer,  first  chamber),  39  in  num- 
ber, are  elected  by  the  provincial  states  for  a 
term  of  nine  years,  a  third  of  their  number  re- 
tiring every  three  years.  Their  president  is 
appointed  by  the  king  once  a  year.  The  mem- 
bers are  selected  from  the  class  who  pay  the 
highest  amount  of  direct  taxes,  the  number  of 
persons  eligible  in  1871  being  1,098.  The  fol- 
lowing is  the  ratio  of  their  distribution  among 
the  provinces :  Drenthe,  1 ;  Groningen,  2 ; 
Utrecht,  2;  Zealand,  2;  Friesland,  3;  Lim- 
burg, 3 ;  Overyssel,  3 ;  Gelderland,  5  ;  North 
Brabant,  5;  North  Holland,  6;  South  Holland, 
7.  The  lower  house  (tweede  Tcamer,  second 
chamber)  in  1872  had  80  members,  who  are 
chosen  for  four  years,  from  41  electoral  dis- 
tricts, to  which  they  are  assigned  in  the  ratio 
of  one  representative  to  45,000  inhabitants, 
Amsterdam  having  6  representatives.  They 
are  chosen  at  biennial  elections  by  electors 
who  must  be  23  years  of  age,  and  pay  taxes 
varying  in  different  districts  from  about  $8 
per  annum  to  about  $24.  Each  member  is 
paid  a  salary  of  about  $800  a  year  and  his 
travelling  expenses.  The  speaker  of  the  house 
is  appointed  by  the  king.  The  king's  min- 
isters have  a  right  to  sit  and  speak  in  either 
house,  but  not  to  vote.  The  states  general 
meet  at  the  Hague  every  year  on  the  third 
Monday  in  September,  and  hold  their  ses- 
sions in  public..  They  are  obliged  by  law  to 
sit  at  least  20  days.  A  majority  is  required 
for  a  quorum ;  and  no  measure  can  be  enacted 
without  the  assent  of  an  absolute  majority 
of  each  house.  In  each  province  there  are 
provincial  "states,"  which  are  legislative  and 
administrative  bodies.  Besides  electing  the 
members  of  the  upper  house  of  the  states  gen- 
eral, they  are  charged  with  the  execution  of  the 
laws  of  the  kingdom  within  their  limits,  and 
have  power  to  make  special  and  local  laws, 
which,  however,  are  subject  to  the  sanction  or 
veto  of  the  king.  The  internal  police  of  the 


246 


NETHERLANDS 


provinces  is  left  to  their  superintendence.  The 
king  appoints  a  commissioner  to  preside  over 
their  sessions,  which  are  held  semi-annually. 
The  members  are  elected  for  six  years  at  tri- 
ennial elections,  by  the  same  constituencies 
that  elect  the  members  of  the  states  general. 
The  number  of  the  members  of  these  provin- 
cial legislatures  varies  in  each  province,  that 
of  South  Holland,  which  is  most  numerous, 
having  80  members,  and  that  of  Drenthe, 
the  smallest,  35.  The  communes  into  which 
each  province  is  subdivided  are  governed  by 
a  burgomaster  appointed  by  the  king  and  by 
local  councils  elected  by  the  people  for  a  term 
of  years.  In  1874  the  public  debt  amounted 
to  937,020,076  florins.  The  receipts  were  93,- 
742,143  florins,  and  the  expenditures  100,243,- 
980.  The  receipts  of  the  colonial  adminis- 
tration in  1874  were  124,908,632  florins,  and 
the  expenditures  114,761,528.  In  the  budget 
for  1875,  presented  Sept.  19,  1874,  the  receipts 
were  estimated  at  129,000,000  florins,  and  the 
expenditures  at  119,000,000.  The  army  in 
1874  comprised  62,071  men.  The  navy  con- 
sisted of  84  steamers  and  16  sailing  vessels, 
carrying  together  773  guns,  besides  which 
there  were  about  70  gunboats.  The  fleet  was 
manned  on  July  1,  1874,  by  6,886  men,  inclu- 
ding 1,864  marines.  The  largest  moneyed  insti- 
tutions are  the  Netherlandish  bank  in  Amster- 
dam, founded  in  1814,  which  is  a  bank  of  issue 
and  has  a  capital  of  16,000,000  florins;  the 
bank  of  Amsterdam,  established  in  1872,  cap- 
ital 10,000,000;  and  the  bank  of  Rotterdam, 
capital  15,000,000.  The  aggregate  length  of 
the  railroads  in  operation  Jan.  1,  1874,  was 
989  m.,  the  larger  portion  of  which  were  owned 
by  the  state,  besides  549  m.  for  which  conces- 
sions have  been  given.  The  electric  telegraph 
lines  owned  by  the  state  had  an  aggregate 
length  of  3,277  m. ;  the  length  of  the  wires  was 
11,738  m.  The  extent  of  the  net  of  private 
telegraphs  is  not  known. — Justice  is  adminis- 
tered by  various  courts,  the  chief  of  which  is 
the  high  court  of  the  Netherlands,  consisting 
of  a  president,  vice  president,  and  12  judges, 
appointed  by  the  king  from  three  candidates 
presented  to  him  for  each  vacancy  by  the 
lower  house  of  the  states  general.  The  judges 
hold  office  for  life.  This  court  hears  appeals 
from  the  lower  courts.  All  causes  in  which 
the  state  is  defendant  are  tried  before  this 
court,  and  the  high  functionaries  of  govern- 
ment are  amenable  to  it  only.  There  is  also 
a  provincial  court  in  each  province,  and  sub- 
ordinate to  them  are  district  courts,  which 
have  each  from  5  to  14  judges,  and  150  can- 
tonal courts,  which  have  each  a  judge  of  the 
peace  and  a  recorder.  In  1870  the  prisons  of 
all  kinds  had  2,407  inmates.  There  is  an  ex- 
cellent prison  for  male  juvenile  delinquents  at 
Rotterdam,  and  another  for  young  females  at 
Amsterdam,  which  are  admirably  managed  and 
serve  as  schools  for  intellectual  and  religious 
training.— The  first  historical  notice  of  the 
Netherlands  (in  the  wider  sense)  which  has 


come  down  to  us  is  contained  in  Caesar's  ac- 
count of  his  wars  with  the  Belgee  and  other 
barbarian  tribes  who  inhabited  its  morasses. 
These  tribes  were  mostly  of  Gallic  race,  though 
in  some  parts  of  the  country  several  clans  of 
Germanic  origin  had  established  themselves, 
preeminent  among  whom  were  the  Batavi, 
whom  Tacitus  calls  the  bravest  of  all  the  Ger- 
mans, and  of  whom  in  fact  the  Romans  always 
spoke  with  marked  respect.  They  were  the 
allies,  not  the  subjects  of  the  Romans,  and  a 
Batavian  legion  formed  the  body  guard  of  the 
emperors  down  to  the  time  of  Vespasian.  Du- 
ring the  civil  war  between  Vespasian  and  Vitel- 
lius,  Claudius  Civilis,  a  Batavian  who  had  served 
for  many  years  in  the  Roman  army  and  had 
received  a  Roman  education,  organized  a  gen- 
eral confederation  of  all  the  Netherland  tribes 
against  the  Romans  (A.  D.  69);  but  after  a 
heroic  struggle  the  insurgents  were  crushed 
by  the  armies  of  Vespasian,  who  had  now 
attained  the  purple,  and  the  Netherlands  re- 
mained among  the  provinces  of  the  empire  till 
they  were  overrun  by  the  northern  barbarians 
in  the  5th  century.  The  Batavi  still  formed  the 
bravest  portion  of  the  Roman  forces,  and  their 
cavalry  was  particularly  distinguished.  In  the 
great  battle  at  Strasburg  between  the  Germans 
and  the  army  of  the  future  emperor  Julian* 
(357),  the  Batavian  horse  saved  the  day  for  the 
Romans.  This  was  .the  last  of  their  achieve- 
ments mentioned  in  history,  and  soon  after- 
ward the  Batavian  nation  seems  to  have  lost 
its  individuality  and  to  have  become  merged, 
together  with  the  Belgse,  in  the  Frankish  and 
Frisian  tribes  who  had  invaded  and  occupied 
the  country.  The  monarchy  of  the  Franks  in 
the  6th  and  7th  centuries  embraced  the  whole 
of  the  Netherlands.  In  the  8th  century  the 
Frisians  revolted,  but  were  subdued  by  Charles 
Martel  about  734,  and  were  soon  afterward 
converted  to  Christianity.  At  the  beginning 
of  the  9th  century  they  formed  a  part  of 
the  empire  of  Charlemagne.  A  century  later, 
under  the  influence  of  the  feudal  system,  the 
whole  of  the  Netherlands  was  in  the  posses- 
sion of  a  number  of  princes,  owning  a  limited 
species  of  allegiance,  some  to  the  German  em- 
pire, and  some  to  the  kings  of  France.  In  922 
Charles  the  Simple  created  by  letters  patent 
the  first  count  of  Holland.  Before  the  13th 
century  the  Netherlands  had  become  divided 
into  several  dukedoms  and  countships,  whose 
chiefs  acknowledged  little  more  than  a  nominal 
allegiance  to  any  other  sovereign.  The  most 
powerful  of  these  potentates  was  the  count 
of  Flanders,  whose  dominions  in  1384  fell  to 
the  house  of  Burgundy ;  and  in  1437  Philip  the 
Good,  duke  of  Burgundy,  became  master  of  al- 
most the  entire  Netherlands,  and  his  successors 
acquired  the  rest.  At  this  period  the  country 
had  already  become  rich  and  populous,  and  the 
commercial  cities  had  acquired  a  controlling 
influence  in  the  government,  and  within  their 
own  limits  enjoyed  almost  republican  free- 
dom. The  states  general,  as  the  parliament 


NETHERLANDS 


247 


was  called,  granted  money  to  the  sovereign 
only  when  they  saw  fit.  Under  the  house  of 
Burgundy  the  Netherlands  became  the  most 
opulent  and  populous  part  of  Europe;  and 
their  chief  cities,  Antwerp,  Ghent,  and  Bruges, 
were  especially  distinguished  for  their  wealth 
and  splendor.  By  the  marriage  of  Mary  of 
Burgundy,  daughter  of  Charles  the  Bold,  with 
Maximilian,  archduke  of  Austria  (1477),  the 
Netherlands  became  a  possession  of  the  house 
of  Hapsburg.  Her  grandson,  the  emperor 
Charles  V.,  resigned  them  to  his  son  Philip 
II.  of  Spain  in  1555.  At  this  period  the 
Netherlands  comprised  the  dukedoms  of  Bra- 
bant, Limburg,  Luxemburg,  and  Gelderland ; 
the  countships  of  Artois,  Hainaut,  Flan- 
ders, Namur,  Zutphen,  Holland,  and  Zealand; 
the  baronies  of  Friesland,  Mechlin,  Utrecht, 
Overyssel,  and  Groningen;  and  the  margra- 
viate  of  Antwerp;  in  all,  17"  provinces.  They 
contained  208  walled  cities,  150  chartered 
towns,  6,300  small  towns  and  villages,  and  60 
fortresses  of  great  strength,  besides  hamlets, 
castles,  and  farm  houses.  The  reformation 
had  made  considerable  progress  among  the 
people  during  the  reign  of  Charles  V.,  chiefly 
in  the  cities,  and  Philip  II.  soon  after  his  ac- 
cession undertook  to  root  out  entirely  the  new 
doctrines.  After  his  father's  abdication  Phil- 
ip remained  in  the  country  till  August,  1559, 
when  he  departed  to  his  Spanish  dominions 
never  to  return.  He  left  the  Netherlands 
under  the  government  of  his  sister  Margaret, 
duchess  of  Parma,  as  regent,  assisted  by  three 
councils:  a  council  of  state,  a  privy  council, 
and  a  council  of  finance.  Of  these  the  council 
of  state  was  the  most  important.  It  consisted 
at  first  of  five  members,  among  whom  were 
two  native  nobles  of  the  highest  rank  and 
character,  the  prince  of  Orange  and  Count 
Egmont.  Three  more  were  afterward  added, 
the  most  distinguished  of  whom  was  Count 
Horn.  But  all  the  real  power  of  the  council 
was  exercised  by  a  secret  committee  of  three, 
called  the  consulta,  and  this  was  entirely  under 
the  control  of  one  of  its  members.  Antoine 
Perrenot,  bishop  of  Arras,  afterward  Cardinal 
Granvelle,  a  native  of  France,  who  was  great- 
ly detested  by  the  people.  The  arrogance  of 
Granvelle  and  the  attempt  to  introduce  the 
inquisition  provoked  a  determined  resistance, 
which  was  headed  by  the  prince  of  Orange, 
Egmont  and  Horn,  and  other  great  nobles. 
An  insurrection  of  the  Protestants  broke  out 
in  Flanders,  Aug.  14, 1566,  spread  rapidly  into 
other  provinces,  and  lasted  about  a  fortnight, 
during  which  great  ravages  were  committed 
on  the  churches  and  monasteries.  (See  ICONO- 
CLASTS.) This  outbreak,  which  was  tempora- 
rily suppressed  by  the  influence  of  William  of 
Orange,  Egmont,  and  Horn,  and  by  concessions 
from  the  frightened  duchess  of  Parma,  deter- 
mined Philip  to  resort  to  the  most  severe  mea- 
sures to  suppress  Protestantism ;  and  accord- 
ingly the  duke  of  Alva  was  sent  to  the  Neth- 
erlands in  1567,  with  a  powerful  army  of  Span- 


ish veterans.  Egmont  and  Horn  were  arrest- 
ed and  beheaded  at  Brussels  (June  5,  1568), 
and  also  many  other  noblemen  of  distinction, 
and  for  six  years  the  country  suffered  under 
a  tyranny  which  for  extent  and  ferocity  is 
almost  unparalleled  in  history.  The  prince  of 
Orange  withdrew  to  Germany,  and  appealed 
to  the  Protestant  princes  of  that  country  for 
aid.  They  allowed  him  to  raise  a  force  of 
volunteers,  and  gave  him  some  pecuniary  as- 
sistance, as  did  also  Queen  Elizabeth  of  Eng- 
land. He  reentered  the  Netherlands  in  the  lat- 
ter part  of  1568  at  the  head  of  an  army,  and 
called  his  countrymen  to  arms.  A  long  war 
ensued,  distinguished  by  sieges  rather  than 
by  battles,  and  marked  by  various  fortune  on 
both  sides.  The  states  of  Holland  and  Zea- 
land conferred  almost  dictatorial  powers  on 
the  prince  of  Orange,  with  the  title  of  stadt- 
holder;  and  those  provinces  equipped  a  pow- 
erful naval  force  which  greatly  contributed  to 
the  ultimate  achievement  of  Dutch  indepen- 
dence. The  severity  of  Alva  having  driven 
the  greater  part  of  the  Netherlands  to  insur- 
rection, and  his  attempts  to  suppress  .the  revo- 
lution by  force  of  arms  having  entirely  failed, 
he  was  recalled,  and  departed  in  December, 
1573.  His  successor,  Kequesens,  was  instruct- 
ed to  adopt  a  milder  system  of  government ; 
but  he  met  with  little  success,  and  died  of  fever 
in  March,  1576.  Philip's  brother  Don  John 
of  Austria,  the  victor  of  Lepanto,  succeeded 
him  as  viceroy ;  but  after  gaining  several  vic- 
tories over  the  revolutionary  forces,  he  too 
died  of  fever  (some  supposed  of  poison),  Oct. 
1,  1578.  He  was  succeeded  as  regent  by  his 
nephew  Alessandro  Farnese.  In  the  following 
year  (the  so-called  pacification  of  Ghent  of 
1576,  for  the  same  purpose,  having  failed)  the 
provinces  of  Holland,  Zealand,  Utrecht,  Fries- 
land,  Groningen,  Overyssel,  and  Gelderland 
formed  the  union  of  Utrecht,  and  thus  laid 
the  foundation  of  the  republic  of  the  Seven 
United  Provinces.  Zutphen  and  North  Bra- 
bant subsequently  joined  the  confederation. 
From  this  period  the  history  of  the  Nether- 
lands divides  itself  into  that  of  Holland  and 
that  of  Flanders  and  Brabant,  or  the  southern 
provinces  which  remained  under  the  Spanish 
dominion  and  adhered  to  the  Roman  Catholic 
faith,  and  now,  though  diminished  by  cessions 
of  territory,  constitute  the  kingdom  of  Bel- 
gium. (See  BELGITJM.)  The  assassination  of 
William  of  Orange,  July  10,  1584,  was  a  ter- 
rible loss  to  the  struggling  commonwealth, 
which  owed  its  existence  mainly  to  his  ex- 
traordinary wisdom,  prudence,  and  firmness. 
The  Dutch  patriots,  however,  did  not  despair. 
They  continued  the  contest  with  unabated  cour- 
age and  energy,  and  finally  with  a  success  truly 
astonishing  when  we  consider  the  resources 
of  Spain,  at  that  time  the  first  power  in  the 
world.  Prince  Maurice  of  Nassau,  a  son  of  the 
murdered  statesman,, though  not  yet  17  years 
of  age,  was  chosen  to  succeed  him.  He  proved 
to  be  one  of  the  greatest  generals  of  modern 


248 


NETHERLANDS 


times,  and  his  career  till  his  death  in  1625  was 
an  almost  unbroken  series  of  battles,  sieges, 
and  victories.  About  this  time  the  sovereign- 
ty of  Holland  was  offered  to  Elizabeth  of 
England,  who  declined  it,  but  sent  the  earl^of 
Leicester  to  the  assistance  of  the  Dutch  with 
a  body  of  troops.  Leicester,  however,  effected 
little,  and  was  recalled  in  1587.  Philip  II. 
died  in  1598,  and  his  successor  Philip  III.  for 
some  years  continued  the  effort  to  subdue  the 
revolted  provinces.  But  the  Dutch  by  this 
time  had  created  a  fleet  that  made  them  the 
first  naval  power  of  the  world.  Their  ships 
were  manned  by  hardy  and  daring  seamen, 
who  swept  the  most  distant  seas  of  Spanish 
commerce,  and  finally  so  impoverished  the 
king  of  Spain  by  intercepting  the  remittances 
of  treasure  from  the  colonies,  that  in  1609  he 
agreed  to  a  truce  for  twelve  years.  During 
the  peace  internal  dissensions  broke  out  in 
Holland  between  the  Oalvinists  and  Armin- 
ians,  whose  theological  differences  were  made 
the  basis  of  political  parties,  who  contended 
for  their  respective  tenets  with  great  zeal  and 
bitterness.  These  dissensions  were  fomented 
by  Maurice,  who  aspired  to  become  heredi- 
tary sovereign,  and  was  already  by  his  influ- 
ence over  the  army  exercising  a  species  of 
dictatorship.  He  was  opposed  by  the  vener- 
able Barneveldt,  the  head  of  the  Arminian 
party,  or  as  they  came  to  be  called  the  Remon- 
strants, from  a  remonstrance  which  they  pub- 
lished in  favor  of  universal  toleration.  The 
Calvinist  party,  of  which  Maurice  was  chief, 
were  soon  known  as  Anti-Remonstrants,  and 
those  names  have  continued  to  be  used  in  Hol- 
land to  the  present  day.  The  Calvinists  pre- 
vailed in  the  contest  for  the  political  suprem- 
acy, and  Barneveldt  and  the  famous  Grotius, 
another  eminent  leader  of  the  Remonstrants, 
were  arrested  on  charges  of  treason.  After  an 
infamous  trial,  in  which  party  spite  and  popu- 
lar clamor  were  brought  to  bear  on  the  judges, 
Barneveldt  was  condemned  and  executed,  May 
13,  1619,  at  the  age  of  VI  years.  Grotius  by 
an  artifice  escaped  from  prison,  and  took  ref- 
uge in  France.  On  the  expiration  of  the  truce 
in  1621,  the  war  with  Spain  was  renewed. 
After  the  death  of  Maurice,  who  was  succeed- 
ed by  his  brother  Frederick  Henry,  operations 
on  land  were  not  for  some  time  prosecuted 
with  much  vigor,  but  on  sea  the  Dutch  dis- 
played great  energy.  They  attacked  Peru  with 
success,  and  conquered  San  Salvador  and  a  large 
portion  of  Brazil,  which  at  that  period  belong- 
ed to  the  Spanish  monarchy.  They  also  made 
incessant  attacks  on  the  Spanish  possessions 
in  the  East  Indies,  and  laid  the  foundations  of 
the  Dutch  empire  in  that  part  of  the  world. 
On  the  general  pacification  of  Europe  by  the 
peace  of  Westphalia  in  1648,  a  final  treaty  was 
made  with  Spain,  which  acknowledged  the 
independence  of  the  United  Provinces  after  it 
had  been  practically  maintained  for  70  years. 
This  treaty  also  aggrandized  the  republic  with 
North  Brabant  and  a  portion  of  Limburg. 


Frederick  Henry  had  in  the  mean  while  been 
succeeded  by  William  II.  A  few  years  later 
the  republic  became  involved  in  war  with  the 
English  commonwealth,  and  several  great  na- 
val battles  were  fought  between  the  celebrated 
Dutch  commanders  Van  Tromp,  De  Ruyter, 
and  De  Witt,  and  the  famous  English  admi- 
ral Blake.  After  his  victory  near  the  Good- 
win sands,  Nov.  29,  1652,  Van  Tromp  sailed 
along  the  English  coast  with  a  broom  at  his 
masthead  to  indicate  his  sweeping  the  channel 
of  English  ships.  In  the  final  engagement,  at 
the  close  of  July,  1653,  Van  Tromp  was  killed 
and  the  Dutch  were  defeated  with  great  loss. 
Peace  was  soon  after  concluded  between  the 
two  republics,  and  Holland  immediately  en- 
gaged in  a  war  with  Portugal  concerning  their 
respective  possessions  in  Brazil,  in  which  many 
Portuguese  vessels  were  captured.  The  war 
ended  by  the  expulsion  of  the  Dutch  from  Bra- 
zil in  1654.  In  1665  Charles  II.  of  England 
declared  war  against  Holland^  and  hostilities  on 
the  ocean  were  prosecuted  with  much  vigor. 
Several  desperate  naval  battles  were  fought 
with  varying  success  during  the  years  1665-'6, 
the  advantage  on  the  whole  being  with  the 
English.  In  June,  1667,  however,  De  Ruyter 
sailed  up  the  Thames  with  his  fleet,  burnt  the 
shipping  at  Sheerness  and  Chatham,  and  block- 
aded for  a  short  period  the  port  of  London. 
A  month  later  the  peace  of  Breda  ended  the 
war,  and  in  the  beginning  of  1668  Holland  en- 
tered into  an  alliance  with  England  and  Swe- 
den to  check  the  growing  power  of  Louis  XIV. 
of  France,  who  had  seized  upon  the  Span- 
ish Netherlands.  But  the  fickle  and  deceitful 
Charles  II.,  being  bribed  by  Louis,  ordered  a 
treacherous  attack  on  a  rich  Dutch  fleet  from 
Smyrna  in  March,  1672,  which  was  bravely  re- 
pulsed. On  the  17th  of  the  same  month  he 
declared  war  against  his  late  allies,  and  sent 
a  force  to  cooperate  with  the  French.  Swe- 
den also  joined  the  league  against  the  Dutch, 
and  Louis  invaded  Holland  at  the  head  of  100,- 
000  men  commanded  by  the  first  generals  of 
the  age,  and  in  a  few  days  conquered  the  prov- 
inces of  Utrecht,  Gelderland,  and  Overyssel. 
The  Dutch,  whose  forces  did  not  exceed  25,000 
men,  were  besides  divided  and  weakened  by 
the  most  violent  contests  between  the  parti- 
sans of  the  house  of  Orange  and  the  opponents 
of  that  party,  headed  by  the  grand  pensionary 
John  De  Witt  and  his  brother  Cornelius,  by 
whose  influence  the  office  of  stadtholder  had 
been  abolished  in  1650  and  the  states  general 
made  the  supreme  power.  The  partisans  of 
De  Witt  proposed  to  remove  the  whole  nation 
to  the  East  Indies  rather  than  submit ;  but  the 
young  prince  of  Orange,  William  III.,  after- 
ward king  of  England,  encouraged  the  people 
to  resist,  and  declared  he  would  die  in  the  last 
ditch.  He  was  made  stadtholder  by  acclama- 
tion, was  intrusted  with  dictatorial  power,  and 
the  De  Witts  were  massacred  by  a  mob  at  the 
Hague.  The  desperate  resolution  was  taken 
to  cut  open  the  dikes  and  let  in  the  ocean  to 


NETHERLANDS 


NETHERLANDS  (LANGUAGE)      349 


drown  the  country  and  its  invaders.  This  ex- 
pedient was  successful,  and  the  baffled  French 
were  forced  to  retreat  with  great  loss.  Peace 
with  England  was  concluded  in  1674,  and  with 
France  by  the  treaty  of  Nimeguen  in  1678. 
The  prince  of  Orange,  who  continued  to  hold 
supreme  and  almost  absolute  power  in  Holland, 
was  married  to  the  princess  Mary,  daughter  of 
James  II.  of  England,  in  1677,  and  attained  the 
throne  of  England  by  the  revolution  of  1688. 
During  his  life,  and  for  several  years  after  his 
death  in  1702,  Holland  bore  a  conspicuous  part 
in  the  wars  waged  by  the  European  powers 
against  France  to  check  the  ambitious  designs 
of  Louis  XIV.  On  the  death  of  William  III. 
the  anti-Orange  party  prevailed  in  Holland, 
and  no  stadtholder  was  appointed.  The  re- 
public was  governed  by  the  stat.es  general,  the 
grand  pensionary,  as  the  chief  executive  was 
styled,  being  till  his  death  in  1720  the  eminent 
statesman  and  diplomatist  Heinsius.  In  1747, 
the  Orange  party  having  regained  the  ascen- 
dancy, William  IV.  was  made  stadtholder  of  the 
republic ;  and  on  his  death  in  1751  his  infant 
son  William  V.  succeeded  to  the  office,  which 
he  held  till  1795,  when  Holland  was  conquered 
by  France,  and  the  Batavian  republic  estab- 
lished. During  the  seven  years'  war,  from 
1756  to  1763,  Holland  remained  neutral ;  but 
in  the  progress  of  the  American  revolution 
she  became  involved  in  war  with  England, 
and  her  fleet  sustained  a  severe  defeat  from 
the  English  on  the  Dogger  bank  in  1781,  after 
a  bloody  fight.  The  French  revolution  found 
warm  partisans  in  Holland  among  the  anti- 
Orange  faction,  and  their  sympathy  and  as- 
sistance, together  with  an  intense  frost  which 
enabled  the  French  army  to  pass  the  rivers 
and  canals  on  the  ice  in  the  winter  of  l794-'5, 
rendered  the  conquest  of  Holland  by  Gen. 
Pichegru  an  easy  task.  The  Batavian  republic, 
which  in  its  closing  years  was  administered 
by  the  director  Schimmelpenninck,  a  states- 
man and  patriot  of  eminent  ability  and  integ- 
rity, terminated  in  1806  by  the  erection  of 
Holland  into  a  kingdom,  on  the  throne  of 
which  the  emperor  Napoleon  placed  his  bro- 
ther Louis.  Louis  ruled  with  moderation  and 
kindness,  but  his  preference  of  the  interests 
of  Holland  to  those  of  France  gave  such  of- 
fence to  his  imperial  brother,  that  in  1810  he 
abdicated,  and  Holland  was  incorporated  as 
an  integral  part  of  the  French  empire.  On 
the  downfall  of  Napoleon  the  prince  of  Or- 
ange, who  had  been  in  exile  in  England,  was 
declared  king  by  an  assembly  of  notables,  under 
the  title  of  William  I.,  with  a  constitution  lim- 
iting his  power  within  moderate  bounds.  The 
ancient  southern  provinces,  which  had  remain- 
ed under  Spanish  rule  at  the  time  of  the  great 
revolution  of  the  16th  century,  and  had  subse- 
quently belonged  to  the  house  of  Austria,  were 
annexed  to  Holland  by  the  congress  of  Vienna, 
with  the  object  of  forming  a  power  of  sufficient 
force  to  serve  as  a  check  to  the  progress  of 
France  toward  the  northeast.  The  difference 


of  race,  religion,  language,  and  manners,  how- 
ever, prevented  the  assimilation  of  the  two 
sections  into  one  nation ;  and  on  the  outbreak 
of  the  French  revolution  of  1830  the  southern 
provinces  revolted,  and,  aided  by  the  French, 
established  their  independence  as  the  kingdom 
of  Belgium,  with  Leopold  of  Saxe-Ooburg  as 
king.  The  final  settlement  between  the  two 
kingdoms  took  place  in  1839,  when  that  part 
of  Luxemburg  which  had  been  constituted  by 
the  congress  of  Vienna  a  grand  duchy  under 
the  king  of  the  Netherlands,  was  enlarged 
by  a  portion  of  Belgian  Limburg.  Since  the 
separation  the  kingdom  of  the  Netherlands 
has  continued  flourishing  and  peaceful,  and 
has  made  rapid  advances  in  prosperity  and 
opulence.  In  1848,  after  the  French  revolution 
of  that  year,  the  constitution  was  still  further 
liberalized,  and  extensive  reforms  were  intro- 
duced. William  I.  abdicated  in  1840  in  favor 
of  his  son  William  II.,  who  died  in  1849,  and 
was  succeeded  by  William  III.,  the  present 
king.  In  August,  1862,  the  states  general  passed 
a  law  for  the  abolition  of  slavery  in  the  Dutch 
West  Indies,  which  went  into  operation  July 
1,  1863.  During  the  war  between  France  and 
Germany  the  Netherlands  maintained  a  strict 
neutrality.  With  the  exception  of  occasional 
conflicts  with  the  natives  in  some  of  their  East 
India  colonies,  the  most  important  of  which 
was  a  war  with  Acheen  in  the  island  of  Suma- 
tra in  1873-15,  the  Netherlands  have  been  en- 
gaged in  no  war  with  a  foreign  power  since 
the  conclusion  of  the  treaty  with  Belgium  in 
1839.  The  contests  between  the  liberal  and 
conservative  parties  in  regard  to  questions  of 
internal  policy  have  for  several  years  been  very 
bitter,  but,  with  unimportant  exceptions,  have 
been  carried  on  in  conformity  with  the  consti- 
tution and  laws. — See  Schiller,  GescMchte  des 
Abfalls  der  vereinigten  Niederlande  von  der 
spanischen  Regierung ;  Bilderdijk,  Geschie- 
denis  des  vaderlands  (12  vols.,  1832-'9) ;  Leo, 
Zwolf  Bucher  niederldndischer  GescMchte  (2 
vols.,  1832-'5);  and  Motley,  "The  Rise  of  the 
Dutch  Republic"  (3  vols.,  1856),  "The  His- 
tory of  the  United  Netherlands,"  &c.  (4  vols., 
1860-'67),  and  "  The  Life  and  Death  of  John 
of  Barneveld"  (2  vols.,  1874). 

NETHERLANDS,  Language  and  Literature  of  the. 
Under  the  title  GERMANIC  RACES  AND  LAN- 
GUAGES, the  development  of  the  Dutch  lan- 
guage, and  the  relation  which  it  holds  to  the 
other  languages  of  the  Teutonic  group,  have 
been  discussed.  The  Dutch  alphabet  consists 
of  23  letters,  counting  ch.  It  does  not  in- 
clude c,  ^,  JT,  or  y,  which  occur  only  in  words 
derived  from  other  languages.  H  is  ^  always 
an  aspirate,  and  is  never  written,  as  in  Ger- 
man, merely  to  lengthen  a  vowel.  G  and  ch 
are  nearly  alike,  resembling  in  sound  the  ch 
in  the  Scotch  loch  ;  g  is  not  quite  so  guttural. 
When  I  is  preceded  by  a  vowel  and  followed 
by  a  consonant,  a  slight  short  e  is  sounded 
between  it  and  the  consonant.  Sch  is  not  pro- 
nounced together  as  in  German,  but  the  «  and 


250 


NETHERLANDS  (LANGUAGE  AND  LITERATURE) 


the  ch  are  distinct,  as  in  schip  (pronounced  near- 
ly slchip},  ship ;  and  when  at  the  end  or  in  the 
middle  of  a  word  it  sounds  almost  like  a  sim- 
ple s.  V  has  always  the  flat  sound  of  f.  The 
other  consonants  are  sounded  as  in  English. 
The  vowels  are  generally  sounded  as  in  German, 
but  are  distinguished  as  long  when  ending  a 
syllable,  and  as  broad  when  followed  by  a  con- 
sonant in  the  same  syllable.  Thus  a  in  man, 
man,  sounds  as  in  fat ;  in  laten,  to  let,  as  in 
psalm;  and  aa  is  always  long :  e  in  bel,  bell,  as 
in  met;  in  geven,  to  give,  like  a  in  mate,  and  ee 
the  same ;  but  e  at  the  end  of  words  of  more 
than  one  syllable  is  very  short,  or  nearly  mute : 
i  as  in  him,  or  if  long  as  ie  in  grief:  o  as  in  Ger- 
man von,  or  if  long  as  in  hope,  and  oo  the  same  : 
u  as  in  hut,  but  if  long,  at  the  end  of  a  sylla- 
ble, like  the  French  u  or  the  German  u,  and  uu 
the  same.  Of  diphthongs  and  other  compound 
vowel  sounds,  au  is  pronounced  like  ou  in 
house  ;  ei  like  i  in  mine;  eu  like  the  German  o 
in  Vogel,  or  the  French  eu  in  feu;  ie  as  in 
grief;  oe  like  oo  in  hoon ;  ou  as  in  out,  except 
that  the  u  sound  is  more  distinguishable ;  ui 
nearly  like  oy  in  joy :  of  aai,  the  aa  is  long,  and 
the  *  scarcely  sounded ;  of  eeuw,  the  ee  is  long 
(Eng.  a),  and  uw  follows  it  like  the  English  uv  ; 
of  ooi,  oo  is  long  as  in  hope,  and  followed  by 
a  short  i  sound ;  of  ieuw,  uw  is  sounded  like  uw 
in  German,  and  the  ie  is  almost  mute;  oei 
sounds  almost  like  the  French  oui.  Ai,  sound- 
ed like  i  in  mine,  is  now  out  of  use,  and  ei  is 
written  instead ;  thus,  'Jceizer  for  kaizer.  The 
double  vowel  ij  must  be  spoken  a  little  broader 
than  ei.  This  compound  has  been  substituted 
in  recent  times  for  y,  which  is  still  used  in  for- 
eign words  and  generally  in  writing.  A  trema 
or  diaeresis  is  used  to  denote  that  succeeding 
vowels  must  be  pronounced  separately;  the 
circumflex  accent  indicates  that  the  letter  d 
has  been  omitted,  as  Neerland  for  Nederland; 
the  acute  accent,  that  a  vowel  has  to  be  empha- 
sized; and  the  apostrophe  is  used  instead  of 
letters  and  syllables  left  out,  as  '«  for  des,  of 
the,  and  'rtoe  for  daartoe,  thereto. — Three  gen- 
ders are  distinguished,  masculine,  feminine,  and 
neuter;  and  four  cases,  nominative,  genitive, 
dative,  and  accusative.  The  definite  article  is 
declined  as  follows:  masc.  sing.  nom.  de,  gen. 
des  or  van  den,  dat.  den  or  aan  den,  ace.  den; 
fern.  sing.  nom.  de,  gen.  der  or  van  de,  dat.  der 
or  aan  de,  ace.  de;  neuter  sing.  nom.  het,  gen. 
des  or  van  het,  dat.  den  or  aan  het,  ace.  het; 
plural  for  all  three  genders,  nom.  de,  gen.  der 
or  van  de,  dat.  den  or  aan  de  (sometimes  der  in 
the  feminine),  ace.  de.  The  indefinite  article 
een  receives  when  inflected  terminations  cor- 
responding to  those  of  the  definite  article  sin- 
gular. The  plural  in  nouns  is  generally  formed 
by  adding  en  to  the  singular,  as  meening,  opin- 
ion, meeningen,  opinions ;  but  nouns  ending  in 
el,  er,  aar,  and  ier  take  en  or  s;  those  in  em, 
en,  and  diminutives  in  je,  take  s;  those  in  heid 
change  into  heden;  those  in  man  change  in- 
to lieden  (Icoopman,  pi.  kooplieden,  as  in  Ger. 
Kaufmann,  pi.  Kaufleute)-,  those  in  e  take 


only  n  ;  and  those  with  a  broad  vowel  double 
the  final  consonant  before  taking  en.  In  the 
various  cases,  nouns  remain  invariable  except 
the  masculine  and  neuter  genitive  singular, 
which  take  s,  the  neuter  dative  singular,  which 
receives  an  e,  and  the  dative  of  masculine 
and  neuter  plurals  terminating  in  s,  which  is 
changed  into  en.  Proper  names  are  declined 
only  with  the  prepositions  van  and  aan,  but 
have  a  possessive  case  in  s,  which  is  usually 
connected  with  it,  and  separated  by  an  apostro- 
phe only  when  the  name  ends  in  a  long  vowel ; 
thus,  Pieters  hoeTc,  Peter's  book,  and  Attila^a 
dood,  Attila's  death.  The  Dutch  forms  com- 
pound words  with  the  same  facility  as  the  Ger- 
man. It  is  rich  also  in  diminutives  ending  in  je, 
and  forms  f eminines  either  by  adding  in,  as  een 
Jceizer,  an  emperor,  eene  Tceizerin,  an  empress; 
or  by  changing  the  termination  er  into  ster,  as 
een  zanger,  a  singer,  eene  zangster,  a  songstress ; 
or  by  adding  es,  as  een  baron,  a  baron,  eene 
harones,  a  baroness ;  or  by  changing  man  into 
vrouw,  as  een  Icoopman,  a  merchant,  eene  Icoop- 
vrouw,^  a  woman  merchant.  The  declension  of 
adjectives  is  limited  to  their  taking  an  e  when 
preceded  by  an  article  terminating  in  e  or  er, 
or  en  when  the  article  ends  in  en  or  es:  thus, 
des  goeden  mans,  of  the  good  man;  der  goede 
vrouw,  to  the  good  woman ;  den  goeden  Mnder- 
en,  to  the  good  children.  Adjectives  are  com- 
pared by  adding  er  for  the  comparative  and  st 
for  the  superlative ;  but  if  the  adjective  ends 
in  r  in  the  positive,  the  comparative  is  formed 
by  adding  der.  The  principal  personal  pro- 
nouns are  ik,  I ;  wij,  we ;  gij,  thou  or  you ;  hij, 
he ;  zij,  she ;  het,  it ;  and  zij,  they :  the  posses- 
sives,  mijn,  my  or  mine ;  uw,  thy  or  thine ;  zijn, 
his;  haar,  her  or  hers ;  onze,  our  or  ours ;  hun, 
your  or  yours ;  haar,  their  or  theirs :  the  inter- 
rogatives,  wie,  who ;  icat,  what ;  wellce,  welk> 
which ;  hoedanige,  hoedanig,  which  (what  kind): 
the  demonstratives,  deze,  dit,  this ;  gene,  that ; 
die,  dat,  that ;  degene  or  diegene,  he  who.  These 
are  all  declined  more  or  less  after  the  manner  of 
the  definite  article.  The  first  ten  cardinal  num- 
bers are  een,  twee,  drie,  mer,  vijf,  zes,  zeven, 
acht,  negen,  and  tien  ;  from  which  ordinals  are 
formed  by  adding  de  or  ste,  as  de  merde,  the 
fourth,  de  achtste,  the  eighth. — The  infinitive 
ends  in  en,  and  whatever  precedes  this  termi- 
nation is  the  root  of  the  verb.  The  indica- 
tive present  consists  of  the  root  itself,  with  a 
final  t  in  the  second  person  singular  and  plu- 
ral and  the  third  person  singular,  and  with  the 
addition  of  en  in  the  first  and  third  persons 
plural.  The  imperfect  of  the  indicative  and 
the  subjunctive  is  formed  by  adding  de,  ex- 
cept when  the  root  ends  in  f,  p,  Ic,  s,  t,  or  ch, 
when  te  is  added  instead ;  and  when  the  root 
ends  in  tt  or  dd,  e  is  inserted  before  the  de. 
The  present  participle  is  formed  by  adding  de 
to  the  infinitive,  and  the  past  participle  by  pre- 
fixing ge  (generally)  and  adding  d  or  t.  The 
subjunctive  present  is  formed  by  adding  e  to 
the  root,  and  the  imperative  is  the  root  itself. 
There  are  four  auxiliary  verbs :  hebben,  to  have; 


NETHERLANDS  (LANGUAGE  AND  LITERATURE) 


251 


eijn  or  wezen,  to  be ;  zullen,  to  be  bound  (to  be 
about)  ;  and  warden,  to  become  (to  be).  The 
inflection  of  a  regular  verb,  therefore,  is  as  fol- 
lows: Active  infinitive,  beminnen,  to  love ;  pres- 
ent participle,  beminnende,  loving ;  past  partici- 
ple, bemind,  loved :  indicative  present,  ik  bemin, 
I  love ;  imperfect,  ik  beminde,  I  loved ;  past  in- 
definite, ilc  heb  bemind,  I  have  loved ;  pluper- 
fect, ilc  had  bemind,  I  had  loved ;  future,  ik  zal 
beminnen,  I  shall  love,  ilc  zal  bemind  hebben,  I 
shall  have  loved ;  conditional,  ik  zoude  bemin- 
nen,  I  should  love ;  conditional  past,  ik  zoude 
bemind  hebben,  I  should  have  loved ;  impera- 
tive, bemin,  love :  subjunctive  present,  dat  ilc 
beminne,  that  I  may  love;  imperfect,  dat  ik 
beminde,  that  I  might  love :  passive  infinitive, 
bemind  warden  ;  participles,  bemind  wordende, 
bemind  geworden ;  indicative  present,  ik  word 
bemind,  I  am  loved ;  imperfect,  ilc  werd  bemind, 
I  was  loved;  past  indefinite,  ik  ben  bemind 
geworden,  I  have  been  loved,  ik  was  bemind 
geworden,  I  had  been  loved ;  future,  ik  zal  be- 
mind worden,  I  shall  be  loved ;  future  perfect, 
ik  zal  bemind  geworden  zijn,  I  shall  have  been 
loved ;  conditional,  ilc  zoude  bemind  worden,  I 
should  be  loved,  ilc  zoude  bemind  geworden  zijn, 
I  should  have  been  loved;  imperative,  word 
bemind,  be  loved ;  subjunctive,  dat  ik  bemind 
worde,  that  I  may  be  loved ;  imperfect,  dat  ik 
bemind  wierde,  that  I  might  be  loved ;  past  in- 
definite, dat  ik  bemind  geworden  zij,  that  I 
(may)  have  been  loved;  pluperfect,  dat  ik 
bemind  geworden  ware,  that  I  had  been  loved. 
Neuter  verbs  are  conjugated  with  hebben  when 
an  action  is  implied,  and  with  zijn  when  ex- 
pressing a  state  of  existence.  The  word  it 
used  in  English  for  impersonal  verbs  is  ex- 
pressed in  Dutch  by  het ;  but  when  used  in 
the  combination  "it  is,"  it  is  expressed  by  daar 
or  er :  thus,  het  regent,  it  rains ;  daar  or  er  is, 
it  is.  There  is  a  multitude  of  irregular  verbs ; 
their  prominent  features  are,  that  one  class 
having  ij  in  the  infinitive  take  e  in  the  imper- 
fect and  participle,  as  blijven,  to  remain,  bleef, 
gebleven  ;  another  with  e  or  i  in  the  infinitive 
takes  o  in  the  imperfect  or  participle,  as  binden, 
to  bind,  bond,  gebonden  ;  a  third  with  e  in  the 
infinitive  and  participle  has  short  a  in  the  im- 
perfect, as  meten,  to  measure,  mat,  gemeten ;  a 
fourth  with  a  in  the  infinitive  and  participle 
has  oe  or  ie  in  the  imperfect,  as  dragen,  to 
carry,  droeg,  gedragen,  and  slapen,  to  sleep, 
sliep,  geslapen;  a  fifth  with  long  e  in  the  in- 
finitive has  short  a  in  the  imperfect,  long  o  in 
the  participle ;  a  sixth  with  short  e  in  the  in- 
finitive has  ie  in  the  imperfect  and  short  o  in 
the  participle ;  a  seventh  changes  only  the  par- 
ticiple ;  and  an  eighth,  specially  known  as  ir- 
regular verbs,  changes  both  the  consonant  and 
the  vowel  of  the  root  in  the  imperfect  and  the 
participle,  as  staan,  to  stand,  staand,  gestaan; 
kunnen,  to  be  able,  Iconde,  gekonnen.  Prepo- 
sitions, with  few  exceptions,  govern  the  ac- 
cusative.— LITERATURE.  The  first  development 
of  the  vernacular  literature  of  the  Netherlands 
was  Flemish  rather  than  Dutch.  The  begin- 


ning of  Dutch  literature  proper  (besides  which 
the  Netherlands  boast  of  a  host  of  eminent 
writers  in  Latin,  embracing  such  names  as 
Erasmus,  Grotius,  Chr.  Huygens,  Spinoza,  and 
Boerhaave)  dates  from  the  16th  century.  But 
as  early  as  the  beginning  of  the  15th  liter- 
ary persons  formed  associations  for  holding 
poetical  tournaments  and  giving  theatrical  rep- 
resentations. They  were  known  as  the  cham- 
bers of  the  rederijlcers,  presumably  so  called 
after  the  French  rhetoricien,  which  term  then 
signified  nearly  the  same  as  "  poet."  Only  the 
rederijkerskamer  of  Amsterdam  attained  the 
character  of  a  literary  academy.  Three  mem- 
bers of  it,  Coornhert  (1522-'90),  Spiegel  (1549- 
1612),  and  Roemer  Visscher  (1547-1620),  may 
be  considered  the  real  founders  of  modern 
Dutch  literature.  Coornhert's  productions  are 
mostly  treatises  on  morality  and  theology  and 
poems.  The  posthumous  poem  of  Spiegel,  the 
Hartspiegel,  is  ethical.  This  triumvirate  ren- 
dered great  service  by  the  grammatical  works 
published  under  their  direction  by  the  Amster- 
dam learner.  Linguistic  labors  of  still  greater 
importance  were  the  Thesaurus  Teutonics  Lin- 
gum  by  the  celebrated  printer  Plantin  (1514- 
'89),  and  the  Etymologicum  Teutonics  Lingua 
by  Cornells  van  Kiel  (Cornelius  Kilianus).  At 
the  beginning  of  the  17th  century,  and  for 
many  years  later,  Holland,  a  powerful,  wealthy, 
and  free  commonwealth,  was  preeminently  the 
literary  country  of  Europe.  The  devotion  of 
the  learned  to  the  ancient  languages  was  ar- 
dent and  almost  without  parallel  elsewhere; 
but  a  golden  age  of  vernacular  literature  was 
ushered  in  by  P.  C.  van  Hooft  (1581-1647), 
who  gave  a  sweetness  and  harmony  before 
unknown  to  Dutch  speech.  His  amatory  and 
Anacreontic  lines  have  not  been  excelled  by 
any  later  writer ;  and  his  Nederlandsche  Eis- 
torien,  embracing  the  years  between  1555  and 
1587,  is  a  model  of  stately  historical  narrative. 
Jacob  Cats  (1577-1660),  or  "Father  Cats,"  as 
his  countrymen  love  to  style  him,  wrote  for 
the  multitude,  and  became  their  favorite.  But 
J.  van  den  Yondel  (1587-1679)  is  the  greatest 
poetical  name  of  the  century.  He  wrote  much, 
dramas,  lyrics,  and  satires,  and  had  a  multitude 
of  disciples  and  imitators,  one  of  the  best  of 
whom  is  Antonides  van  der  Goes  (1647-'84). 
J.  Oudaan  (1628-'92)  is  the  author  of  two 
dramas  worthy  of  note,  Johanna  Gray  and 
Koning  Konradijn ;  and  other  dramatic  wri- 
ters are  Bredero  (died  in  1618),  S.  Coster,  W. 
van  der  Nieuwelandt  (1584-1635),  the  Fleming 
J.  Zevecot  (1604-'46),  whose  Belegh  van  Ley- 
den  ("Siege  of  Leyden")  may  still  be  read 
with  pleasure,  and  L.  Eotgans  (1645-1710), 
whose  dramas  are  much  better  than  his  tedious 
epic,  Willem  III.  A  man  of  large  learning 
and  much  descriptive  talent,  C.  van  Huygens 
(1596-1687),  produced  some  not  unpleasing 
didactic  poems,  like  the  Zedenprinten  ("Pic- 
tures of  Manners"),  Hofwijk,  and  Voorhut, 
which  with  others  he  included  in  a  collec- 
tion bearing  the  title  of  Korenblqemen  ("Blue- 


252 


NETHERLANDS  (LANGUAGE  AND  LITERATUKE) 


bottles").  A  rhymed  narrative,  the  Masker 
van  der  Wereld,  by  the  Flemish  Jesuit  A.  Poir- 
tiers  (16  06-' 75),  was  once  very  popular.  The 
Lofder  Geldzucht  ("  Eulogy  of  Avarice  ")  and 
the  domestic  elegies  of  J.  de  Dekker  (died 
in  1666)  are  still  frequently  quoted ;  Roselijns 
Oochies  is  a  pretty  idyllic  effusion  by  Jonck- 
tyns  (born  1600);  and  the  pastoral  poems  of 
Wellekens  (1658-1726)  are  graceful  and  ima- 
ginative. The  almost  universal  use  of  Latin, 
as  a  language  through  which  a  vastly  larger 
audience  could  be  reached,  left  little  room  for 
Dutch  prose.  Several  translations  of  the  Bi- 
ble, both  from  the  original  tongues  and  the 
Vulgate,  some  Biblical  commentaries,  and  oth- 
er theological  treatises,  met  with  a  wide  circu- 
lation. The  Batavische  Arkadia  of  J.  van 
Heemskerk  (1597-1656),  suggested  by  the  De- 
camerone  of  Boccaccio,  is  the  only  work  that 
deserves  the  name  of  a  romance.  Besides 
Hooft,  the  historians  are  P.  C.  Bor  (1559-1635), 
E.  van  Meteren  (1535-1612),  L.  van  Aitze- 
ma  (1600-'69),  and  G-.  Brandt  (1626-'85).  The 
Dutch  navigators,  as  Barentz  and  Heemskerk 
in  their  search  for  a  northeast  passage,  Gerrits- 
zoon  in  the  Australian  regions,  and  Noort  and 
Spilbergen  in  the  extreme  Orient,  added  much 
to  geographical  knowledge  in  this  century. 
Many  of  these  explorers  wrote  narratives  of 
their  voyages,  versions  of  which  appeared  in 
various  languages.  Among  these  works  are  J. 
Nieuwhof  on  China  (1665),  P.  Baldeus  on  Cey- 
lon and  Malabar  (1672),  M.  G.  de  Vries  on  Japan 
(1646),  G.  Schouten  on  the  East  Indies  (1696), 
C.  de  Bruyn  on  eastern  Europe  and  western 
Asia  (1698-1711),  and  W.  Bosman  on  Guinea 
(1704). — The  18th  century  offers  a  marked 
contrast  to  its  predecessor.  The  literature  of 
the  17th  century  gave  way  in  the  18th  to  imi- 
tation of  French  models.  Few  authors  escaped 
this  contagion.  One  of  these  is  H.  C.  Poot 
(1689-1733),  the  farmer  poet,  whose  style  is 
pure  and  natural,  and  whose  erotic  and  idyllic 
verses  are  marked  by  ease  and  liveliness.  His 
most  striking  pieces,  perhaps,  are  Wachten 
("  Watching  ")  and  Landleven  ("  Rural  Life  "). 
A  Biblical  epic  which  has  considerable  merit, 
but  which  was  followed  by  bad  imitations,  is 
the  Abraham  de  Aartsvader  of  A.  Hoogvliet 
(1687-1763).  The  Rottestroom  of  D.  Smits 
(1702-'52)  also  originated  a  school  known  as 
the  stream  poets,  who  sang  the  beauties  of  all 
the  Dutch  rivers.  Of  the  two  brothers  W. 
van  Haren  (died  in  1768)  and  O.  Z.  van  Haren 
(died  in  1779),  the  elder  left  a  legendary,  knight- 
ly tale  in  verse,  Gevallen  van  Friso,  and  some 
lighter  compositions,  among  which  are  Leoni- 
das,  MemcJielijlc  leven  ("Human  Life"),  and 
the  Hof  van  den  vrede  ("  Court  of  Peace  ") ; 
the  younger  was  the  author  of  two  tragedies 
and  a  lyrical  epic,  De  Geuzen,  woven  out  of 
the  popular  national  ballads.  A  sort  of  transi- 
tion poetical  period,  the  dawn  of  the  day  of 
Bilderdijk  and  Tollens,  begins  with  1780.  It 
was  initiated  by  J.  Bellamy  (1757-'86),  whose 
Roosje  is  the  most  touching  and  beautiful  bal- 


lad in  the  language,  and  was  further  character- 
ized by  the  astronomer  P.  Nieuwland  (1764- 
'94),  whose  Orion  is  a  stately  and  in  some 
portions  sublime  epic,  and  by  H.  van  Alphen 
(died  1803),  whose  poems  for  children  have 
been  frequently  reprinted.  The  purest  prose 
of  the  century  is  that  of  J.  van  Effen  (1684- 
1735),  who  possessed  not  a  little  of  the  humor 
and  grace  of  his  model,  Addison,  of  whose 
chief  work  his  Hollandsche  Spectator  is  an  imi- 
tation. The  romance  style  was  developed  by 
two  women,  A.  Deken  (1741-1804)  and  E. 
Bekker  (1738-1804) ;  their  novels,  written  in 
conjunction,  though  somewhat  diffuse,  are  suc- 
cessful pictures  of  Dutch  life  and  manners. 
The  lengthened  Vaderlandsche  historie  of  J. 
Wagenaar  (1709-'73)  is  impartial  and  trustwor- 
thy, but  the  diction  is  rather  dull  and  heavy. 
The  other  historians  are  G.  van  Loon  (born 
1683),  S.  Stijl  (1731-1804),  and  A.  van  Kluit 
(1737-1807),  who  wrote  a  very  learned  Historia 
Critica  Comitatus  Hollandice  et  Zelandice,  and 
a  Historic  der  hollandsche  staatsregering.  The 
Vaderlandsche  woordenboelc  (1785-1800),  in 
nearly  40  volumes,  by  J.  Kok,  is  a  treasury  of 
information  concerning  the  history  and  topog- 
raphy of  Holland.  In  philology  L.  Ten  Kate 
(1674-1731)  anticipated  many  of  the  ideas  of 
Grimm  and  the  later  Teutonic  school.  He  and 

B.  Huydecoper  (1695-1778),  who  edited  one 
or  two  of  the  old  Flemish  chronicles,  were  of 
great  service  to  their  native  tongue.    D.  van 
Hoogstraaten  (1658-1724)  attained  some  emi- 
nence as  a  lexicographer.     In  science  the  phi- 
losophers W.  J.  's  Gravesande  (1688-1742),  N. 
Hartsoeker  (1656-1725),  and  P.  van  Musschen- 
broek  (1692-1761)  gained  a  European  renown; 
as  did  those  disciples  of  Boerhaave,  P.  Camper 
(1722-'89)  and  G.  van  Swieten  (1700-' 72). —The 
modern  revival  of  Dutch  letters  is  coincident 
with  the  French  revolution,  having  fairly  com- 
menced some  little  time  before  the  opening  of 
the  19th  century.     Rhijnvis  Feith  (1753-1824) 
did  much  toward  bringing  in  this  new  epoch ; 
his  reputation  is  still  maintained  by  a  series  of 
admirable  historical  Oden  en  gedichten.     The 
Taal,  Schilderlcunst,  and  other  productions  of 

C.  Loots  (1765-1834)  resemble  the  style  of 
Helmers,  but  are  much  superior  in  energy  and 
force.     E.  A.  Borger  (died  in  1820),  a  theolo- 
gian, A.  Simons  (died  in  1834),  and  J.  Kantelaar 
(1759-1821)  have  also  left  several  tasteful  and 
polished  lyrics.     But  the  greatest  of  modern, 
if  not  of  all  Dutch  poets  is  Willem  Bilderdijk 
(1756-1831).      The   most   remarkable  of   his 
multitudinous  works  is  an  epic  entitled  De 
ondergang  der  eerste  wereld  ("Destruction  of 
the  First  World  "),  of  which  only  the  first  five 
books  were  completed.     The  same  author's 
Geschiedenis   des   vaderlands,    in   prose,   was 
published  after  his  death  by  B.  F.  Tijdeman. 
Another  very  popular  poet  is  H.  C.  Tollens 
(1780-1856) ;  especially  admirable  are  his  nar- 
rative poem  De  overwintering  der  Hollanders 
op  Nova  Zenibla,  an  account  of  Barentz's  fa- 
mous expedition  in  1594-'6,  his  tragedy  Dt 


NETHERLANDS  (LITERATUKE) 

hoelcschen  en  Icdbeljaauwschen,  and  his  stirring 
national  lyric,  the  Wapenlcreet.  The  example 
and  influence  of  Bilderdijk  and  Tollens  have 
given  rise  to  a  number  of  minor  bards.  Some 
of  the  most  meritorious  are  J.  F.  Bosdijk  (died 
1850);  B.  H.  Lulofs  (1787-1849),  author  of 
the  Watersnood;  W.  Messchert  (died  in  1844), 
whose  De  goude  bruiloft  is  justly  praised ;  H. 
A.  Spandaw  (died  in  1855),  of  whose  works 
the  Neerlands  zeeroem  and  the  Vaderlandsche 
poezij  are  popular;  W.  de  Olercq  (1793-1844), 
a  celebrated  improvisator ;  J.  Immerzeel  (1 776- 
1841),  also  known  for  his  biographies  of  the 
artists;  B.  Klijn  (1764-1829);  A.  C.  W.  Sta- 
ring van  den  Wildenborch  (1767-1840),  the 
best  modern  humorist,  of  whose  peculiar  man- 
ner his  lamben  and  Zephir  en  Gloria  are  good 
examples;  and  P.  Moens  (1767-1 843).  Modern 
lyrical  and  descriptive  poets  are  I.  da  Costa,  a 
Jew,  who  after  the  decease  of  Tollens  occu- 
pied the  highest  place  in  the  modern  Dutch 
Parnassus;  0.  G.  Withuys,  S.  J.  van  den 
Bergh,  J.  van  Beers,  J.  A.  Alberdingk  Thijm, 
L.  van  den  Broek,  and  J.  J.  L.  ten  Kate. 
Among  those  who  wrote  for  the  stage  in  the 
latter  part  of  the  last  century  were  S.  J.  Wis- 
selius  (1769-1845),  J.  Nomsz,  J.  van  Walre 
(1759-1837),  H.  H.  Klijn,  and  A.  Loosjes  (1761- 
1818),  the  last  of  whom  also  gave  to  the  world 
some  pleasant  tales  and  sketches.  Still  later 
dramatists  are  the  prolific  comedy  writer 
Ruysch  and  J.  Hilman.  The  novels  of  E.  Kist 
(1753-1822)  and  A.  Fokke  (died  in  1812)  are 
still  much  read ;  but  they  have  been  excelled 
by  the  romances  of  J.  van  Lennep  (1802-'68), 
a  son  of  D.  J.  van  Lennep  (1774-1853).  His 
fame  was  established  by  his  Nederlandsche  le- 
genden,  and  his  popularity  was  increased  by 
the  novels  De  roos  van  Dekama  and  De  lot- 
gevallen  van  Klaasje  Zevenster.  Several  of  his 
works  have  been  translated  into  English.  He 
seems  to  have  successfully  combated  the  undue 
love  in  his  country  for  imitations  of  French 
standards.  He  selected  Byron  and  Walter 
Scott  as  his  models,  and  his  novels  and  histori- 
cal romances  show  that  he  did  not  servilely 
copy  them,  but  strove  to  retain  a  truly  na- 
tional spirit.  Van  der  Hage  is  his  equal  in 
historical  narrative,  but  is  not  as  felicitous  in 
pure  fiction,  wherein  Adriaan  Bogaers  stands 
much  nearer  to  him  in  talent  and  fame.  Bo- 
gaers's  most  celebrated  productions  are  Joche- 
fied  and  De  togt  van  Heemslcerlc  naar  Gibral- 
tar. Novelists  of  note  of  recent  times,  among 
others,  are  Schimmel,  the  author  of  Mary 
Hollia,  Hofdijk,  and  Ten  Brink,  who  has  writ- 
ten masterly  descriptions  of  colonial  life  in  the 
East  Indies.  The  names  of  Da  Costa,  Van 
Oosterzee,  Schultjes,  Ter  Haar,  and  Tiedeman 
have  won  distinction  for  theological  learning. 
Jurisprudence  and  political  economy  have  been 
ably  represented  by  Den  Beer  Poortugael, 
Noordziek,  De  Bruyn  Kops,  Heineken,  Den 
Tex,  and  Wintgens.  Valuable  medical  works 
have  appeared  from  the  pens  of  Donkersloot, 
Cornelius,  Huet,  Eschauzier,  and  Berns.  Chem- 


NETSCHER 


253 


istry,  pharmacy,  and  the  natural  sciences  gen- 
erally have  been  enriched  by  the  labors  of 
Bleeker,  Harting,  Van  Otterloo,  Vorsterman 
van  Oijen,  Suringar,  Opwyrda,  Luijten,  and 
Mulder.  Philosophical  works  have  been  con- 
tributed among  others  by  Kinker,  Heringa, 
Vitringa,  Wijck,  Spruyt,  Opzoomer,  Burger, 
and  Snellen.  Steijn  Parve,  Bleeck  van  Rijse- 
wijk,  and  Vorstman  have  written  on  the  sci- 
ence of  education.  Ancient  and  oriental  lan- 
guages, as  well  as  mythology  and  archaeology, 
have  received  fresh  contributions  from  Van 
Herwerden,  Boot,  Francken,  Van  Cappelle, 
Ekker,  Rijnenberg,  Grashuis,  Kroon,  and  De 
Goeje.  Numerous  books  have  appeared  to  fa- 
cilitate the  study  of  modern  languages.  Among 
them  are  specially  noteworthy  Halbertsma's 
Lexicon  Frisicum,  Oudeman's  Bijdrage  tot  een 
middel-  en  oud-nederlandsch  woordenboeJc,  and 
Winkler's  Algemeen  nederduitsch  en  friesch 
dialecticon.  The  present  period  has  produced 
an  abundance  of  historical,  geographical,  and 
ethnological  works.  Bladzijden's  Uit  de  ge- 
schiedenis van  Neerlands  roem  en  grootheid, 
Kemper's  Geschiedenis  van  Nederland  na  1830, 
Muller's  De  Staat  der  vereenigde  Nederlanden 
in  denjaren  zijner  wording  1572-'94,  Hofdijk's 
Het  nederlandsche  voile  geschetst  in  de  ver- 
schillende  tijdperlcen  zijner  ontwiTckeling,  and 
Elbert's  Leven  van  Willem  den  Eersten,  Prim 
van  Oranje,  have  thrown  considerable  light 
on  the  history  of  the  Netherlands.  Other  his- 
torical works  of  value  have  been  contributed 
by  Nugens,  Wijne,  Veth,  Van  den  Bergh,  Ter 
Haar,  De  Jonge,  Meinsma,  Witkamp,  Dooren- 
bos,  Groen  van  Prinsterer,  Gericke  van  Her- 
wijnen,  Van  Vloten,  and  Vreede.  Among 
works  on  mathematical,  mechanical,  and  mili- 
tary science,  Kuijpers's  GescMedenis  der  ne- 
derlandsche artillerie  van  de  vroegste  tijden, 
Wageningen's  Leerboek  der  analytische  meet- 
Icunst,  Reuven's  De  Waal  en  Rijndijken,  and 
Grothe's  Mechanische  tecJinologie  may  be  men- 
tioned as  excellent  compendiums  of  the  special 
branches. — See  Mone,  Uebersicht  der  nieder- 
landischen  Vollcsliteratur  dlterer  Zeit  (Tubin- 
gen, 1838) ;  Jonckbloet,  Geschiedenis  der  mid- 
denederlandsche  letterlcunde  (Amsterdam,  1851 
et  seq.};  Hofdijk,  GescMedenis  der  neder- 
landsche letterlcunde  (1856) ;  and  Van  Vloten, 
Schets  van  de  geschiedenis  der  nederlandsche 
letteren  (1871). 

NETSCHER,  Gaspar  or  Kaspar,  a  Dutch  painter 
of  German  origin,  born  in  Heidelberg  about 
1639,  died  at  the  Hague,  Jan.  15,  1684.  He 
was  the  son  of  a  sculptor,  who  had  fled  from 
persecution  in  Bohemia,  was  a  pupil  of  Koster 
at  Arnhem,  and  afterward  of  Gerard  Terburg, 
lived  some  years  in  Bordeaux,  where  he  mar- 
ried, and  in  1661  settled  at  the  Hague.  He 
excelled  in  genre  pictures  and  portraits. — His 
sons,  THEODORE  (1661-1732)  and  CONSTANTINE 
(1670-1722),  were  also  eminent  painters,  espe- 
cially of  portraits.  The  former  was  born  in 
Bordeaux,  lived  in  England  from  1715  to  1722, 
was  popular  at  court,  and  became  rich. 


254 


NETTEMENT 


IOETTEMENT,  Alfred  Francois,  a  French  author, 
born  in  Paris,  July  22,  1805,  died  there,  Nov. 
15, 1869.  He  founded  at  Paris  in  1848  P  Opi- 
nion publiq  ue  newspaper,  which  was  suppressed 
after  the  coup  d'etat  of  Dec.  2,  1851,  when  he 
was  arrested  with  other  opposition  members 
of  the  legislative  assembly.  He  published  a 
great  number  of  historical,  biographical,  and 
miscellaneous  works,  including  Memoires  sur 
la  duchesse  de  Berri  (3  vols.,  1837) ;  Essai  sur 
le  progres  du  Catholicisms  en  Angleterre,  with 
a  translation  of  Cardinal  Wiseman's  lectures  (2 
vols.,  1839);  Histoiredela  litter  aturefrancaise 
sous  la  royaute  de  juillet  (2  vols.,  1854)  ;  His- 
toire  de  la  conquete  d*Alger  (1856),  which  ob- 
tained in  1869  the  second  Gobert  prize ;  and 
Histoire  de  la  restauration  (8  vols.,  1860-72). 
— His  brother  FRANCIS  (born  in  1808)  has  pub- 
lished Nouvelle  Histoire  de  la  revolution  de 
1789  (2  vols.,  1862),  and  other  writings. 

NETTLE  (Ang.  Sax.  and  Dutch,  netel),  the 
name  of  plants  of  the  genus  urtica,  distinguish- 
ed for  the  stinging  quality  of  their  minute 
hairs.  Prior  shows  that  the  word  in  different 
languages  originally  meant  "that  with  which 
one  sews,"  the  Germanic  and  Scandinavian 
nations  having  in  former  times  used  the  nettle 
fibre  as  thread,  as  was  done  by  the  Scotch  in 
the  17th  century.  The  genus  urtica  (the  clas- 
sical Latin  name,  from  urere,  to  burn)  gives  its 
name  to  the  family  urticacem,  as  to  the  limits 
of  which  there  is  a  great  difference  of  opinion ; 
while  some  botanists  make  the  urticacece  a  very 
comprehensive  order,  including  as  subfamilies 
the  elms  (ulmacece),  the  breadfruits,  mulberries, 
and  figs  (artocarpece  and  morece),  the  nettles 
and  allied  genera  (urticece),  and  the  hop  and 
hemp  (cannabinecR),  others  regard  these  as  en- 
titled to  rank  as  families,  and  restrict  the  urti- 
cacecs  to  some  40  genera  allied  to  the  nettles. 
The  genus  urtica  consists  mostly  of  herbaceous 
plants  (a  few  are  trees),  all  supplied  with  sting- 
ing hairs  ;  they  have  a  bland,  watery  juice,  and 
a  tough,  fibrous  bark  ;  the  leaves  are  opposite, 
and  the  flowers  are  monoecious  or  dioecious. 
Belonging  to  the  apetalous  division  of  exoge- 
nous plants,  the  structure  of.  the  flowers  is  ex- 
ceedingly simple ;  the  staminate  flower  consists 
of  four  sepals  and  stamens,  in  the  centre  of 
which  is  the  cup-shaped  rudiment  of  a  pistil ; 
the  pistillate  flower  has  four  sepals,  the  two 
inner  of  which  are  larger,  enclosing  the  one- 
celled  ovary,  which  in  fruit  is  an  akene,  sur- 
rounded by  the  membranaceous  enlarged  inner 
sepals.  The  stinging  hair  of  the  nettle,  when 
magnified,  is  seen  to  consist  of  a  single  cell, 
bulbous  at  the  base,  where  it  is  surrounded  by 
cells  of  the  epidermis,  and  terminated  by  an  ex- 
ceedingly sharp  and  fragile  point,  which  breaks 
off  after  entering  the  skin  and  allows  the  irri- 
tating juice  contained  in  the  cell  to  flow  into 
the  wound.  If  the  plant  be  grasped  roughly, 
the  hairs  are  broken  off  before  the  point  can 
penetrate  the  skin,  and  little  or  no  pain  results. 
There  are  but  five  species  of  urtica  proper  in 
the  Atlantic  states,  and  two  of  these  are  intro- 


NETTLE 

duced  from  Europe.  The  common  small  nettle 
of  Europe  (  U.  urens\  which  is  chosen  to  illus- 
trate the  genus,  is  found  near  dwellings  in  the 
older  states ;  it  is  a  monoecious,  annual  species, 
8  to  12  in.  high,  with  not  very  numerous  stings. 
The  other  introduced  species  is  the  common 


Small  Nettle  (Urtica  urens),  showing  Staminate  and 
Pistillate  Flowers. 

nettle  (U.  dioica),  a  perennial,  2  to  3  ft.  high, 
with  its  staminate  and  fertile  flowers  in  much- 
branched  spikes  on  different  plants ;  this  is  so 
well  armed  with  stings  that,  as  the  old  herbal- 
ist Culpepper  quaintly  remarks,  "  it  may  be 
found  by  feeling  on  the  darkest  night."  Of 
the  indigenous  species,  the  slender  nettle  (U. 
gracilis)  is  a  perennial,  2  to  6  in.  high  ;  U.  capi- 
tata  is  a  southern  species,  3  to  5  ft.  high ;  and 
U.  chamcedryoides,  from  6  to  30  in.  high,  with 
dense  globose  flower  clusters,  is  western  and 
southern.  The  young  shoots  of  nettles  are 
used  to  some  extent  in  this  country,  but  more 
in  Great  Britain,  as  a  pot  herb  or  greens,  and 
in  former  times  the  plants  were  blanched  by 
earthing  up,  as  is  now  practised  with  sea  kale. 
Animals  will  not  eat  living  nettles,  unless  the 
plants  are  very  young;  but  when  made  into 
hay  they  are  eaten  readily,  and  they  are  re- 
garded as  so  productive  of  milk  that  in  Swe- 
den and  Eussia  they  are  sometimes  cultivated 
as  fodder  plants.  The  fibre  of  the  plants  is 
considered  superior  to  that  of  flax,  but  on  ac- 
count of  its  small  quantity  and  the  difficulty 
of  separating  it,  little  nettle  cloth  is  now  made ; 
in  the  northern  parts  of  Europe  the  fibre  is 
used  for  fish  lines  and  other  small  cordage,  and 
to  some  extent  for  fabrics.  Several  tropical 
species  are  useful  for  their  fibres.  An  Aus- 
tralian species,  U.  gigas,  is  a  tree  120  to  140  ft. 
high,  with  leaves  12  to  15  in.  broad,  which  are 
abundantly  furnished  with  stings  and  capable 
of  causing  great  suffering.  Stinging  with  net- 
tles to  "let  out  melancholy"  was  prescribed 
by  the  old  writers.  The  devil's-leaf,  U.  uren- 
tissima  of  Timor,  is  so  violently  poisonous  that 


NETTLE  KASH 

its  effects  last  for  many  months,  and  sometimes 
cause  death.  The  wood  nettle,  formerly  U. 
Canadensis,  but  now  placed  in  the  genus  La- 
portea,  has  been  called  American  ramie.  A 
closely  related  genus,  pilea,  includes  the  rich- 
weed,  P.  pumila,  formerly  U.  pumila,  a  smooth 
plant  with  translucent  stems,  quite  common 
in  moist  and  shady  places. — The  false  nettle, 
Hcehmeria  cylindrica,  which  is  common  in 
moist  ground  all  over  the  country,  has  the  gen- 
eral aspect  of  the  nettles,  but  is  without  stings ; 
to  this  genus  belongs  the  plant  furnishing  the 
China  grass,  and  better  known  in  this  country 
as  ramie.  (See  KAMIE.)  Nettle  tree  is  one  of 
the  names  of  celtis  occidentalis.  (See  HACK- 
BEEEY.)  Dead  nettle  is  the  common  name  for 
plants  of  the  labiate  genus  Larnium. 

NETTLE  RASH  (urticaria),  an  eruptive  disor- 
der characterized  by  the  appearance  of  patches 
whiter  or  redder  than  the  surrounding  skin, 
and  attended  with  intense  itching.  The  dis- 
ease has  been  divided  into  three  varieties :  ur- 
ticaria febrilis,  U.  evanida,  and  U.  tuberosa. 
The  febrile  variety  is  preceded  by  a  feeling  of 
general  uneasiness,  headache,  nausea,  and  vom- 
iting. These  symptoms  are  followed  by  a 
troublesome  itching  and  the  appearance  of  an 
eruption,  commonly  most  abundant  about  the 
shoulders,  loins,  or  thighs.  The  patches  are 
irregular  in  size  and  form,  sometimes  rose- 
colored  with  whitish  border,  sometimes  white 
with  rose-colored  border,  sometimes  few  in 
number,  sometimes  covering  the  greater  part 
of  the  surface,  and  giving  rise  on  the  face  to 
great  disfigurement  and  a  feeling  of  stiffness 
and  tension.  The  patches  are  evanescent,  rap- 
idly disappearing,  but  only  to  give  place  to  a 
new  eruption.  For  the  first  day  or  two  the 
disease  is  apt  to  be  attended  with  a  little  fever, 
but  this  soon  subsides,  and  after  a  variable 
time,  generally  about  a  week,  the  eruption 
disappears,  leaving  no  traces.  In  U.  evanida 
there  is  no  febrile  movement,  and  the  disease 
is  frequently  chronic,  the  eruption  often  ap- 
pearing and  disappearing  several  times  a  day, 
and  frequently  assuming  the  appearance  of 
long  wheals  as  if  produced  by  a  whip.  U. 
tuberosa  is  the  rarest  and  the  most  severe  of 
the  forms  of  nettle  rash,  in  which  the  eruption 
is  in  the  form  of  red  swollen  patches  of  the 
breadth  of  the  hand,  attended  with  an  intol- 
erable itching.  The  patches  extend  deeply 
into  the  skin,  are  numerous,  and  produce  a 
very  disagreeable  feeling  of  swelling  and  stiff- 
ness. The  rash  commonly  shows  itself  in  the 
evening  to  disappear  in  the  morning,  leaving  a 
sense  of  weakness  and  prostration.  It  occurs 
chiefly  in  habits  impaired  by  excess,  and  its 
course  is  often  tedious  and  intractable. — Nettle 
rash  is  most  common  in  nervous  persons  with 
a  delicate  and  irritable  skin,  and  consequently 
in  women  and  children.  Its  most  frequent 
cause  is  some  irritation  of  the  digestive  or- 
gans ;  with  some  persons  the  use  of  a  particu- 
lar article  of  diet  is  invariably  followed  by  an 
eruption  of  nettle  rash,  the  offending  article 
594  VOL.  xii. — 17 


NEU-BREISACH 


255 


varying  greatly  in  different  cases,  and  only  to 
be  detected  by  experience.  There  are  some 
ordinary  articles  of  diet,  as  mussels,  crabs, 
several  of  the  richer  varieties  of  fish,  &c., 
which  act  as  true  poisons  in  certain  individ- 
uals, producing  a  violent  eruption  of  urticaria. 
Here  the  symptoms  are  often  excessively  se- 
vere, the  patient  suffering  from  intense  head- 
ache and  giddiness,  violent  nausea  and  vomit- 
ing, colicky  pains  in  the  stomach  and  bowels, 
free  purging,  &c.  Sometimes  there  are  violent 
pains  in  the  back  and  limbs,  sometimes  a  total 
loss  of  sensation  and  motion.  The  febrile  re- 
action is  often  severe,  and  the  eruption  is  gen- 
eral, attended  with  great  swelling  and  violent 
itching  and  tingling.  In  ordinary  febrile  urti- 
caria, rest,  attention  to  diet,  a  cooling  regi- 
men, and  the  use  of  the  tepid  bath,  are  all  that 
is  necessary.  Occasionally  an  alkaline  wash 
may  be  found  useful  in  relieving  the  itching. 
U.  evanida  is  an  intractable  complaint,  and  is 
best  treated  by  strict  regulation  of  the  diet. 
In  the  severer  forms  of  nettle  rash  produced 
by  fish  poisoning,  the  poison  should  be  got  rid 
of  by  stimulating  emetics. 

NETTLETON,  Isabel,  an  American  clergyman, 
born  in  North  Killingworth,  Conn.,  April  21, 
1783,  died  May  16,  1844.  He  graduated  at 
Yale  college  in  1809,  studied  theology,  and  in 
1817  was  ordained.  He  had  intended  to  be- 
come a  missionary,  but  the  effect  produced  by 
his  preaching  was  so  powerful  that  he  was 
induced  to  engage  in  evangelization  at  home. 
He  preached  revivals  with  great  success  in 
more  than  40  towns  in  Connecticut,  Massa- 
chusetts, and  New  York.  In  1822  he  had  an 
attack  of  typhus  fever,  from  which  for  a  long 
time  he  was  not  expected  to  recover.  He  re- 
sumed his  active  labors  in  1824,  and  in  the 
same  year  published  a  volume  of  "Village 
Hymns."  In  1827  he  went  to  Virginia  for 
the  sake  of  his  health,  and  returning  in  1829 
preached  in  New  England  and  New  York  till 
1831.  In  the  spring  of  that  year  he  went  to 
England,  also  visiting  Scotland  and  Ireland. 
Returning  in  1832,  he  was  appointed  professor 
of  pastoral  duty  in  the  newly  organized  theo- 
logical seminary  at  East  Windsor ;  he  did  not 
accept  the  office,  but  took  up  his  residence  in 
the  place,  and  lectured  occasionally.  In  later 
life  he  opposed  the  doctrinal  views  of  the  New 
Haven  school  of  theology. 

NETTLE  TREE.    See  HACKBEEEY. 

NEt-BRANDENBURG,  a  town  of  Germany,  in 
the  grand  duchy  of  Mecklenburg-Strelitz,  at 
the  N.  E.  extremity  of  the  Tollens  lake  and 
on  the  Hamburg  and  Stettin  railway,  53  m. 
W.  N.  W.  of  Stettin;  pop.  in  1871,  7,245.  It 
has  a  gymnasium,  a  Realschule,  four  beautiful 
Gothic  gates,  two  churches  (one  of  which,  the 
Gothic  church  of  St.  Mary's,  has  recently  been 
restored),  a  theatre,  and  a  palace.  The  chief 
manufactures  are  tobacco,  chemical  products, 
playing  cards,  cottons,  and  woollens,  and  there 
is  a  large  trade  in  wool. 

NEU-BREISACH.    See  BEEISAOH. 


256 


NEUFCHATEL 


NEUHOF 


NEFFCHlTEL,  or  NencMtel  (Ger.  Neueriburg). 

I.  A  "W.  canton  of  Switzerland,  consisting  of 
the  former  principality  of  Neufchatel  and  the 
county  of  Valengin  or  Valendis,  bounded  N. 
and  N.  E.  by  the  canton  of  Bern,  S.  E.  by  Fri- 
bourg  and  Vaud,  .8.  by  Vaud,  and  W.  and  N. 
W.  by  France ;  greatest 
length  36  m.,  greatest 
breadth  13$  m. ;  area, 
312sq.m.;  pop.  in  1870, 
97,284.  Several  ridges 
of  the  Jura  mountains 
traverse  the  canton. 
The  lake  of  Neufchatel, 
28  m.  long,  7  m.  wide, 
and  400  ft.  deep,  sepa- 
rates the  canton  from 
Fribourg  and  Vaud,  and 
is  connected  with  the 
Rhine  by  several  small- 
er lakes  and  streams. 
Wine,  fruit,  hemp,  flax, 
and  grain  are  the  prin- 
cipal products,  but  the 
grain  crop  is  not  suffi- 
cient for  home  use.  The 
raising  of  cattle  is  the 
most  important  branch 
of  rural  industry.  With 
the  exception  of  about 

11,500  Roman  Catholics,  1,000  of  other  Chris- 
tian denominations,  and  700  Jews,  the  people 
belong  to  the  Reformed  church.  French  is  the 
prevailing  language.  Watch  making  (chiefly 
at  Chaux-de-Fonds  and  Locle),  lace  making, 
and  cotton  manufacture  are  the  leading  indus- 
trial pursuits.  The  constitution  of  the  canton 
is  democratic. — Neufchatel  belonged  to  Bur- 
gundy until  1032,  when  it  became  part  of  the 
German  empire.  After  having  been  a  fief  of 
the  counts  of  Fribourg  and  the  margraves  of 
Hochberg,  it  became  a  possession  of  the  Lon- 
gueville  family,  and  after  its  extinction  in  1707 
was  inherited  by  Frederick  I.  of  Prussia,  as 
successor  to  the  rights  of  the  house  of  Orange. 
It  remained  under  the  house  of  Hohenzollern 
as  a  principality  with  a  separate  government 
till  1806,  when  Napoleon  received  it  in  ex- 
change of  territory  from  Frederick  William 
III.,  and  gave  it  as  a  principality  to  Marshal 
Berthier.  In  1814  the  king  of  Prussia  re- 
gained possession  of  Neufchatel,  and  procured 
its  admission  into  the  Swiss  confederacy,  it 
being  the  only  canton  with  a  monarchical  con- 
stitution. In  1848  a  revolutionary  movement 
severed  the  connection  with  the  house  of 
Prussia ;  and  an  attempt  of  the  royalist  party 
in  1857  to  reinstate  the  royal  authority  hav- 
ing been  frustrated,  the  independence  of  the 
canton  was  at  last  recognized  by  Frederick 
William  IV.,  May  26,  1857.  II.  A  town,  cap- 
ital of  the  canton,  at  the  embouchure  of  the 
river  Seyon  into  the  lake  of  Neufchatel,  25 
m.  W.  of  Bern;  pop.  in  1870,  13,321.  It  is 
picturesquely  built  on  a  steep  slope  of  the 
Jura,  and  contains  many  fine  buildings.  An 


ancient  castle  on  the  heights  has  been  con- 
verted into  public  offices;  the  Gothic  church 
adjoining  the  castle  contains  a  monument  to 
the  reformer  Farel.  There  is  a  museum,  with 
a  fine  picture  gallery;  a  public  library  with 
30,000  volumes,  and  having  many  manuscript 


Castle  of  Neufchatel. 

letters  of  Rousseau ;  a  college  in  which  Agas- 
siz  was  once  professor ;  an  observatory  fa- 
mous for  its  geodetical  labors ;  an  orphan  asy- 
lum and  two  hospitals  munificently  endowed 
by  private  citizens,  one  of  whom,  David  Pury, 
in  1786  left  4,000,000  livres  to  these  institu- 
tions and  for  other  public  purposes ;  his  statue 
stands  in  front  of  the  gymnasium.  The  prin- 
cipal manufactures  are  clocks  and  watches, 
paper,  lace,  straw  hats,  and  spirits. 

NEUHOF,  Theodor  von,  baron,  a  German  adven- 
turer, born  about  1686,  died  in  London,  Dec. 
11,  1756.  He  was  the  son  of  a  Westphalian 
nobleman,  studied  in  Cologne,  was  compelled 
to  leave  that  city  on  account  of  having  killed 
in  a  duel  a  young  man  of  high  family,  and  ob- 
tained a  lieutenancy  in  the  Spanish  army  in 
Africa.  He  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  Moors, 
and  is  believed  to  have  been  employed  during 
18  years  as  interpreter  by  the  dey  of  Algiers. 
In  1735  he  led  two  regiments,  chiefly  Tunisians 
and  Algerians,  to  Corsica  to  assist  that  island 
against  Genoa,  and  ingratiated  himself  so  much 
with  the  Corsicans  that  they  elected  him  king, 
April  15,  1736,  under  the  name  of  Theodore  I. 
He  succeeded  in  securing  the  alliance  of  the 
Netherlands ;  but  the  French  coming  to  the  as- 
sistance of  the  Genoese  in  1738,  the  Corsicans 
were  again  subdued,  and  Neuhof  fled.  In  1741, 
when  the  French  left  the  island,  he  in  vain  en- 
deavored to  regain  his  power,  and  spent  the 
remainder  of  his  life  in  England,  where  shortly 
before  his  death  he  was  released  from  prison 
by  Walpole,  who  raised  a  subscription  which 
enabled  him  to  compromise  with  his  creditors. 
There  are  other  versions  of  Neuhof's  life  and 


NEUILLY 

adventures,  but  the  above  is  most  generally 
credited.  He  left  a  son  who  assumed  the  name 
of  Col.  Frederick,  was  in  the  service  of  the 
duke  of  Wurtemberg,  published  two  historical 
works  on  Corsica,  and  shot  himself  in  "West- 
minster abbey,  Feb.  1,  1796. 

NEUILLY,  a  town  of  France,  in  the  depart- 
ment of  Seine,  on  the  right  bank  of  the  river 
Seine,  1|  m.  N.  "W.  of  the  enceinte  of  Paris ; 
pop.  in  1872, 16,277.  The  river  is  here  crossed 
by  a  handsome  bridge  of  five  arches,  each  of 
120  ft.  span.  The  park,  which  extended  for 
some  distance  along  the  Seine,  was  formerly  a 
favorite  resort  of  the  Parisians,  but  has  been 
cut  up  into  villa  sites.  The  principal  object  of 
interest  is  the  ruined  palace,  once  the  property 
of  the  Orleans  family,  and  the  residence  of 
Louis  Philippe.  It  was  destroyed  by  the  pop- 
ulace, Feb.  25, 1848,  with  the  exception  of  one 
wing.  Louis  Philippe  adopted  the  title  of 
count  of  Neuilly  during  his  exile.  Several 
encounters  took  place  at  Neuilly  in  1871  be- 
tween the  army  of  the  commune  and  the  Ver- 
sailles troops. 

NEUKOMM,  SigismniKl,  chevalier,  a  German 
composer,  born  in  Salzburg,  July  10, 1778,  died 
in  Paris,  April  3,  1858.  He  was  educated  by 
his  kinsmen  Michael  and  Joseph  Haydn,  and 
became  in  1804  leader  of  the  orchestra  of  the 
German  opera  in  St.  Petersburg,  but  was  soon 
obliged  to  resign  on  account  of  ill  health.  He 
returned  to  Vienna  in  1808,  and  subsequently 
he  lived  in  Paris,  in  the  house  of  Talleyrand, 
whom  he  accompanied  in  1814  to  the  congress 
of  Vienna,  In  1816  he  went  with  the  duke  of 
Luxemburg  to  Rio  de  Janeiro,  and  became  a 
teacher  of  music  at  the  Brazilian  court.  In 
1821  he  returned  to  Talleyrand's  house,  and, 
after  visiting  Italy  and  other  parts  of  the  con- 
tinent, accompanied  his  patron  in  1830  to  Eng- 
land. Subsequently  he  again  travelled  exten- 
sively, and  spent  several  years  in  Switzerland. 
During  the  latter  part  of  his  life  he  was  par- 
tially blind,  and  resided  alternately  in  London 
and  Paris.  His  oratorio  of  "Mount  Sinai," 
produced  at  Derby  in  1831,  and  "David,"  at 
Birmingham  in  1834,  are  popular.  He  also 
produced  an  immense  number  of  cantatas,  songs, 
psalms,  voluntaries  for  the  organ,  symphonies, 
quartets,  sonatas,  &c.,  his  compositions,  vocal 
and  instrumental,  amounting  to  more  than  800. 

NEUMANN,  Karl  Friedrich,  a  German  orientalist, 
born  of  Jewish  parents  at  Reichmannsdorf ,  near 
Bamberg,  Dec.  22,  1798,  died  in  Berlin,  March 
17,  1870.t  He  studied  at  Heidelberg,  Munich, 
and  Gottingen,  and  in  1822  was  appointed  pro- 
fessor of  history  at  Spire,  but  was  compelled 
on  account  of  his  liberal  views  to  retire.  He 
next  devoted  several  years  to  oriental  languages, 
particularly  the  Chinese  and  Armenian,  and  in 
1829-'30  visited  China  to  make  a  collection  of 
works  by  native  authors.  He  returned  to  Eu- 
rope with  10,000  volumes,  besides  about  2,500 
for  the  royal  library  of  Berlin.  In  1831  he  be- 
came professor  at  Munich,  lecturing  on  the 
Armenian  and  Chinese  languages,  and  on  geog- 


KEURALGIA 


257 


raphy,  ethnography,  and  history.  He  joined 
the  liberals  during  the  commotions  of  1847-'8, 
and  in  1852  was  removed  from  his  professor- 
ship. In  1863  he  took  up  his  residence  in  Ber- 
lin. He  wrote  in  German,  French,  and  Eng- 
lish, into  which  languages  he  made  many  trans- 
lations from  the  Armenian  and  Chinese,  and 
edited  Giitzlaff's  Geschichte  des  chinesischen 
JSeichs.  Among  his  works  are :  Memoirs  sur 
la  me  et  Us  outrages  de  David,  philosophe  ar- 
menien  (Paris,  1829);  "History  of  Vartan  by 
Elisaeus,"  and  Vahram's  "Chronicle  of  the 
Armenian  Kingdom  of  Cilicia,"  from  the  Ar- 
menian (London,  1830);  "Catechism  of  the 
Shamans,"  from  the  Chinese  (1831) ;  "  History 
of  the  Chinese  Pirates"  (1831);  Pilgerfahrten 
buddhistischer  Priester  aus  China  nach  Indien 
(Leipsic,  1833);  LeJirsaal  des  Mittelreichs 
(1836) ;  Asiatische  Studien  (1837)  ;  Geschichte 
des  englisch-chinesischen  Kriegs  (1846) ;  Die 
Volker  des  sudlichen  Russland  (1847);  Bei- 
trdge  zur  armenischen  Literatur  (1849) ;  Ge- 
schichte des  englischen  Reichs  in  Asien  (2  vols., 
1857);  and  Geschichte  der  Vereinigten  Staaten 
von  Amerika  (3  vols.,  1863-'6).  A  translation 
of  his  "  Hoei-Schein,  or  the  Discovery  of 
America  by  Buddhist  Monks  in  the  Fifth  Cen- 
tury," was  published  in  London  in  1874. 

NEURALGIA  (Gr.  vevpov,  nerve,  and  aAyof, 
pain),  an  affection  of  which  pain  is  the  essen- 
tial and  characteristic  feature,  without  visible 
alteration  of  the  tissues  or  organs  in  which  it 
is  seated,  and  which  depends  on  some  disease 
affecting  the  structure  or  function  of  the  nerves 
or  of  their  centres.  The  varieties  of  neuralgia 
are  very  numerous.  Some  are  distinguished 
according  to  the  nerve  affected;  as  neuralgia 
of  the  trifacial  nerve,  commonly  called  tic  dou- 
loureux; sciatica,  or  neuralgia  of  the  sciatic 
nerve;  intercostal  neuralgia,  affecting  the  in- 
tercostal nerves,  &c.  Other  varieties  are  de- 
scribed according  to  the  locality  which  is  the 
seat  of  pain ;  as  gastralgia,  or  pain  in  the  region 
of  the  stomach ;  nephralgia,  or  pain  in  the  re- 
gion of  the  kidneys,  &c.  Other  varieties  again 
are  indicated  by  the  causes  which  produce 
them;  as  miasmatic  neuralgia,  the  neuralgia 
caused  by  marsh  miasm ;  saturnine  neuralgia, 
the  neuralgia  produced  by  the  poison  of  lead, 
&c.  The  causes  of  neuralgia  may  be  classified 
as  constitutional  and  local.  The  principal  con- 
stitutional causes  are :  1,  an  impoverished  con- 
dition of  the  blood,  resulting  either  from  haem- 
orrhage or  the  exhausting  effects  of  disease,  such 
as  fevers,  chlorosis,  &c. ;  2,  the  miasm  of  palu- 
dal regions ;  3,  the  materies  morbi  of  rheuma- 
tism ;  4,  the  virus  of  syphilis ;  5,  the  circulation 
in  the  blood  of  poisonous  secretions,  such  as 
urea  and  bile ;  6,  the  poisonous  effects  of  lead, 
and  probably  of  some  of  the  other  metals ;  7, 
the  functional  derangement  of  the  nervous  sys- 
tem in  the  disease  known  as  hysteria.  The 
local  causes  are :  1,  inflammation  of  the  deli- 
cate fibrous  sheath  which  envelopes  the  nerves, 
called  the  neurilemma ;  2,  the  development  of 
tumors  near  the  origin,  or  along  the  course,  or 


258 


NEURALGIA 


NEUSE 


amid  the  ramifications  of  the  nerves,  as  neuro- 
mata, fibrous  tumors  growing  from  the  nerve 
sheath,  and  cancerous,  aneurismal,  cartilaginous, 
or  bony  tumors,  so  situated  as  to  stretch  or 
press  upon  the  nerves ;  3,  the  bulbous  expan- 
sion of  the  extremities  of  divided  nerves,  oc- 
curring after  amputation,  and  causing  painful 
stumps ;  4,  the  pinching  of  nerves  in  the  cica- 
trices or  scars  of  lacerated  wounds. — The  suc- 
cessful treatment  of  a  neuralgia  depends  of 
course  on  a  correct  appreciation  of  the  causes 
that  produce  it.  Where  it  arises  from  constitu- 
tional causes,  it  is  generally  amenable  to  treat- 
ment. The  neuralgia  that  depends  on  an  im- 
poverished state  of  the  blood  yields  almost  in- 
variably to  iron  tonics,  good  diet,  and  outdoor 
exercise ;  that  which  arises  from  the  effects  of 
paludial  poison  disappears  rapidly  under  the 
use  of  quinine ;  neuralgia  of  rheumatic  origin  is 
ordinarily  controlled  by  the  preparations  of  col- 
chicum,  the  alkalis,  alkaline  and  sulphur  baths, 
&c. ;  while  the  neuralgia  caused  by  lead  poison 
4has  its  specific  antidote  in  the  iodide  of  potas- 
sium, a  remedy  which  is  useful  also  in  the  neu- 
ralgia of  syphilitic  origin.  The  neuralgia  which 
occurs  in  hysteria  yields,  like  most  of  the  pro- 
tean phenomena  of  that  disease,  to  the  mineral 
tonics,  electricity,  shower  baths,  and  exercise. 
Before  speaking  of  the  treatment  of  the  forms 
of  neuralgia  caused  by  local  disease,  it  is  to  be 
remarked  that  the  seat  of  pain  in  these  cases 
does  not  always  correspond  with  the  location 
of  the  cause  of  irritation.  For  instance,  a 
tumor  within  the  cranium  may  produce  pain 
at  the  extremity  of  the  sensitive  nerves,  near 
the  origin  of  which  it  is  located;  or  pressure 
in  the  course  of  a  nerve  may  cause  pain  in 
its  ultimate  ramifications.  Where  neuralgia  is 
caused  by  irritation  near  the  origin  of  the 
nerves,  in  the  brain  or  spinal  cord,  its  radical 
cure  is  generally  impracticable;  where  it  de- 
pends on  the  pressure  of  tumors  that  can  be 
removed,  the  pain  will  generally  disappear  with 
the  removal  of  the  cause.  In  inflammation  of 
the  nerve  sheath,  local  counter-irritation,  by 
cups,  blisters,  issues,  setons,  &c.,  usually  gives 
relief,  and  generally  effects  a  cure.  The  neu- 
ralgia of  painful  stumps  and  scars,  and  of  ob- 
stinate cases  of  inflammation  of  the  neuri- 
lemma,  requires  surgical  interference,  such  as 
reamputation,  removal  of  the  cicatrix,  or  ex- 
section  of  a  portion  of  the  diseased  nerve. 
Temporary  relief  may  be  given  in  all  forms  of 
neuralgia  by  the  administration  of  powerful 
anodynes.  Those  most  commonly  used  are 
morphine,  the  active  principle  of  opium,  and 
aconitine,  the  active  principle  of  the  aconitum 
napellus  or  monkshood.  These  may  be  used 
internally  or  externally.  A  solution  of  mor- 
phine injected  into  the  areolar  tissue  beneath 
the  skin,  near  the  seat  of  the  neuralgia,  gives 
more  prompt  relief  than  when  given  by  the 
stomach.  Aconitine  is  generally  used  external- 
ly, in  the  form  of  an  ointment,  rubbed  upon 
the  affected  part.  In  most  cases  it  rapidly 
relieves  the  neuralgic  pain. 


NEFREUTHER,  Engen,  a  German  painter,  born 
in  Munich,  Jan.  13,  1806.  He  studied  under 
his  father,  Ludwig  Neureuther,  was  employed 
by  Cornelius  in  the  arabesques  and  other  em- 
bellishments of  the  Trojan  hall  in  the  Glypto- 
thek,  and  distinguished  himself  by  illustrating 
Goethe.  He  visited  Rome  in  1837;  from  1848 
to  1856  he  was  director  of  the  porcelain  works 
in  Nyrnphenburg,  and  subsequently  became 
professor  at  the  academy  of  Munich.  Among 
his  finest  productions  are  designs  after  Wle- 
land's  "  Oberon"  in  the  Konigsbau  at  Munich, 
and  the  external  embellishments  of  the  poly- 
technic institute,  which  was  designed  by  hia 
brother  Gottfried,  an  eminent  architect. 

NEUROPTERA  (Gr.  vevpov,  nerve,  and  Trrepdv, 
wing),  an  order  of  insects  characterized  by 
powerful  jaws,  four  reticulated,  membranous, 
naked  wings,  and  the  absence  of  sting  or 
piercer.  They  include  the  dragon  and  May 
flies,  ant  lion,  white  ant,  and  similar  preda- 
ceous  insects,  which  undergo  a  complete  or 
partial  metamorphosis.  The  larvae  are  six- 
legged,  voracious  and  carnivorous,  living  in  the 
water,  on  trees,  or  in  the  ground.  Only  the 
white  ants  and  the  wood  ticks  are  injurious  to 
vegetation ;  the  others  are  rather  beneficial  to 
man  by  devouring  aquatic  and  flying  insects, 
plant  lice,  and  similar  pests.  They  are  gener- 
ally of  elegant  proportions,  often  prettily 
marked,  and  possess  great  powers  of  flight. 
Kirby  separated  the  May  or  caddis  flies  (phry- 
ganeadce),  and  formed  of  them  his  order  tri- 
ckoptera.  It  is  commonly  believed  that  the 
ravages  of  white  ants  and  their  congeners  are 
confined  to  tropical  regions  and  to  dead  or 
decaying  vegetation;  but  a  few  years  ago  a 
white  ant,  allied  to  the  genus  termes,  was  dis- 
covered at  Salem,  Mass.,  making  its  mines  and 
galleries,  destroying  with  its  colonies  the  roots 
of  grape  vines  in  greenhouses,  and  making 
chambers  even  in  the  living  wood. 

NEUSATZ  (Hung.  Ujvidelc),  a  town  of  S.  Hun- 
gary, in  the  county  of  Bacs,  on  the  left  bank 
of  the  Danube,  connected  by  a  bridge  with  the 
opposite  fortress  of  Peterwardein ;  pop.  in 
1870,  19,119.  A  United  Greek  bishop  resides, 
here,  and  the  town  contains  an  Armenian  and 
several  Greek,  Roman  Catholic,  and  Protestant 
churches,  a  synagogue,  and  a  gymnasium.  It 
was  strongly  fortified  and  prosperous  until  June 
11,  1849,  when  it  was  stormed  by  the  Austrians 
under  Jellachich,  and  almost  destroyed  by  the 
fire  of  the  Hungarians  from  Peterwardein.  It 
rapidly  recovered,  however.  N.  of  the  town 
is  a  line  of  Roman  ramparts,  erected  by  Tra- 
jan, which  extends  about  20  m.  to  the  Theiss. 

NEUSE,  a  river  of  North  Carolina,  rising  in 
Person  co.,  in  the  N.  part  of  the  state.  It  flows 
generally  S.  E.  about  300  m.,  and  empties  into 
Pamlico  sound  through  an  estuary  several  miles 
wide  in  the  lower  part  and  about  50  m.  long. 
It  is  navigable  by  steamboats  eight  months  of 
the  year  for  more  than  100  m.  The  most  im- 
portant place  on  its  banks  is  New  Berne,  at 
the  mouth  of  its  chief  tributary,  the  Trent. 


NEUSIEDLER  LAKE 

NEUSIEDLER  LAKE  (Hung.  Ferto),  after  Ba- 
laton the  largest  lake  of  Hungary,  situated 
near  the  Austrian  frontier  on  the  confines  of 
the  counties  of  Oedenburg  and  Wieselburg; 
length  about  23  m.,  breadth  7  m.,  depth  9  to  13 
ft.  The  reedy  banks  of  the  lake  shelter  innu- 
merable water  fowl.  The  E.  side  is  marshy, 
adjoining  the  extensive  marshes  of  Hansag. 
In  times  of  sudden  inundations  the  overflow- 
ing waters  are  carried  through  an  artificial 
canal  into  the  river  Rabnitz.  The  W.  bank  is 
surrounded  by  beautiful  vine-clad  hills,  at  the 
foot  of  which  the  town  of  Eust  is  situated. 
Other  towns  "W.  of  the  lake  are  Oedenburg 
and  Eisenstadt.  The  lake  dried  up  in  1865,  as 
it  had  in  1693  and  1738,  and  the  archduke  Al- 
brecht  laid  out  a  plantation  there  which  he 
called  Neu-Mexico.  In  September,  1870,  the 
basin  was  again  filled  with  water  from  the 
Raab  and  Rabnitz  rivers,  through  the  Hansag 
marsh,  the  draining  of  which  had  been  under- 
taken in  1865,  and  the  farms  and  buildings 
were  all  submerged. 

NEUSS,  a  fortified  town  of  Rhenish  Prussia, 
in  the  district  of  Dusseldorf,  on  the  Erft,  near 
its  confluence  with  the  Rhine,  21  m.  N.  W.  of 
Cologne;  pop.  in  1871,  13,992.  The  Roman 
Catholic  cathedral  is  a  fine  specimen  of  the 
architecture  of  the  13th  century,  and  has 
been  repeatedly  restored.  The  town  contains 
a  Roman  Catholic  gymnasium  and  a  Protes- 
tant church.  It  is  a  free  port  and  the  prin- 
cipal emporium  of  Rhenish  Prussia  in  the 
corn  trade,  and  produces  more  rape  oil  than 
any  other  town  of  Germany.  There  is  also  a 
large  trade  in  coal,  and  the  cattle  fairs  are 
largely  attended.  There  are  several  manufac- 
tories of  machinery  and  other  articles.  The 
Romans  had  a  fort  here  (Novesium).  Charles 
the  Bold  of  Burgundy  besieged  Neuss  in  July, 
1474,  to  assist  Bishop  Ruprecht  of  Cologne 
against  his  contumacious  see.  He  withdrew 
after  11  months,  having  lost  10,000  men,  on 
the  appearance  of  the  imperial  army  under 
Frederick  III. 

NEU-STRELITZ,  a  town  of  Germany,  capital 
of  Mecklenberg-Strelitz,  on  the  E.  side  of  Lake 
Zierke,  57  m.  N.  N.  W.  of  Berlin;  pop.  in 
1871,  8,470.  The  streets  are  broad,  and  con- 
verge into  the  market  square.  The  palace  is 
surrounded  by  fine  pleasure  grounds.  There 
are  two  churches,  a  gymnasium,  a  library  of 
70,000  volumes,  and  collections  of  German  an- 
tiquities and  coins.  About  2  m.  S.  of  Neu- 
Strelitz  is  Alt-Strelitz,  the  former  capital. 

NEUSTRIA,  the  name  of  the  western  division 
of  the  Frankish  empire  under  the  Merovin- 
gians and  Carlovingians,  from  the  partition  of 
the  provinces  by  the  sons  of  Clovis  in  511  to 
the  beginning  of  the  10th  century.  In  the 
earlier  part  of  that  period  Neustria  extended 
from  the  Meuse,  which  formed  its  boundary 
toward  Australia,  the  eastern  division,  to  the 
ocean  and  the  Loire,  which  separated  it  from 
Aquitania.  The  principal  towns  were  Sois- 
sons,  Paris,  Orleans,  and  Tours.  In  later  times 


NEUTRALITY 


259 


it  was  restricted  to  the  territories  lying  be- 
tween the  Seine  and  the  Loire.  The  name 
disappeared  when  the  maritime  territory  was 
ceded  to  the  Normans  (912),  receiving  the  name 
of  Normandy.  (See  FKANCE,  vol.  vii.,  p.  379.) 

NEUTERS,  a  tribe  of  American  Indians  for- 
merly living  on  both  sides  of  the  Niagara 
between  the  Hurons  and  Iroquois,  to  whom 
they  were  related,  and  remaining  neutral  in 
the  war  between  those  tribes,  whence  the 
name  given  them  by  the  French.  The  Hurons 
called  them  Attiwandaronk.  The  Recollects 
in  1629,  and  subsequently  the  Jesuits,  attempt- 
ed missions  among  them  without  success. 
They  informed  the  Recollects  of  the  existence 
of  oil  springs  in  that  part  of  the  country. 
After  the  overthrow  of  the  Hurons  in  1649, 
the  Neuters  were  attacked  by  the  Iroquois, 
who  killed  many  and  incorporated  the  rest 
among  the  Five  Nations  of  their  league. 

NEUTRA  (Hung.  Nyitra).  I.  A  county  of 
Hungary,  bordering  on  Moravia  and  the  coun- 
ties of  Trentschin,  Turocz,  Bars,  Comorn,  and 
Presburg;  area,  2,219  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870, 
361,005,  mostly  Slovaks  and  Roman  Catholics. 
It  exceeds  all  other  Hungarian  counties  in  the 
production  of  sheep  and  cattle,  and  the  com- 
merce with  Moravia  is  very  active.  It  is  wa- 
tered by  the  "Waag,  Neutra,  and  March,  and 
most  of  the  soil  is  very  fertile.  Much  wine  is 
produced,  of  which  the  best  is  the  red  Neustadt- 
ler.  Woollen,  cotton,  and  linen  goods,  and 
other  articles,  are  manufactured.  II.  A  town, 
capital  of  the  county,  on  the  river  Neutra,  70 
m.  N.  W.  of  Pesth;  pop.  in  1870,  10,683.  It 
is  the  seat  of  a  Roman  Catholic  bishop,  and 
contains  a  cathedral,  situated  within  a  fortress 
on  high  ground,  several  convents,  a  theological 
seminary,  and  a  gymnasium.  In  1663  it  was 
taken  by  the  Turks,  and  in  1708  by  the  impe- 
rialists from  the  partisans  of  Rakoczy. 

NEUTRALITY,  in  international  law,  the  in- 
different and  impartial  posture  maintained  by 
one  nation  with  regard  to  others  which  are  at 
war.  "The  neutral  state,"  says  Kluber,  "is 
neither  judge  nor  party."  It  may  be  the  com- 
mon friend  of  both  belligerents,  but  may  not 
favor  either.  The  character  of  neutrality  is 
generally  impressed  upon  a  nation  only  by  the 
event  of  war,  while  in  time  of  peace  it  may 
conclude  offensive  and  defensive  alliances,  and 
in  all  respects  arrange  at  its  pleasure  its  rela- 
tions with  other  states.  Yet  there  may  be 
what  is  called  a  permanent  neutrality.  Switz- 
erland and  Belgium  by  the  existing  arrange- 
ments in  Europe,  established  in  the  case  of  the 
former  by  the  declaration  of  the  allied  powers 
in  1815,  and  of  the  latter  by  the  negotiations 
which  established  its  independence  in  1831, 
are  to  remain  always  neutral  and  independent 
of  any  complications  which  may  in  the  future 
arise  among  the  other  European  powers. 
These  states,  it  is  evident,  cannot  even  in  peace 
enter  into  any  compacts  or  engagements  which 
would  be  inconsistent  with  complete  neutrality 
in  case  of  war. — It  is  not  a  violation  of  neutral- 


260 


NEUTRALITY 


ity  to  furnish  one  only  of  two  hostile  parties 
with  ammunition  or  other  war  supplies,  pro- 
vided this  be  done  in  accordance  with  previous 
treaty  stipulations.  Thus,  by  the  treaty  of 
1788  with  the  United  States,  France  secured 
the  exclusive  privilege  of  asylum  in  American 
ports  for  her  privateers  and  their  prizes.  But 
in  this  case,  as  usually,  such  a  qualification 
of  neutrality,  though  clearly  sanctioned  by  the 
law  of  nations,  did  not  fail  to  provoke  complaint 
and  protest  from  the  less  favored  power.  It 
is  not  consistent  with  a  neutral  character  to 
concede  to  one  belligerent,  to  the  exclusion  of 
others,  the  liberty  of  raising  land  or  sea  forces 
within  the  neutral  territory.  This  privilege 
the  United  States  refuse  to  all  belligerents 
alike,  and  the  prohibition  is  declared  by  a  per- 
manent act  of  congress ;  and  any  attempt  by 
a  foreign  power  to  obtain  enlistments  in  this 
country  would  be  regarded  as  an  unfriendly 
act,  and  if  aided  or  connived  at  by  its  diplo- 
matic representative  would  be  deemed  a  justi- 
fication of  a  demand  for  his  recall,  as  in  the 
case  of  the  British  minister,  Sir  John  Cramp- 
ton,  in  1855. — The  perfect  inviolability  of  its 
territory  is  the  clearest  if  not  the  chief  among 
the  rights  of  a  neutral  state.  A  belligerent 
therefore  cannot  attack  his  enemy  on  neutral 
ground,  and,  in  spite  of  a  condemnation  by  a 
prize  court  of  the  captor,  the  neutral  power 
will  restore  to  its  owner  property  captured 
within  its  jurisdiction.  The  neutral  may  re- 
fuse to  all  belligerents  the  privilege  of  passage 
over  its  domain,  or  must  grant  it,  if  at  all,  to 
all  alike.  It  may  forbid  the  entrance  of  war 
vessels  and  their  prizes  into  its  ports,  although, 
in  the  absence  of  positive  prohibition,  the  lib- 
erty to  enter  is  implied.  Our  government  has 
uniformly  conceded  this  favor  to  the  public 
ships  of  the  hostile  powers,  without  their 
prizes.  To  admit  the  entrance  and  sale  of 
these  in  neutral  ports  is  a  favt>r  which,  in  the 
opinion  of  eminent  authorities,  is  hardly  con- 
sistent with  perfect  neutrality,  or  with  the  dic- 
tates of  true  policy.  As  an  illustration  of 
modern  practice  in  this  respect,  it  may  be 
added,  that  in  the  Crimean  war  Sweden  and 
Norway  and  Denmark,  adopting  the  same  rules 
of  neutrality,  admitted  into  their  ports  the 
ships  of  war  and  of  commerce  of  the  belliger- 
ent parties,  and  accorded  to  them  the  facility 
of  supplying  themselves  with  all  necessary 
stores  and  provisions  not  contraband  of  war, 
but  forbade,  except  in  cases  of  distress,  the 
entrance,  condemnation,  or  sale  of  any  prize 
in  any  of  the  harbors  of  these  kingdoms. — 
Whether  the  neutral  can  claim  territorial  im- 
munity for  its  ships,  whether  in  other  words 
its  flag  shall  protect  the  whole  ship  and  cargo 
from  the  assertion  of  belligerent  rights,  has 
been  a  much  vexed  question  in  international 
law.  The  treaties  concluded  at  Utrecht  in 
1713  had  embodied  the  principle  that  the 
character  of  the  vessel  should  determine  that 
of  its  cargo;  and  though  the  same  principle 
had  been  introduced  into  frequent  conventions, 


based  upon  these  treaties,  to  which  England 
had  been  a  party,  yet  this  power  always  refused 
to  admit  that  express  stipulations  of  this  nature 
could  change  what  it  called  the  common  law 
of  nations  in  the  premises.  Except,  therefore, 
when  it  was  bound  by  special  compacts,  Eng- 
land has  steadily  maintained  the  integrity  of 
the  rule  that  enemy's  goods  on  board  a  neutral 
ship  are  good  prize  of  war.  In  1781  the  Baltic 
code  of  neutrality  was  first  proclaimed  by 
Catharine  II.  of  Russia.  One  of  its  most  prom- 
inent articles  asserted  the  principle  of  the 
treaties  of  Utrecht,  namely,  that  free  ships 
should  make  free  goods.  The  principal  powers 
of  Europe,  excepting  only  England,  acceded 
to  the  Russian  rules  of  neutrality.  The  single 
influence  of  England  against  the  code,  however, 
was  too  great  to  be  withstood,  and  it  was 
abandoned  in  1787.  An  attempt  to  revive  it  in 
1801  was  equally  unsuccessful,  and  for  the  same 
reason.  In  its  general  jurisprudence  the  United 
States  has,  almost  of  necessity,  adopted  the 
English  rule.  But  in  its  treaties,  and  particu- 
larly in  those  with  American  powers,  it  has 
generally  inserted  the  more  liberal  principle 
that  neutral  ships  shall  make  free  goods.  Since 
1786  England  had  generally  asserted  her  bel- 
ligerent rights,  until  after  the  beginning  of 
the  Crimean  war,  by  a  common  declaration 
with  her  ally  France,  promulgated  in  April, 
1854,  she  announced  that  for  the  present  she 
"waived  her  right  of  seizing  enemy  property 
laden  on  board  neutral  vessels,  unless  it  were 
contraband  of  war."  At  the  conclusion  of  the 
war  England  gave  a  more  formal  assent  to  the 
principle  which  she  had  so  long  opposed ;  for 
the  declaration  which  was  signed  at  the  con- 
gress of  Paris  in  1856  by  the  plenipotentiaries 
of  all  the  great  powers,  contained  the  provision 
that  the  neutral  flag  shall  cover  enemy  goods, 
with  the  exception  of  those  contraband  of  war, 
and  it  may  be  supposed  has  fixed  the  maxim  in 
the  law  of  nations.  The  rule  usually  coupled 
with  that  just  referred  to,  though  the  two  have 
really  no  connection,  namely,  that  neutral 
goods,  except  contraband,  are  not  liable  to  cap- 
ture though  laden  in  enemy  ships,  is  also  in- 
cluded in  the  declaration  of  the  congress  of 
Paris.  It  was  formally  rejected  by  France,  but 
other  nations  have  generally  observed  it. — 
Subject  only  to  slight  and  reasonable  restric- 
tions, the  neutral  may  carry  on  its  commerce 
with  the  hostile  powers.  But  plainly  it  must 
not  furnish  either  with  war  supplies,  nor  in- 
deed with  any  material  which  can  directly  con- 
tribute to  the  prosecution  of  hostilities.  In 
the  familiar  phrase  of  the  international  law, 
its  ships  must  not  carry  contraband.  Further, 
they  must  neither  break  blockades,  nor  carry 
despatches  for  either  party,  nor  in  any  other 
mode  render  direct  assistance  in  the  war.  Fi- 
nally, neutral  ships  must  be  always  ready  to 
prove  themselves  that  which  they  profess  to 
be,  and  must  therefore  be  provided  with  papers 
sufficient  to  prove  their  nationality,  and  must 
submit  to"  a  reasonable  exercise  of  the  right 


NEUTRALITY 


261 


of  visitation.  It  is  not  possible  to  define  con- 
traband specifically,  that  is,  to  declare  what 
particular  articles  will  be  so  regarded  in  time 
of  war.  There  can  be  no  doubt,  however, 
respecting  things  which  can  be  used  only  in 
war,  or  respecting  materials  which  are  pecu- 
liarly fitted  by  their  nature  for  warlike  uses. 
On  the  other  hand,  things  which  cannot  be 
employed  in  war  are,  it  is  equally  certain,  not 
contraband.  But  it  is  difficult  to  determine  the 
character  of  articles  which  are  ancipitis  usus, 
of  a  double  or  indifferent  nature,  and  service- 
able as  well  in  peace  as  in  war,  such  as  money, 
provisions,  ships  and  materials  for  ships,  and 
naval  stores.  The  decision  will  always  be  influ- 
enced by  many  considerations,  as  by  the  state 
and  nature  of  the  war,  or  by  the  highly  prob- 
able destination  of  goods  to  a  military  use. 
Thus  provisions,  which  prima  facie  are  not 
contraband,  will  certainly  be  declared  so  when 
they  are  destined  to  a  besieged  town  or  block- 
aded port.  The  character  of  the  port  to  which 
goods  are  bound  may  also  be  of  consequence : 
whether,  that  is  to  say,  it  be  a  port  of  merely 
naval  equipment,  or  one  of  general  commerce. 
The  changes  which  science  has  made  in  the 
needs  and  modes  of  warfare  are  also  to  be 
regarded,  as  well  as  the  consideration  whether 
the  goods  alleged  to  be  contraband  are  or  are 
not  the  produce  of  the  country  which  exports 
them.  '  Carrying  official  communications  for  a 
belligerent  upon  the  public  affairs  of  his  state 
is  a  flagrant  violation  of  neutrality.  But  to 
carry  despatches  from  the  enemy  to  his  ambas- 
sador or  consul  in  a  neutral  country  is,  gener- 
ally speaking,  no  ground  for  condemnation, 
for  the  legal  presumption  is  that  the  commu- 
nication has  reference  to  the  commercial  rela- 
tions of  the  belligerent  and  the  neutral.  In 
the  case  of  the  Trent,  in  1861,  a  naval  officer 
of  the  United  States  asserted  the  right  to  seize 
on  a  neutral  ship  the  ambassadors  of  the  ene- 
my proceeding  to  the  courts  to  which  they 
were  accredited ;  but  the  right  was  denied  by 
Great  Britain,  and  the  government  disavowed 
the  act.  It  seems  to  be  the  better  opinion 
that  the  contraband  character  of  the  ship  or 
goods  terminates  with  that  passage  in  which 
the  forbidden  trade  is  intended  or  done,  and 
does  not  affect  the  whole  voyage.  The  owner 
of  the  contraband  loses  all,  even  the  innocent 
goods  which  he  has  laden  in  the  ship.  Other 
shippers  forfeit  nothing.  This  doctrine  of 
contraband  implies  rather  necessarily  the  bel- 
ligerent's right  to  search  neutral  ships  for 
such  articles  as  may  contribute  to  the  com- 
fort and  strength  of  the  enemy.  The  law 
of  nations  has  been  in  this  respect  that  in 
time  of  war  search  may  be  made  for  contra- 
band and  for  enemy's  goods.  The  late  modi- 
fication of  the  former  practice,  by  which,  as 
we  have  already  seen,  the  goods  of  the  ene- 
my in  neutral  ships  are  now  exempted  from 
seizure,  ^must  tend,  it  would  seem,  to  reduce 
the  application  of  the  law  of  search  to  the  case 
of  contraband  alone.  Some  powers  have  de- 


feated or  hoped  to  defeat  the  right  of  search 
for  contraband  goods  by  forbidding  their  sub- 
jects to  carry  them;  and  sometimes  treaties 
have  provided  that,  in  the  case  of  ships  under 
convoy,  the  declaration  of  the  commander 
should  suffice  to  exempt  the  ships  in  his  charge 
from  search. — A  further  restriction  in  force  on 
the  commerce  of  the  neutral  consists  in  his  in- 
capacity to  trade  to  blockaded  ports.  To  con- 
stitute a  violation  of  blockade  there  must  be 
first  an  actual  blockade  by  a  force  sufficient  to 
maintain  the  same ;  then  there  must  have  been 
proper  notification  of  it ;  with  these  must  con- 
cur some  act  of  violation,  either  by  going  in  or 
coming  out  with  a  cargo  laden  after  the  com- 
mencement of  the  blockade  or  an  attempt  so 
to  do.  Sir  William  Scott  once  held  that  a  tem- 
porary absence  of  the  blockading  squadron, 
from  being  driven  off  by  a  storm  or  other  ac- 
cident, did  not  suspend  the  operation  of  the 
blockade.  The  French  publicists  controvert 
this  doctrine,  as  unwarranted  by  the  general 
principles  of  international  law.  But  the  law 
as  Sir  William  Scott  declared  it  is  probably  at 
present  the  law  of  England.  The  English  and 
French  declarations  of  1854,  however,  speak  of 
u  effective  blockades,  which  may  be  established 
with  adequate  forces."  Some  exception  has 
been  taken  in  the  United  States  to  the  rule 
which  forbids  the  departure  of  a  vessel  laden 
after  the  blockade  was  known.  In  a  commu- 
nication to  Mr.  Buchanan,  American  minister 
in  London,  in  1854,  Mr.  Marcy  urges  that,  hav- 
ing visited  the  port  in  the  common  freedom 
of  trade,  the  neutral  vessel  ought  to  be  allowed 
to  depart  with  a  cargo,  without  regard  to  the 
time  when  it  was  received  on  board.  This 
relaxation  of  the  law  of  blockade  will  be  hardly 
yet  admitted  in  the  general  practice  of  nations ; 
but,  especially  in  our  treaties  with  the  Central 
and  South  American  republics,  it  has  assumed 
the  form  of  familiar  stipulation. — The  princi- 
ples of  the  international  law  of  neutrality  as- 
sume a  peculiar  significance  in  the  law  of  ma- 
rine insurance.  In  marine  policies  the  owner- 
ship of  the  property  is  usually  the  subject  of 
express  warranty,  and  underwriters  are  thus 
informed  of  its  liability  to  or  freedom  from 
war  risks.  The  neutrality  itself  may  be  some- 
times expressly  warranted.  In  these  cases  the 
warranty  is  construed  to  mean,  first,  that  the 
ship  or  cargo  is  actually  owned  by  citizens  of 
a  country  not  at  war  when  the  risk  begins,  and 
secondly,  that  with  the  property  there  shall 
go  all  those  usual  documents  and  precautions 
which  prove  the  neutrality  and  protect  it  from 
belligerent  risks.  The  bill  of  sale  of  the  ship, 
the  sea  letter  or  customary  certificate  of  na- 
tionality, the  register  of  the  vessel,  the  charter 
party,  shipping  papers,  the  log  book,  and  in 
general  all  the  documents  which  usually  state 
the  national  character,  and  especially  the  flag, 
must  conform  to  the  warranted  neutrality  of 
the  ship.  The  law  holds,  too,  that  if  a  vessel 
exhibit  only  false  papers  when  she  is  captured, 
there  is  a  breach  of  the  warranty,  though  she 


262 


NEUVILLE 


NEVADA 


have  on  board  the  proper  papers  of  her  nation, 
and  have  the  right  to  carry  false  papers,  be- 
cause she  must  not  only  have  the  proper  docu- 
ments, but  must  use  them  at  a  proper  time  and 
in  a  proper  way.  Yet  it  seems  that  simulated 
or  false  papers  may  not  only  be  carried  when 
leave  is  expressly  given,  but  when  a  usage 
exists  to  carry  them,  which  is  or  should  be 
known  to  the  insurer.  The  warranty  of  the 
neutrality  of  a  ship  is  broken  if  a  belligerent 
own  any  part  of  it.  In  regard  to  goods  the 
rule  is  different,  and  the  warranty  is  held  to 
extend  only  to  the  interest  of  the  insured,  and 
is  not  broken  by  the  fact  that  a  part  of  the 
cargo  not  insured  is  not  neutral.  But  when 
the  interest  insured  covers  the  whole  cargo, 
the  law  will  regard  the  real  ownership ;  and 
therefore  property  held  by  a  neutral  by  a  legal 
title  indeed,  but  for  the  benefit  of  and  in  trust 
for  a  belligerent,  is  belligerent  property.  If 
neutral  goods  are  shipped  in  time  of  peace  to 
a  consignee  who  has  not  ordered  them,  so  that 
the  property  would  not  vest  in  him  till  the 
goods  were  received,  in  case  of  capture  they 
are  considered  as  the  property  of  the  consignor. 
But  if  they  are  shipped  by  a  neutral  after  the 
war  begins,  and  under  a  contract  made  during 
peace  but  in  contemplation  of  war,  and  to  be 
at  the  risk  of  the  sendee  until  delivery,  they 
are  put  on  the  same  footing  as  if  the  contract 
were  made  during  war.  If  a  subject  of  a  bel- 
ligerent power  ship  goods  to  a  neutral  which 
have  not  been  ordered  by  him,  so  that  the  bel- 
ligerent retains  control  over  them,  they  are 
considered  as  his  property.  The  mere  right  of 
the  belligerent  seller  to  stop  goods  in  transitu 
on  the  insolvency' of  the  vendee  is  not  such  an 
interest  as  would  make  the  goods  belligerent. 
The  warranty  of  neutrality  requires  such  trade, 
conduct,  and  course  of  transaction  as  shall  be 
in  conformity  and  adaptation  to  this  warranty. 
Therefore,  if  the  neutral  interests  or  property 
are  indistinguishably  mixed  up  with  belligerent 
interests  or  property,  they  become  themselves 
liable  to  all  the  incidents  and  effects  of  a  bel- 
ligerent character.  So  resistance  of  a  search 
when  rightfully  demanded,  an  attempt  at  res- 
cue, seeking  belligerent  protection  or  receiving 
it,  are  all  breaches  of  the  warranty  of  neutral- 
ity, because  they  belong  to  the  conduct  of  a 
belligerent.  It  is  a  sufficient  compliance  with 
the  warranty,  that  a  vessel  is  neutral  accord- 
ing to  the  law  of  nations ;  and  for  a  condem- 
nation for  breach  of  ordinances  which  are 
contrary  to  the  law  of  nations,  the  under- 
writers are  still  liable. 

NEUVILLE,  Hyde  de.    See  HYDE  DE  NEUVILLE. 

NEUWIED,  a  town  of  Rhenish  Prussia,  on  the 
right  bank  of  the  Rhine,  6  m.  K  W.  of  Cob- 
lentz;  pop.  in  1872,  8,664,  chiefly  Protestants. 
There  are  about  400  Moravians,  whose  exten- 
sive establishments  have  given  to  Neuwied  its 
chief  celebrity.  It  dates  from  the  17th  cen- 
tury, and  by  the  liberality  of  its  princes  in- 
dustrious persons  of  different  religious  creeds 
were  attracted  to  the  place,  and  established 


manufactures  of  wool  and  cotton  which  have 
given  to  it  its  present  prosperity.  The  palace 
possesses  a  museum  of  natural  history,  and  a 
collection  of  Roman  antiquities,  chiefly  from 
the  buried  Roman  town  of  Victoria  discov- 
ered in  this  vicinity  in  1791. — The  media- 
tized princes  of  Neuwied  (or  Wied,  also  Wied- 
Neuwied)  are  of  very  ancient  origin,  and 
among  them  have  been  several  eminent  men. 
Prince  HERMANN  (1814-'64)  was  distinguished 
as  a  soldier  and  as  the  anonymous  author  of 
philosophical  works.  His  son,  Prince  WILLIAM 
(born  in  1845),  the  present  head  of  the  house, 
is  a  brother  of  the  princess  Elizabeth,  who 
became  in  1869  the  wife  of  Charles  I.  of  Rou- 
mania,  and  he  married  in  1871  the  Dutch  prin- 
cess Mary.  An  uncle  of  Prince  Hermann  was 
the  celebrated  traveller  Prince  MAXIMILIAN 
(1782-1867).  He  served  in  the  Prussian  army, 
but  after  having  risen  to  the  rank  of  major 
general  left  the  service,  and  in  181 5-' 17  trav- 
elled in  the  interior  of  Brazil,  exploring  the 
dense  forests  of  Bahia  and  Espirito  Santo. 
He  devoted  special  attention  to  zoology  and 
ethnography,  and  was  the  first  European  to 
give  any  definite  information  respecting  the 
Botocudos.  In  1832-'4  he  travelled  in  the 
United  States,  visiting  its  remote  western  re- 
gions. He  published  Seise  nach  Brasilien  (2 
vols.,  Frankfort,  1819-'20),  Ablildungen  zur 
Naturgeschichte  Brasiliens  (Weimar,  1823-'31), 
Beitrdge  zur  Naturgeschichte  Brasiliens  (4 
vols.,  1824-'33),  and  Reise  durch  Nordamerika, 
with  81  plates  (2  vols.,  Coblentz,  1838-'43 ; 
English  version,  London,  1843),  which  is  val- 
ued for  its  magnificent  illustrations  and  its 
contributions  to  American  ethnography.  His 
zoological  collection,  embracing  some  of  the 
rarest  specimens  of  the  South  America  fauna, 
is  now  in  the  American  museum  of  natural 
history,  New  York.  A  genus  of  palms  has 
been  named  in  his  honor  Maximiliana. 

NEVA,  a  river  of  Russia,  flowing  from  the 
S.  W.  extremity  of  Lake  Ladoga,  first  S.  W., 
then  N.  W.,  and  ultimately  through  the  city 
of  St.  Petersburg,  discharging  by  many  mouths 
into  the  gulf  of  Finland.  Its  entire  course  is 
not  more  than  40  m.,  but  it  is  very  wide,  has 
an  average  depth  of  two  to  three  fathoms,  and 
is  of  great  commercial  importance.  It  is  liable, 
particularly  at  the  breaking  up  of  the  ice  in 
April,  to  sudden  inundations,  often  most  disas- 
trous to  St.  Petersburg,  which  is  built  on  the 
islands  formed  by  its  branches. 

NEVADA,  one  of  the  western  states  of  the 
American  Union,  the  23d  admitted  under  the 
constitution,  situated  between  lat.  35°  and  42° 
N".,  and  Ion.  114°  and  120°  W. ;  extreme  length 
N.  and  S.  in  the  east,  485  m.,  and  on  the  W. 
boundary,  210  m. ;  greatest  breadth,  on  the 
39th  parallel,  320  m.,  K  of  which  it  contracts 
to  about  310  m.,  and  S.  of  which  it  contracts  to 
a  point ;  area  (greater  than  that  of  any  other 
state  except  Texas  and  California),  104,125  sq. 
m.  It  is  bounded  N.  by  Oregon  and  Idaho,  E. 
by  Utah  and  Arizona  (from  the  latter  of  which 


NEVADA 


263 


it  is  partly  separated  by  the  Colorado  river), 
and  S.  W.  and  W.  by  California.  The  state 
is  divided  into  14  counties,  viz. :  Churchill, 
Douglas,  Elko,  Esmeralda,  Eureka,  Humboldt, 
Lander,  Lincoln,  Lyon,  Nye,  Ormsby,  Storey, 
Washoe,  and  White  Pine.  The  principal  cities 
and  towns  are  Virginia  (pop.  in  1870,  7,048), 
Gold  Hill  (4,311),  Hamilton  (3,913),  Carson 
City  (the  capital  of  the  state  3,042),  Treasure 
(1,920),  Austin  (1,324),  Elko  (1,160),  Pioche 
City  (1,144),  Reno  (1,035),  Dayton  (918),  and 
Silver  City  (879).  The  population,  exclusive 
of  tribal  Indians,  in  1860  was  6,857;  in  1870, 
42,491,  of  whom  38,959  were  whites,  357  col- 
ored, 3,152  Chinese,  and  23  Indians;  32,379 
were  males  and  10,112  females  ;  23,690  natives 
and  18,801  foreigners.  There  were  9,880  fami- 
lies, with  an  average  of  4' 3  persons  to  each,  and 
12,990  dwellings,  with  an  average  of  3*27  to 
each.  The  number  of  male  citizens  of  the  Uni- 
ted States  21  years  old  and  upward  residing  in 
the  state  was  18,652.  Nevada  has  fewer  inhab- 


State  Seal  of  Nevada. 

itants  than  any  other  state.  Of  the  native  pop- 
ulation, 3,356  were  born  in  the  state,  3,265  in 
New  York,  2,390  in  California,  1,858  in  Ohio, 
1,488  in  Pennsylvania,  1,144  in  Illinois,  1,083 
in  Maine,  1,053  in  Missouri,  997  in  Massachu- 
setts, and  958  in  Utah.  Of  the  foreigners, 
5,035  were  natives  of  Ireland,  2,549  of  Eng- 
land, 2,365  of  British  America,  and  2,181  of 
Germany.  There  were  727  persons  10  years 
old  and  upward  unable  to  read,  and  872,  in- 
cluding 198  Chinese,  unable  to  write.  Of  the 
total  number  of  persons  10  years  old  and  up- 
ward returned  as  engaged  in  all  occupations 
(26,911),  2,070  were  employed  in  agriculture, 
including  555  laborers  and  1,242  farmers  and 
planters  ;  in  professional  and  personal  services, 
7,431,  including  35  clergymen,  3,939  laborers, 
166  lawyers,  110  physicians  and  surgeons,  and 
61  teachers ;  in  trade  and  transportation,  3,621 ; 
and  in  manufactures  and  mechanical  and  mi- 
ning industries,  13,789,  of  whom  8,241  were 
miners.  The  number  of  tribal  Indians  in  Ne- 
vada in  1874,  according  to  the  report  of  the 
United  States  commissioner  of  Indian  affairs, 


was  between  4,000  and  5,000,  viz. :  Pah-Utes, 
800  ;  Pi-Utes  in  the  S.  part  of  the  state,  1,031 ; 
Pi-Utes  (1,000),  living  partly  in  W.  Nevada  and 
partly  in  N.  E.  California ;  Western  Shoshones 
(1,945)  and  Goship  Utes  (460),  living  partly  in 
central  and  E.  Nevada,  and  partly  in  Oregon, 
Idaho,  and  Utah.  The  Pah-Utes  have  two 
reservations  of  320,000  acres  each,  including 
Walker  lake  and  Pyramid  lake  respectively. 
The  southern  band  of  Pi-Utes  belongs  on  .a 
reservation  of  3,900  sq.  m.  in  the  S.  E.  part  of 
the  state,  but  only  about  500  have  been  removed 
to  it.  The  tribes  of  Nevada  are  not  hostile,  and 
many  of  their  members  are  engaged  in  agricul- 
ture.— With  the  exception  of  the  S.  E.  corner, 
which  belongs  to  the  basin  of  the  Colorado  river, 
and  a  small  portion  in  the  N.  E.  drained  by 
the  Owyhee  and  other  tributaries  of  the  Snake, 
Nevada  forms  part  of  the  elevated  region  ly- 
ing between  the  WTahsatch  and  Sierra  Nevada 
mountains,  and  known  as  the  Great  Basin. 
The  general  surface  is  a  table  land,  with  an 
altitude  of  4,500  ft.  above  the  sea,  traversed 
with  great  uniformity  by  nearly  parallel  ranges 
of  mountains  rising  from  1,000  to  8,000  ft. 
higher.  These  ranges  for  the  most  part  have 
a  N.  and  S.  direction,  and  are  separated  by 
valleys  from  5  to  20  m.  wide,  the  bases  of  the 
mountains  having  also  about  the  same  width. 
The  mountains  are  frequently  intersected  by 
ravines,  which  form  easy  passes,  and  in  some 
places  are  broken  into  confused  and  detached 
masses.  The  valleys  sometimes  extend  more 
than  100  m.,  uninterrupted  except  by  an  occa- 
sional butte  or  projecting  spur,  and  frequently, 
where  the  mountains  disappear  or  contract, 
unite  with  other  valleys,  or  expand  into  broad 
plains  or  basins,  some  of  which  are  unobstruct- 
ed, while  others  are  dotted  with  buttes  or  cov- 
ered with  groups  of  rugged  hills.  The  Sierra 
Nevada  mountains,  which  form  a  portion  of 
the  W.  boundary,  reach  an  elevation  of  from 
7,000  to  13,000  ft.  above  the  sea. — The  rivers 
of  Nevada  are  small  and  unnavigable,  and  with 
the  exception  of  the  Owyhee  and  other  streams 
that  flow  N.  into  Oregon  and  Idaho,  and  join 
the  Snake,  a  branch  of  the  Columbia,  and  the 
Rio  Virgen  and  other  small  tributaries  of  the 
Colorado  in  the  S.  E.,  have  no  outlet  to  the 
ocean.  The  Colorado  is  navigable  along  the 
S.  E.  border  to  Callville.  Some  of  the  streams 
terminate  in  beautiful  lakes  ;  others  disappear 
in  "  sinks  "  or  sloughs.  Many  of  them  in  their 
course  sink  in  the  porous  soil,  and  reappear  a 
few  miles  further  on.  There  are  many  small 
mountain  streams  that  lose  themselves  soon 
after  reaching  the  plains.  The  Humboldt,  the 
longest  river,  rises  in  the  N.  E.  corner  of  the 
state,  flows  generally  W.  for  upward  of  200 
m.,  when  it  receives  the  Little  Humboldt  from 
the  north,  bends  S.  W.,  and  after  a  further 
course  of  nearly  100  m.  terminates  in  Humboldt 
lake  or  sink.  Walker  river  is  formed  in  the 
S.  W.  part  of  the  state  by  the  junction  of  the  E. 
and  W.  forks,  which  rise  in  the  Sierra  Nevada 
in  California,  and  flows  first  N.  E.  and  then  S. 


264 


NEVADA 


E.,  and  terminates  in  Walker  lake  in  Esmeralda 
co.,  ^fter  a  course  of  45  m.  The  Truckee  river 
flows  from  Lake  Tahoe  on  the  California  border, 
W.  of  Carson  City,  in  an  irregular  N.  E.  course 
of  about  60  m.,  and  empties  into  Pyramid  lake. 
Carson  river  rises  in  the  Sierra  Nevada  S.  of 
Lake  Tahoe,  and  flows  N.  E.  to  the  Carson  lakes 
in  Churchill  co.  Keese  river,  in  the  central 
portion  of  the  state,  flows  1ST.  toward  the  Hum- 
boldt, but  usually  sinks  before  reaching  it. 
Quin's  river  and  King's  river  are  in  the  north- 
west. In  the  south  is  the  Amargosa  river, 
which  disappears  in  Death  valley,  California. 
About  a  third  of  Lake  Tahoe  is  in  Nevada.  It 
has  a  depth  of  1,500  ft.,  is  21  m.  long  by  10  m. 
wide,  and,  though  more  than  6,000  ft.  above 
the  sea,  never  freezes,  the  temperature  of  the 
water  varying  little  from  57°  throughout  the 
year.  Pyramid  lake,  in  the  E.  part  of  Washoe 
co.,  33  m.  long  and  14  m.  wide,  and  Walker 
lake,  about  30  m.  long  and  6  or  7  m.  wide, 
have  considerable  depth,  and  as  well  as  Lake 
Tahoe  contain  pure  water  and  abound  in  trout 
and  other  fish.  The  water  of  the  rivers,  par- 
ticularly of  the  mountain  streams,  is  generally 
fresh  and  pure,  and  well  stocked  with  fish.  In 
some  of  the  rivers,  however,  as  the  Humboldt, 
particularly  in  low  stages  of  water,  and  in 
most  of  the  smaller  and  shallower  lakes,  it  is 
brackish  and  alkaline.  Lower  Carson  lake,  12 
m.  in  diameter,  and  Humboldt  lake,  somewhat 
smaller,  are  shallow,  being  in  fact  mere  sinks, 
and  are  connected  with  each  other  at  high 
stages  of  water  by  small  streams  or  "  sloughs." 
Other  lakes  or  sinks  are  Ruby,  Franklin,  and 
Snow  Water,  in  the  E.  part  of  the  state,  and 
Winnemucca  lake,  E.  of  Pyramid,  which  occa- 
sionally discharges  into  it  its  surplus  waters. 
Many  of  the  plains  and  valleys,  being  nearly 
level  or  slightly  basin-shaped,  and  consisting 
of  a  stiff  clay  nearly  impervious  to  water,  are 
readily  converted  in  the  wet  season  into  shal- 
low lakes,  rarely  more  than  a  foot  or  two  deep, 
which  derive  the  name  of  "mud  lakes"  from 
their  generally  miry  and  impassable  condition. 
Some  of  them  exist  only  for  a  few  days,  others 
last  until  the  dry  season  comes  on,  and  a  few 
continue  throughout  the  year.  When  dry, 
their  beds  become  very  hard,  and  are  often  cov- 
ered with  an  incrustation  of  alkaline  matter, 
in  which  condition  they  are  known  as  alkaline 
flats.  The  most  extensive  mud  lakes  occur  in 
the  N.  W.,  central,  and  S.  portions  of  the  state, 
where  some  of  them  cover  more  than  100  sq. 
m. — Both  cold  and  hot  springs  abound  in  many 
parts,  some  being  in  a  state  of  ebullition,  others 
quiet ;  some  pellucid  and  pure,  others  impreg- 
nated with  a  great  variety  of  mineral  sub- 
stances. In  some  places  they  occur  singly,  and 
in  others  in  groups.  They  range  in  tempera- 
ture from  50°  to  204°,  the  latter  being  about 
the  boiling  point  of  water  in  this  region ;  in 
diameter,  from  1  to  100  ft.;  and  in  depth, 
from  3  or  4  to  150  ft.  They  are  generally  cir- 
cular in  form.  The  mineral  and  warm  springs 
are  commonly  situated  on  mounds  formed  of 


the  silicious  or  calcareous  particles  brought  up 
by  their  waters,  sometimes  covering  several 
acres  and  50  or  60  ft.  high.  Hot  and  cold 
springs  are  often  found  in  close  proximity  to 
each  other.  The  most  common  mineral  sub- 
stances found  in  the  waters  are  chlorides  of 
sodium  and  magnesium,  with  soda  in  various 
forms,  and  a  small  percentage  of  lime,  sulphur, 
silica,  and  iron.  Some  of  these  springs  pos- 
sess curative  properties.  The  most  remarkable 
group  of  warm  springs  in  the  state  is  that 
known  as  the  Steamboat  springs  in  Washoe 
co.,  about  16  m.  N.  of  Carson  City  and  4  m. 
E.  of  the  Sierra  Nevada.  They  occupy  a  rocky 
mound  about  ^  m.  long  and  J  m.  wide,  rising 
50  or  60  ft.  above  the  valley.  The  mound  is 
rent  longitudinally  by  a  number  of  irregular 
fissures  from  six  inches  to  a  foot  in  width, 
through  which  at  intervals  of  a  few  minutes 
volumes  of  hot  water  gurgle  up,  and  after  hiss- 
ing and  foaming  for  a  minute  or  two  subside. 
From  some  of  the  fissures  small  jets  of  steam 
constantly  escape,  accompanied  by  gas.  Be- 
sides the  fissures  there  are  pools  filled  with  hot 
water,  one  of  which,  occupying  a  basin  3  ft. 
in  diameter  and  1  ft.  high,  rises  and  falls  every 
six  minutes.  The  temperature  of  these  springs 
varies  greatly,  that  of  the  hottest  being  204°. 
The  air  here  smells  of  sulphur,  and  the  ground  in 
the  vicinity  is  impregnated  in  places  with  that 
mineral.  The  springs  emit  a  sound  like  that 
of  a  boiling  caldron,  and  when  first  discovered 
are  said  to  have  given  forth  a  puffing  noise 
like  that  of  a  steamboat,  whence  their  name. 
Some  of  the  cold  springs,  particularly  in  the 
E.  and  central  parts  of  the  state,  are  scarcely 
less  remarkable  for  their  size,  depth,  and  vol- 
ume of  water  discharged.  The  salt  deposits 
of  Nevada  are  extensive  and  important.  The 
largest  supply  at  present  is  obtained  from  the 
Sand  Springs  salt  marsh,  E.  of  the  Carson  sink 
in  Churchill  co.,  which  contains  a  bed  of  crys- 
tallized salt  of  unknown  thickness  below  sev- 
eral layers  of  clay.  It  is  obtained  only  from 
the  surface,  which  is  damp  and  marshy,  and  in 
some  places  covered  with  a  few  inches  of  water, 
and  is  coated  with  a  crystallized  incrustation 
of  salt  two  or  three  inches  thick.  When  re- 
moved it  immediately  begins  to  reform,  and 
a  fresh  supply  may  be  gathered  about  once  a 
month.  About  40  m.  N.  of  the  Sand  Springs 
marsh,  in  the  same  county,  is  a  similar  deposit, 
from  which  a  considerable  quantity  is  obtained. 
It  consists  of  an  incrustation  of  salt  an  inch  or 
two  thick,  overlying  a  stratum  of  blue  clay  18 
in.  thick,  filled  with  cubical  crystals  of  salt, 
and  resting  upon  an  unknown  depth  of  pure 
salt.  The  most  extensive  salt  field  of  the  state 
is  in  Silver  Peak  district,  Esmeralda  co.,  cov- 
ering an  area  of  40  or  50  sq.  m.,  much  of  which 
is  coated  with  a  thick  incrustation  of  pure 
salt  underlaid  by  seams  of  clay  and  a  crystal- 
lized mass  of  salt  of  unknown  thickness.  In 
Smoky  valley,  Nye  co.,  2  m.  from  the  line  of 
Lander  co.  and  32  m.  from  Austin,  is  a  salt 
marsh,  upon  which  an  incrustation  of  salt 


NEVADA 


265 


forms  in  spring,  which  is  gathered.  Salt  val- 
ley, 30  m.  E.  of  Humboldt  lake,  is  remarkable 
for  its  immense  salt  bed.  In  Lincoln  co.,  in 
the  S.  E.  part  of  the  state,  W.  of  the  Rio  Vir- 
gen,  are  the  "  salt  bluffs,"  500  ft.  above  the 
level  of  the  valley,  consisting  of  a  mass  of  pure 
rock  salt,  nearly  2  m.  long  and  1£  m.  wide,  of 
unknown  depth,  covered  with  a  coating  of 
sand  and  earth  from  a  foot  to  several  feet 
thick.  The  waters  of  the  Eagle  salt  marsh,  in 
Churchill  co.,  3  m.  from  Hot  Springs  on  the 
Central  Pacific  railroad,  contain  30  per  cent,  of 
salt,  which  is  obtained  by  evaporation.  There 
is  also  a  salt  marsh  in  Eureka  co.,  43  m.  N. 
of  the  town  of  that  name,  where  salt  is  made 
by  evaporation.  Borax  is  also  an  important 
product  of  the  state.  It  is  manufactured 
in  Churchill  co.  near  Hot  Springs,  and  E.  of 
the  sink  of  the  Carson,  from  boracic  acid  and 
the  borates  of  lime  and  soda,  which  occur  in 
the  alkali  flats.  The  richest  and  most  exten- 
sive deposits  of  the  salts  of  borax  (containing 
31  per  cent,  of  that  substance)  are  found  near 
Columbus,  in  Esmeralda  co.,  and  large  quanti- 
ties are  here  manufactured.  The  borates  of 
lime  and  soda  occur  between  two  layers  of 
salt,  the  lower  one  of  which  is  itself  underlaid 
by  a  bed  of  sulphate  of  soda  (Glauber's  salt). 
Soda  is  obtained  from  a  small  lake  25  m.  from 
Wadsworth,  on  the  Central  Pacific  railroad, 
in  the  central  part  of  the  state,  forming  on  the 
shore  in  a  nearly  pure  state  as  fast  as  removed. 
— The  general  geological  character  of  Nevada 
is  volcanic.  The  mountain  ranges  are  com- 
posed, first,  of  crumpled  and  uplifted  strata, 
from  the  late  Jurassic  down  to  the  azoic  pe- 
riod; secondly,  of  ancient  eruptive  rocks, 
which  accompany  the  Jurassic  upheaval ;  and 
thirdly,  of  modern  eruptive  rocks  belonging  to 
the  volcanic  family,  and  ranging  in  date  prob- 
ably from  as  early  as  the  late  miocene  up  to 
the  glacial  period.  The  valleys  are  filled  with 
quaternary  detritus,  the  result  of  erosion  from 
the  early  cretaceous  period  down  to  the  pres- 
ent time.  Syenite,  granite,  porphyry,  slate, 
and  quartzite  prevail  in  some  of  the  moun- 
tain ranges,  while  many  of  them  are  of  lime- 
stone, mingled  with  calcareous  spar ;  this  either 
rests  upon  or  alternates  with  hard  and  compact 
grits  and  quartzite.  In  many  of  the  cafions 
are  found  bowlders  of  serpentine,  conglom- 
erate, talcose  slate,  fine  gray  granite,  coarse 
red,  crystalline  white,  and  metamorphic  sand- 
stone, gypsum,  pebbles  of  alabaster,  and  vari- 
ous kinds  of  limestone.  Marble  of  different 
textures  is  found  in  various  localities.  The 
volcanic  action  is  indicated  by  the  presence 
of  lava,  obsidian,  scoria,  and  sulphur.  In  the 
mountains  of  the  Colorado  basin  limestone 
predominates,  besides  which  are  found  granite, 
syenite,  serpentine,  arenaceous  and  chloritic 
slates,  all  scored  and  marked  by  dikes  and 
overflows  of  trachytic  lavas  and  basaltic  trap 
rock.  Where  granite  and  gneiss  (which  are 
the  prevailing  rock  formations  of  the  Sierra 
Nevada)  occur  here,  they  are  for  the  most  part 


hidden  by  porphyries,  greenstone,  amygdaloid, 
basalt,  obsidian,  and  other  rocks  of  igneous 
origin.  Traces  of  coal  of  different  varieties, 
but  generally  of  inferior  quality,  have  been 
found  in  various  localities,  but  it  has  not  been 
successfully  mined,  and  is  not  known  to  exist 
in  valuable  quantities.  Seams  of  coal  of  su- 
perior quality  have  recently  been  discovered 
in  the  Pancake  mountains  in  White  Pine  co., 
15  m.  from  Hamilton,  but  to  what  extent  they 
can  be  made  available  is  yet  undetermined. 
Kaolin  and  other  clays,  useful  in  the  manufac- 
ture of  pottery  and  fire  brick,  mineral  pig- 
ments, nitre,  and  alum  are  found.  Copper  oc- 
curs in  Churchill  co.,  E.  of  the  lower  Carson 
sink ;  in  Battle  Mountain  and  Bolivia  districts, 
Humboldt  co.,  where  several  mines  are  in  ope- 
ration ;  and  between  the  forks  of  Walker  river. 
Rich  lead  and  copper  ores  exist  in  Washoe  co., 
and  copper  and  iron  are  found  in  Robinson 
district,  White  Pine  co.,  45  m.  E.  of  Hamilton. 
Veins  of  antimony  are  worked  in  Battle  Moun- 
tain district.  These  metals,  which  are  also 
found  in  other  parts  of  the  state,  and  cinna- 
bar, manganese,  plumbago,  magnesia,  plati- 
num, zinc,  tin,  nickel,  cobalt,  and  arsenic,  gen- 
erally occur  in  connection  with  the  precious 
metals.  Gold  and  silver  are  commonly  found 
associated  with  each  other,  gold  predominating 
in  the  Antelope  district,  Churchill  co. ;  in  Tus- 
carora  district,  on  the  head  waters  of  the 
Owyhee  river ;  in  Gold  Mountain  district,  Es- 
meralda co. ;  in  Sacramento  district,  and  in 
some  of  the  mines  of  Sierra  district,  Humboldt 
co. ;  and  in  some  other  places.  But  the  great 
wealth  of  Nevada  is  in  its  silver  mines,  which 
exist  in  nearly  every  section.  The  richest 
deposit  of  silver  in  the  state,  if  not  in  the 
world,  is  the  Comstock  lode,  on  the  E.  side  of 
Mt.  Davidson,  in  Storey  co.,  and  partly  under 
the  towns  of  Virginia  and  Gold  Hill.  Its  ores 
contain  about  one  third  in  value  of  gold  and 
two  thirds  of  silver.  The  lode  has  been  traced 
on  the  surface  27,000  ft.,  and  has  been  actually 
explored  for  19,000  ft.,  within  which  space  the 
principal  mines  are  situated.  It  has  been 
opened  to  a  depth  of  2,000  ft.  New  deposits 
were  discovered  toward  the  close  of  1874, 
which  are  believed  to  be  of  incalculable  value. 
A  tunnel,  known  as  the  Sutro  tunnel,  is  in 
progress,  designed  to  drain  the  mines  and  oth- 
erwise facilitate  operations  on  the  lode.  ^  It 
commences  at  a  point  1^  m.  from  Carson  river 
and  3£  m.  below  Dayton,  and  runs  N.  W.  to  the 
Savage  mine,  a  distance  of  20,178  ft.,  where  its 
depth  will  be  1,922  ft.  At  the  close  of  1874  it 
had  reached  a  distance  of  8,250  ft.,  and  was  pro- 
gressing at  the  rate  of  7  ft.  a  day.  Next  to 
those  of  the  Comstock  lode,  the  most  produc- 
tive silver  mines  are  in  the  region  near  Eureka, 
in  the  E.  central  portion  of  the  state,  and  in 
the  Ely  district,  near  Pioche,  Lincoln  co.,  in 
the  S.  E.  The  White  Pine  region  in  the  E. 
part  of  the  state,  which  after  the  discovery 
of  the  mines  in  1868  was  the  scene  of  great 
excitement,  now  yields  comparatively  small 


266 


NEVADA 


returns.  The  bullion  product  of  the  state 
since  the  opening  of  the  mines,  according  to 
E.  "W.  Baymond,  United  States  commissioner 
of  mining  statistics,  has  been  as  follows: 


YEARS. 

ENTIRE  PRODUCT  OF  THE  STATE. 

Separate 
product  of  the 
Comstock  lode. 

Gold. 

Silver. 

Total. 

1861  . 

$600,000 

$1,400,000 

$2,000,000 

$1,500,000 

1802  . 

2,500,000 

4,500,000 

7,000,000 

6,000,000 

1863  . 

4,000,000 

8,500,000 

12,500,000 

12,000,000 

1S64  . 

5,000,000 

11,000,000 

16,000,000 

14,500,000 

1865  . 

4,750,000 

11,250,000 

16,000,000 

14,500,000 

1866  . 

4,000,000 

9,000,000 

13,000,000 

12,000,000 

186T. 

4,500,000 

11,500,000 

16,000,000 

13,600,000 

1868  . 

2,800,000 

10,500,000 

18,300,000 

8,500,000 

1869. 

2,500,000 

11,500,000 

14,000,000 

7,550,000 

1870. 

2,800,000 

13,200,000 

16,000,000 

8,500,000 

1871  . 

3,780,000 

18,700,000 

22,480,000 

11,350,000 

1872  . 

6,000,000 

19,550,000 

25,550,000 

14,000,000 

1873  . 

10,000,000 

25,250,000 

85,250,000 

22,000,000 

1874. 

A  ren^ft 

10,000,000 

25,500,000 

85,500,000 

23,000,000 

Aggre- 
gate. 

$63,280,000 

$181,350,000 

$244,580,000 

$169,000,000 

The  valus  of  the  bullion  product  of  Nevada 
since  1871  has  exceeded  that  of  California. 
The  United  States  census  of  1870  (admitted  to 
be  incomplete)  returns  139  mines,  having  44 
steam  engines  of  2,780  horse  power  and  2 
water  wheels  of  50  horse  power ;  hands  em- 
ployed, 2,866  (809  above  and  2,057  below 
ground)  ;  capital  invested,  $32,253,400 ;  wages 
paid  during  the  year,  $2,900,872;  value  of 
materials  used,  $1,636,865  ;  of  products,  $11,- 
166,452.  Of  the  mines,  91  were  quartz  mines 
of  silver,  46  quartz  mines  of  gold  and  silver,  1 
copper,  and  1  lead.  The  number  of  quartz- 
crushing  mills  in  1872,  according  to  the  report 
of  the  state  mineralogist,  was  162 ;  number 
of  smelting  furnaces,  16;  number  of  stamps, 
1,904;  daily  capacity  in  tons,  5,183.  These 
numbers  include  those  idle  as  well  as  those 
in  operation.  (See  SILVEE.)  The  amount  of 
bullion  from  Nevada  deposited  at  the  United 
States  mints  and  assay  offices  to  June  30, 1874, 
was  $17,044,166  42,  of  which  $13,492,414  79 
was  silver  and  $3,551,751  63  gold.  A  mint 
was  established  at  Carson  City  in  1870,  at 
which  the  deposits  of  gold  from  all  sources  to 
Dec.  31, 1874,  amounted  to  $14,093,487  86;  of 
silver,  to  $14,109,017  19;  total,  $28,202,505  05. 
— The  climate  is  in  general  comparatively  mild, 
the  summers  not  warmer  than  E.  of  the  Rocky 
mountains,  and  the  winters  less  severe  than  in 
New  England,  little  snow  falling  except  on  the 
mountains.  In  the  north  and  interior  the  aver- 
age summer  temperature  at  noon  is  90°,  fall- 
ing to  70°  at  night.  In  the  severest  weather 
in  winter  the  thermometer  ranges  from  0°  to 
—15°  or  —20°.  In  the  southeast  the  winters 
are  milder,  frosts  being  rare  in  the  valleys,  and 
the  summers  hotter ;  the  thermometer  in  May 
and  June  ranges  from  95°  to  115°.  Little  rain 
falls,  artificial  irrigation  being  necessary  to  ag- 
riculture, and  thunder  and  lightning,  though 
more  frequent  than  in  California,  are  rare.  In 
the  north  and  west  the  wet  season  lasts  from 
January  to  May,  when  there  are  slight,  rain- 
falls, while  occasional  showers  occur  in  the 


south  and  east  during  the  summer  months. 
Cloud  bursts,  which  precipitate  large  quantities 
of  water,  and  often  do  much  damage,  are  not 
infrequent ;  and  sand  storms  and  sand  clouds  or 
pillars,  the  latter  formed  after  the  manner  of 
water  spouts,  are  common  on  the  plains,  where 
also  mirage  is  of  frequent  occurrence.  The  air 
is  generally  pure  and  invigorating. — The  gen- 
eral appearance  of  Nevada  is  arid  and  barren. 
The  E.  slopes  of  the  Sierra  Nevada  within  the 
state  are  heavily  timbered  with  pine,  spruce, 
and  fir.  These  forests  constitute  the  only  lum- 
ber region  of  the  state,  and  are  fast  disappear- 
ing. The  other  mountain  ranges  are  bare  or 
thinly  wooded  with  dwarf  trees,  principally 
cedar  and  piflon  or  nut  pine,  with  mountain 
mahogany,  fir,  and  juniper  in  some  localities. 
The  White  Pine  mountains,  in  the  county  of 
the  same  name  in  the  E.  part  of  the  state,  con- 
tain some  good-sized  white  pine  and  white  fir, 
and  the  yellow  pine  on  the  E.  slope  of  the 
Spring  mountains  in  the  Colorado  basin  attains 
a  considerable  size.  The  open  plains  and  nar- 
row valleys  are  destitute  of  wood,  except  where 
traversed  by  considerable  streams,  along  which 
occur  scattered  cottonwoods,  copses  of  willows, 
birch,  wild  cherry,  &c.,  mostly  of  small  size 
and  little  value.  With  these  are  often  found 
rose,  currant,  gooseberry,  and  other  bushes, 
and  varieties  of  wild  vines.  The  plains  gen- 
erally produce  only  sand  grass  and  sage  (arte- 
misia),  while  the  watered  valleys  contain  mead- 
ow land,  and  most  of  the  mountain  ranges  are 
more  or  less  clothed  with  bunch  grass.  But 
in  some  sections  valleys,  plains,  and  mountains 
are  equally  destitute  of  wood,  and  but  scantily 
supplied  with  grass  and  water,  the  latter  where 
it  occurs  being  often  so  impregnated  with  min- 
eral substances  as  to  be  unwholesome,  or  so 
warm  as  to  be  unfit  for  immediate  use.  Some 
of  the  more  extended  plains  are  so  barren  as 
to  receive  the  popular  designation  of  "  deserts," 
among  which  may  be  mentioned  those  adjacent 
to  the  sinks  of  the  Humboldt  and  Carson,  the 
vicinity  of  the  mud  lakes  in  the  northwest,  and 
the  region  stretching  from  the  Great  Salt  val- 
ley of  Churchill  co.  through  the  centre  of  the 
state,  and  spreading  out  into  the  sandy  wastes 
that  surround  Death  valley  in  California.  Most 
of  the  Colorado  basin  is  a  sandy  desert  yield- 
ing only  sage  brush,  greasewood,  and  cacti. 
The  mezquite  bush  is  also  found  in  this  part  of 
the  state.  Large  portions  of  Nevada  are  well 
adapted  to  grazing,  stock  in  most  parts  of  the 
state  requiring  neither  prepared  food  nor  shel- 
ter in  winter.  The  bunch  grass  of  the  moun- 
tains furnishes  food  in  summer,  and  in  winter 
the  herds  descend  to  the  plains  and  fatten  on 
the  sand  grass  and  white  sage.  The  sand  grass 
grows  in  bunches  to  the  height  of  a  foot,  and 
bears  an  abundance  of  small  black  seeds  that 
are  very  nutritious;  the  white  sage  is  eagerly 
sought  for  after  it  has  been  touched  by  the 
frost.  Much  of  the  most  barren  land  of  the 
state  possesses  the  elements  of  fertility,  and 
with  irrigation  would  be  productive.  The 


NEVADA 


267 


general  character  of  the  soil  and  contour  of  the 
surface  induce  the  belief  that  artesian  wells 
may  be  successfully  employed  for  this  purpose. 
At  present  agriculture  is  carried  on  only  in  the 
fertile  bottoms  of  the  principal  rivers,  and  at 
points  where  the  mountain  streams  afford  the 
means  of  irrigation.  The  principal  agricultural 
tracts  are  the  valleys  of  the  Truckee,  Humboldt 
(though  the  soil  here  is  somewhat  alkaline), 
Quin's,  King's  (25  m.  N.  W.  of  the  last),  Reese, 
Walker,  Carson,  and  Owyhee  rivers ;  Paradise 
valley,  watered  by  the  Little  Humboldt;  and 
Pahranegat  valley,  in  the  S.  E.  part  of  the 
state.  Some  of  the  valleys  not  intersected  by 
rivers  are  susceptible  of  cultivation.  Here  the 
mountain  streams  sink  upon  reaching  the  val- 
leys, and  make  their  way  underground  toward 
the  centre,  where,  meeting  with  obstructions 
or  gathering  in  natural  basins,  they  saturate 
the  earth  and  render  it  productive.  Around 
some  of  the  lakes  or  sinks  and  along  some  of 
the  streams  occur  patches  of  "tule  land,"  or 
ground  overflowed  at  high  water  and  covered 
with  a  large  species  of  bulrush.  When  drained 
these  tracts  form  excellent  meadows  and  may 
be  cultivated.  The  chief  crops  are  wheat,  bar- 
ley, oats,  hay,  potatoes,  and  other  vegetables. 
In  most  parts  of  the  state  the  nights  are  too 
cool  for  Indian  corn.  In  some  places  apple, 
pear,  peach,  and  plum  trees,  and  the  grape 
vine  have  been  set  out,  and  have  borne  well. 
Forest  and  shade  trees  have  also  been  planted 
at  a  few  points.  In  the  valley  of  the  Muddy, 
a  tributary  of  the  Eio  Virgen,  and  at  other 
points  in  the  Colorado  basin,  the  Mormons 
a,  few  years  since  had  settlements,  where 
they  raised  cotton,  sorghum,  tobacco,  melons, 
squashes,  beans,  Indian  corn  and  the  smaller 
grains,  oranges,  lemons,  peaches,  grapes,  apples, 
pears,  apricots,  figs,  pomegranates,  olives,  &c. 
Two  crops  a  year  may  be  raised  here,  wheat, 
barley,  and  oats  being  harvested  in  June,  after 
which  corn,  beans,  and  garden  vegetables  are 
planted.  The  principal  wild  animals  are  the 
hare,  coyote,  and  wolf.  The  beaver,  otter, 
marten,  fox,  fisher,  and  other  fur-bearing  ani- 
mals are  now  rarely  found.  The  sage  hen  is 
common,  and  geese,  ducks,  cranes,  and  pelicans 
are  numerous  around  the  lakes  and  sinks  at 
certain  seasons  of  the  year. — The  number  of 
acres  of  improved  land  in  farms  in  1870  was 
92,644;  number  of  farms,  1,036,  of  which  116 
contained  less  than  10  acres  each,  138  from  10 
to  20,  190  from  20  to  50,  150  from  50  to  100, 
242  from  100  to  500,  197  from  500  to  1,000, 
and  3  more  than  1,000;  cash  value  of  farms, 
$1,485,505 ;  of  farming  implements  and  machi- 
nery, $163,718;  amount  of  wages  paid  during 
the  year,  including  the  value  of  board,  $438,- 
350 ;  estimated  value  of  all  farm  productions, 
including  betterments  and  additions  to  stock, 
$1,659,713  ;  value  of  orchard  products,  $900 ; 
of  produce  of  market  gardens,  $31,235  ;  of  for- 
est products,  $36,700;  of  home  manufactures, 
$2,329;  of  animals  slaughtered  or  sold  for 
slaughter,  $104,471 ;  of  live  stock,  $1,445,449. 


The  productions  were  147,987  bushels  of  spring 
wheat,  80,879  of  winter  wheat,  310  of  rye, 
9,660  of  Indian  corn,  55,916  of  oats,  295,452 
of  barley,  985  of  buckwheat,  414  of  peas  and 
beans,  129,249  of  Irish  potatoes,  7  of  clover 
seed,  64  of  grass  seed,  25  Ibs.  of  tobacco,  27,029 
of  wool,  110,880  of  butter,  711  gallons  of  wine, 
63,850  of  milk  sold,  3,651  of  sorghum  molasses, 
106  bales  of  cotton,  and  33,855  tons  of  hay. 
The  live  stock  consisted  of  7,520  horses,  990 
mules  and  asses,  6,174  milch  cows,  2,443  work- 
ing oxen,  22,899  other  cattle,  11,018  sheep,  and 
3,295  swine.  There  were  also  6,880  horses  and 
9,453  cattle  not  on  farms.  The  number  of 
manufacturing  establishments  was  330,  having 
120  steam  engines  of  6,007  horse  power  and 
34  water  wheels  of  2,538  horse  power ;  num- 
ber of  hands  employed,  2,859;  capital  invest- 
ed, $5,127,790;  wages  paid  during  the  year, 
$2,498,473 ;  value  of  materials  used,  $10,315,- 
984;  of  products,  $15,870,539.  The  principal 
items  are  shown  in  the  following  table : 


INDUSTRIES. 

Number  of 
establish- 
ments. 

Capital 
Invested. 

Value 
of 
products. 

Blacksmithing  

83 

$81  000 

$141  800 

Boots  and  shoes 

22 

17300 

76770 

Carpentering  and  building  
Carriages  and  wagons.  . 

24 
3 

13,000 
21000 

96,400 
60000 

Clothing 

7 

9600 

42  600 

Confectionery 

3 

9000 

40500 

Flouring  and  grist  mill  products 
Furniture    .... 

7 

8 

47,200 
23900 

97,920 
89  600 

Gold  and  silver,  reduced  and  re- 
fined   

1 

50000 

260  000 

Iron  castings 

5 

101  000 

641  250 

Lead  pigs  

9 

438,000 

894,600 

Liquors,  malt  

IT 

83300 

134  980 

Lumber  sawed  .  . 

18 

193  500 

432  500 

Machinery  

6 

57000 

341,500 

Mineral  and  soda  waters  

3 

11000 

36000 

Quartz,  milled     . 

93 

3  869  500 

12119719 

Saddlery  and  harness  

9 

24,400 

60,200 

Sash,  doors,  and  blinds 

2 

21  000 

55000 

Tin,  copper,  and  sheet-iron  ware 
Wheelwrighting  

12 
12 

43,800 
11,550 

99,300 
70,500 

The  number  of  steam  engines  employed  in  the 
quartz  mills  was  84,  with  5,006  horse  power; 
water  wheels,  22,  with  2,168  horse  power; 
hands  employed,  1,637;  wages  paid  during  the 
year,  $1,693,135 ;  value  of  materials  used, 
$8,527,843.  There  are  527  m.  of  railroad  in 
the  state,  viz. :  Central  Pacific,  which  crosses 
it  from  E.  to  W.,  connecting  with  San  Fran- 
cisco and  the  Union  Pacific  railroad,  454  m. ; 
Virginia  and  Truckee,  from  Reno  on  the  Cen- 
tral Pacific  via  Carson  City  to  Virginia,  52  m., 
with  a  branch  of  1  m. ;  and  the  Pioche  and 
Bullionville,  between  those  two  points  in  Lin- 
coln co.,  20  m.  The  Eureka  and  Palisade  rail- 
road, from  Palisade  on  the  Central  Pacific  to 
Eureka,  82  m.,  is  to  be  completed  in  the  sum- 
mer of  1875.  There  is  one  bank  of  deposit, 
incorporated  under  state  law,  with  a  capital  of 
$100,000. — The  executive  power  is  vested  in  a 
governor  (salary  $6,000),  lieutenant  governor 
(ex  officio  adjutant  general  and  state  librarian), 
secretary  of  state,  treasurer,  comptroller,  sur- 
veyor general  and  land  register,  and  attorney 


268 


NEVADA 


general  (salary  $3,600  each),  elected  for  four 
years.  A  superintendent  of  public  instruction 
(salary  $2,000)  and  a  state  mineralogist  ($3,600) 
are  elected  for  the  same  term.  The  legislative 
authority  is  vested  in  a  senate  of  25  and  an 
assembly  of  50  members,  chosen  by  districts, 
senators  for  four  years  (half  retiring  biennially) 
and  assemblymen  for  two  years.  Members  of 
the  legislature  receive  $8  a  day  while  in  at- 
tendance and  40  cents  a  mile  in  going  to  and 
returning  from  the  seat  of  government.  Reg- 
ular sessions  cannot  exceed  60  days,  and  are 
held  biennially,  commencing  on  the  first  Mon- 
day in  January  of  odd  years.  The  judicial 
power  is  vested  in  a  supreme  court,  district 
courts,  and  justices  of  the  peace.  The  su- 
preme court  consists  of  a  chief  and  two  asso- 
ciate justices  (salary  $7,000  each),  elected  for 
six  years,  one  retiring  every  two  years.  The 
state  is  divided  into  nine  judicial  districts,  in 
each  of  which  a  district  judge  is  elected  for 
four  years.  Justices  of  the  peace  are  elected 
in  the  various  cities  and  townships  for  two 
years.  In  civil  cases  that  require  a  jury  three 
fourths  may  render  a  verdict.  The  right  of 
suffrage  is  conferred  by  the  constitution  upon 
all  white  male  citizens  of  the  United  States  of 
sound  mind  and  not  convicts,  who  have  at- 
tained the  age  of  21  years,  and  have  actually 
resided  in  the  state  six  months  and  in  the  dis- 
trict or  county  30  days  next  preceding  the 
election.  Under  the  federal  constitution  col- 
ored citizens  have  the  right  to  vote.  Gen- 
eral elections  occur  on  the  Tuesday  next  after 
the  first  Monday  of  November  of  even  years. 
Amendments  to  the  constitution  must  be  pro- 
posed by  two  successive  legislatures  and  adopt- 
ed by  the  people.  A  convention  to  revise  the 
constitution  may  be  called  by  a  two-thirds 
vote  of  each  house  of  the  legislature,  ratified 
by  a  vote  of  the  people.  The  circulation  of 
bank  notes  or  paper  of  any  kind  as  money, 
except  federal  currency  and  notes  of  banks 
authorized  by  congress,  is  prohibited.  In  the 
absence  of  special  agreement  the  rate  of  in- 
terest is  10  per  cent.,  but  any  rate  maybe  stip- 
ulated for  in  writing.  Nevada  is  entitled  to 
two  senators  and  one  representative  in  con- 
gress, and  therefore  has  three  votes  in  the 
electoral  college. — The  assessed  value  of  real 
estate  in  1870,  according  to  the  United  States 
census,  was  $14,594,722 ;  of  personal  property, 
$11,146,251 ;  total  assessed  value,  $25,740,973 ; 
total  true  value  of  property,  $31,134,012.  The 
total  taxation  was  $820,308,  of  which  $298,- 
411  was  state,  $498,062  county,  and  $23,835 
town,  city,  &c. ;  total  public  debt,  $1,986,093, 
of  which  $642,894  was  state,  $987,423  county, 
and  $355,776  town,  city,  &c.  The  state  debt 
includes  bonds  to  the  amount  of  $58,000  held 
by  the  school  fund ;  the  amount  of  the  interest 
and  sinking  fund  was  $86,121.  The  assessed 
value  of  property  for  1874,  according  to  the 
report  of  the  comptroller,  was:  real  estate, 
$14,125,578  01 ;  personal  estate,  $12,504,701 
-21;  total,  $26,630,279  22;  state  tax  thereon 


($1  25  on  $100),  $332,878  49  ;  county  tax, 
$562,555  46;  total  taxation  on  property,  $895,- 
433  95 ;  besides  which  a  state  tax  is  levied  on 
the  net  proceeds  of  mines,  at  the  same  rate  as 
the  state  tax  on  property.  A  poll  tax  of  $4, 
one  half  for  state  and  one  half  for  county  pur- 
poses, is  also  levied  on  each  male  resident  be- 
tween 21  and  60  years  of  age.  The  receipts 
into  the  state  treasury  during  1874  were  $570,- 
277,  viz. :  from  property  tax,  $275,369  65 ;  tax 
on  proceeds  of  mines,  $163,114  28;  state  poll 
tax,  $25,196  20;  gaming  licenses,  $16,756  23; 
fines,  $2,562  40;  state  prison,  $21,701  60;  sales 
of  state  lands,  $42,480  42 ;  the  rest  from  mis- 
cellaneous sources.  The  total  expenditures  du- 
ring the  same  period  amounted  to  $641,856  31, 
viz. :  for  salaries  and  contingencies  of  execu- 
tive department,  $61,012  27 ;  salaries  and  con- 
tingencies of  judicial  department,  $25,876 ;  state 
library,  $2,601  78;  support  of  state  prison,  in- 
cluding salaries  of  warden  and  deputy,  $64,090 
27 ;  charitable  purposes,  $38,478  29,  including 
$12,121  28  for  state  orphans'  home,  $25,429  36 
for  support  of  indigent  insane,  and  $927  65  of 
deaf  mutes  and  blind;  state  capitol,  $15,464  40; 
support  of  schools,  $30,510  79;  interest  on 
state  bonds,  $64,304  24;  purchase  of  United 
States  gold  bonds  for  investment,  $271,783  77 ; 
construction  of  new  prison  at  Eeno,  $50,601 
87;  state  university,  $1,479  38;  miscellaneous 
purposes,  $15,652  55.  The  balance  in  the 
treasury  on  Dec.  31,  1874,  was  $518,717  21 
($489,177  07  coin  and  $29,540  14  currency), 
viz. :  belonging  to  the  general  fund,  $322,335 
58;  school  funds,  $43,401  93;  interest  and 
sinking  funds,  $67,437  57;  university  funds, 
$30,316  10;  various  special  funds,  $55,226  03. 
The  state  debt  at  the  above  date  amounted  to 
$752,361  37,  viz. :  10  per  cent,  bonds  due  April 
1,  1881,  $160,000;  9£  per  cent,  bonds  due 
March  1,  1882,  $120,000;  9£  per  cent,  bonds 
due  March  1,  1887,  $380,000;  accrued  interest, 
$19,833  32 ;  outstanding  warrants,  $73,528  05. 
The  assets  were  as  follows :  state  bonds  belong- 
ing to  school  fund,  $104,000;  United  States 
bonds  belonging  to  school  fund,  $146,000 ;  Uni- 
ted States  bonds  belonging  to  sinking  fund, 
$100,000;  United  States  bonds  belonging  to 
university  fund,  $10,000  ;  accrued  interest, 
$10,853  33 ;  balance  in  treasury,  $518,717  21 ; 
total,  $889,570  54.  According  to  the  reports 
of  the  county  auditors  for  1874,  the  aggregate 
debt  of  the  counties  was  $1,296,208  48,  of 
which  $1,026,183  14  was  funded  and  $270,025 
34  floating ;  amount  of  cash  in  county  treasu- 
ries, $306,767  07;  estimated  value  of  property 
belonging  to  counties,  $444,175.  The  state  in- 
stitutions are  the  state  prison,  now  near  Car- 
son City ;  the  state  orphans'  home,  in  that  city ; 
and  the  state  university,  at  Elko.  New  prison 
buildings  are  in  course  of  construction  near 
Reno.  The  indigent  insane  are  supported  by 
the  state  at  a  private  institution  in  California, 
while  the  blind  and  deaf  mutes  are  provided 
for  at  the  California  state  institution. — The 
constitution  requires  the  legislature  to  estab- 


NEVADA 


269 


lish  a  uniform  system  of  common  schools,  and 
also  a  state  university  to  embrace  depart- 
ments of  agriculture,  mechanic  arts,  and  mi- 
ning. A  common  school  is  required  to  be 
maintained  for  at  least  six  months  of  each  year 
in  each  school  district.  The  school  law  vests 
the  general  control  of  the  schools  in  a  state 
board  of  education  consisting  of  the  governor, 
surveyor  general,  and  superintendent  of  public 
instruction  ;  a  county  superintendent  of  public 
schools  for  each  county,  elected  for  two  years ; 
and  a  board  of  trustees  of  three  or  five  mem- 
bers for  each  district,  elected  by  classes  for 
four  years.  By  an  act  of  1873  all  children  be- 
tween the  ages  of  8  and  14  years,  unless  other- 
wise educated,  are  required  to  attend  the  pub- 
lic schools  at  least  16  weeks  in  each  school 
year,  at  least  8  weeks  of  which  must  be  con- 
secutive. The  following  statistics  are  for  the 
year  ending  Aug.  31, 1874 :  number  of  children 
between  6  and  18  years  of  age,  6,315 ;  number 
of  school  districts,  71 ;  of  schools,  108  (2  high, 
12  grammar,  4  intermediate,  21  primary,  69  un- 
classified) ;  of  teachers,  115 ;  pupils  enrolled, 
4,811;  average  daily  attendance,  2,884;  aver- 
age duration  of  schools,  7£  months ;  total  re- 
ceipts for  school  purposes,  $126,093  97,  of 
which  $30,811  98  was  derived  from  state  ap- 
portionments, $81,945  24  from  county  taxes, 
$11,485  99  from  district  taxes,  $317  69  from 
rate  bills,  and  $1,533  07  from  miscellaneous 
sources ;  total  expenditure,  $124,301  64,  of 
which  $83,548  88  was  for  teachers'  wages, 
$22,241  05  for  sites,  buildings,  repairs,  and 
furniture,  and  $18,511  71  for  other  purposes; 
value  of  school  property,  $121,011 ;  amount  of 
permanent  school  fund,  $250,000.  The  state 
university  was  established  by  an  act  of  1873, 
and  the  preparatory  or  academic  department 
was  opened  in  October,  1874.  The  legislature 
in  1875  appropriated  $20,000  for  its  support. 
An  act  was  passed  at  the  same  session  provi- 
ding for  an  agricultural  college,  under  the  con- 
gressional land  grant  of  90,000  acres,  for  col- 
leges of  arts  and  mines,  and  for  a  normal 
school.  According  to  the  census  of  1870,  there 
were  314  libraries,  with  158,040  volumes,  of 
which  286  with  118,100  volumes  were  private. 
Of  those  not  private,  1  was  the  state  library 
with  20,000  volumes ;  1  court  and  law,  250 ; 
16  Sabbath  school,  5,950;  2  church,  600;  8 
circulating,  15,140.  The  number  of  newspa- 
pers was  12,  issuing  2,572,000  copies  a  year, 
and  having  a  circulation  of  11,300;  5  were 
daily,  2  semi-weekly,  and  5  weekly.  The  num- 
ber of  church  organizations  was  32  (5  Episco- 
pal, 11  Methodist,  1  Mormon,  5  Presbyterian, 
and  10  Roman  Catholic),  having  19  edifices, 
with  8,000  sittings  and  property  to  the  value 
of  $212,000. — The  region  within  the  limits  of 
Nevada  forms  part  of  the  Mexican  cession  of 
1848.  The  territory  of  Nevada  was  created 
by  act  of  congress  of  March  2,  1861,  from  a 
portion  of  Utah,  and  embraced  the  region 
bounded  N.  by  the  present  boundary  of  the 
state,  E.  by  the  116th  meridian,  S.  by  the  37th 


parallel,  and  "W.  by  California.  A  portion  of 
California  was  included  by  the  act  within  the 
limits  of  the  territory,  but  the  consent  of  that 
state  to  its  transfer  was  refused.  By  the  act 
of  July  14,  1862,  a  further  portion  of  Utah 
was  added,  extending  the  E.  boundary  to  the 
115th  meridian.  The  act  of  March  21,  1864, 
enabled  the  inhabitants  to  form  a  state  govern- 
ment, and,  a  constitution  having  been  framed 
and  ratified  by  the  people,  Nevada  was  de- 
clared a  state  by  a  proclamation  of  the  presi- 
dent of  Oct.  31  of  that  year.  A  third  portion 
of  Utah  was  added  by  the  act  of  May  5,  1866, 
extending  the  E.  boundary  to  the  114th  me- 
ridian, and  by  the  same  act  the  portion  of  the 
state  S.  of  the  37th  parallel  was  added  from 
Arizona.  The  first  settlements  within  the 
present  limits  of  the  state  were  made  by  Mor- 
mons in  Carson,  Eagle,  and  Washoe  valleys  in 
the  west,  near  the  present  towns  of  Genoa  and 
Carson  City,  in  1848,  and  the  two  or  three  fol- 
lowing years.  Gold  was  discovered  in  1849  in 
the  same  vicinity,  near  the  site  of  the  present 
town  of  Dayton,  and  attracted  some  miners; 
but  at  the  time  of  the  discovery  of  silver  in 
1859  the  population  did  not  exceed  1,000. 
From  this  period  the  growth  of  Nevada  may 
be  dated.  Within  two  years  the  mines  were 
fairly  in  operation,  the  number  of  inhabitants 
having  risen  to  upward  of  16,000  in  August, 
1861.  The  first  discoveries  embraced  the  Corn- 
stock  lode  and  other  mines  in  the  west. 

NEVADA.  I.  A  S.  "W.  county  of  Arkansas, 
formed  since  the  census  of  1870  from  portions 
of  Columbia  and  Ouachita  counties,  bounded 
N.  by  the  Little  Missouri  river,  a  branch  of 
the  Washita,  and  drained  by  several  tributaries 
of  that  stream  and  of  Red  river ;  area,  625  sq. 
m.  The  surface  is  rolling  and  generally  well 
timbered.  The  valleys  contain  much  produc- 
tive soil.  Capital,  Mount  Moriah.  II.  A  N. 
E.  county  of  California,  bordering  on  Nevada, 
and  drained  by  Middle  and  South  Tuba  riv- 
ers; area,  1,026  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  19,134, 
of  whom  2,627  were  Chinese.  The  surface  is 
generally  mountainous,  especially  toward  the 
east,  which  is  traversed  by  the  Sierra  Nevada 
range.  One  half  of  the  area  is  estimated  to 
be  occupied  by  mineral  lands.  Gold  mining  is 
the  principal  industry,  and  agriculture  receives 
little  attention,  though  there  is  much  arable 
land,  and  timber  is  abundant.  The  county 
contains  several  of  the  richest  and  most  pro- 
ductive quartz  lodes  in  the  state,  and  the  pla- 
cer diggings  are  not  surpassed  by  any  other. 
The  number  of  mines  in  1870  was  80,  viz. :  25 
hydraulic,  40  placer,  and  15  quartz.  The  Cen- 
tral Pacific  railroad  passes  along  the  S.  border. 
The  chief  productions  in  1870  were  5,548  bush- 
els of  potatoes,  10,183  gallons  of  wine,  50,741 
Ibs.  of  butter,  and  4,804  tons  of  hay.  There 
were  786  horses,  1,148  milch  cows,  1,156  oth- 
er cattle,  504  sheep,  and  1,137  swine  on  farms; 
1  manufactory  of  boots  and  shoes,  3  of  iron 
castings,  2  of  machinery,  4  of  sash,  doors,  and 
blinds,  6  of  tin,  copper,  and  sheet-iron  ware, 


270 


NEVERS 


NEW  ALBANY 


1  pork-packing  establishment,  12  breweries,  1 
flour  mill,  and  10  saw  mills.  Capital,  Nevada. 

NEVERS,  a  town  of  France,  capital  of  the 
department  of  Nievre,  on  the  Loire,  at  the 
junction  of  the  Nievre,  130  m.  S.  S.  E.  of 
Paris;  pop.  in  1872,  22,276.  Caesar  mentions 
the  town  in  his  "Commentaries"  under  the 
name  of  Noviodunum.  It  was  formerly  the 
capital  of  the  province  of  Nivernais.  In  the 
middle  ages  it  was  ruled  by  counts  and  after- 
ward by  dukes,  and  was  annexed  to  the  French 
crown  in  the  17th  century.  It  is  the  seat  of  a 
bishop,  and  has  a  lyceum,  an  episcopal  semi- 
nary, a  theatre,  and  a  picture  gallery.  The  old 
city  walls  and  towers  still  remain.  The  cathe- 
dral of  St.  Cyr  is  much  dilapidated,  but  con- 
tains a  famous  flamboyant  doorway  and  a  re- 
markable spiral  staircase.  The  palace  of  jus- 
tice, formerly  that  of  the  dukes  of  Nevers,  is 
a  stately  building,  and  the  hotel  de  ville  con- 
tains a  museum  of  Gallo-Roman  antiquities  and 
pottery.  This  industry  employs  more  than  700 
persons.  The  iron  works  are  extensive,  and 
there  is  a  cannon  f oundery  here  for  the  navy. 

NEVIANSK,  a  town  of  Russia,  in  the  govern- 
ment of  Perm,  near  the  source  of  the  Neiva  in 
the  Ural  mountains,  47  m.  N.  of  Yekaterin- 
burg ;  pop.  about  20,000.  It  is  the  centre  of 
one  of  the  oldest  and  most  important  mining 
regions,  in  the  midst  of  almost  continuous  for- 
ests. It  contains  a  castle,  built  early  in  the 
18th  century  by  Prince  Demidoff,  with  a  fine 
tower  which  once  served  as  a  refinery  for  sil- 
ver from  the  Altai.  Excellent  bar  iron  and 
lacquered  ware  are  made. 

KEVIN,  John  Williamson,  an  American  clergy- 
man, born  in  Franklin  co.,  Pa.,  Feb.  20,  1803. 
He  graduated  at  Union  college  in  1821,  studied 
theology  at  Princeton,  and  continued  there 
afterward  as  assistant  teacher  and  wrote  "  Bib- 
lical Antiquities"  (2  vols.,  1828).  He  was 
licensed  to  preach  in  1828.  From  1829  to  1839 
he  was  assistant  teacher  and  professor  of  He- 
brew and  Biblical  literature  in  the  Presbyterian 
theological  seminary  at  Allegheny  City,  and  in 
1833-'4  edited  "  The  Friend,"  a  weekly  literary 
journal.  In  1840  he  removed  to  Mercersburg, 
and  took  charge  of  the  theological  seminary 
there;  and  in  1841  he  became  also  president 
of  Marshall  college.  In  1843  he  published 
"  The  Anxious  Bench,"  which  was  translated 
into  German,  and  also  a  translation  of  Dr. 
Schaff's  "Principle  of  Protestantism,"  with  an 
introduction.  In  1846  he  published  "  The  Mys- 
tical Presence;"  in  1847,  "The  History  and 
Genius  of  the  Heidelberg  Catechism;"  in  1848, 
"  Antichrist,  or  the  Spirit  of  Sect  and  Schism." 
From  January,  1849,  to  January,  1853,  he  edited 
the  "Mercersburg  Review."  At  the  close  of 
1851  he  resigned  his  situation  as  professor  in 
the  theological  seminary,  continuing  to  act  as 
president  of  Marshall  college  until  its  removal 
to  Lancaster  in  1853.  He  was  the  originator 
and  exponent  of  what  is  called  the  "Mercers- 
burg system  of  theology,"  which  arose  on  the 
occasion  of  some  revival  measures  in  1843.  It 


endeavored  to  restore  the  Protestant  sacra- 
mental faith  of  the  16th  century,  and  opposed 
sects  as  a  rejection  of  the  actual  incarnation  of 
Christ  in  his  church.  The  church  is  the  body 
of  Christ,  and  hence  divine  and  an  object  of 
faith;  its  ministers  hold  a  divine  power  by 
apostolic  succession;  and  its  sacraments  are 
seals  as  well  as  signs  of  grace.  Baptism  is  for 
the  remission  of  sins ;  and  Christ  is  really,  if 
not  physically,  present  in  the  eucharist. 

NEVIS,  an  island  of  the  British  West  Indies, 
in  the  Leeward  group,  2  m.  from  the  S.  E.  ex- 
tremity of  St.  Christopher,  in  lat.  17°  14'  N., 
Ion.  62°  40'  W. ;  area,  45  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1871, 
11,735.  With  the  exception  of  a  narrow  circle 
of  fertile  land  bordering  upon  the  coast,  the 
whole  island  may  be  said  to  consist  of  a  single 
mountain  2,500  ft.  high,  the  upper  parts  of 
which  are  not  susceptible  of  cultivation.  The 
arable  lands,  comprising  in  all  only  6,000  acres, 
are  well  cultivated.  Sugar  is  the  staple,  and 
with  molasses  and  rum  forms  the  bulk  of  the 
exports.  The  exports  in  1870  amounted  to 
£64,119,  the  imports  to  £54,286.  The  public 
revenue  in  1872  was  £7,776,  the  expenditures 
£10,477.  The  island  is  governed  by  a  presi- 
dent, an  executive  council,  and  a  legislative 
assembly  of  11  members.  Charlestown,  on  the 
S.  W.  coast,  is  the  capital  and  principal  town, 
and  has  a  good  roadstead.  Nevis  was  colonized 
by  English  emigrants  from  St.  Christopher  in 
1628,  was  taken  by  the  French  in  1706,  and 
restored  by  the  peace  of  Utrecht;  it  was 
taken  by  them  again  in  1782,  but  restored  by 
the  peace  of  1783.  It  was  the  birthplace  of 
Alexander  Hamilton. 

NEW  ALBANY,  a  city,  port  of  delivery,  and  the 
capital  of  Floyd  co.,  Indiana,  on  the  Ohio  river, 
2  m.  below  the  falls,  and  opposite  the  W.  end 
of  Louisville,  Ky.,  100  m.  S.  of  Indianapolis; 
pop.  in  1850,  8,181;  in  1860,  12,647;  in  1870, 
15,396;  in  1874,  according  to  local  authorities, 
22,246.  It  is  finely  situated,  with  wide  streets, 
at  right  angles,  upon  two  benches  or  plains 
that  sweep  N.  by  a  gentle  rise  from  the  river. 
To  the  west  and  northwest  is  a  range  of  hills 
from  300  to  500  ft.  in  height,  called  the  Knobs. 
The  chief  public  buildings  are  the  court  house, 
erected  at  a  cost  of  $140,000 ;  a  fine  city  hall ; 
the  opera  house,  costing  $100,000  and  capable 
of  accommodating  2,500 ;  the  masonic  and  odd 
fellows'  halls ;  three  large  hotels ;  the  railroad 
depot;  and  10  large  public  school  buildings. 
The  fair  grounds  in  the  N.  E.  suburb  comprise 
72  acres,  and  contain  a  race  course  and  appro- 
priate buildings.  There  are  four  cemeteries  in 
the  vicinity  of  the  city,  one  of  them  national. 
The  railroads  now  in  operation  that  terminate 
at  New  Albany  are  the  Louisville,  New  Al- 
bany, and  Chicago,  the  Jeffersonville,  Madi- 
son, and  Indianapolis,  and  the  Louisville  and 
New  Albany,  the  last  passing  over  the  bridge 
at  the  falls.  A  steam  ferry  plies  between  the 
city  and  the  W.  end  of  Louisville,  and  a  bridge 
across  the  Ohio  at  this  point  is  projected.  The 
Ohio  river,  within  a  distance  of  two  milea 


NEWARK 


271 


above  New  Albany,  has  a  fall  of  29  ft.,  afford- 
ing the  finest  water  power  in  the  west.  The 
river  trade  amounts  to  from  $15,000,000  to 
$20,000,000  a  year.  A  large  wholesale  busi- 
ness is  carried  on.  Manufacturing  is  the  most 
important  interest  of  the  city,  embracing  142 
large  establishments,  which  in  1873  employed 


., 


3,681  hands  and  a  capital  of  $7,947,500,  and 
produced  goods  to  the  value  of  $24,486,574. 
Cottons,  woollens,  glass,  machinery,  and  iron, 
brass,  and  wood  work  of  all  kinds,  are  pro- 
duced. The  works  of  the  star  glass  company 
with  their  buildings  and  necessary  grounds 
cover  15  acres ;  they  are  the  most  extensive 


New  Albany. 


glass  works  in  the  TJnited  States,  and  the  only 
ones  producing  polished  plate  glass.  There 
are  two  large  pork-packing  establishments, 
and  six  banks  (three  national),  with  an  aggre- 
gate capital  of  $1,500,000. — New  Albany  is 
divided  into  six  wards,  and  is  governed  by  a 
mayor  and  a  common  council  of  two  members 
from  each  ward.  It  has  an  excellent  fire  de- 
partment, two  public  market  houses,  a  street 
railroad,  and  is  lighted  with  gas.  The  as- 
sessed value  of  property  is  $10,000,000,  about 
a  third  of  the  real  value.  The  public  schools 
are  graded  and  embrace  53  departments,  in- 
cluding high  schools  for  both  sexes.  De  Pauw 
female  college  (Methodist)  was  organized  in 
1846  and  chartered  in  1866.  In  1873-'4  it 
had  6  instructors,  101  students,  and  a  library 
of  1,000  volumes.  A  newspaper  with  daily  and 
weekly  editions  is  published.  There  are  30 
churches,  viz. :  3  Baptist,  1  Christian,  2  Epis- 
copal, 2  Lutheran,  13  Methodist,  5  Presbyte- 
rian, 2  Roman  Catholic,  1  United  Brethren,  and 
1  Universalist. — New  Albany  was  laid  out  in 
1813,  and  was  incorporated  as  a  city  in  1839. 

NEWARK,  a  port  of  entry  and  the  chief  city 
of  New  Jersey,  capital  of  Essex  co.,  situated 
on  the  W.  bank  of  the  Passaic  river,  4  m. 
above  its  entrance  into  Newark  bay,  and  9 
m.  W.  of  New  York;  pop.  in  1840*  17,290; 
in  1845,  25,433;  in  1850,  38,894;  in  1855, 
51,711 ;  in  1860,  71,941 ;  in  1865,  87,428 ;  in 
595  VOL.  XIT.— 18 


1870,  105,059,  of  whom  69,175  were  natives 
and  35,884  foreigners,  including  15,873  Ger- 
mans, 12,481  Irish,  and  4,041  English.  The 
number  of  families  was  21,631 ;  of  dwellings, 
14,350.  The  city  is  divided  into  15  wards,  is 
for  the  most  part  regularly  laid  out,  and  em- 
braces an  area  of  about  17^  sq.  m.  The  streets 
are  generally  wide  and  airy,  and  are  bordered 
with  many  fine  residences.  The  main  street, 
called  Broad  street,  is  very  spacious  and  hand- 
some, 132  ft.  wide  and  2£  m.  long,  shaded  with 
majestic  elms,  adorned  with  numerous  tasteful 
edifices,  and  skirting  in  its  course  Washington, 
Military,  and  South  parks,  which  are  embow- 
ered with  lofty  elms.  There  are  about  140 
m.  of  improved  streets,  of  which  nearly  100 
m.  are  graded,  and  more  than  30  m.  paved. 
The  city  is  supplied  with  water  collected  from 
a  large  number  of  springs  on  the  neighboring 
high  grounds  into  a  reservoir,  and  thence  dis- 
tributed by  pipes.  It  is  also  supplied  with 
gas,  and  has  a  system  of  sewerage,  about  30  m. 
of  sewers  having  been  completed.  There  are 
four  cemeteries  within  the  limits  of  the  city : 
Woodland,  Fairmount,  Mount  Pleasant,  and 
the  Catholic  cemetery.  Mount  Pleasant,  the 
oldest,  occupies  40  acres  of  ground  on  ^the 
Passaic  river,  and  is  elegantly  laid  out  in  wind- 
ing avenues  thickly  shaded  by  ornamental 
trees  and  flowering  shrubbery.  Besides  the 
churches,  the  most  noteworthy  buildings  are 


272 


NEWARK 


the  custom  house,  city  hall,  and  several  of  the 
banks  and  insurance  buildings.  Newark  has 
ample  means  of  communication  with  New 
York,  Philadelphia,  and  the  surrounding  coun- 
try, railroad  trains  running  to  New  York  every 
few  minutes  through  the  day.  The  lines  are 
the  New  Jersey,  Newark  and  New  York,  Mor- 
ris and  Essex,  Newark  and  Elizabeth,  Paterson 
and  Newark,  Newark  and  Bloomfield,  Newark 
and  Hudson,  Newark  and  Clinton,  and  Mont- 
clair  railroads.  The  Morris  canal  brings  the 
coal  of  Lehigh  valley  through  the  heart  of 
the  city.  Several  lines  of  horse  cars  run  to 
various  parts  of  the  city  and  to  the  adjoining 
towns.  The  value  of  imports  into  the  cus- 
toms district  from  foreign  countries  for  the 
year  ending  June  30,  1874,  was  $19,020;  of 
exports  to  foreign  countries,  $83,997.  The 
number  of  entrances  in  the  foreign  trade  was 
35,  with  an  aggregate  tonnage  of  4,562 ;  clear- 
ances, 42,  of  7,399  tons ;  number  of  entrances 
in  the  coastwise  trade,  53,  of  13,153  tons ; 
clearances,  46,  of  11,537  tons.  The  number 
of  vessels  belonging  in  the  district  was  136,  of 
12,158  tons,  viz. :  49  sailing  vessels,  2,604  tons; 
26  steamers,  2,612  tons;  53  canal  boats,  5,563 
tons;  and  8  barges,  1,379  tons. — Newark  is 
noted  for  the  extent  and  variety  of  its  manu- 
factures, among  the  most  important  of  which 
are  jewelry,  saddlery  and  harness  materials, 
felt  and  silk  hats,  patent  leather  and  morocco, 
carriages,  varnish,  ale  and  lager  beer,  trunks 
and  valises,  chemicals,  cotton  thread,  clothing, 
boots  and  shoes,  agricultural  implements,  fer- 
tilizers, machinery,  and  sewing  silk.  The  smelt- 
ing and  refining  of  gold,  silver,  and  lead  ores  is 
also  a  prominent  interest.  The  latest  and  most 
complete  returns  of  the  trade  and  manufac- 
tures of  the  city  (for  the  year  ending  Dec.  31, 
1871)  embrace  1,015  establishments,  employing 
29,174  hands;  capital  invested,  $34,407,670; 
wages  paid,  $14,767,257;  value  of  products, 
$72,879,036.  The  business  of  banking  was 
started  in  Newark  in  1805.  There  are  now  11 
banks,  with  an  aggregate  capital  of  $5,783,500 ; 
5  savings  banks  and  3  trust  companies,  with  as- 
sets amounting  to  $21,572,629  35 ;  3  life  insu- 
rance companies,  with  $30,141,486  54  assets; 
and  16  fire  insurance  companies,  with  $5,681,- 
426  71  assets.  The  mutual  benefit  life  insu- 
rance company,  one  of  the  most  prosperous  in 
the  country,  has  upward  of  $28,500,000  assets. 
The  total  capital  and  assets  of  the  financial 
institutions  amount  to  $63,179,042  60.  There 
is  a  board  of  trade  with  150  members,  charter- 
ed in  1869. — The  city  is  governed  by  a  mayor 
and  a  board  of  30  aldermen,  and  has  an  efficient 
fire  department  and  an  effective  policy  force. 
The  receipts  into  the  city  treasury  for  the  year 
ending  Dec.  31,  1873,  including  a  balance  on 
hand  at  the  beginning  of  the  period  of  $439,- 
635  62,  were  $6,857,788  62 ;  disbursements,  $6,- 
577,721  78 ;  balance,  $280,066  85.  The  total 
debt,  less  sinking  fund,  on  Dec.  31,  1874,  was 
$5,599,511  51;  assets  of  the  city,  $5,503,156 
78.  The  assessed  valuation  of  property  has 


been  as  follows:  1866,  $50,866,700;  1867, 
$54,917,200;  1868,  $62,794,957;  1869,  $72,- 
058,436;  1870,  $77,015,279;  1871,  $86,985,- 
341;  1872,  $97,330,341;  1873,  $102,047,840; 
1874,  $105,623,710.  The  principal  charitable 
organizations  are  the  city  reform  school,  Essex 
county  home  for  the  insane,  Newark  orphan 
asylum,  German  hospital,  city  dispensary,  boys' 
lodging  house  and  children's  aid  society,  hos- 
pital of  St.  Barnabas,  society  for  the  relief  of 
respectable  aged  women,  home  for  the  friend- 
less, St.  Michael's  hospital,  St.  James's  hos- 
pital and  orphan  asylum,  St.  Vincent's  indus- 
trial school,  St.  Peter's  orphan  asylum  and 
kindergarten,  St.  Mary's  orphan  asylum,  and 
the  New  Jersey  home  for  disabled  soldiers. 
There  is  an  excellent  system  of  public  schools, 
embracing  a  high  school,  12  grammar  schools, 
20  primary  schools,  2  primary  industrial 
schools,  7  evening  schools,  and  a  Saturday  nor- 
mal school.  The  number  of  school  buildings 
owned  by  the  city  is  21 ;  value  of  sites,  $375,- 
000;  of  buildings  and  furniture,  $645,000. 
The  number  of  children  between  the  ages  of 
5  and  18  years  in  1873  was  30,045 ;  number  of 
pupils  enrolled  in  day  schools,  15,090;  in  even- 
ing schools,  1,495;  number  of  teachers  em- 
ployed in  day  schools,  218 ;  in  evening  schools, 
35 ;  in  Saturday  normal  school,  4 ;  expended 
for  support  of  schools,  $187,553  57;  for  school 
houses,  $100,017  09.  Newark  academy,  in- 
corporated in  1795,  is  one  of  the  oldest  insti- 
tutions in  the  state.  There  are  several  well 
attended  Catholic  schools.  There  are  two 
libraries,  that  of  the  Newark  library  associa- 
tion, containing  20,000  volumes,  and  that  of 
the  New  Jersey  historical  society,  containing 
6,000  volumes  and  10,000  pamphlets,  besides 
manuscripts  of  great  value  and  rarity,  and  a 
cabinet  of  curiosities  and  relics.  There  are  6 
daily  (1  German)  and  11  weekly  (2  German) 
newspapers,  and  a  monthly  periodical.  The 
number  of  churches  (besides  10  missions)  is 
93,  viz. :  Baptist,  13;  Congregational,  2  ;  Epis- 
copal, 11 ;  German  Evangelical  Protestant, 
1;  Jewish,  3;  Lutheran,  3;  Methodist,  18; 
Methodist  Protestant,  2 ;  Presbyterian,  18 ; 
Reformed,  9 ;  Roman  Catholic,  8 ;  Second  Ad- 
ventist,  1 ;  Spiritualist,  1 ;  Swedenborgian,  1 ; 
Unitarian,  1;  Universalist,  1. — Newark  was 
settled  in  May,  1666,  by  about  30  families  from 
Milford  and  New  Haven,  Conn.,  under  the  lead 
of  Capt.  Robert  Treat,  afterward  governor  of 
Connecticut,  to  which  he  returned  at  a  later 
period.  In  1667  they  were  joined  by  about  an 
equal  number  of  settlers  from  Guilford  and 
Branford,  Conn.,  under  the  lead  of  the  Rev. 
Abraham  Pierson,  their  minister,  who  having 
in  early  life  preached  in  Newark,  England, 
gave  that  name  to  the  new  town.  Their  ob- 
ject seems  to  have  been  to  establish  a  Puritan 
community,  to  be  administered  under  the  laws 
of  God,  by  members  of  the  church,  on  strictly 
democratic  principles.  The  settlers  laid  out 
the  town  plat  of  Newark,  with  its  spacious 
streets  and  parks  as  they  now  exist.  During 


NEWARK 


NEW  BEDFORD 


273 


the  revolution  the  town  was  successively  occu- 
pied by  the  American  and  British  troops,  and 
was  subject  to  incursions  from  New  York.  On 
the  establishment  of  peace  it  received  a  new 
impulse,  and  soon  became  very  prosperous. 
It  was  incorporated  as  a  city  in  1836. 

NEWARK,  a  city  and  the  capital  of  Licking 
CO.,  Ohio,  at  the  confluence  of  three  branches 
of  the  Licking  river,  on  the  Ohio  canal  and  on 
the  Baltimore  and  Ohio  and  the  Pittsburgh, 
Cincinnati,  and  St.  Louis  railroads,  33  m.  E. 
by  N.  of  Columbus;  pop.  in  1850,  3,654;  in 
1860,  4,675 ;  in  1870,  6,698.  It  is  situated  on  a 
level  plain,  in  the  midst  of  a  productive  coun- 
try, and  is  well  built  and  laid  out  with  spacious 
streets.  In  the  vicinity  are  quarries  of  sand- 
stone, an  extensive  coal  mine,  and  several  coal 
oil  factories.  The  city  contains  two  banks, 
graded  public  schools,  and  three  newspapers. 

NEWARK,  a  municipal  and  parliamentary 
borough  of  Nottinghamshire,  England,  on  an 
E.  branch  of  the  Trent,  114  m.  N.  N.  W.  of 
London,  with  which  it  is  connected  by  the 
Northwestern  and  Midland  railways ;  pop.  in 
1871,  12,195.  It  is  well  paved  and  lighted 
with  gas.  The  ancient  church  of  St.  Mary 
Magdalene,  partly  rebuilt  in  the  time  of 
Henry  VI.,  and  recently  restored,  is  one  of  the 
largest  and  finest  churches  in  the  kingdom. 
Newark  has  a  spacious  market  place,  a  town 
hall,  grammar  school,  public  charities,  and  a 
large  trade  in  corn,  coal,  cattle,  wool,  and 
especially  malt  and  flour.  Here  are  the  ruins 
of  a  castle  in  which  King  John  died  in  1216. 
Charles  II.  incorporated  the  town  for  its  loy- 
alty to  his  father  during  the  civil  wars. 

NEWA1GO,  a  W.  county  of  the  southern  pen- 
insula of  Michigan,  watered  by  the  Muskegon, 


Marquette,  and  other  streams ;  area,  about  875 
sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  7,294.  The  soil  is  fer- 
tile. The  surface  is  nearly  level  and  mostly 
covered  with  forests  of  pine,  sugar  maple,  &c. 
The  county  is  traversed  by  the  Big  Eapids 
branch  of  the  Chicago  and  Michigan  Lake 
Shore  railroad,  and  by  the  Grand  Rapids,  Ne- 
waygo,  and  Lake  Shore  line.  The  chief  pro- 
ductions in  1870  were  37,438  bushels  of  wheat, 
10,385  of  rye,  42,378  of  Indian  corn,  25,999 
of  oats,  66,746  of  potatoes,  5,877  tons  of 
hay,  8,726  Ibs.  of  wool,  109,064  of  butter, 
and  46,298  of  maple  sugar.  There  were  784 
horses,  1,007  milch  cows,  2,084  other  cattle, 
2,940  sheep,  and  1,997  swine ;  2  flour  mills, 
and  11  saw  mills.  Capital,  Newaygo. 

NEW  BEDFORD,  a  city,  port  of  entry,  and 
one  of  the  capitals  of  Bristol  co.,  Mass.,  in  lat. 
41°  38'  N.,  Ion.  70°  55'  W.,  50  m.  S.  by  E.  of 
Boston;  pop.  in  1870,  21,300.  The  municipal 
limits  embrace  an  area  11  m.  long  by  2  m. 
wide ;  the  city  proper,  about  2  m.  long  and  1 
m.  wide,  is  on  the  W.  side  of  Acushnet  river, 
whose  mouth  here  forms  a  commodious  harbor 
and  is  crossed  by  a  bridge  4,000  ft.  long.  The 
notable  public  buildings  are  the  city  hall,  a 
Doric  granite  structure,  the  Unitarian  and 
Catholic  churches,  the  custom  house,  the  alms- 
house,  which  accommodates  400  inmates,  the 
public  library,  and  the  house  of  correction. 
There  is  a  strong  fortification  at  the  entrance 
of  the  harbor ;  and  around  Clark's  point,  at  the 
S.  end  of  the  city,  is  a  fine  public  drive  4^  m. 
long.  The  city  water  works  were  construct- 
ed in  1867-'9,  at  a  cost  of  nearly  $1,000,000. 
From  the  head  of  Acushnet  river,  which  is 
dammed  up  to  form  a  reservoir  with  a  capa- 
city of  400,000,000  gallons,  the  water  is  brought 


New  Bedford. 


6  m.,  and  is  pumped  for  distribution  to  a  height 
of  100  ft.  The  city  has  a  paid  fire  department. 
A  street  railroad  was  constructed  in  1872.  The 
school  system  includes  a  high  school  and  23 
grammar  and  primary  schools,  with  99  teachers 


and  3,500  pupils.  The  public  library,  estab- 
lished in  1803,  was  assumed  by  the  city  in  1852, 
and  became  the  first  free  public  library  in  the 
United  States.  A  fine  building  was  erected  for 
it  in  1857,  at  a  cost  of  $45,000.  In  1870  it  had 


274 


NEW  BEDFORD 


NEWBERRY 


30,000  volumes.  In  1863  Miss  Sylvia  A.  How- 
land  bequeathed  to  the  city  $100,000  for  the 
increase  of  this  library  and  the  support  of  lib- 
eral education,  and  an  equal  sum  for  the  intro- 
duction of  water.  There  are  27  religious  so- 
cieties, a  domestic  missionary  society  with  two 
free  chapels,  a  young  men's  Christian  associa- 
tion, a  Roman  Catholic  hospital,  an  orphan 
asylum,  and  a  "  Union  for  Good  Works."  New 
Bedford  has  long  been  the  chief  seat  of  the 
American  whale  fishery,  which  was  pursued 
here  as  early  as  1755.  In  1765  four  vessels 
were  engaged  in  it,  and  at  the  revolution  from 
50  to  60,  most  of  which  were  destroyed  during 
the  war.  The  business  revived,  but  was  again 
prostrated  by  the  war  of  1812.  In  1818  it  re- 
ceived a  fresh  impulse,  and  continued  to  nour- 
ish till  1853-'4,  which  was  the  culminating 
point  of  its  prosperity.  At  that  time  there 
were  410  whalers,  of  132,966  tons,  in  the  dis- 
trict, and  the  imports 'were  44,923  bbls.  of 
sperm  oil,  118,672  of  whale  oil,  and  2,838,800 
Ibs.  of  whalebone.  The  panic  of  1857,  the  de- 
struction of  30  whalers  by  confederate  cruisers 
during  the  civil  war,  the  wrecking  of  24  at 
one  time  in  the  N.  Pacific  in  1871,  and  the  sub- 
stitution of  other  articles  for  the  products  of 
the  fishery,  proved  disastrous,  and  it  is  rapidly 
on  the  decline.  In  December,  1873,  the  vessels 
engaged  in  it  in  the  United  States  numbered 
171,  of  which  128,  of  35,261  tons,  belonged 
in  New  Bedford.  The  proceeds  were  30,961 
bbls.  of  sperm  oil,  value  $1,251,109 ;  25,729  of 
whale  oil,  $413,555 ;  and  150,598  Ibs.  of  bone, 
$162,645 ;  these  constituted  about  three  fourths 
of  the  entire  importation.  The  other  imports  in 
1873  amounted  to  $160,000;  exports,  $32,350; 
duties  collected,  $36,000;  entries,  62;  clear- 
ances, foreign  33,  domestic  136.  The  loss  oc- 
casioned by  the  decline  of  the  whale  fishery 
has  been  partly  compensated  by  increased  at- 
tention to  manufactures.  The  principal  estab- 
lishments are  the  Wamsutta  cotton  mills,  with 
a  capital  of  $2,000,000,  running  four  mills  with 
86,000  spindles,  and  producing  in  1873  goods 
to  the  value  of  $2,500,000 ;  the  Potemska  mills, 
for  print  cloths,  erected  in  1871,  with  a  capital 
of  $500,000,  2,000  looms,  and  22,500  spindles, 
and  products  in  1873  of  about  $1,000,000; 
the  Gosnold  iron  mills,  copper  works,  cordage 
factory,  twist  drill  works,  glass  works,  tan- 
nery, Prussian  blue  works,  four  oil  and  candle 
works,  paraifine  manufactory,  five  shoe  facto- 
ries, two  manufacturing  photographic  establish- 
ments, gas  works,  kerosene  oil  works,  two  flour 
mills,  and  three  paint  mills.  The  aggregate 
value  of  the  manufactured  products  in  1873 
was  about  $8,000,000.  The  valuation  of  prop- 
erty in  1874  was:  real  estate,  $11,665,400;  per- 
sonal, $11,719,900.  There  are  four  national 
banks,  with  an  aggregate  capital  of  $3,200,000 ; 
two  savings  banks,  with  deposits  in  1874  of 
$10,021,921 ;  one  fire  and  one  marine  insurance 
company;  two  daily  and  two  weekly  newspa- 
pers, and  a  weekly  shipping  list.  There  is  a  line 
of  steamers  to  New  York,  and  one  to  Martha's 


Vineyard.  The  New  Bedford  railroad  was 
formed  in  1873  by  a  consolidation  of  roads  run- 
ning to  Framingham,  Mass.,  and  was  extended 
to  the  water  front  of  the  city.  Large  amounts 
of  coal  are  brought  here  for  distribution,  and  re- 
turn freights  extensively  taken  to  points  south. 
A  branch  road  from  Fairhaven,  on  the  opposite 
side  of  Acushnet  river,  communicates  with  the 
Old  Colony  road,  and  affords  an  additional 
route  to  Boston  and  Cape  Cod. — New  Bedford 
was  originally  part  of  Dartmouth,  from  which 
it  was  set  off  as  a  town  in  1787.  It  received  a 
city  charter  in  1847.  It  was  at  one  time  the 
wealthiest  city  in  the  United  States  in  propor- 
tion to  its  population. 

NEW  BERNE,  or  Newbern,  a  city  and  the  cap- 
ital of  Craven  co.,  North  Carolina,  the  port 
of  entry  of  the  district  of  Pamlico,  on  the  S. 
W.  bank  of  the  river  Neuse  at  its  confluence 
with  the  Trent,  40  m.  from  its  mouth,  and 
on  the  Atlantic  and  North  Carolina  railroad, 
107  in.  by  rail  S.  E.  of  Raleigh ;  pop.  in  1850, 
4,681 ;  in  1860,  5,432  ;  in  1870,  5,849,  of  whom 
3,829  were  colored.  Ocracoke  inlet  affords 
communication  with  the  sea.  There  are  lines 
of  steamers  to  New  York,  Baltimore,  and  Nor- 
folk. The  city  has  a  considerable  commerce, 
principally  coastwise.  The  chief  articles  of 
trade  are  cotton,  lumber,  naval  stores,  and  fish. 
The  value  of  foreign  commerce  for  the  year 
ending  June  30,  1874,  was  $12,212;  entrances 
and  clearances,  13,  of  1,021  tons;  entrances  in 
the  coastwise  trade,  179,  of  31,807  tons;  clear- 
ances, 80,  of  17,992  tons;  belonging  to  the 
district,  67  vessels,  of  1,412  tons.  There  are 
several  turpentine  distilleries,  founderies  and 
machine  shops,  grist  and  saw  mills,  manufacto- 
ries of  carriages,  agricultural  implements,  &c. 
The  city  has  an  academy,  several  good  private 
schools,  a  national  bank,  a  daily  and  three 
weekly  newspapers,  a  monthly  magazine,  and 
Baptist,  Christian,  Episcopal,  Methodist,  Pres- 
byterian, and  Roman  Catholic  churches.  It 
was  at  one  time  the  capital  of  the  province  of 
North  Carolina. — During  the  civil  war  New 
Berne,  which  was  defended  by  intrenchments 
and  breastworks,  was  captured  by  Gen.  Burn- 
side,  after  a  severe  fight,  March  14,  1862.  Six- 
ty-nine cannon  and  much  ammunition  were  ta- 
ken, and  the  city  suffered  considerably  by  fire. 

NEWBERRY,  a  N.  central  county  of  South 
Carolina,  bounded  N.  in  part  by  the  Ennoree 
and  Tiger  rivers,  E.  by  the  Broad,  and '  S.  by 
the  Saluda;  area,  616  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870, 
20,775,  of  whom  13,318  were  colored.  The 
surface  is  rolling,  and  the  soil  fertile,  espe- 
cially near  the  streams.  It  is  traversed  by  the 
Greenville  and  Columbia  and  the  Laurens  rail- 
roads. The  chief  productions  in  1870  were 
41,914  bushels  of  wheat,  152,232  of  Indian 
corn,  27,701  of  oats,  14,072  of  sweet  potatoes, 
and  9,836  bales  of  cotton.  There  were  1,259 
horses,  1,754  mules  and  asses,  2,379  milch 
cows,  3,109  other  cattle,  2,801  sheep,  and  6,967 
swine.  There  were  9  manufacturing  establish- 
ments. Capital,  Newberry  Court  House. 


NEWBERRY 

NEWBERRY,  John  Strong,  an  American  ge- 
ologist, born  at  New  Windsor,  Conn.,  Dec.  22, 
1822.  His  father  in  1824  emigrated  to  Ohio, 
where  he  founded  the  town  of  Cuyahoga 
Falls.  He  graduated  at  the  Western  Reserve 
college  in  1846,  and  at  the  Cleveland  medical 
college  in  1848.  In  1849-'50  he  travelled  and 
studied  abroad,  and  upon  his  return  estab- 
lished himself  in  1851  as  a  physician  in  Cleve- 
land, Ohio.  In  1855  he  was  appointed  acting 
assistant  surgeon  and  geologist  in  the  expedi- 
tion under  Lieut.  Williamson  to  explore  the 
country  between  San  Francisco  and  the  Co- 
lumbia river.  The  results  of  this  expedition 
are  embodied  in  vol.  vi.  of  the  "  Pacific  Rail- 
road Reports."  The  reports  of  Dr.  Newberry 
on  "The  Geology,  Botany,  and  Zoology  of 
North  California  and  Oregon  "  were  published 
separately  in  a  quarto  volume,  with  48  illus- 
trations. In  1857-' 8  he  accompanied  Lieut. 
Ives  in  the  exploration  and  navigation  of  the 
Colorado  river,  and  prepared  half  of  the  re- 
port, containing,  in  the  words  of  the  com- 
manding officer,  "the  most  interesting  material 
gathered  by  the  expedition."  In  1859  he  was 
c6nnected  with  another  party  sent  out  by  the 
war  department  for  the  exploration  of  the 
San  Juan  and  upper  Colorado  rivers.  During 
the  summer  the  party  travelled  over  a  large 
part  of  what  is  now  southern  Colorado,  north- 
ern Arizona,  and  New  Mexico,  a  region  before 
almost  unknown.  The  report  of  this  expedi- 
tion remains  (1875)  still  unpublished.  During 
the  civil  war  Dr.  Newberry  was  secretary  of 
the  western  department  of  the  sanitary  com- 
mission. In  1866  he  was  appointed  professor 
of  geology  in  the  school  of  mines  of  Columbia 
college,  New  York,  and  in  1869  became  also 
state  geologist  of  Ohio.  He  was  one  of  the 
original  corporators  of  the  national  academy 
of  sciences,  has  been  president  of  the  Amer- 
ican association  for  the  advancement  of  sci- 
ence, and  is  president  of  the  New  York  lyceum 
of  natural  history.  His  most  valuable  papers 
have  been  upon  the  drift  and  carboniferous 
formations,  and  on  fossil  fishes  and  plants. 

NEW  BRIGHTON,  N.  Y.    See  STATEN  ISLAND. 

NEW  BRIGHTON,  a  borough  of  Beaver  co., 
Pennsylvania,  on  the  E.  bank  of  Beaver  river, 
here  crossed  by  a  bridge,  3  m.  above  its  en- 
trance into  the  Ohio,  and  on  the  Beaver  and 
Erie  canal  and  the  Pittsburgh,  Fort  Wayne, 
and  Chicago  railroad,  25  m.  N.  N.  W.  of  Pitts- 
burgh;  pop.  in  1870,  4,037.  It  is  a  place  of 
active  business,  and  the  river  supplies  water 
power  for  factories  of  various  kinds,  consisting 
of  a  large  woollen  factory,  extensive  flax  mills, 
the  largest  chain  factory  in  the  United  States, 
novelty  works,  a  keg  factory,  a  foundery,  two 
machine  shops,  a  planing  mill,  three  large  flour- 
ing mills,  and  various  other  smaller  industrial 
works.  There  are  graded  public  schools,  a 
weekly  newspaper,  a  national  bank,  two  bank- 
ing houses,  and  eight  churches. 

NEW  BRITAIN,  the  name  of  one  large  and 
several  smaller  islands  in  the  Pacific 


NEW  BRUNSWICK 


275 


between  lat.  4°  and  6°  30'  S.,  and  Ion.  148° 
and  152°  30'  E. ;  extreme  length  of  the  large 
island  about  300  m.,  breadth  from  5  to  50  m. ; 
area,  about  10,000  sq.  m.  It  is  of  crescent 
shape,  and  is  separated  on  the  west  from  Papua 
by  Dampier's  strait,  and  on  the  northeast  from 
New  Ireland  by  St.  George's  channel,  the  for- 
mer being  about  50  and  the  latter  25  m.  wide. 
There  are  several  fine  bays  and  harbors,  and 
at  Spacious  bay,  the  E.  headland  of  which  is 
in  lat.  5°  2'  S.,  Ion.  152°  7'  E.,  there  is  sup- 
posed to  be  a  channel  extending  across  the 
island.  In  the  interior  there  are  high  moun- 
tains, and  in  the  north  active  volcanoes.  Bor- 
dering the  coast  are  extensive  fertile  plains, 
and  much  of  the  surface  is  covered  with  for- 
ests. The  principal  productions  are  palms, 
sugar  cane,  breadfruit,  pigs,  turtles,  and  fish. 
The  inhabitants  are  a  tribe  of  oriental  negroes 
or  negrit6s,  well  made,  and  very  dark. 

NEW  BRITAIN,  a  town  of  Hartford  co.,  Con- 
necticut, on  the  Hartford,  Providence,  and 
Fishkill  railroad,  and  a  branch  of  the  New 
York,  New  Haven,  and  Hartford  railroad,  8  m. 
S.  W.  of  Hartford;  pop.  in  1870,  9;480.  It  is 
lighted  with  gas,  has  a  steam  fire  engine,  and 
an  ample  supply  of  water  is  obtained  from  a 
reservoir  of  175  acres,  at  an  elevation  of  200  ft., 
throwing  a  jet  from  the  fountain  on  the  public 
square  to  the  height  of  140  ft.  The  chief  busi- 
ness is  the  manufacture  of  builders'  hardware. 
There  are  also  two  extensive  hosiery  manufac- 
tories, employing  several  hundred  hands  each, 
malleable  iron  works,  and  manufactories  of 
cutlery,  jewelry,  lace,  hooks  and  eyes,  cabinet 
hardware,  harness  trimmings,  &c.  It  contains 
a  national  bank,  a  weekly  newspaper,  three 
large  public  school  buildings,  two  seminaries, 
the  state  normal  school,  and  six  churches.  It 
was  formed  from  the  town  of  Berlin  in  1850. 

NEW  BRUNSWICK,  a  province  of  the  Domin- 
ion of  Canada,  situated  between  lat.  44°  35' 
and  48°  5'  N.,  and  Ion.  63°  47'  and  69°  5'  W. ; 
average  length  N.  and  S.  180  m.,  average 
breadth  150  m. ;  area,  27,322  sq.  m.  It  is 
bounded  N.  by  Quebec  and  the  bay  of  Cba- 
leurs,  E.  by  the  gulf  of  St.  Lawrence  and 
Northumberland  strait,  which  separates  it  from 
Prince  Edward  island,  S.  by  Nova  Scotia  and 
the  bay  of  Fundy,  W.  by  Maine,  and  N.  W. 
by  Quebec.  The  province  is  divided  into  15 
counties,  viz. :  Albert,  Carleton,  Charlotte, 
Gloucester,  Kent,  Kings,  Madawaska,  North- 
umberland, Queens,  Restigouche,  St.  John, 
Sunbury,  Victoria,  Westmorland,  and  York. 
These  are  subdivided  into  parishes.  There  are 
two  cities  :  St.  John  (pop.  in  1871,  28,805), 
the  commercial  metropolis,  and  Fredericton 
(pop.  6,006),  the  capital ;  and  four  incorpo- 
rated towns :  Moncton,  Portland,  St.  Stephen, 
and  Woodstock.  The  population  of  the  prov- 
ince in  1784  was  11,457;  in  1824,  74,176;  in 
1834,  119,457;  in  1840,  156,162;  in  1851, 
193,800;  in  1861,  252,047;  in  1871,  285,594. 
Of  the  last  number  237,837  were  born  in  the 
province,  5,239  in  Nova  Scotia,  2,439  in  Que- 


276 


NEW  BRUNSWICK 


bee,  and  220  in  other  parts  of  Canada,  2,409 
in  Prince  Edward  island  and  Newfoundland, 
23,065  in  Ireland,  4,691  in  Scotland,  4,558  in 
England  and  Wales,  and  4,088  in  the  United 
States;  100,643  were  of  Irish,  83,598  of  Eng- 
lish, 44,907  of  French,  40,858  of  Scotch,  6,004 
of  Dutch,  4,478  of  German,  1,701  of  African, 
and  1,096  of  Welsh  origin,  and  1,403  were  In- 
dians (chiefly  Micrnacs  and  Malicetes) ;  145,888 
were  males  and  139,706  females.  There  were 
49,384  families  and  43,579  occupied  dwellings. 
There  were  19,002  persons  over  20  years  of 
age  unable  to  read  (10,197  males  and  8,805 
•females),  and  27,669  (13,245  males  and  14,424 
females)  unable  to  write.  There  were  306 
deaf  and  dumb  persons,  216  blind,  and  788  of 
unsound  mind. — The  surface  of  New  Bruns- 
wick is  generally  flat  or  undulating.  There 
are  some  elevated  lands  skirting  the  bay  of 
Fundy  and  the  St.  John  river,  but  the  only 
section  of  a  mountainous  character  is  that  on 
the  border  of  Quebec  in  the  north,  where  the 
country  is  beautifully  diversified  by  oval-topped 
hills,  from  500  to  800  ft.  high,  surrounded 
by  valleys  and  table  lands.  The  shores  of  the 
gulf  of  St.  Lawrence  and  Northumberland 
strait,  for  about  15  in.  inland,  are  low  and 
skirted  with  marshes.  The  coast  line  of  the 
province  is  545  m.  long,  not  including  inden- 
tations of  the  land,  and  is  interrupted  only  at 
the  point  of  junction  with  Nova  Scotia,  where 
an  isthmus  not  more  than  14  m.  wide  connects 
the  two  provinces,  and  separates  the  waters  of 
Northumberland  strait  from  those  of  the  bay 
of  Fundy.  The  coast  of  this  bay  is  generally 
bold  and  rocky.  There  are  numerous  good 
harbors,  particularly  on  the  S.  portion  of  the 
E.  coast.  The  principal  bays  are  the  Nepisi- 
guit,  opening  into  the  bay  of  Chaleurs ;  Mira- 
michi and  Shediac,  on  the  E.  coast ;  Passama- 
quoddy,  at  the  S.  W.  extremity  of  the  prov- 
ince; and  the  harbor  of  St.  John,  on  the  S. 
coast.  Bay  Yerte  and  Chignecto  bay  are  op- 

r'te  each  other,  the  former  E.  and  the  latter 
of  the  isthmus  that  connects  with  Nova 
Scotia.  The  principal  islands  are  Grand  Manan, 
at  the  entrance  of  the  bay  of  Fundy ;  Campo 
Bello  and  Deer  islands,  in  Passamaquoddy 
bay;  Portage  island,  in  Miramichi  bay;  and 
Shippegan  and  Miscou  islands,  at  the  N.  E.  ex- 
tremity of  the  province.  The  largest  river  is 
the  St.  John,  which  for  75  m.  below  the  mouth 
of  the  St.  Francis  forms  the  boundary  with 
Maine,  and  afterward  entering  the  province 
flows  S.  E.  for  225  m.,  emptying  into  the  bay 
of  Fundy  at  St.  John.  It  is  navigable  by  ves- 
sels of  120  tons  to  Fredericton,  84  m.  from  its 
mouth,  and  by  small  steamers  to  Grand  Falls, 
140  m.  further  up.  The  chief  tributaries  are 
the  St.  Francis  (which  separates  the  W.  ex- 
tremity of  the  province  from  Maine),  Mada- 
waska,  and  Green,  from  the  north;  the  To- 
bique,  Nashwaak,  Salmon,  Washademoak,  and 
Kennebaccasis,  from  the  east ;  and  the  Aroos- 
took  and  Oromocto,  from  the  west.  The  St. 
Croix  forms  the  S.  portion  of  the  Maine  boun- 


dary. It  is  about  125  m.  long,  and  is  navi- 
gable to  St.  Stephen,  15  m.  above  its  mouth  in 
Passamaquoddy  bay.  The  Peticodiac,  about 
100  m.  long,  empties  into  the  bay  of  Fundy 
near  its  head ;  it  is  navigable  by  large  vessels 
for  25  m.,  and  for  schooners  of  60  or  80  tons 
to  the  head  of  tide,  12  m.  further.  The  N. 
portion  of  the  province  is  drained  by  the  Res- 
tigouche,  which  forms  a  part  of  the  boundary 
with  Quebec,  and  empties  into  the  bay  of  Cha- 
leurs. It  is  navigable  by  large  vessels  for  18 
m.  Its  chief  tributaries  in  New  Brunswick 
are  the  Upsalquitch  and  Wetomkegewick.  The 
Nepisiguit  river  after  a  course  of  about  100  m. 
empties  into  the  bay  of  the  same  name.  The 
Miramichi  river  flows  N.  E.  about  225  m.,  and 
discharges  into  Miramichi  bay ;  it  is  navigable 
by  large  vessels  for  25  m.,  and  for  schooners  to 
the  head  of  tide,  20  m.  further  up.  The  Richi- 
bucto  river,  navigable  for  small  vessels  for  15 
m.,  empties  into  the  gulf  of  St.  Lawrence, 
at  Richibucto,  near  the  entrance  of  North- 
umberland strait.  The  principal  lakes  are 
Grand  lake,  25  m.  long  by  6  m.  wide,  which 
discharges  into  the  river  St.  John,  50  m.  from 
the  sea;  Oromocto  lake,  which  gives  rise  to 
the  river  of  the  same  name ;  and  Grand  lake 
on  the  Maine  border,  the  source  of  the  St. 
Oroix. — The  geological  structure  of  the  prov- 
ince is  not  remarkable.  The  N.  W.  portion 
is  occupied  by  the  upper  Silurian  formation. 
Bordering  on  this,  and  stretching  S.  W.  across 
the  province  from  Nepisiguit  bay,  crossing  the 
St.  John  river  just  above  Fredericton,  are  two 
belts  of  lower  Silurian,  enclosing  a  belt  of  gra- 
nitic and  similar  rocks.  S.  E.  of  these  the  coun- 
try is  carboniferous.  Small  areas  of  the  De- 
vonian, Huronian,  and  Laurentian  formations 
occur  along  the  bay  of  Fundy.  Gypsum,  free- 
stone, and  grindstone  abound.  The  deposits 
of  bituminous  coal  in  the  central  portion  of 
the  province  are  very  extensive,  but  the  min- 
eral occurs  in  thin  seams.  Only  a  small  quan- 
tity is  mined.  Salt  springs  are  numerous. 
Copper  is  found  on  the  banks  of  the  Nepisi- 
guit river  and  plumbago  near  St.  John.  Anti- 
mony, iron  ore,  manganese,  and  other  minerals 
also  occur  in  considerable  quantities. — The  cli- 
mate is  healthy,  though  it  is  subject  to  great 
extremes.  The  S.  portion  has  a  considerably 
milder  temperature  than  the  N.,  but  the  whole 
country  is  covered  with  snow  for  about  four 
months  of  the  year  (from  December  to  April). 
S.  W.  winds  in  summer  often  produce  dense 
fogs  on  the  bay  of  Fundy,  which  extend  15  or 
20  m.  inland.  The  autumn  is  long,  and  is  the 
pleasantest  season  of  the  year,  the  air  being 
clear  and  dry.  The  extremes  of  temperature 
in  the  interior  are  —30°  and  +95°.— E.  of  the 
St.  John  the  soil  is  deep  and  fertile ;  W.  of 
that  river  it  is  poorer.  Indian  corn  is  grown 
in  the  south ;  wheat,  barley,  oats,  buckwheat, 
rye,  potatoes,  turnips,  peas,  beans,  &c.,  yield 
abundantly.  Apples,  pears,  plums,  cherries, 
currants,  gooseberries,  and  strawberries  thrive. 
Grass  grows  luxuriantly,  especially  on  the  ex- 


NEW  BRUNSWICK 


277 


tensive  marshes  that  have  been  reclaimed  from 
the  sea,  and  the  greater  portion  of  every  large 
farm  is  devoted  to  its  production.  The  forests 
of  pine,  spruce,  cedar,  &c.,  which  cover  a  large 
portion  of  the  province,  yield  large  quantities 
of  timber  for  export  and  ship  building;  and 
lumbering  is  one  of  the  chief  industries  of  the 
people.  Among  wild  animals  are  bears,  moose 
and  other  deer,  foxes,  wild  cats,  raccoons,  bea- 
vers, otters,  and  porcupines.  The  rivers  and 
lakes  abound  in  salmon,  trout,  chub,  eels,  and 
perch;  and  cod,  mackerel,  and  herring  are 
abundant  on  the  coast,  particularly  in  the  bay 
of  Ohaleurs  and  the  bay  of  Fundy.  Lobsters 
abound,  and  there  are  prolific  oyster  beds  on 
the  E.  coast. — The  principal  articles  of  manufac- 
ture are  lumber,  leather,  woollen  goods,  wood- 
en ware,  paper,  iron  castings,  mill  machinery, 
locomotives,  steam  engines,  &c.  Ship  build- 
ing is  extensively  carried  on.  (For  industrial 
statistics,  see  APPENDIX  to  this  volume.)  The 
fisheries  and  foreign  commerce  are  important 
interests.  The  number  of  men  employed  in 
the  fisheries  for  the  year  ending  June  30,  1874, 
was  6,556;  number  of  vessels,  131,  of  2,518 
tons;  of  boats,  3,351;  value  of  vessels  and 
boats,  $235,211 ;  of  nets  and  weirs,  $240,461. 
The  value  of  the  catch  was  $2,685,793  91,  of 
which  salmon,  herring,  cod,  and  lobsters  con- 
stituted the  largest  part ;  the  other  kinds  were 
alewives,  hake,  pollack,  oysters,  smelts,  mack- 
erel, eels,  bass,  shad,  and  haddock.  The  value 


of  goods  entered  for  consumption  from  foreign 
countries  for  the  same  period  was  $10,223,871, 
including  $5,876,058  from  Great  Britain,  $3,- 
894,484  from  the  United  States,  $320,516  from 
the  West  Indies,  and  $94,879  from  France. 
The  total  value  of  exports  was  $6,503,934  (in- 
cluding $4,201,438  to  Great  Britain,  $1,247,- 
364  to  the  United  States,  $525,548  to  the  West 
Indies,  $77,375  to  South  America,  $26,716  to 
France,  $15,880  to  the  Canary  islands,  $14,239 
to  Holland,  and  $11,023  to  Newfoundland),  of 
which  $361,977  represented  foreign,  and  $6,- 
141,957  Canadian  produce,  viz. :  products  of 
the  mine,  $223,340;  of  the  fisheries,  $392,772; 
of  the  forest,  $4,711,812;  animals  and  their 
produce,  $208,902 ;  agricultural  products,  $110,- 
856 ;  manufactures,  $477,898 ;  miscellaneous 
articles,  $15,377.  The  imports  consist  chiefly 
of  cottons,  woollens,  fancy  goods,  hardware, 
iron,  flour,  tea,  sugar,  molasses,  and  spirits. 
The  number  of  entrances  was  2,784,  with  an 
aggregate  tonnage  of  775,638,  of  which  1,275, 
of  390,290  tons,  were  in  ballast;  clearances, 
2,662,  with  an  aggregate  tonnage  of  799,265, 
of  which  25,  of  12,351  tons,  were  in  ballast; 
built  during  the  year,  96  vessels,  with  an  aggre- 
gate tonnage  of  46,663.  The  number  of  vessels 
of  all  kinds  belonging  in  the  province  at  the 
close  of  1873  was  1,147,  with  an  aggregate  ton- 
nage of  277,850. — The  statistics  of  the  railroads 
in  operation  in  the  province  for  1874  are  con- 
tained in  the  following  table : 


LINES. 

TERMINI. 

Miles  in  operation 
in  the  province. 

St  John  to  Bangor  Me.  (206  m.) 

92 

Fredericton 

Fredericton  Junction,  on  European  and  North  American  railway, 

to  Fredericton           

23 

St  John  to  Halifax  N.  8.  (276m.)                                             ..   .. 

182 

Branch 

Painsec  Junction  to  Point  du  Chene      •. 

11 

New  Brunswick  

Fredericton  to  Edmundston  (170  m.)  ;  completed  to  Florenceville.  . 

71 

Woodstock  Junction  to  Woodstock                                       

9 

St  Andrews  to  Woodstock 

93 

j  Watts  Junction  to  St.  Stephen  

19     . 

" 

(  Debec  Junction  to  Houlton,  Me.  (8m.)  

5 

Total 

455 

The  Intercolonial  line  is  to  be  extended  from 
Moncton  N.  and.  then  W.  to  Riviere  du  Loup, 
Quebec,  a  distance  of  374  m.,  of  which  about 
200  m.  lie  in  New  Brunswick.  The  New 
Brunswick  railway  is  intended  to  connect  at 
Edmundston  with  the  New  Brunswick  and 
Quebec  line  for  Riviere  du  Loup,  90  m.  fur- 
ther. There  are  four  banks,  with  an  aggregate 
capital  of  upward  of  $1,500,000;  eight  branch- 
es of  banks  of  other  provinces ;  and  a  savings 
bank  at  St.  John.  The  deposits  in  the  gov- 
ernment savings  banks,  exclusive  of  post  offiee 
savings  banks,  on  May  31,  1874,  amounted  to 
$1,109,705.— The  chief  executive  officer  is  the 
lieutenant  governor,  appointed  by  the  governor 
general  of  the  Dominion  in  council  for  five 
years,  assisted  by  an  executive  council  of  nine 
members  (president  of  the  council,  secretary 
and  receiver  general,  attorney  general,  chief 
commissioner  of  public  works,  surveyor  gen- 


eral, and  four  without  office),  appointed  by 
himself  and  responsible  to  the  assembly.  The 
legislative  authority  is  exercised  by  a  legisla- 
tive council  of  15  members,  appointed  by  the 
lieutenant  governor  in  council  for  life,  and  a 
house  of  assembly  of  41  members,  elected  by 
districts.  Voting  is  by  ballot,  and  a  small 
property  qualification  is  required  for  voters, 
who  must  also  be  male  British  subjects  and  21 
years  of  age.  The  judicial  power  is  vested  in 
a  supreme  court,  consisting  of  a  chief  justice 
and  four  associate  justices,  who  hold  circuit 
courts  in  each  county,  county  and  probate 
courts,  and  justices  of  the  peace.  The  court 
of  divorce  and  matrimonial  causes  is  held  by 
a  single  judge,  and  there  are  a  vice-admiralty 
court  with  a  judge  and  deputy  judge,  and  a 
court  for  the  trial  and  punishment  of  piracy 
and  other  offences  on  the  high  seas,  consisting 
of  the  lieutenant  governor,  judges  of  the  su- 


278 


NEW  BRUNSWICK 


preme  court,  and  other  officials.  New  Bruns- 
wick is  represented  by  12  senators  and  16 
members  of  the  house  of  commons  in  the  Do- 
minion parliament.  The  balance  in  the  trea- 
sury on  Oct.  31,  1873,  was  $151,400  38 ;  re- 
ceipts for  the  year  1873-'4,  $591,464  59,  in- 
cluding $516,155  from  the  Dominion  govern- 
ment;  expenditures,  $589,793  61,  including 
$12,749  for  agriculture,  $60,607  for  executive, 
legislative,  and  judicial  departments,  $22,000 
for  immigration,  $25,000  for  lunatic  asylum, 
$7,208  for  public  health,  $10,587  for  public 
printing,  $201,264  for  roads,  $8,844  for  uni- 
versity, $20,000  for  bridges,  and  $19,000  for 
steam  navigation;  balance  in  treasury  Oct.  31, 
1874,  $153,071  36.  The  penitentiary  at  St. 
John  on  Dec.  31,  1873,  contained  30  convicts. 
The  provincial  lunatic  asylum  at  St.  John  was 
opened  in  1848 ;  the  number  of  inmates  on 
Oct.  31,  1873,  was  243  (128  males  and  115 
females).  The  capacity  of  the  asylum  is  not 
equal  to  the  demand  for  admission.  Accord- 
ing to  the  census  of  1871,  there  were  9  hos- 
pitals, with  84  inmates ;  2  orphan  asylums,  with 
77  inmates ;  9  other  asylums  (exclusive  of  the 
lunatic  asylum),  with  305  inmates;  and  14 
jails,  with  149  inmates. — A  system  of  free  pub- 
lic schools  was  established  by  an  act  of  1871. 
These  schools  are  under  the  general  supervision 
of  a  chief  superintendent  of  education  for  the 
province,  with  a  county  inspector  for  each 
county  and  boards  of  trustees  for  the  several 
districts,  and  are  supported  by  a  provincial 
grant  and  a  county  tax  equal  to  30  cents  per 
head,  supplemented  by  a  local  tax,  which  in- 
cludes a  poll  tax  of  $1  per  head.  The  ex- 
penditures from  the  provincial  treasury  for 
school  purposes  during  the  year  ending  April 
30,  1874,  were  $122,067  69.  The  number  of 
schools  in  operation  during  the  summer  term 
ending  Oct.  31,  1874,  was  1,049,  with  1,077 
teachers  and  45,539  pupils;  number  in  at- 
tendance some  portion  of  the  year  ending 
on  that  date,  60,467 ;  number  of  school  dis- 
tricts, 1,392  ;  number  of  school  houses,  1,050. 
There  is  a  provincial  training  and  model 
school  at  Fredericton.  The  university  of  New 
Brunswick  at  Fredericton  was  established  by 
provincial  charter  as  the  college  of  New 
Brunswick  in  1800,  incorporated  by  royal 
charter  under  the  name  of  King's  college  in 
1828,  and  reorganized  under  its  present  title  in 
1860.  It  embraces  a  classical  course  of  three 
years,  and  special  courses  in  civil  engineering 
and  surveying,  agriculture,  and  commerce  and 
navigation.  There  is  an  annual  scholarship 
of  $60  for  one  student  from  each  county, 
who  also  receives  tuition  free,  and  there  are  56 
free  scholarships,  distributed  among  the  coun- 
ties and  cities,  exempting  from  the  payment  of 
tuition  fees  alone.  In  1872-'3  the  number  of 
professors  was  7 ;  students,  51.  There  is  a  col- 
legiate school  connected  with  the  university. 
Mount  Allison  Wesleyan  college  at  Sackville, 
under  the  control  of  the  Methodists,  was  or- 
ganized in  1862,  and  is  open  to  both  sexes.  It 


has  classical,  scientific,  and  special  courses,  and 
provision  is  made  for  theological  instruction. 
A  male  academy  and  commercial  college,  in 
operation  more  than  30  years,  and  a  female 
academy,  organized  in  1854,  are  connected  with 
it.  In  1873-'4  these  institutions  had  15  pro- 
fessors and  instructors  (5  in  the  college),  213 
students  (34  in  the  college),  and  a  library  of 
4,000  volumes.  St.  Joseph's  college  (Roman 
Catholic)  at  Memramcook  has  a  commercial 
course  of  four  years  and  a  classical  course  of 
five  years,  both  taught  through  the  medium  of 
the  French  and  English  languages.  In  1874-'5 
it  had  18  professors  and  instructors,  140  stu- 
dents, and  a  library  of  1,000  volumes. — The 
number  of  newspapers  and  periodicals  pub- 
lished in  the  province  in  1874  was  33,  viz. : 
4  daily,  3  tri-weekly,  21  weekly  (1  French),  4 
monthly,  and  1  quarterly.  The  number  of  the 
inhabitants  in  1871  belonging  to  the  various 
religious  denominations  and  the  number  of 
churches  and  buildings  attached  thereto  are 
shown  in  the  following  table  : 


DENOMINATIONS. 

Number  of 
adherents 

Churches. 

Buildings. 

Baptists  

70,597 

226 

238 

Episcopalians         

45,481 

115 

150 

Methodists 

29,856 

113 

136 

Presbyterians  
Roman  Catholics           .  . 

38,852 
96,016 

80 
103 

87 
161 

Other  denominations  

4,T92 

19 

23 

Total.      .                 .   . 

285,594 

656 

795 

Of  the  Baptists  27,866  were  Freewill  Bap- 
tists, and  of  the  Methodists  26,212  were  Wes- 
leyans.  The  principal  denominations  not  named 
in  the  table  were  Adventists  (71 1),  Christian 
Conference  (1,418),  Congregationalists  (1,193), 
and  Universalists  (590). — New  Brunswick  and 
Nova  Scotia  originally  formed  one  French 
colony,  called  Acadia  or  New  France.  The 
first  settlement  within  the  present  limits  of 
New  Brunswick  was  made  by  the  French  on 
the  bay  of  Chaleurs  in  1639.  Other  settle- 
ments were  made  in  1672  on  the  Miramichi 
river  and  elsewhere  on  the  E.  coast.  In  1713 
Acadia  was  ceded  to  the  English  by  the  treaty 
of  Utrecht.  The  first  British  settler  established 
himself  on  the  Miramichi  in  1764,  and  in  1784 
New  Brunswick  was  separated  from  Nova 
Scotia,  and  erected  into  a  distinct  colony.  The 
first  legislative  assembly  met  at  St.  John  in 
January,  1786.  At  the  close  of  the  American 
revolution  about  5,000  loyalists  from  the  United 
States  settled  here,  and  their  descendants  now 
form  a  considerable  portion  of  the  population. 
In  October,  1825,  the  standing  timber  in  the 
region  around  Miramichi  bay  took  fire,  envel- 
oping an  area  of  6,000  sq.  m.  in  flames.  Two 
towns  and  about  500  persons  were  destroyed. 
In  1848  responsible  government  was  introduced. 
In  1867  New  Brunswick  became  one  of  the 
original  provinces  of  the  Dominion  of  Canada. 
NEW  BRUNSWICK,  a  city  and  the  capital  of 
Middlesex  co.,  New  Jersey,  situated  at  the  head 


NEWBURGH 


279 


of  navigation  on  the  S.  W.  bank  of  the  Raritan 
river,  about  15  m.  above  its  mouth,  at  the  ter- 
minus of  the  Delaware  and  Raritan  canal,  and 
on  the  New  Jersey  division  of  the  Pennsylva- 
nia railroad,  28  m.  S.  W.  of  New  York ;  pop. 
in  1860,  11,256 ;  in  1870,  15,058.  The  oldest 
parts  of  the  town  are  built  on  low  land,  but  a 
large  and  by  far  the  pleasantest  portion  is  upon 
the  high  and  sloping  ground  which,  in  the  form 
of  a  crescent,  half  encircles  the  original  loca- 
tion. This  portion  is  well  laid  out  with  wide 
streets,  and  contains  many  handsome  residen- 
ces. The  court  house  is  near  the  centre  of  the 
city.  The  opera  house  and  masonic  hall  are 
fine  buildings.  New  Brunswick  is  largely  en- 
gaged in  manufactures,  containing  extensive 
India-rubber  factories,  and  manufactories  of 
harness,  hosiery,  iron,  machinery,  leather,  pa- 
per hangings,  &c.  It  has  two  banks,  a  high 
school  and  other  public  schools,  several  private 
schools,  two  daily  and  two  weekly  newspa- 
pers, two  monthly  periodicals,  and  17  churches. 
The  city  is  the  seat  of  Rutgers  college  (Re- 
formed), founded  in  1770,  occupying  an  ele- 
vated and  beautiful  situation  in  the  N.  portion. 
A  grammar  school  and  the  state  college  of  ag- 
riculture and  the  mechanic  arts  (as  the  scien- 
tific department)  are  connected  with  it.  (See 
RUTGERS  COLLEGE.)  The  theological  seminary 
of  the  Reformed  (Dutch)  church,  established 
here  in  1810,  occupies  a  commanding  position 
N.  of  the  college.  It  has  three  fine  buildings, 
Bertzog  hall,  Suydam  hall,  and  the  library. 
In  1874-'5  it  had  4  professors,  39  students,  and 
a  library  of  20,000  volumes. — New  Brunswick 
was  settled  about  the  close  of  the  17th  cen- 
tury by  emigrants  from  Long  Island,  and  was 


incorporated  as  a  town  in  1736.  During  the 
revolution  it  was  at  different  times  the  head- 
quarters of  each  of  the  opposing  armies,  and 
remains  of  their  works  are  still  to  be  seen  in  the 
vicinity.  The  city  was  incorporated  in  1784. 

NEWBFRGH,  a  city  and  one  of  the  county 
seats  of  Orange  co.,  New  York,  on  the  W.  bank 
of  the  Hudson  river,  61  m.  by  the  river  N.  of 
New  York,  and  84  m.  S.  of  Albany ;  pop.  in 
1870,  17,014,  of  whom  4,346  were  foreigners. 
It  is  the  terminus  of  the  Newburgh  branch  of 
the  Erie  railway.  Ferries  connect  it  with 
Fishkill  Landing  and  Dutchess  Junction,  sta- 
tions on  the  Hudson  River  railroad,  on  the  op- 
posite bank  of  the  river,  the  last  named  sta- 
tion being  the  river  terminus  of  the  New  York, 
Boston,  and  Montreal  railway.  It  is  situated 
on  a  steep  slope  rising  from  the  river  to  a 
height  of  150  ft.  Water  is  supplied  from  Lit- 
tle pond,  3  m.  distant,  the  works  for  which  cost 
$96,000.  "Washington's  Headquarters,"  an 
old  stone  mansion  overlooking  the  Hudson,  is 
owned  and  kept  in  order  by  the  state.  Besides 
its  association  with  the  revolutionary  war  and 
its  great-  chief,  the  building  contains  numerous 
interesting  relics  of  that  period.  Newburgh 
owns  considerable  shipping,  and  has  an  impor- 
tant trade,  the  receipts  of  lumber  and  produce 
by  rail  being  extensive.  Steamers  run  reg- 
ularly to  New  York,  Albany,  and  intermediate 
points.  Its  manufactures  are  extensive,  em- 
bracing engines,  boilers,  and  other  machinery, 
iron  castings,  carpets,  cotton  goods,  beer,  horse 
blankets,  brass,  cement  pipe,  paper,  pianos  and 
organs,  &c.  There  are  three  national  banks, 
with  a  joint  capital  of  $1,550,000,  and  a  sa- 
vings bank.  The  city  contains  ten  private 


•Kewtrargh. 


schools,  good  public  schools,  embracing  an 
academy  and  five  grammar  schools,  a  free  pub- 
lic library  under  the  charge  of  the  board  of 
education,  and  two  daily  and  three  weekly 
newspapers.  The  Newburgh  theological  sem- 
inary (United  Presbyterian)  was  organized  in 


1804,  and  chartered  in  1835.  In  1873-'4  it 
had  3  instructors,  12  students,  and  a  library  of 
3,450  volumes.  There  are  22  churches,  viz. : 
3  Baptist,  4  Episcopal,  5  Methodist,  6  Presby- 
terian, 2  Reformed,  1  Roman  Catholic,  and  1 
Unitarian.  The  city  was  incorporated  in  1865. 


280 


NEWBURYPORT 


5TEWBURYPORT,  a  city,  port  of  entry,  and 
one  of  the  shire  towns  of  Essex  co.,  Massa- 
chusetts, situated  on  the  S.  bank  of  the  Mer- 
rimack  river,  3  m.  from  its  mouth,  and  34  m. 
N.  K  E.  of  Boston,  in  lat.  42°  48'  30"  K, 
Ion.  70°  52'  3"  W. ;  pop.  in  1840,  7,160 ;  in 
1850,  9,572  ;  in  1860,  13,401 ;  in  1870,  12,595. 


The  Eastern  railroad  passes  through  it,  and  it 
is  the  terminus  of  a  branch  of  the  Boston  and 
Maine  railroad.  Horse  cars  run  to  different 
parts  of  the  city  and  to  Amesbury,  and  several 
lines  of  stages  ply  to  the  adjoining  towns.  The 
city  is  situated  on  a  swell  of  land  rising  gradu- 
ally to  the  height  of  100  ft.  from  the  river,  and 


Newburyport. 


commands  a  fine  view  of  the  ocean  and  the 
surrounding  country.  The  streets  are  laid  out 
regularly,  and  finely  shaded  with  trees;  and 
High  street,  the  principal  thoroughfare,  ex- 
tending for  3  m.  parallel  to  the  river,  and 
about  a  quarter  of  a  mile  from  it,  is  one  of 
the  most  beautiful  streets  in  New  England. 
In  the  centre  of  the  city  is  a  fine  mall,  extend- 
ing around  a  beautiful  pond  of  six  acres.  Near 
the  city  is  Oak  Hill  cemetery.  The  principal 

Eublic  buildings  are  the  custom  house,  city 
all,  and  court  house.  Some  of  the  churches 
are  of  admirable  architecture.  Under  the  Fed- 
eral street  church  are  the  remains  of  George 
"Whitefield,  who  died  here  in  1770.  The  same 
church  contains  a  whispering  gallery,  where  a 
slight  whisper  can  be  heard  115  ft.  The  har- 
bor is  formed  by  the  position  of  Plum  island 
along  the  mouth  of  the  river,  and  is  safe  and 
commodious.  The  bar  at  the  mouth  of  the  river 
is  shifting,  with  9  ft.  of  water  at  low  and  17  at 
high  tide.  The  value  of  imports  from  foreign 
countries  for  the  year  ending  June  30, 1874,  was 
$227,353;  exports  to  foreign  ports,  $42,739; 
entrances  in  the  foreign  trade,  19,  of  2,530 
tons;  clearances,  34,  of  7,837  tons;  entrances 
in  the  coastwise  trade  and  fisheries,  633,  of 
63,405  tons;  clearances,  607,  of  69,678  tons; 
engaged  in  the  cod  and  mackerel  fisheries,  33 
vessels,  of  1,316  tons;  belonging  in  the  dis- 
trict, 67,  of  12,865  tons.  Ship  building  forms 
a  prominent  business  of  the  place.  Vessels 
were  built  here  as  early  as  1680,  and  in  1766 
there  were  72  vessels  on  the  stocks  at  one 
time.  In  1854,  20,000  tons  of  shipping  of 
different  kinds  were  built,  the  vessels  varying 


from  100  to  1,600  tons,  and  employing  1,000 
men.  After  that  the  business  was  depressed, 
but  is  now  increasing,  and  18  vessels,  aggregate 
tonnage  15,000,  were  built  in  1874,  the  largest 
being  1,608  tons.  There  are  four  manufactur- 
ing corporations,  with  an  aggregate  capital  of 
$1,200,000,  employing  1,125  hands,  running 
35,216  spindles,  and  manufacturing  16,276,000 
yards  of  print  cloths  and  fine  sheetings  and  shirt- 
ings annually.  There  are  also  manufactories 
of  boots  and  shoes,  combs,  hats,  steam  pumps, 
paper,  iron  and  brass  castings,  machinery,  jew- 
elry, &c.  The  city  contains  four  national 
banks,  with  an  aggregate  capital  of  $820,000 ; 
two  savings  banks,  with  deposits  amounting  to 
$5,300,000 ;  and  an  insurance  company.  It  is 
divided  into  six  wards,  and  is  governed  by  a 
mayor,  a  board  of  aldermen  of  six,  and  a  com- 
mon council  of  18  members,  and  has  a  police 
force,  a  police  court,  and  a  fire  department. 
There  are  several  charitable  organizations,  the 
most  important  of  which  is  the  old  ladies' 
home  of  the  society  for  the  relief  of  aged 
females.  The  public  schools  of  Newburyport 
have  long  occupied  a  high  rank.  The  female 
high  school  was  the  first  of  the  kind  estab- 
lished in  the  country;  the  Putnam  free  school, 
supported  by  a  fund  of  $50,000,  is  open  to  all 
without  regard  to  residence;  these  two  have 
recently  been  consolidated  with  the  male  high 
school.  The  number  of  pupils  enrolled  in  the 
public  schools  in  1873  was  2,070  ;  average  at- 
tendance, 1,579.  For  an  account  of  the  uni- 
versity of  modern  languages  recently  estab- 
lished here,  see  MASSACHUSETTS,  vol.  xi.,  p.  257. 
A  daily,  a  semi-weekly,  and  a  weekly  newspaper 


NEW  CALABAR 


NEW  CALEDONIA 


281 


are  published.  The  " Newburyport  Herald" 
was  established  in  1792.  A  free  library,  found- 
ed in  1856  by  a  donation  of  Josiah  Little, 
contains  upward  of  15,000  volumes,  and  is 
constantly  increasing.  There  are  16  church- 
es, viz. :  Baptist,  Christian,  Congregational 
(5),  Episcopal,  Methodist  (2),  Presbyterian  (2), 
Roman  Catholic,  Second  Advent,  Unitarian, 
and  Universalist.  —  Newburyport  was  settled 
about  1635,  but  until  1764  formed  a  part  of 
Newbury.  It  was  distinguished  for  its  patri- 
otic spirit  during  the  revolution.  The  first 
tea  destroyed  was  in  this  town,  having  been 
taken  from  a  powder  house,  where  it  had  been 
deposited  for  safe  keeping,  and  burned  by  the 
citizens  in  the  public  square.  The  first  priva- 
teer fitted  out  in  the  United  States  was  from 
this  port,  and  the  first  volunteer  company  to 
join  the  continental  army  was  here  formed  in 
response  to  an  appeal  of  the  clergy.  On  May 
31,  1811,  a  great  fire  destroyed  a  large  portion 
of  the  town  and  over  $1,000,000  worth  of  prop- 
erty. In  the  war  of  1812  Newburyport  was 
particularly  distinguished  for  the  bravery  and 
success  of  its  privateers.  In  1851  a  portion  of 
Newbury  was  annexed  to  the  town,  and  on 
May  14  of  the  same  year  a  city  charter  was  ob- 
tained. For  the  recent  discovery  of  silver  in 
the  vicinity,  see  MASSACHUSETTS,  vol.  xi.,  p.  247. 

NEW  CALABAR.     See  CALABAR. 

NEW  CALEDONIA  (called  Balade  by  the  na- 
tives), an  island  of  Australasia  belonging  to 
France,  in  the  S.  Pacific,  between  lat.  20°  and 
22°  30'  S.,  and  Ion.  164°  and  167°  E.;  length 
from  N.  W.  to  S.  E.  240  m.,  average  breadth  28 
m. ;  area,  6,769  sq.  m. ;  pop.  estimated  at  from 
45,000  to  75,000.  It  is  surrounded  by  danger- 
ous rocks,  sand  banks,  and  coral  reefs,  and  is 
accessible  by  only  a  few  channels.  It  has  sev- 
eral bays  where  ships  may  anchor  near  the 
shore,  besides  which  there  are  secure  harbors 


at  Port  Balade  on  the  N.  E.  part  of  the  island 
and  Port  St.  Vincent  on  the  S.  W.  The  interior 
is  occupied  principally  by  barren  mountains, 
rising  in  some  places  to  a  height  of  about  6,000 
ft.,  and  abounding  in  granite,  quartz,  mica,  stea- 
tite, and  green  amphibole.  Coal,  nickel,  and 
iron  are  found ;  copper  is  plentiful  at  Balade ; 
and  in  1871  a  gold  mine  was  discovered,  which 
soon  attracted  a  number  of  Australian  and  Cali- 
fornian  diggers.  A  few  fertile  valleys  are  in- 
terspersed, in  which  grow  the  cocoanut,  banana, 
taro,  mango,  breadfruit,  and  yam.  The  sugar 
cane  is  of  excellent  quality  and  is  much  culti- 
vated. There  are  many  large  and  well  watered 
plains  which  afford  excellent  pasturage.  San- 
dal wood  was  formerly  plentiful,  but  the  supply 
is  now  nearly  exhausted.  Tripang  is  found  in 
the  surrounding  waters.  The  natives  resemble 
the  Papuan  or  negrito  race,  and  speak  a  lan- 
guage kindred  with  the  Australian  tongues. 
They  belong  to  different  tribes,  most  of  which 
are  described  as  hospitable  and  honest.  Can- 
nibalism, which  formerly  existed,  has  entirely 
ceased.  They  are  well  formed,  tall,  and  ro- 
bust, but  indolent.  Their  skin  is  deep  black, 
and  their  hair  coarse  and  bushy.  They  are 
fond  of  painting  their  faces,  and  even  in  set- 
tlements they  wear  but  few  garments.  Their 
huts,  built  of  spars  and  reeds,  thatched  with 
bark,  and  entered  by  a  very  small  opening, 
bear  some  resemblance  to  beehives.  The  chief 
articles  of  food  are  yams  and  fish.  —  New 
Caledonia  was  discovered  by  Capt.  Cook  in 
1774,  and  visited  by  DvEntrecasteaux  in  1792. 
A  settlement  of  Europeans  at  Balade  was  at- 
tacked by  the  natives  in  1849,  and  several  of 
the  settlers  were  killed.  The  same  year  the 
captain  and  cook  of  the  ship  Mary  were  killed 
and  eaten.  The  French  took  possession  of  the 
island  in  September,  1853,  and  established  on 
it  a  station  for  their  Pacific  squadron  and  a 


Numea,  New  Caledonia. 


penal  colony.  In  1870  the  number  of  colonists 
in  the  territory  subject  to  the  governor  of 
New  Caledonia,  which  also  comprises  the  Loy- 
alty islands  and  the  island  of  Kunie  or  Isle 
des  Pins,  was  1,562;  public  functionaries,  289; 
troops,  754 ;  immigrants,  1,176 ;  non-politi- 
cal convicts,  2,302 ;  political  convicts,  about 


4,000.  Numea,  on  Numea  bay,  near  the  S. 
W.  extremity  of  the  island,  is  the  seat  of  the 
governor.  The  French  have  been  repeatedly 
at  war  with  the  islanders,  but  hostilities  were 
closed  in  1857,  when  the  most  troublesome 
chief  was  made  prisoner.  French  missionaries 
have  made  several  prosperous  settlements,  and 


282 


NEW  CASTLE 


NEWCASTLE 


cultivate  plantations.  They  have  introduced 
a  variety  of  vegetables  and  fruits,  including 
wheat  and  barley,  and  have  been  very  suc- 
cessful in  raising  live  stock.  The  number  of 
the  islanders  who  have  embraced  Christianity 
is  estimated  at  about  5,000.  They  are  found 
to  be  industrious  and  averse  to  drunkenness. 
The  imports  of  the  entire  dependency  were  in 
1870  valued  at  3,249,182  francs,  the  exports 
at  203,650.  The  entrances  into  the  ports 
were  10  French  and  76  foreign  vessels,  the 
clearances  10  French  and  77  foreign  vessels. 
In  1872  the  national  assembly  of  France  re- 
solved to  deport  the  communists  to  the  penin- 
sula of  Ducos,  and  to  allow  them  to  engage 
in  agriculture.  Among  them  was  Rochefort, 
who  escaped  in  1874. 

NEW  CASTLE,  a  N.  county  of  Delaware,  bor- 
dering on  Pennsylvania,  bounded  E.  by  Dela- 
ware river  and  bay,  which  separate  it  from 
New  Jersey,  and  drained  by  Brandywine, 
Christiana,  and  other  creeks;  area,  about  500 
sq.  m.;  pop.  in  1870,  63,513,  of  whom  10,192 
were  colored.  It  has  a  diversified  surface  and 
fertile  soil.  It  is  intersected  by  the  Philadel- 
phia, Wilmington,  and  Baltimore,  the  Wil- 
mington and  Reading,  and  the  Delaware  rail- 
roads. The  chief  productions  in  1870  were 
504,284  bushels  of  wheat,  1,002,519  of  Indian 
corn,  353,371  of  oats,  200,137  of  potatoes, 
31,490  tons  of  hay,  17,555  Ibs.  of  wool,  765,746 
of  butter,  and  4,435  gallons  of  sorghum  molas- 
ses. There  were  7,464  horses,  883  mules  and 
asses,  11,733  milch  cows,  1,364  working  oxen, 
6,817  other  cattle,  5,185  sheep,  and  9,988 
swine.  The  number  of  manufacturing  estab- 
lishments was  459,  chiefly  in  Wilmington,  hav- 
ing a  capital  of  $9,995,175,  and  an  annual 
product  of  $15,093,131.  The  principal  were 
26  manufactories  of  carriages  and  wagons,  3  of 
freight  and  passenger  cars,  6  of  cotton  goods, 

1  of  gunpowder,  6  of  forged  and  rolled  iron, 
8  of  castings,  18  of  leather,  7  of  machinery, 

2  of  matches,  16  of  tin,  copper,  and  sheet-iron 
ware,  7  of  woollen  goods,  36  flour  mills,  and 
5  ship  yards.     Capital,  New  Castle. 

NEW  CASTLE,  a  borough  and  the  capital  of 
Lawrence  co.,  Pennsylvania,  on  the  Shenango 
river,  at  the  mouth  of  Neshannock  creek, 
45  m.  N.  N.  W.  of  Pittsburgh;  pop.  in  1870, 
6,164.  It  is  situated  2  m.  above  the  junction 
of  the  Shenango  with  Mahoning  river,  on  the 
Beaver  and  Erie  canal,  and  on  the  Erie  and 
Pittsburgh,  and  a  branch  of  the  Pittsburgh, 
Fort  Wayne,  and  Chicago  railroad.  Its  manu- 
factures of  iron  and  glass  are  extensive.  There 
are  also  flour  mills,  three  banks,  a  savings  in- 
stitution, graded  public  schools,  four  weekly 
newspapers,  and  ten  churches. 

NEWCASTLE.  I.  William  Cayendish,  duke  of, 
an  English  general,  born  in  1592,  died  Dec.  25, 
1676.  He  was  the  nephew  of  William  Caven- 
dish, founder  of  the  ducal  house  of  Devon- 
shire, succeeded  in  1617  to  large  estates,  and 
devoted  himself  to  poetry,  music,  and  other 
accomplishments.  In  1620  he  was  raised  to 


the  peerage  as  Baron  Ogle  and  Viscount  Mans- 
field, and  in  1628  was  created  earl  of  Newcastle- 
upon-Tyne.  At  the  outbreak  of  the  civil  wars 
he  sided  with  the  king,  to  whose  treasury  he 
contributed  £10,000,  and  took  the  field  at  the 
head  of  200  cavaliers.  He  was  intrusted  with 
the  command  of  the  four  northern  counties, 
and  raising  an  army  of  10,000  men,  he  pros- 
trated the  power  of  the  parliament  in  that 
part  of  England,  defeated  Sir  Thomas  Fair- 
fax at  Atherton  Moor,  June  30,  1643,  and  was 
made  marquis  of  Newcastle.  Subsequently  he 
held  the  Scots  in  check  at  Durham,  but  was 
obliged  in  April,  1644,  in  consequence  of  the 
defeat  of  Col.  Bellasis  at  Selby,  to  throw 
himself  with  all  his  forces  into  York,  where 
for  the  next  three  months  he  sustained  an 
investment  by  a  greatly  superior  army  under 
Fairfax.  Upon  the  advance  of  the  royal  army 
under  Rupert,  he  joined  the  latter  with  the 
greater  part  of  the  garrison,  and  endeavored  to 
persuade  him  that,  having  raised  the  siege,  he 
had  better  defer  a  battle  until  the  arrival  of  the 
reinforcements.  His  advice  was  disregarded, 
and  the  battle  of  Marston  Moor  was  fought, 
which  ruined  the  royal  cause  in  the  north.  He 
then  forced  his  way  with  a  few  followers 
to  Scarborough,  set  sail  for  the  continent,  and 
established  himself  in  Antwerp.  His  estates 
having  been  sequestrated  by  parliament  in 
1652,  he  lived  in  extreme  poverty  during  the 
protectorate;  but  on  the  restoration  he  re- 
ceived substantial  honors,  and  in  March,  1664, 
was  created  earl  of  Ogle  and  duke  of  New- 
castle. Clarendon  says  he  was  "a  very  fine 
gentleman,  active  and  full  of  courage."  He 
was  the  author  of  "  A  New  Method  to  Dress 
Horses"  (published  in  French,  Antwerp,  1658, 
and  in  English,  with  alterations,  London,  1667), 
and  of  several  comedies ;  and  is  said  to  have 
written  the  more  licentious  passages  in  his 
•wife's  comedies.  His  duchess  sketched  his 
character  and  career  in  her  "Life  of  the 
thrice  Noble,  High,  and  Puissant  Prince  Wil- 
liam Cavendishe,  Duke,  Marquis,  and  Earl  of 
Newcastle"  (fol.,  London,  1667).  II.  Marga- 
ret Cavendish,  duchess  of,  second  wife  of  the 
preceding,  an  English  authoress,  born  at  St. 
Johns,  near  Colchester,  Essex,  about  1625,  died 
in  December,  1673.  She  was  the  youngest 
daughter  of  Thomas  Lucas,  and  informs  us 
that  "  it  pleased  God  to  command  his  servant 
nature  to  indue  her  with  a  poetical  and  phil- 
osophical genius  even  from  her  birth,  for  she 
did  write  some  books  even  in  that  kind  before 
she  was  12  years  of  age."  Joining  the  court 
at  Oxford  in  1643,  she  was  appointed  a  maid 
of  honor  to  Queen  Henrietta  Maria,  and  ac- 
companied her  to  Paris,  where  she  met  the 
marquis  of  Newcastle,  whom  she  married  in 
1645,  and  accompanied  to  Antwerp.  At  the 
restoration  they  returned  to  England,  and  the 
remainder  of  their  lives  they  spent  in  retire- 
ment, perpetrating  an  unlimited  amount  of 
bad  prose  and  worse  poetry.  Both  in  conver- 
sation and  in  print,  each  spoke  of  the  other  as 


NEWCASTLE 


NEWCASTLE-UNDER-LYME      283 


the  greatest  genius  in  the  world,  the  duke 
being  likened  by  his  consort  to  Julius  Caesar. 
She  was  the  more  voluminous  author  of  the 
two,  nothing  being  too  high  or  too  low  for  her 
to  attempt;  and  as  she  never  revised  her 
works  "lest  it  should  disturb  her  following 
thoughts,"  she  produced  13  folios,  10  of  which 
are  in  print.  Walpole,  in  his  "  Catalogue  of 
Koyal  and  Noble  Authors,"  calls  her  "  a  fer- 
tile pedant,  with  an  unbounded  passion  for 
scribbling,"  and  says  that  she  kept  a  servant 
who  slept  on  a  truckle-bed  in  her  room,  and 
when  during  the  night  she  felt  inspiration,  she 
would  cry  out,  "John,  I  conceive;"  whereupon 
he  would  arise  and  commit  to  paper  what  she 
dictated.  The  best  known  of  her  works  are 
her  two  volumes  of  plays.  She  was  buried  in 
Westminster  abbey. 

NEWCASTLE,  or  Newcastle-nnder-Lyme.  I.  Thomas 
Holies  Pelham,  duke  of,  an  English  statesman, 
born  in  1693  or  1694,  died  Nov.  IT,  1768.  He 
was  the  son  and  successor  of  Thomas  Pelham, 
first  Baron  Pelham,  and  in  1711  cams  into 
possession  of  the  large  estates  of  his  maternal 
uncle,  John  Holies,  duke  of  Newcastle,  whose 
title  had  expired  with  him.  In  1714  he  was 
created  Viscount  Haughton  and  earl  of  Clare, 
and  in  1715  marquis  of  Clare  and  duke  of 
Newcastle-upon-Tyne,  with  remainder,  failing 
his  issue  male,  to  his  brother.  He  entered 
political  life  as  a  whig  and  a  supporter  of  the 
house  of  Hanover,  in  whose  interests  he  raised 
a  troop  of  horse  to  put  down  the  Jacobites. 
Rewarded  for  his  loyalty  by  admission  into 
Walpole's  ministry  as  secretary  of  state,  he 
succeeded  by  industry,  influential  connections, 
and  lavish  expenditure  of  money,  and  also  by 
the  assistance  of  his  brother  Henry  Pelham,  in 
making  himself  feared  and  respected  by  those 
who  despised  his  abilities,  which  were  beneath 
mediocrity.  He  remained  in  office  during  the 
administration  of  Henry  Pelham,  and  George 
II.  complained  that  he  could  not  appoint  even 
a  page  of  the  back  stairs  while  there  were  so 
many  of  the  Newcastle  footmen  about  him. 
In  1746  the  Pelham  brothers,  apprehensive 
that  the  king  was  endeavoring  to  bring  Lord 
Granville  into  power,  suddenly  resigned  office 
with  all  their  colleagues.  An  attempt  was 
made  to  form  a  new  ministry,  and  at  the  end 
of  40  hours  the  old  cabinet  was  recalled,  the 
king  complaining  bitterly  that  a  man  like  New- 
castle, who  was  not  fit  to  be  chamberlain  to  a 
petty  court  in  Germany,  should  be  forced  on 
him  and  the  nation  as  a  minister.  On  the 
death  of  Henry  Pelham  in  1754,  the  duke  suc- 
ceeded to  the  premiership,  but  resigned  in 
1756  from  inability  to  reconcile  the  discordant 
elements  in  his  cabinet.  In  1757  he  was  rein- 
stated, with  Pitt  and  Henry  Fox  as  his  chief 
supporters  in  the  ministry,  but  was  so  over- 
shadowed by  the  greatness  of  Pitt  that  he  sank 
into  insignificance  and  retired  in  disgust  in 
May,  1762.  In  November,  1756,  he  was  created 
duke  of  Ne \vcastle-under-Lyme,  with  special 
remainder  to  Henry  Fiennes  Clinton,  ninth 


earl  of  Lincoln,  who  had  married  his  niece, 
and  who  inherited  the  title  in  1768.  His  ad- 
ministrative incompetency,  and  the  long  pe- 
riod (amounting  to  nearly  40  years)  in  which 
he  held  office,  are  among  the  anomalies  of  Brit- 
ish political  history.  II.  Henry  Pelham  Fiennes 
Pelham  Clinton,  duke  of,  a  British  statesman, 
born  in  London,  May  22,  1811,  died  there,  Oct. 
18, 1864.  He  entered  the  house  of  commons  as 
a  conservative  in  1832,  bearing  the  courtesy 
title  of  Lord  Lincoln,  and  in  1834-'5  was  for  a 
few  months  a  lord  of  the  treasury  under  Sir 
Robert  Peel.  He  was  afterward  a  prominent 
and  active  member  of  the  opposition  until  Peel's 
return  to  power  in  1841,  when  he  was  made 
chief  commissioner  of  woods  and  forests.  In 
1846  he  sustained  Peel  in  his  change  of  views 
on  the  corn  laws,  notwithstanding  the  deser- 
tion of  other  conservative  leaders,  and  ex- 
changed his  office  for  that  of  chief  secretary 
for  Ireland,  in  order  to  secure  the  indorsement 
of  his  large  agricultural  constituency  of  South 
Notts  by  a  new  election.  He  was  however 
defeated  there,  mainly  through  the  opposition 
of  his  father,  but  was  returned  from  the 
Falkirk  district  of  burghs.  He  retired  from 
office  with  Sir  Robert  Peel  in  the  summer  of 
1846,  and  up  to  the  period  of  his  elevation  to 
the  house  of  lords  (Jan.  12,  1851)  continued 
to  exercise  considerable  influence  in  parliament 
as  one  of  the  leaders  of  the  small  but  brilliant 
band  of  Peelites.  In  1853  he  became  secre- 
tary of  state  for  the  colonies  in  the  Aberdeen 
ministry,  in  which  capacity  the  functions  of 
minister  of  war  devolved  upon  him.  Shortly 
after  the  outbreak  of  the  Crimean  war  the 
colonial  department  was  separated  from  that 
of  war  ;  and  the  duke,  choosing  the  latter,  re- 
ceived a  share  of  the  blame  for  the  misconduct 
of  military  affairs.  In  January,  1855,  he  de- 
fended himself  in  the  house  of  lords  with  great 
spirit;  but  the  commons  having  ordered  an- in- 
quiry, he  resigned.  He  afterward  visited  the 
Crimea,  and  was  present  at  the  capture  of 
Sebastopol.  In  1859  he  became  a  member  of 
Lord  Palmerston's  administration  as  colonial 
secretary,  and  held  the  post  till  April,  1864. 
In  1860  he  accompanied  the  prince  of  Wales 
on  his  visit  to  Canada  and  the  United  States. 
He  married  in  1832  the  only  daughter  of  the 
duke  of  Hamilton,  from  whom  he  was  di- 
vorced in  1850.  She  bore  five  children,  the 
eldest  of  whom,  Henry  Pelham  Alexander, 
born  Jan.  25,  1834,  succeeded  as  sixth  duke. 

NEWCASTLE-UNDER-LIME,  a  municipal  and 
parliamentary  borough  and  market  town  of 
Staffordshire,  England,  near  the  right  bank  of 
the  Trent,  140  m.  N.  W.  of  London ;  pop.  in 
1871,  15,948.  It  is  well  built,  paved,  and 
lighted  with  gas.  The  principal  public  edifices 
are  the  churches,  town  hall,  literary  and  sci- 
entific institute,  theatre,  free  grammar  school 
(founded  in  1602),  and  a  range  of  almshouses 
for  20  poor  females.  It  has  manufactories  of 
hats,  paper,  shoes,  silks,  cotton,  and  earthen- 
ware ;  coal  and  iron  are  mined  in  the  vicinity. 


284 


NEWCASTLE-UPON-TYNE 


NEWCASTLE-FPON-TYNE  (anc.  Pens  JZlii,  af- 
terward Monlcchester),  a  municipal  and  parlia- 
mentary borough  and  river  port  of  England, 
the  chief  town  of  Northumberland,  on  the 
left  bank  of  the  Tyne,  8  m.  from  its  mouth  in 
the  North  sea,  and  250  m.  N.  N.  W.  of  Lon- 
don; lat.  54°  58'  N.,  Ion.  1°  35'  W. ;  pop.  in 
1871,  128,443.  It  is  built  on  three  steep  hills, 
and  extends  about  2  m.  along  the  river,  com- 
municating with  Gateshead  on  the  opposite 
bank  by  a  handsome  stone  bridge.  A  few  re- 
mains of  its  ancient  fortifications  are  yet  stand- 
ing. The  streets  are  generally  spacious,  well 
paved,  and  lighted  with  gas,  and  many  of  the 
buildings  are  elegant.  The  old  quarters  have 
been  largely  rebuilt  within  a  few  years,  and 
now  present  some  of  the  finest  streets  and 
squares  in  the  kingdom.  A  handsome  edifice 
was  erected  in  1859  for  public  baths  and  wash 
houses.  The  "high  level  bridge"  across  the 
Tyne,  built  by  Robert  Stephenson,  is  support- 
ed by  six  massive  piers  124  ft.  apart,  and  has 


a  carriageway  90  ft.  above  the  river,  and  over 
that  a  railway  viaduct  at  a  height  of  118  ft. 
from  the  water.  There  are  many  hospitals, 
asylums  for  the  deaf  and  dumb  and  the  blind, 
learned  and  scientific  societies,  and  a  fine-art 
institution.  The  museum  of  the  antiquarian 
society  has  the  largest  collection  in  England  of 
Eoman  lapidary  inscriptions  and  sculptures. 
The  old  castle,  built  in  1080  by  Robert,  eldest 
son  of  William  the  Conqueror,  has  been  re- 
cently restored  in  many  parts,  and  is  one  of 
the  finest  specimens  of  castellated  Norman 
architecture  in  the  kingdom.  A  theatre,  a 
music  hall,  and  assembly  rooms  are  the  prin- 
cipal places  of  amusement.  There  are  three 
daily  and  five  weekly  newspapers.  The  manu- 
factures, which  are  extensive,  are  glass  of  all 
kinds,  iron  ware,  locomotives,  railway  and 
other  carriages,  paper,  copperas,  coal  pitch, 
spirits  of  tar,  varnish,  soda,  whiting,  glue, 
vinegar,  and  soap.  The  Elswick  iron  works, 
erected  in  1859  for  the  manufacture  of  the 


Newcastle-upon-Tyne. 


Armstrong  gun,  iron  bridges,  and  armor  for 
iron- clad  ships,  cover  an  area  of  11  acres. 
Connected  with  them  are  shot,  shell,  and  fuze 
factories,  and  a  mechanics'  literary  institution 
for  the  benefit  of  the  workmen.  Ship  build- 
ing is  prosecuted  on  a  large  scale,  and  the  con- 
struction of  iron  steamships  is  a  prominent 
branch  of  industry.  The  harbor  has  been 
much  improved  by  dredging,  and  there  is  a 
fine  quay  1,550  ft.  long.  The  traffic  is  princi- 
pally in  coals  (bituminous),  for  which  New- 
castle is  the  greatest  mart  in  the  world.  The 
coal  trade  seems  to  have  been  important  from 
the  very  earliest  period  of  the  town;  the 
burgesses  obtained  from  Henry  III.  in  1239 
a  license  to  dig  the  coals  within  the  borough, 
and  by  the  time  of  Edward  I.  the  business  had 
grown  to  such  consequence  that  Newcastle 
was  able  to  pay  a  revenue  of  £200.  In  1615 
the  trade  employed  400  ships,  and  extended  to 
France  and  the  Netherlands.  The  exportation 
of  coke  is  also  important,  amounting  to  more 
than  200,000  tons  annually.  Lead  is  shipped 


in  large  quantities ;  it  is  brought  from  Cum- 
berland and  the  hills  of  western  Northumber- 
land and  Durham,  and  is  exported  both  in  pigs 
and  manufactured.  This  traffic  is  still  more 
ancient  than  that  in  coals.  The  imports  are 
chiefly  agricultural  products,  wine,  spirits,  co- 
lonial produce,  tallow,  hides,  tar,  pitch,  lime- 
stone, bones,  bristles,  rags,  oil,  and  timber. 
The  following  statement  shows  the  movement 
of  shipping  in  the  foreign  trade  for  the  year 
ending  Jan.  1,  1874: 


FLAG. 

ENTERED. 

CLEARED. 

Vessels. 

Tonnage. 

Vessels. 

Tonnage. 

British 

2.0'VT 
2,558 

914,013 
528,063 

4,037 
3,624 

1,581,564 
862,605 

Foreign  

Total  

5,225 

1,442,081 

7,661 

2,444,169 

Besides  the  above  there  is  a  large  number  of 
vessels  engaged  in  the  coastwise  trade.     The 
total  value  of  foreign  and  colonial  imports  in 

NEWCOMB 


NEWELL 


285 


that  year  was  £5,018,926 ;  the  exports  of  the 
produce  of  the  United  Kingdom  amounted  to 
£6,803,819.  —  Newcastle  derived  its  ancient 
name  of  Pons  ^Elii  from  a  bridge  over  the  Tyne 
attributed  to  the  emperor  Hadrian,  and  its  sub- 
sequent one  of  Monkchester  from  its  monastic 
establishments.  The  holy  well  of  Jesus  Mound 
(now  called  Jesinond),  about  a  mile  from  the 
town,  was  a  favorite  resort  for  pilgrims.  Du- 
ring the  reign  of  Charles  I.  the  city  was  taken 
by  the  Scottish  army  under  Lesley  in  1640, 
and  again  in  1644.  The  borough  is  governed 
by  a  mayor,  14  aldermen,  and  45  councillors. 

NEWCOMB,  Harvey,  an  American  clergyman, 
born  at  Thetford,  Vt.,  in  1803,  died  in  Brook- 
lyn, N.  Y.,  Aug.  30,  1863.  He  removed  to 
western  New  York  in  1818,  was  a  teacher  for 
eight  years,  and  from  1826  to  1831  edited  sev- 
eral journals,  the  last  being  the  "  Christian 
Herald,"  at  Pittsburgh,  Pa.  For  the  next  ten 
years  he  was  engaged  in  writing  books  for 
Sabbath  schools.  He  was  licensed  to  preach 
in  1840,  and  took  charge  of  a  Congregational 
church  at  West  Roxbury,  Mass.,  and  subse- 
quently was  pastor  in  other  places.  In  1850-'51 
he  was  assistant  editor  of  the  New  York  "  Ob- 
server," also  preaching  for  some  time  in  Brook- 
lyn, and  in  1859  became  pastor  of  a  church  in 
Hancock,  Pa.  He  contributed  largely  to  re- 
ligious journals,  and  wrote  in  all  178  volumes, 
of  which  14  are  on  church  history,  but  most 
of  them  are  books  for  children.  They  include 
"Young  Lady's  Guide,"  "Manners  and  Cus- 
toms of  the  North  American  Indians"  (2  vols.), 
and  "The  Cyclopaedia  of  Missions"  (1855). 

NEWCOMB,  Simon,  an  American  astronomer, 
born  at  Wallace,  Nova  Scotia,  March  12,  1835. 
He  came  to  the  United  States  in  his  youth, 
taught  school  several  years  in  Maryland,  and 
was  employed  as  computer  on  the  "  Nautical 
Almanac"  for  1857.  He  began  his  original 
investigations  in  theoretical  astronomy  in  1858, 
and  in  1861  was  appointed  professor  of  mathe- 
matics in  the  navy,  and  ordered  to  the  naval 
observatory.  He  negotiated  the  contract  for 
the  great  telescope  authorized  by  congress,  su- 
pervised its  construction,  and  planned  the  tower 
and  dome  in  which  it  is  mounted.  He  was  a 
member  and  secretary  of  the  commission  cre- 
ated by  congress  in  1871  to  provide  for  the 
observation  of  the  transit  of  Venus,  Dec.  9, 
1874.  The  work  of  organizing  parties,  select- 
ing their  stations,  and  planning  the  system  of 
observation  fell  chiefly  on  him.  In  1872  he  was 
elected  a  foreign  associate  of  the  royal  astro- 
nomical society  of  England ;  and  in  1874  he 
received  that  society's  gold  medal  for  his  tables 
of  Neptune  and  Uranus,  and  in  the  same  year 
was  elected  a  corresponding  member  of  the 
institute  of  France.  His  most  important  as- 
tronomical works  are :  "  On  the  Secular  Varia- 
tions and  Mutual  Relations  of  the  Orbits  of 
the  Asteroids"  (I860)  ;  "  Tables  of  the  Planet 
Neptune;"  "Investigation  of  the  Solar  Paral- 
lax" (1867);  "On  the  Action  of  the  Planets 
on  the  Moon,"  communicated  to  the  French 


academy  during  a  visit  to  France  (1871)  ;  and 
"  Tables  of  Uranus"  (1873).  He  has  also  pub- 
lished "A  Critical  Examination  of  the  Finan- 
cial Policy  during  the  Southern  Rebellion" 
(1865),  and  has  contributed  to  the  "North 
American  Review  "  and  other  periodicals  arti- 
cles on  political  economy,  &c. 

NEWCOME,  William,  an  English  archbishop, 
born  at  Abingdon,  Berkshire,  April  10,  1729, 
died  in  Dublin,  Jan.  11,  1800.  He  was  edu- 
cated at  Oxford,  and  distinguished  himself  as  a 
tutor.  He  became  bishop  of  Dromore  in  1766, 
of  Ossory  in  1775,  of  Waterford  in  1779,  and 
archbishop  of  Armagh  in  1795.  The  most 
important  of  his  works  are :  "  The  Harmony 
of  the  Gospels  "  (1778)  ;  "  Observations  on  our 
Lord's  Conduct  as  a  Divine  Instructor"  (1782) ; 
"  New  Critical  Version  of  the  Twelve  Minor 
Prophets  and  Ezekiel"  (l785-'8) ;  "An  His- 
torical View  of  the  English  Biblical  Transla- 
tions" (1792);  and  "An  Attempt  toward  Re- 
vising our  English  Translation  of  the  Greek 
Scriptures"  (1796). 

NEWELL,  Robert  Henry,  an  American  humorist, 
born  in  New  York,  Dec.  13,  1836.  He  was 
literary  editor  of  the  "  New  York  Mercury " 
from  1858  to  1862,  and  was  employed  by  the 
"  World  "  from  1869  to  1874,  when  he  became 
editor  of  the  "Hearth  and  Home"  weekly 
journal.  He  has  published,  under  the  pseu- 
donyme  "  Orpheus  C.  Kerr,"  a  series  of  letters 
on  the  civil  war  (4  vols.  12mo,  1862-'8) ;  "  The 
Palace  Beautiful  and  other  Poems "  (1865) ; 
"  Avery  Glibun,"  an  American  romance  (1867) ; 
"The  Cloven  Foot,"  an  adaptation  of  "The 
Mystery  of  Edwin  Drood  "  to  American  scenes 
and  characters  (1870);  a  second  volume  of 
poems  entitled  "  Versatilities  "  (1871)  ;  and 
"The  Walking  Doll,"  a  humorous  novel  of 
New  York  life  (1872). 

NEWELL.  I.  Sanrael,  an  American  missionary, 
born  in  Durham,  Me.,  July  24,  1784,  died  in 
Bombay,  India,  March  30, 1821.  He  graduated 
at  Harvard  college  in  1807,  studied  theology 
at  Andover,  was  ordained  at  Salem,  Feb.  5, 
1812,  and  sailed  in  company  with  Judson  for 
Calcutta.  On  his  arrival  the  Bengal  govern- 
ment ordered  him  to  leave  the  country,  where- 
upon he  sailed  for  the  Isle  of  France,  thence 
to  Ceylon,  and  finally  in  1817  joined  the  Rev. 
Gordon  Hall  at  Bombay.  He  was  one  of  the 
signers  of  the  paper  which  led  to  the  formation 
of  the  American  board  of  commissioners  for 
foreign  missions.  In  conjunction  with  Mr. 
Hall  he  wrote  "  The  Conversion  of  the  Wrorld, 
or  the  Claims  of  Six  Hundred  Millions "  (An- 
dover, 1818).  II.  Harriet  Atwood,  wife  of  the 
preceding,  one  of  the  first  female  missionaries 
from  the  United  States,  born  in  Haverhill, 
Mass.,  Oct.  10,  1793,  died  in  the  Isle  of  France, 
Nov.  30, 1812.  She  was  married  to  Mr.  Newell 
in  February,  1812,  and  accompanied  him  to 
India.  Her  memoirs  by  her  husband,  with  her 
letters,  and  a  funeral  sermon  by  Dr.  Leonard 
Woods,  have  passed  through  many  editions,  and 
have  been  translated  into  several  languages. 


286 


NEW  ENGLAND 


NEWFOUNDLAND 


NEW  MGLAOT),  the  N.  E.  portion  of  the  Uni- 
ted States,  comprising  the  states  of  Maine,  New 
Hampshire,  Vermont,  Massachusetts,  Rhode 
Island,  and  Connecticut.  It  extends  from  lat. 
41°  to  47°  32'  N.,  and  from  Ion.  66°  52'  to  73° 
50'  W.,  with  an  area  of  68,460  sq.  m.,  and  a 
population  in  1870  of  3,487,924.  It  has  a  coast 
line  of  about  700  m.,  without  allowing  for  the 
smaller  inlets,  and  constitutes  a  large  part  of 
the  great  peninsula  which,  including  Nova  Sco- 
tia, New  Brunswick,  and  parts  of  Quebec,  Can- 
ada, is  formed  by  the  Atlantic  ocean,  the  St. 
Lawrence,  and  the  connected  waters  of  Lakes 
Champlain  and  George  and  the  Hudson  river. 
It  was  originally  granted  for  colonization  by 
James  I.  in  1606  to  the  Plymouth  company  un- 
der the  name  of  North  Virginia,  and  received 
its  present  name  from  Capt.  John  Smith,  who 
in  1614  explored  and  made  a  map  of  the  coast. 
— For  the  details  of  the  geography  and  history 
of  New  England,  see  the  articles  on  the  states 
of  which  it  is  composed. 

XEWFOFiXDLAND,  a  British  North  American 
colony,  comprising  the  island  of  the  same 
name,  and  the  coast  of  Labrador  from  Blanc 
Sablon  bay  (lat.  51°  25'  N.,  Ion.  57°  9'  W.),  at 
the  W.  entrance  of  the  strait  of  Belle  Isle,  to 
Cape  Chudleigh  (lat.  60°  37'  N.,  Ion.  65°  W.), 
at  the  E.  entrance  of  Hudson  strait,  a  distance 
of  about  750  m.  (See  LABEADOE.)  The  island 
lies  at  the  mouth  of  the  gulf  of  St.  Lawrence, 
between  lat.  46°  37'  and  51°  40'  N.,  and  Ion.  52° 
40'  and  59°  31'  W.,  and  is  separated  from  Lab- 
rador on  the  northwest  by  the  strait  of  Belle 
Isle,  12  m.  wide.  Cape  Ray,  its  S.  W.  point,  is 
65  m.  from  Cape  North,  the  N.  E.  point  of 
Cape  Breton.  Its  length  N.  and  S.  near  the 
56th  meridian  is  325  in.,  and  near  the  54th 
meridian  180  m. ;  its  width  varies  from  about 
45  m.  N.  of  the  50th  parallel  to  310  m.  between 
Cape  Ray  and  St.  John's  ;  area,  40,200  sq.  m. 
The  portion  extending  N.  from  Cape  St.  John 
on  the  N.  E.  coast  around  the  N.  extremity  of 
the  island,  and  thence  S.  to  Cape  Ray,  a  dis- 
tance of  about  450  m.,  on  which  the  French 
have  the  right  to  fish,  is  known  as  the  "  French 
shore;"  the  remainder,  from  Cape  Ray  E.  and 
N.  to  Cape  St.  John,  about  610  m.,  is  divided 
into  10  districts,  embracing  15  electoral  divi- 
sions (similar  to  counties),  viz. :  Bonavista, 
Burgeo  and  La  Poile,  Burin,  Conception  Bay 
with  five  divisions  (Bay  de  Verds,  Carbonear, 
Harbor  Grace,  Portdegrave,  and  Southern),  Fer- 
ryland,  Fortune  Bay,  Placentia  and  St.  Mary's, 
St.  John's  with  two  divisions  (East  and  West), 
Trinity,  and  Twillingate  and  Fogo.  The  chief 
towns  are  St.  John's  (pop.  in  1869,  22,553),  the 
capital  and  commercial  centre,  on  the  S.  E. 
coast,  and  Harbor  Grace  (pop.  6,770)  and  Car- 
bonear (pop.  5,000),  on  Conception  bay.  Other 
important  settlements  are  Twillingate  (pop. 
2,790),  on  Notre  Dame  bay;  Bonavista  (pop. 
2,600),  between  Bonavista  and  Trinity  bays; 
Brigus  (2,000),  on  Conception  bay;  Greens- 
pond,  on  Bonavista  bay ;  Catalina  and  Trinity, 
on  Trinity  bay;  Bay  Roberts,  on  Conception  bay; 


Torbay,  on  the  S.  E.  coast,  and  Burin,  on 
Placentia  bay.  The  population  nowhere  ex- 
tends far  inland,  and  the  greater  portion  of 
the  inhabitants  are  settled  on  the  peninsula 
of  Avalon  and  in  the  adjacent  districts  at 
the  S.  E.  extremity  of  the  island.  The  per- 
manent population  in  1763  was  about  7,500; 
in  1804,  20,000 ;  since  which  it  has  increased 
rapidly.  The  population  according  to  subse- 
quent censuses  has  been  as  follows:  1836,  75,- 
096;  1845,  96,606;  1857,  124,288;  1869,  146,- 
536,  of  whom  75,547  were  males  and  70,989 
females;  1874,  161,455,  of  whom  8,651  were 
settled  on  the  French  shore,  and  2,416  in  Lab- 
rador. The  figures  for  1836  and  1845  do  not 
include  Labrador  and  the  French  shore.  The 
inhabitants  are  chiefly  emigrants  or  the  de- 
scendants of  emigrants  from  England  and  Ire- 
land. The  aborigines  of  Newfoundland,  who 
called  themselves  Beoths,  and  painted  them- 
selves with  red  ochre,  whence  they  were  called 
Red  Indians,  are  supposed  to  have  become  ex- 
tinct. There  are  a  few  Micmac  Indians  from 
New  Brunswick  in  the  island. — The  interior 
has  never  been  thoroughly  explored.  In  1822 
W.  E.  Cormack,  a  Scotchman,  with  a  single 
attendant,  crossed  the  island  from  Trinity 
bay  to  St.  George's  bay,  and  published  a 
short  account  of  his  journey.  In  1839  and 
1840  a  geological  reconnoissance  of  the  coast 
was  made  by  Prof.  J.  B.  Jukes,  who  in  1843 
published  a  "  General  Report  of  the  Geologi- 
cal Survey  of  Newfoundland."  For  some  years 
past  geological  and  topographical  surveys  by 
Alexander  Murray  have  been  in  progress,  and 
several  annual  reports  have  been  made  to  the 
colonial  government.  The  island  is  rugged  and 
for  the  most  part  barren.  The  interior  is  an 
undulating  plateau,  interspersed  at  intervals  of 
a  few  miles  with  low  hills  or  ridges,  marshes, 
aud  lakes.  The  principal  ranges  of  hills  are 
the  Long  Range  mountains,  which  run  in  a 
N.  E.  direction  from  Cape  Ray  to  the  Hum- 
ber  river,  by  which  they  are  cut,  and  thence 
N.  to  Bonne  bay,  and  onward  through  the  cen- 
tre of  the  N.  peninsula  to  Castor  river;  the 
Cape  Anguille  mountains,  a  triangular  range 
near  that  cape,  rising  to  a  height  of  1,200  ft.  or 
upward ;  the  Blow-me-down  (properly  Blomi- 
don)  hills,  between  St.  George's  bay  and  the 
Humber  arm,  attaining  near  the  latter  an  eleva- 
tion of  2,085  ft. ;  a  range  crossing  the  river 
Exploits,  about  30  m.  from  its  mouth,  which  at 
the  north  rises  to  a  summit  called  Hodge's  hill, 
and  S.  of  the  river  is  known  as  the  Shutebrook 
hills;  a  range  running  N. E.  and  S.  W.,  and  di- 
viding the  waters  of  Gander  bay  from  those  of 
the  bay  of  Exploits,  which  at  the  north,  where 
it  attains  a  height  of  nearly  1,000  ft.,  is  called 
the  Blue  hills,  and  at  the  south  Heart  ridge ;  a 
range  bordering  the  W.  shore  of  Placentia  bay, 
and  extending  to  Bonavista  bay,  which  is  more 
than  1,000  ft.  high;  and  two  ranges  in  the 
peninsula  of  Avalon.  The  easternmost  of  these, 
which  probably  does  not  rise  above  700  ft., 
is  flanked  by  two  conical  hills,  called  "But- 


NEWFOUNDLAND 


287 


terpots,"  about  20  m.  apart,  which,  are  about 
1,000ft.  in  height;  the  western  range  attains 
in  one  of  its  peaks  an  elevation  of  about  1,400 
ft.  E.  and  N.  E.  of  the  valley  of  Bay  East  river 
are  three  hills,  called  "Tolts,"  which  are  prob- 
ably more  than  2,000  ft.  high,  the  southern  of 
which  is  named  Mount  Sylvester.  The  coast 
is  for  the  most  part  precipitous  and  lofty,  and 
is  broken  into  numerous  headlands  and  penin- 
sulas by  deep  bays,  which  in  turn  are  indented 
by  innumerable  smaller  inlets.  The  sinuosities 
measure  several  thousand  miles.  The  W.  coast 
is  the  most  regular.  The  principal  bays  are 
Pistolet,  at  the  N.  extremity;  Hare,  Canada, 
White,  Notre  Dame,  and  the  bay  of  Exploits, 
on  the  N.  E.  coast ;  Bonavista,  Trinity,  and 
Conception,  on  the  E. ;  Trepassey,  St.  Mary's, 
Placentia,  Fortune,  Hermitage,  and  D'Espoir 
(called  by  many  of  the  inhabitants  Despair 
bay),  on  the  S. ;  and  St.  George's  bay,  bay  of 
Islands,  Bonne  bay,  and  St.  John's  bay,  on  the 
W.  coast.  Between  White  bay  on  the  east  and 
the  gulf  of  St.  Lawrence  and  strait  of .  Belle 
Isle  on  the  west  the  N.  projection  of  the  island 
forms  an  extensive  peninsula.  The  peninsula 
of  Avalon  forms  the  S.  E.  extremity,  and  is 
connected  with  the  mainland  by  an  isthmus 
8  m.  wide,  which  separates  Trinity  bay  N.  E. 
from  Placentia  bay  S.  W.  Between  Placentia 
and  Fortune  bays  is  the  peninsula  of  Burin. 
The  most  important  capes  are  Cape  Bauld,  at 
the  N.  E.  extremity  of  the  island ;  Partridge 
point,  at  the  entrance  of  White  bay  ;  Cape  St. 
John,  at  the  N.  entrance  of  Notre  Dame  bay ; 
Cape  Freels  at  the  N.,  and  Cape  Bonavista  at 
the  S.  entrance  of  Bonavista  bay ;  Cape  St. 
Francis,  at  the  S.  entrance  of  Conception  bay ; 
Cape  Race,  at  the  S.  E.  extremity  of  the  island ; 
Cape  Ray,  at  the  S.  W.  point ;  Cape  Anguille  at 
the  S.  and  Cape  St.  George  at  the  N.  entrance 
of  St.  George's  bay;  Point  Riche,  on  the  N. 
portion  of  the  W.  coast ;  and  Cape  Norman,  at 
the  N.  W.  extremity.  At  the  most  important 
and  frequented  points  along  the  coast  light- 
houses have  been  erected.  There  are  numer- 
ous good  harbors,  but  the  entrance  to  many 
of  them  is  obstructed  by  rocky  ledges.  Small 
islands  abound  in  the  bays  and  along  the  coast. 
The  most  important  are  Belle  Isle,  at  the  en- 
trance to  the  strait  of  that  name;  Quirpon 
island,  at  the  N.  E.  extremity;  Groais,  South 
Belle  Isle,  and  St.  Barbe  or  Horse  island,  off 
the  N.  E.  coast ;  Twillingate  and  New  World 
islands,  in  the  bay  of  Exploits ;  Fogo  island, 
E.  of  these ;  Random,  in  Trinity  bay ;  Mara- 
sheen,  in  Placentia  bay ;  and  Brunet,  in  For- 
tune bay.  The  Miquelon  islands  and  St. 
Pierre,  off  the  extremity  of  the  peninsula  of 
Burin,  which  belong  geographically  to  New- 
foundland, are  subject  to  France.  The  interior 
of  the  island  is  so  thickly  strewn  with  lakes 
and  ponds  that  it  is  estimated  that  a  third 
of  the  surface  is  covered  with  water.  The 
most  extensive  lakes  are  Grand  pond,  about 
15  m.  N.  E.  of  the  head  of  St.  George's  bay, 
60  m.  long  by  5  m.  wide ;  Red  Indian  pond,  33 
696  VOL.  XIL— 19 


by  3  m. ;  Gander  pond,  W.  of  Bonavista  bay, 
30  by  2  m. ;  Terra  Nova  lake,  4  m.  long  by  2£ 
m.  wide,  discharging  through  the  river  of  the 
same  name  into  Bonavista  bay;  and  George 
the  Fourth's,  Jameson,  and  Bathurst  lakes,  in 
the  S.  part  of  the  island,  whose  position  and 
size  have  not  been  accurately  ascertained.  The 
principal  rivers  are  the  river  of  Exploits,  which 
flows  from  Red  Indian  pond,  and  after  a  N.  E. 
course  of  70  m.  falls  into  the  bay  of  Exploits ; 
Terra  Nova,  about  100  m.  long;  Bay  East, 
which  flows  into  D'Espoir  bay ;  Great  and  Lit- 
tle Codroy  rivers,  which  empty  into  the  gulf  of 
St.  Lawrence  between  Capes  Ray  and  Anguille ; 
and  Humber,  which  discharges  the  waters  of 
Grand  pond,  and  after  expanding  into  Deer  lake 
falls  into  the  Humber  arm,  an  inlet  of  the  bay 
of  Islands.  The  Exploits,  Humber,  Terra  Nova, 
and  some  other  streams  are  navigable  by  canoes 
or  flats. — All  the  great  ancient  rock  systems 
between  the  lower  Laurentian  and  the  coal 
measures  are  more  or  less  represented  in  dif- 
ferent parts  of  Newfoundland.  The  series  in 
descending  order  is  as  follows :  carboniferous, 
Devonian,  upper  Silurian,  lower  Silurian,  pri- 
mordial Silurian,  Huronian  or  Cambrian,  upper 
Laurentian,  and  lower  Laurentian.  The  low- 
est of  these  systems  appears  to  constitute  the 
principal  mountain  ranges,  coming  to  the  sur- 
face through  the  more  recent  deposits  on  the 
axes  of  anticlinal  lines,  or  brought  out  by  great 
dislocations,  most  of  which  are  nearly  parallel 
with  each  other  in  a  general  bearing  of  N.  N. 
E.  and  S.  S.  W.  This  regularity  of  bearing  ex- 
plains the  uniform  N.  E.  and  S.  W.  direction 
of  the  bays  and  of  the  principal  lakes  and 
streams.  The  Laurentian  gneiss  forms  the 
Long  Range,  and  is  exhibited  in  the  ranges  in 
the  S.  W.  portion  of  the  island.  A  granitic  and 
gneissoid  belt  stretches  from  the  head  of  Pla- 
centia bay  to  Bonavista  bay,  and  thence  along 
the  W.  and  N.  shore  of  the  latter  to  Cape 
Freels.  The  gneiss  is  also  developed  in  the  isl- 
and of  Fogo,  and  forms  the  nucleus  of  the  S.  E. 
extremity  of  the  peninsula  of  Avalon.  On  the 
W.  flank  of  the  Long  Range,  on  the  upper  part 
of  Great  Codroy  river,  large  fragments  of  white 
crystalline  limestone  with  graphite  are  found, 
and  toward  the  northeast  on  the  same  range  oc- 
cur labradorite  and  other  crystalline  rocks,  with 
masses  of  magnetic  iron.  In  the  peninsula  of 
Avalon  the  crystalline  rocks  of  the  Laurentian 
.period  are  succeeded  by  a  set  of  slates,  with 
conglomerate  bands,  diorites,  quartzites,  and  al- 
ternating green  and  reddish,  hard  silicious  and 
felsite  slates,  surmounted  by  a  great  mass  of 
thick-bedded  green  and  red  sandstone,  the  latter 
passing  into  a  moderately  coarse  conglomerate, 
with  many  pebbles  of  red  jasper  at  the  top. 
These  occupy  the  greater  portion  of  the  penin- 
sula. The  calciferous  formation  yields  fossils 
on  Canada  and  Hare  bays,  and  appears  along 
the  W.  coast  N.  of  St.  George's  bay.  Rocks 
of  upper  or  middle  Silurian  age  are  indica- 
ted by  the  presence  of  the  characteristic  fos- 
sils on  White  and  Exploits  bays.  The  carbon- 


288 


NEWFOUNDLAND 


if erous  series  occupies  a  large  area  in  the  vicin- 
ity of  Grand  pond  and  on  St.  George's  bay. 
Building  stones,  including  granite,  sandstone, 
and  limestone,  are  abundant  in  the  island. 
Marble  of  various  kinds  occurs  on  the  bay  of 
Islands,  and  the  fossiliferous  limestone  of  Top- 
sail head  on  Conception  bay  takes  a  high  polish, 
and  furnishes  a  handsome  variegated  marble. 
Gypsum  abounds  in  the  vicinity  of  the  Codroy 
rivers  and  elsewhere  in  the  S.  W.  part  of  the 
island,  and  bituminous  coal  is  found  in  the  car- 
boniferous formation,  where  also  brine  springs 
frequently  occur.  Iron  ore  has  been  found. 
A  lead  mine  was  for  some  time  worked  at  La 
Manche,  at  the  head  of  Placentia  bay,  but  with 
little  success,  though  the  lode  is  very  prom- 
ising. Copper  mines  have  been  opened  at 
several  points,  but,  with  the  exception  of  that 
at  Tilt  Cove  on  Notre  Dame  bay,  they  have 
nearly  all  been  discontinued.  The  Tilt  Cove 
mine  has  been  in  successful  operation  since 
1865,  and  in  the  five  years  from  1869  to  1873 
inclusive  22,404  tons  of  ore  were  exported.  A 
vein  of  nickel  has  been  discovered  here,  and  a 
small  quantity  of  ore  has  been  extracted. — The 
climate,  tempered  on  the  one  hand  by  the  Gulf 
stream  and  on  the  other  by  the  arctic  current, 
is  neither  so  cold  in  winter  nor  so  hot  in  summer 
as  on  the  adjacent  portions  of  the  continent. 
The  weather  is  extremely  variable,  being  often 
very  mild  in  midwinter,  and  on  the  other  hand 
raw  and  cold  in  midsummer.  Spring  is  the 
most  disagreeable  and  trying  season,  owing 
probably  to  the  large  floes  of  ice  brought  down 
from  the  north,  and  to  the  breaking  up  of  the 
ice  in  the  gulf  of  St.  Lawrence,  which  affects 
the  climate  of  the  S.  and  W.  portion  of  the 
island.  The  W.  coast  has  a  milder  climate 
than  the  E.  Dense  fogs  are  prevalent,  princi- 
pally in  summer,  along  the  S.  and  S.  W.  shores 
of  the  island  and  the  coast  of  the  peninsula  of 
Avalon,  but  they  do  not  extend  far  inland.  The 
N.  portion  of  the  island  is  said  to  be  quite  free 
from  them.  The  fogs  and  violent  gales,  which 
are  common,  render  the  coast  of  Newfound- 
land dangerous  to  navigation.  The  prevailing 
winds  vary  from  S.  W.  to  W.,  N.  W.,  and  N., 
except  in  February  and  March,  and  sometimes 
April,  when  N.  E.  winds  prevail.  The  climate, 
except  for  those  suffering  from  pulmonary  dis- 
eases, is  very  healthy.  The  mean  temperature 
at  St.  John's  for  the  eight  years  from  1857  to 
1864  inclusive  was  41J°,  the  highest  annual 
mean  being  44°  in  1863,  and  the  lowest  37°  in 
1864;  average  annual  fall  of  rain  and  melted 
snow,  59-94  inches,  the  greatest  fall  being  82*4 
inches  in  1860  and  the  least  42  in  1857.  The 
highest  temperature  observed  was  89°  in  July, 
1857,  and  the  lowest  —14°  in  February,  1863. 
— In  the  interior,  so  far  as  known,  the  summits 
and  sometimes  the  sides  of  the  hills  and  ridges 
are  thinly  covered  with  a  stunted  vegetation, 
consisting  of  berry  plants  and  dwarf  bushes  of 
various  species,  and  are  called  "  the  barrens." 
The  sides  of  those  hills  that  afford  natural 
drainage  and  the  borders  of  the  lakes  and  riv- 


ers are  clothed  with  forests,  consisting  chiefly 
of  fir,  birch,  pine,  juniper,  larch,  wych  hazel  or 
yellow  birch,  mountain  ash,  alder,  aspen,  and 
spruce.  These  trees  are  generally  small  and 
stunted,  though  the.  fir  and  birch  sometimes 
attain  considerable  size.  The  largest  and  best 
timber  is  in  the  valleys  of  the  Humber,  the 
Exploits,  the  Gander,  and  the  Gambo  (the  last 
two  S.  of  the  Exploits),  where  the  pine  and 
spruce  are  of  the  finest  description.  All  the 
best  timber  and  the  best  land  are  back  from 
the  coast.  The  ground  here  is  often  covered 
with  a  creeping  bush,  a  species  of  yew,  called 
in  Canada  the  ground  hemlock.  The  frequent 
peat  marshes  are  covered  with  grasses,  rushes, 
&c.,  while  the  other  valleys  and  level  tracks 
produce  abundant  pasturage.  Much  of  the 
country  is  covered  with  lichens  and  reindeer 
moss. — Large  portions  of  the  island  are  believed 
to  be  adapted  to  grazing,  but  few  domestic  ani- 
mals are  kept.  Sheep  raising  has  been  retarded 
by  the  great  number  of  dogs  kept  by  the  in- 
habitants. Agriculture  has  been  but  little  at- 
tempted, and  chiefly  in  the  southeast,  where  the 
soil  and  climate  are  least  favorable.  There  is 
much  arable  land  about  the  heads  of  the  bays, 
on  Humber  river,  the  river  of  Exploits,  and 
other  streams.  The  region  about  the  bay  of 
Islands  and  along  the  W.  coast  S.  of  it  has  been 
found  to  contain  extensive  fertile  tracts,  and 
the  climate  here  is  better  adapted  to  agriculture 
than  on  the  S.  and  E.  coasts.  The  interior  is 
believed  to  contain  much  arable  land,  and  the 
marshes  are  thought  to  be  in  large  measure 
reclaimable.  The  principal  crops  that  may  be 
successfully  cultivated  are  barley,  oats,  pota- 
toes, turnips,  cabbages,  peas,  beans,  carrots,  &c. 
Wheat  will  ripen  in  some  places ;  its  cultivation 
has  been  attempted  only  on  the  smallest  possi- 
ble scale.  Hops  thrive,  and  strawberries,  cur- 
rants, gooseberries,  cherries,  &c.,  grow  in  the 
gardens,  while  numerous  species  of  berries  are 
found  wild.  The  number  of  acres  under  culti- 
vation in  1869  was  41,715.  During  the  last  two 
or  three  years,  with  successful  fishing  seasons, 
considerable  progress  has  been  made  in  agricul- 
ture.— The  principal  wild  animals  are  the  cari- 
bou, bear,  wolf,  hare,  beaver,  marten,  wild  cat, 
and  fox.  The  Newfoundland  dog,  so  famous 
for  its  size,  sagacity,  and  fidelity,  is  now  rarely 
found  of  pure  blood,  the  animals  commonly 
known  by  the  name  being  crosses  of  innumer- 
able varieties.  Land  and  aquatic  birds  abound. 
The  adjacent  waters  swarm  with  cod,  caplin, 
herring,  seals,  &c.,  and  salmon  were  formerly 
abundant  in  the  streams.  The  fisheries  are  the 
chief  wealth  of  the  colony,  employing  directly 
or  indirectly  nine  tenths  of  the  inhabitants. 
The  number  of  fishermen  is  about  32,000.  The 
principal  fisheries,  in  the  order  of  importance, 
are  the  cod,  seal,  herring,  and  salmon.  The 
cod  fishery  is  pursued  around  the  shores  of  the 
island  and  on  the  coast  of  Labrador,  from  June 
to  October ;  the  average  annual  catch  is  about 
1,500,000  quintals.  The  seal  fishery  begins 
about  the  first  of  March  and  terminates  in  May. 


I 
NEWFOUNDLAND 


289 


In  1873,  107  vessels,  with  an  aggregate  ton- 
nage of  15,080  and  8,062  men,  of  which  20,  of 
5,766  tons  and  3,595  men,  were  steamers,  were 
engaged  in  it,  and  about  525,000  seals  were 
taken.  The  chief  seats  of  the  herring  fishery 
are  Labrador,  Bonne  bay,  bay  of  Islands,  St. 
George's  bay,  and  Fortune  bay.  In  the  bay  of 
Islands  it  is  pursued  during  the  winter.  The 
average  catch  is  about  175,000  barrels.  The 
salmon  fishery  is  prosecuted  to  some  extent  in 
Labrador,  but  chiefly  in  the  bays  on  the  E. 
coast  of  the  island ;  the  average  quantity  taken 
annually  is  about  6,500  tierces.  (See  FISH- 
EEIES,  and  SEAL  FISHERY.)  Newfoundland 
has  scarcely  any  manufactures,  excepting  a 
few  establishments  at  St.  John's.  Its  com- 
merce is  important.  The  value  of  imports  and 
exports  at  different  periods  has  been  as  follows: 


YEARS. 

Imports. 

Exports. 

1884 

£618  757 

£826  659 

1854  

964527 

1  019  572 

1864     

1  067  062 

1  111  330 

1870 

1  386  635 

1  297  974 

1871  

1,  58,'l72 

1  310892 

1872  . 

1  399  180 

1  188958 

1873  

1,409,730 

1  358  498 

1874   ...'.. 

1,532  227 

1  528  341 

The  principal  countries  with  which  the  com- 
merce is  carried  on  are  the  United  Kingdom 
(imports  from  in  1873,  £505,708;  exports  to, 
£450,424),  Canada  (imports,  £377,732;  ex- 
ports, £74,174),  British  West  Indies  (imports, 
£46,388;  exports,  £60,063),  Spain  (exports, 
£217,454),  Portugal  (exports,  £180,624),  Italy 
(exports,  £32,608),  United  States  (imports, 
£355,253 ;  exports,  £44,479),  French  West  In- 
dies (imports,  £57,196;  exports,  £29,544),  and 
Brazil,  (exports,  £244,413).  The  principal  ar- 
ticles of  import  in  1873  were  flour,  meal,  and 
hard  bread  (£380,568),  manufactured  goods 
(£259,061),  meats  (£120,218),  molasses  (£80,- 
552),  leather  and  leather  ware  (£74,303),  earth- 
en, glass,  and  hardware  (£59,153),  butter  and 
cheese  (£58,498),  besides  cordage  and  cables, 
coal,  fishing  tackle,  salt,  sugar,  tea  and  coffee, 
tobacco  and  cigars,  wood  and  wooden  ware, 
wines,  spirits,  &c.  The  preceding  statements 
relate  only  to  the  island  of  Newfoundland, 
exclusive  of  the  French  shore.  The  exports  in 
1873  from  the  entire  colony,  including  Labra- 
dor and  the  French  shore,  were  as  follows : 


ARTICLES. 

Quantity. 

Value. 

Dried  codfish  

1,316,845  qtls. 

£1  065  159 

Salmon  
Herring  

7,304  tierces. 
138  037  bbls 

27,065 
64549 

Other  fish  

4360 

Cod  oil,  crude  
"    "    refined  

1,049,580  gals. 
97  272    " 

121,479 
16485 

Seal  oil  

1  571  220    " 

168865 

Other  fish  oil  .   . 

57  204     " 

2  659 

Seal  skins 

452587 

101  525 

Copper  ore  
Nickel  ore.   .    . 

5,553  tons. 
120     " 

40,492 
750 

Other  articles  

17  698 

Total  

£1  631  086 

The  number  of  vessels  entered  at  the  various 
ports  in  1873  was  1,146,  with  an  aggregate  ton- 
nage of  218,122 ;  cleared,  937,  tonnage  193,902; 
belonging  in  the  colony,  1,301,  tonnage  68,185. 
— There  are  no  railroads  in  Newfoundland,  and 
the  means  of  communication  by  land  are  imper- 
fect. Steamers  ply  between  the  principal  set- 
tlements and  St.  John's.  Transatlantic  steam- 
ers touch  at  St.  John's  semi-monthly  for  nine 
months,  and  monthly  during  the  three  winter 
months.  The  most  important  places  are  con- 
nected with  St.  John's  by  telegraph,  and  the 
island,  as  the  nearest  point  of  North  America 
to  Europe,  occupies  a  prominent  position  as 
the  centre  of  telegraphic  communication  be- 
tween the  two  continents.  The  New  York, 
Newfoundland,  and  London  telegraph  com- 
pany, incorporated  in  1854,  has  the  monopoly 
of  landing  cables,  and  has  associated  with  it- 
self in  the  privilege  the  Atlantic  and  French 
cable  companies.  The  colony  has  since  April 
15,  1874,  the  right  under  the  charter  of  pur- 
chasing the  interests  of  the  company,  and 
the  policy  of  exercising  the  right  has  been 
much  discussed.  There  are  two  banks  at  St. 
John's,  with  a  capital  of  £50,000  each;  ag- 
gregate assets,  May  31,  1873,  £739,111;  aver- 
age circulation  of  notes,  £189,098;  of  specie, 
£76,614.  There  is  also  a  savings  bank  at  St. 
John's,  with  a  branch  at  Harbor  Grace,  having 
together  at  the  above  date  2,102  depositors,  and 
deposits  to  the  amount  of  £189,281.— The  ex- 
ecutive power  is  vested  in  a  governor,  appoint- 
ed by  the  crown  during  pleasure,  and  an  exec- 
utive council  of  not  more  than  seven  members, 
appointed  by  the  governor,  and  responsible  to 
the  assembly.  The  legislative  power  is  vested 
in  a  legislative  council  of  not  more  than  15 
members  (present  number  13),  appointed  by 
the  crown  or  governor  during  pleasure,  and  a 
house  of  assembly  of  31  members,  elected  by  the 
people  for  four  years,  unless  sooner  dissolved 
by  the  governor.  The  right  of  suffrage  is  con- 
ferred upon  all  male  subjects  of  Great  Britain, 
21  years  old  and  upward,  who  have  occupied 
a  dwelling  house  as  owners  or  tenants  for  two 
years  immediately  preceding  the  day  of  elec- 
tion. Voting  is  viva  voce.  The  number  of 
registered  electors  at  the  election  of  1873  was 
20,759.  The  legislature  meets  annually  at 
the  end  of  January  or  the  beginning  of  Feb- 
ruary. The  supreme  court  consists  of  a  chief 
justice  and  two  assistant  judges,  each  of  whom 
holds  a  circuit  court  in  one  of  the  three  cir- 
cuits, northern,  central,  and  southern.  The 
vice-admiralty  court  is  held  by  the  chief  jus- 
tice. A  court  of  civil  and  criminal  jurisdic- 
tion, with  summary  process,  is  held  in  summer 
on  the  Labrador  coast  by  a  single  judge,  who 
passes  from  point  to  point  in  a  revenue  cruiser. 
There  are  also  minor  courts  and  justices  of  the 
peace.  Judges  and  justices  of  the  peace  are 
appointed  by  the  governor  during  pleasure. 
The  revenue  of  the  colony  is  derived  exclu- 
sively from  a  tariff  on  imports.  There  is  no 
municipal  or  other  body  authorized  to  levy 


290 


NEWFOUNDLAND 


taxes  or  lay  assessments.  The  only  direct  tax- 
ation is  a  land  tax  or  ground  rent  for  sewer- 
age and  a  house  or  tenant  tax  for  the  supply 
of  water  in  St.  John's,  levied  under  acts  of 
the  legislature.  The  revenue  in  1874  amount- 
ed to  £185,334,  the  expenditures  to  £198,290, 
the  difference  being  partly  made  up  by  the  ex- 
cess of  revenue  in  previous  years,  there  being 
a  balance  of  £3,300  in  favor  of  the  colony  at 
the  close  of  1873.  The  public  debt  on  Dec.  81, 
1874,  was  £239,396.  The  penitentiary  is  at  St. 
John's,  where  there  is  also  a  lunatic  asylum. 
For  school  purposes  the  island  is  divided  into 
districts,  and  in  each  a  board  of  education  con- 
sisting of  Catholics  for  the  Catholic  schools,  and 
another  consisting  of  Protestants  for  the  Prot- 
estant schools,  are  appointed  by  the  governor 
in  council.  These  boards  have  the  general  man- 
agement of  the  schools  in  their  respective  dis- 
tricts, subject  to  the  approval  of  the  governor 
in  council.  The  governor  with  the  advice  of 
the  council  also  appoints  a  Catholic  and  a  Prot- 
estant inspector,  to  inspect  the  schools  and  re- 
port upon  their  condition.  The  sum  of  £750 
(£400  for  Protestants  and  £350  for  Catholics) 
is  appropriated  annually  for  the  training  of 
teachers.  Two  scholars  from  each  electoral  di- 
vision are  entitled  to  £25  each  for  their  board, 
lodging,  and  tuition  in  one  of  the  academies 
or  higher  schools  of  the  island.  The  money 
appropriated  by  the  legislature  for  educational 
purposes  has  hitherto  been  divided  between 
the  Protestants  and  Catholics  in  proportion  to 
their  numbers  ;  the  act  of  April  29,  1874,  pro- 
vides for  a  further  division  among  the  various 
Protestant  sects.  This  act  does  not  go  into 
effect  until  July  1,  1875,  after  a  census  has 
been  taken,  upon  which  and  subsequent  decen- 
nial censuses  the  denominational  appropria- 
tions are  to  be  based.  It  increases  the  number 
of  inspectors  to  three.  In  the  schools  under 
government  control  a  small  tuition  fee  is  re- 
quired of  pupils  able  to  pay.  Besides  those 
established  by  the  governmental  boards,  the 
schools  of  the  colonial  church  and  school  so- 
ciety (an  English  association,  under  the  aus.- 
pices  of  the  established  church),  and  several 
established  and  controlled  by  the  different  reli- 
gious denominations,  receive  aid  from  the  gov- 
ernment. The  amount  expended  for  educa- 
tional purposes  in  1872  was  £14,852  ;  in  1873, 
£15,316.  The  number  of  schools  in  operation 
in  1874  was  293,  with  a  total  attendance  of 
13,597  pupils,  of  which  157  with  7,805  pupils 
were  Protestant,  and  136  with  5,792  pupils 
Catholic.  Besides  these  there  are  grammar 
schools  at  Harbor  Grace  and  Carbonear,  an 
Episcopal,  a  Wesleyan  Methodist,  and  a  general 
Protestant  academy  at  St.  John's,  and  at  the 
same  place  an  Episcopal  theological  institute 
and  St.  Bonaventure  college  (Catholic).  There 
are  13  newspapers  published  in  the  island,  viz. : 
1  tri-weekly,  5  semi-weekly,  5  weekly,  and  2 
bi-weekly,  all  issued  at  St.  John's,  except  one 
weekly  at  Harbor  Grace.  Newfoundland  con- 
tains two  Roman  Catholic  bishoprics,  St.  John's 


and  Harbor  Grace,  two  Wesleyan  Methodist 
superintendencies,  and  an  Episcopal  bishopric, 
with  a  bishop  and  a  coadjutor.  In  1874  there 
were  64,486  Roman  Catholics,  59,605  Episco- 
palians, 35,551  Wesleyan  Methodists,  and  1,813 
of  other  sects.  The  number  of  places  of 
worship  in  1869  was  188,  viz. :  Episcopal,  81 ; 
Catholic,  59 ;  Wesleyan  Methodist,  42 ;  other, 
6. — Newfoundland  was  discovered  by  John  or 
Sebastian  Cabot  in  1497  or  1498.  Within  a 
few  years  the  island  was  frequented  by  the 
Portuguese,  Spanish,  and  French  for  its  fish- 
eries, and  subsequently  by  the  English.  On 
Aug.  5,  1583,  Sir  Humphrey  Gilbert,  in  com- 
mand of  four  armed  vessels,  entered  the  har- 
bor of  St.  John's  and  took  formal  possession 
of  the  island  in  tl^e  name  of  Queen  Elizabeth. 
Among  the  earliest  attempts  at  settlement  was 
that  of  Mr.  Guy,  a  Bristol  merchant,  in  1610, 
who  founded  a  colony  at  Mosquito  cove  in 
Conception  bay,  which  remained  but  a  short 
time.  In  1614  Capt.  Richard  Whitburn,  of 
Exmouth  in  Devon,  was  sent  by  the  admiralty 
to  Newfoundland  to  establish  order  among  the 
fishermen  and  correct  the  great  abuses  that 
prevailed.  He  made  an  attempt  to  impanel 
juries  in  the  most  frequented  harbors,  and  was 
the  first  to  introduce  the  forms  of  law  in  New- 
foundland. A  year  or  two  after  he  was  ap- 
pointed governor  of  a  colony  of  Welshmen, 
established  by  Dr.  William  Yaughan  in  the 
southern  part  of  the  island,  at  a  place  now 
known  as  Little  Britain.  About  this  time 
fixed  habitations  were  erected  by  the  fisher- 
men at  various  points  along  the  coast.  What 
may  be  considered  the  first  permanent  colony 
was  established  by  Sir  George  Calvert,  after- 
ward Lord  Baltimore,  on  the  S.  E.  peninsula, 
to  which  he  gave  the  name  of  Avalon,  proba- 
bly in  1623,  though  some  authorities  say  in 
1621.  About  10  years  after  this  some  colo- 
nists from  Ireland  came  over  under  Lord  Falk- 
land, and  a  party  of  English  under  Sir  David 
Kirk  in  1654,  about  which  time  15  settle- 
ments, comprising  300  families,  had  been  made. 
About  1620  the  French  had  established  a  sta- 
tion at  Placentia.  In  1633  Charles  I.  estab- 
lished a  code  of  regulations,  but  the  island  still 
continued  without  a  regular  government.  In 
the  reign  of  William  III.  the  three  fishing  cap- 
tains first  arriving  in  any  harbor  each  sum- 
mer were  designated  admiral,  vice  admiral, 
and  rear  admiral  respectively  of  that  harbor, 
and  became  magistrates,  empowered  to  decide 
all  fishery  rights  and  civil  causes.  Until  the 
peace  of  Utrecht  in  1713  the  ports  were  fre- 
quently the  scenes  of  warfare  between  the 
English  and  French,  one  and  the  other  power 
alternately  gaining  possession  of  them.  The 
English  government  was  also  opposed  to  the 
settlement  of  their  own  people,  and  broke  up 
their  establishments  on  the  ground  of  their 
being  likely  to  monopolize  the  fishery,  and  pre- 
vent it  from  becoming  a  nursery  for  British 
seamen.  The  treaty  of  Utrecht  gave  Great 
Britain  the  sole  sovereignty  of  the  island,  but 


NEWFOUNDLAND  DOG 

permitted  the  French  to  catch  and  dry  fish  on 
the  shores  from  Cape  Bonavista  N.  around  the 
N.  point  of  the  island,  and  thence  S.  to  Point 
Eiche.  The  present  limits  of  the  French  shore 
were  defined  by  the  treaty  of  1783.  In  1728  a 
governor  was  first  appointed,  but  he  was  for  a 
time  almost  powerless,  being. opposed  by  the 
fishing  admirals.  For  many  years  the  only 
law  was  the  proclamations  of  the  governors. 
In  1750  a  court  of  oyer  and  terininer  was  es- 
tablished. For  some  years  prior  to  1767  Oapt. 
Cook,  the  famous  navigator,  was  engaged  in 
surveying  the  coast.  His  charts  are  still  in 
use,  being  among  the  best  and  in  some  cases 
the  only  trustworthy  ones.  Newfoundland 
suffered  severely  from  the  non-intercourse  act 
passed  by  the  first  provincial  congress  and  car- 
ried out  in  1775.  Dependent  upon  New  Eng- 
land for  supplies  to  the  annual  value  of  nearly 
£350,000,  when  these  were  suddenly  cut  off 
and  the  coast  and  harbors  were  ravaged  by 
American  privateers,  the  inhabitants  were  re- 
duced to  the  greatest  distress  before  they  could 
be  relieved  by  the  protective  measures  of  the 
mother  country.  In  1792  the  supreme  court 
was  established.  In  1805  the  first  post  office 
was  established  at  St.  John's,  and  in  1806  the 
first  newspaper  was  published  there.  In  1832 
a  representative  assembly  was  granted  to  the 
island.  The  present  form  of  government  was 
organized  in  1855.  In  1856  Newfoundland 
was  connected  by  a  telegraphic  cable  with  the 
American  continent,  and  in  1866  the  first  At- 
lantic cable  furnishing  permanent  communica- 
tion with  Europe  was  landed.  The  question 
of  joining  the  Dominion  of  Canada  as  a  prov- 
ince has  several  times  come  before  the  people 
at  elections  for  members  of  assembly,  but  the 
proposition  has  been  voted  down.  Labrador, 
with  Anticosti  and  the  Magdalen  islands,  was 
annexed  to  Newfoundland  in  1763,  but  in  1774 
they  were  placed  under  the  government  of 
Lower  Canada.  In  1809  Labrador  and  An- 
ticosti were  reannexed  to  Newfoundland.  In 
1825  Anticosti,  with  the  portion  of  Labrador 
"W.  of  Blanc  Sablon  bay,  was  again  transferred 
to  Lower  Canada.  Difficulties  have  at  various 
times  occurred  between  the  French  and  the 
colonists  regarding  their  respective  rights  on 
the  French  shore,  which  have  retarded  the  de- 
velopment of  that  portion  of  the  island,  the 
French  claiming  the  exclusive  right  of  fishery 
and  that  the  English  have  no  right  to  form 
permanent  settlements  there. — See  "History 
of  Newfoundland,"  by  L.  A.  Anspach  (Lon- 
don, 1819),  and  by  the  Rev.  Charles  Pedley 
(London,  1863). 

NEWFOUNDLAND  DOG.  See  DOG,  vol.  vi.,  p. 
180. 

NEW  GRANADA.     See  COLOMBIA.  ' 

NEW  GUINEA.     See  PAPUA. 

NEW  HAMPSHIRE,  one  of  the  thirteen  origi- 
nal states  of  the  American  Union,  bounded  N. 
by  the  province  of  Quebec,  Canada,  E.  by  Maine 
and  the  Atlantic,  S.  by  Massachusetts,  and  W. 
by  Vermont,  from  which  it  is  separated  by  the 


NEW  HAMPSHIRE 


291 


west  bank  of  Connecticut  river.  It  is  situated 
between  lat.  42°  40'  and  45°  18'  N.,  and  Ion  70° 
37'  and  72°  37'  W. ;  length  from  N.  to  S.  about 
180  m.,  extreme  breadth  93  m.,  average  breadth 
50  m. ;  area,  according  to  the  late  state  survey, 
9,392  sq.  m.  The  state  is  divided  into  10  coun- 


Seal  of  the  State  of  New  Hampshire. 

ties,  viz. :  Belknap,  Carroll,  Cheshire,  Coos, 
Grafton,  Hillsborough,  Merrimack,  Rocking- 
ham,  Strafford,  and  Sullivan.  According  to 
the  census  of  1870,  the  cities  were:  Concord, 
the  capital,  containing  12,241  inhabitants ;  Do- 
ver, 9,294;  Manchester,  23,536;  Nashua,  10,- 
543 ;  and  Portsmouth,  9,211.  Among  the  more 
important  towns  are  Claremont,  4,053  ;  Exeter, 
3,437;  Farmington,  2,063;  Franklin,  2,301; 
Gilford,  3,361 ;  Hanover,  the  seat  of  Dart- 
mouth college,  2,085  ;  Haverhill,  2,271 ;  Keene 
(made  a  city  in  1874),  5,971 ;  Laconia,  2,309 ; 
Lancaster,  2,248;  Lebanon,  3,094;  Littleton, 
2,446;  Milford,  2,606;  Newport,  2,163;  Pem- 
broke, 2,518 ;  Peterborough,  2,236 ;  Rochester, 
4,103;  Somersworth,  4,504;  Weare,  2,092;  and 
Winchester,  2,097.  The  original  population 
of  New  Hampshire  was  almost  exclusively  of 
English  and  Scotch  descent,  and  the  rural  dis- 
tricts still  remain  without  much  intermixture. 
The  population  of  the  state  and  its  rank  in  the 
Union,  according  to  the  national  enumerations, 
have  been  as  follows : 


YEARS. 

White. 

Colored. 

Total. 

Rank. 

1790 

141,097 

788 

141,885 

10 

1800  

182,998 

860 

183,858 

11 

1810  

1820 

213,490 
243  286 

970 

786 

214,460 
244,022 

16 
15 

1880  
1840 

268,721 
284,036 

607 
588 

269,828 
284,574 

18 
22 

1850  
I860  

817,456 
325,579 

520 
494 

817,976. 
826,073 

22 
27 

1870  ...;.... 

817,697 

580 

318,800 

31 

Of  the  total  population  in  1870,  which  included 
23  Indians,  155,640  were  males  and  162,660 
females;  288,689  were  native  born,  of  whom 
242,374  were  born  in  the  state,  11,404  in 
Maine,  16,510  in  Massachusetts,  and  12,837  in 
Vermont;  and  29,611  were  of  foreign  birth, 


292 


NEW  HAMPSHIRE 


including  12,955  born  in  British  America, 
2,679  in  England,  and  12,190  in  Ireland.  The 
density  of  population  was  34*3  persons  to  a 
square  mile.  There  were  72,144  families, 
with  an  average  of  4*41  persons  to  each,  and 
67,046  dwellings,  with  an  average  of  4'75  to 
each.  From  1860  to  1870  there  was  a  decrease 
of  2*38  per  cent,  in  the  population,  this  being 
the  only  state  except  Maine  in  which  there 
was  not  an  increase.  The  number  of  male 
citizens  21  years  old  and  upward  was  83,361. 
There  were  in  the  state  78,766  persons  between 
the  ages  of  5  and  18  years ;  the  total  number 
attending  school  was  65,824.  There  were 
7,618  10  years  old  and  over  unable  to  read, 
and  9,926  unable  to  write.  Of  the  latter  1,992 
were  native  and  7,934  foreign  born;  7,656 
were  21  years  of  age  and  upward,  including 
4,257  males.  The  number  of  paupers  sup- 
ported during  the  year  ending  June  1,  1870, 
was  2,636,  at  a  cost  of  $235,126.  Of  the  total 
number  (2,129)  receiving  support  June  1, 1870, 
1,754  were  of  native  and  375  of  foreign  birth. 
The  number  of  persons  convicted  of  crime 
during  the  year  was  182  ;  in  prison  June 
1,  1870,  267,  of  whom  201  were  native  and 
66  foreign.  The  state  contained  206  blind, 
170  deaf  and  dumb,  548  insane,  and  325  idi- 
otic. Of  the  total  population  10  years  of  age 
and  over  (260,426),  there  were  engaged  in  all 
occupations  120,168  ;  in  agriculture,  46,573, 
of  whom  15,666  were  laborers  and  30,749 
farmers ;  in  professional  and  personal  services, 
18,528,  including  664  clergymen,  7r,481  domes- 
tic servants,  4,686  laborers,  349  lawyers,  565 
physicians  and  surgeons,  and  1,987  teachers; 
in  trade  and  transportation,  8,514;  and  in 
manufactures  and  mechanical  and  mining  in- 
dustries, 46,553.  The  total  number  of  deaths 
was  4,291,  or  1*35  per  cent,  of  the  population. 
There  were  953  deaths  from  consumption, 
there  being  4'5  deaths  from  all  causes  to  one 
from  that  disease,  which  was  a  greater  ratio 
of  deaths  from  consumption  than  in  any  oth- 
er state;  from  pneumonia,  364  deaths,  there 
being  ll-8  deaths  from  all  causes  to  one  from 
that  disease;  cholera  infantum,  139;  diphthe- 
ria and  scarlet  fever,  147 ;  enteric  fever,  302  ; 
and  diarrhoea,  dysentery,  and  enteritis,  177. 
— New  Hampshire  has  but  18  m.  of  seacoast, 
and  the  shore  in  most  places  is  a  sandy  beach, 
bordered  with  salt  marshes.  There  are  nu- 
merous creeks  and  coves,  which  form  harbors 
for  small  craft ;  but  Portsmouth,  at  the  mouth 
of  the  Piscataqua,  is  the  only  haven  for  large 
ships.  The  great  feature  in  the  topography  is 
a  mountainous  ridge  extending  through  the 
state  in  a  direction  E.  of  N.  and  parallel  to  the 
western  border.  West  of  this  lies  the  Connec- 
ticut river  basin;  to  the  east  the  valleys  of 
the  Androscoggin,  Saco,  and  Merrimack  rivers. 
From  the  Massachusetts  line  to  Warren  in  Graf- 
ton  co.,  80  m.,  the  height  of  this  ridge  averages 
1,500  ft.,  the  most  prominent  mountains  be- 
ing, according  to  the  recent  survey  by  Prof. 
Hitchcock,  Monadnock,  3,186;  Sunapee,  2,683; 


Smart's,  2,500;  Cuba,  2,927;  and  Piermont, 
2,500.  Between  Warren  and  Randolph  in  Coos 
co.,  40  m.,  the  height  of  the  ridge  averages  4,000 
ft.,  as  it  consists  of  the  main  line  of  the  White 
mountains,  the  most  prominent  mountains  be- 
ing Moosilauke,  4,811  ft.;  Blue,  4,370;  Kins- 
man, 4,200;  Lafayette,  5,259;  Haystack,  4,500; 
Twins,  4,920;  Field,  4,070;  Webster,  4,000; 
Jackson,  4, 100;  Clinton,  4,320 ;  Pleasant,  4, 764; 
Franklin,  4,904;  Monroe,  5,384;  Washington, 
6,293;  Clay,  5,553;  Jefferson,  5,714;  Adams, 
5,794;  and  Madison,  5,365.  The  lowest  gaps 
in  this  section  are  the  Woodstock  notch,  1,655 
ft. ;  Franconia  notch,  2,014 ;  Pinkham  notch, 
2,018 ;  White  Mountain  notch,  1,914 ;  and 
Dixville  notch,  1,831.  The  height  of  the  re- 
maining portion  averages  2,000  ft.,  the  highest 
points  being  Randolph,  3,043;  peak  in  Erving's 
Location,  3,156;  Pisgah,  2,897;  Carmel,  3,711 ; 
and  the  highest  elevation  along  the  northern 
boundary,  2,917  ft.  The  lowest  gaps  along  the 
whole  line  are  at  the  Orange  summit  of  the 
Northern  railroad,  990  ft. ;  at  the  Warren  sum- 
mit of  the  Boston,  Concord,  and  Montreal  rail- 
road, 1,063;  at  the  Milan  summit  of  the  Grand 
Trunk  railroad,  1,087 ;  at  the  Newbury  summit 
of  Concord  and  Claremont  railroad,  1,161 ;  and 
at  the  summits  of  proposed  railroads  in  Harris- 
ville  and  Stoddard,  1,265  and  1,560.  The  coun- 
try S.  of  the  White  mountains  and  E.  of  the  great 
watershed  is  mostly  below  600  ft.,  save  a  few 
peaks  like  Kearsarge,  2,943,  Gunstock,  2,394, 
Crotched,  2,066,  Great  Moose,  1,404,  and  Crop- 
pie  Crown,  2,100.  The  average  elevation  of 
the  whole  state  is  1,200  ft.  Considering  the 
whole  area  of  the  state,  there  is  one  peak 
over  6,000  ft.,  8  between  5,000  and  6,000,  14 
between  4,500  and  5,000,  20  between  4,000 
and  4,500,  28  between  3,000  and  4,000,  and 
nearly  40  between  2,000  and  3,000.  The 
White  mountains  cover  an  area  of  1,270  sq.  m. 
The  general  slope  of  the  country  is  from  N.  to 
S.  With  the  exception  of  Niagara  falls,  the 
mountain  scenery  of  New  Hampshire  attracts 
more  tourists  than  any  other  natural  object  in 
the  United  States.  (See  WHITE  MOUNTAINS.) 
— The  Connecticut  river,  which  is  the  largest 
stream,  rises  near  the  N.  extremity,  and  with 
Hall's  stream  forms  the  W.  boundary ;  the  chief 
tributaries  which  it  receives  from  this  state  are 
Hall's,  Indian,  and  Perry  streams,  and  the  Up- 
per Ammonoosuck  in  the  north,  and  the  Sugar, 
Cold,  Ashuelot,  Mohawk,  Israel's,  John's,  Lower 
Ammonoosuck,  Oliverion,  and  Mascoma  in  the 
south.  The  Merrimack  is  formed  by  the  junc- 
tion of  the  Pemigewasset,  which  rises  in  the 
Franconia  mountains,  and  the  Winnipiseogee, 
the  outlet  of  the  lake  of  the  same  name,  at 
Franklin,  and  runs  S.  through  the  middle  of 
the  state  to  Massachusetts.  Baker's  river, 
rising  near  Moosilauke  mountain,  unites  with 
the  Pemigewasset  at  Plymouth.  Other  impor- 
tant tributaries  are  the  Newfound,  Contoocook, 
Piscataquog,  Souhegan,  and  Nashua  rivers  on 
the  west,  and  the  Soucook  and  Suncook  on  the 
east.  The  Piscataqua  river  is  formed  by  a 


NEW  HAMPSHIKE 


293 


union  of  the  Salmon  Falls  and  Cochecho  rivers 
and  Great  bay  at  Dover  point,  draining  near- 
ly one  eleventh  of  the  area  of  the  state ;  and 
the  Piscataqua  and  Salmon  Falls  rivers  consti- 
tute part  of  the  boundary  line  between  Maine 
and  New  Hampshire.  Great  bay,  a  tidal  basin 
containing  an  area  of  about  9  sq.  m.,  extends 
to  Exeter,  and  receives  the  waters  of  the  Bel- 
lamy, Lamprey,  Oyster,  Squamscot,  and  Win- 
nicut  rivers.  The  Piscataqua  river  from  Dover 
point  to  Portsmouth  is  deep  and  about  half 
a  mile  wide.  Through  its  channel  Great  bay 
discharges  its  waters  at  ebb  tide  with  such 
swiftness  that  Portsmouth  harbor  has  never 
been  known  to  freeze  over.  It  is  one  of  the 
most  secure  and  commodious  harbors  on  the 
coast,  into  which  ships  of  the  largest  capacity 
can  enter.  The  Merrimack  and  its  branches, 
and  the  Salmon  Falls,  have  numerous  cataracts, 
furnishing  a  large  amount  of  water  power  to 
manufacturing  towns.  The  Androscoggin  has 
a  small  part  of  its  course  in  the  N.  E.  part  of 
this  state,  and  the  Saco  has  also  its  source 
among  the  White  mountains,  and  runs  S.  E. 
into  Maine.  The  Saco  near  its  head  waters 
passes  through  the  celebrated  notch,  a  remark- 
able chasm  2  m.  long,  and  where  narrowest 
only  22  ft.  wide.  The  Margalloway,  which 
falls  into  Lake  Umbagog,  has  part  of  its  course 
in  New  Hampshire.  About  one  sixteenth  of 
the  surface  of  this  state  is  covered  with  water, 
embracing  about  1,500  streams  and  numerous 
lakes  and  ponds.  Winnipiseogee  is  the  largest 
and  most  beautiful  lake ;  it  is  about  25  m.  long 
by  from  1  to  10  broad,  with  an  area  of  nearly 
72  sq.  m.,  and  contains  267  islands,  and  its 
shores  are  indented  with  numerous  bays.  Um- 
bagog lake,  about  10  m.  long  and  5  broad,  on 
the  boundary  between  Maine  and  New  Hamp- 
shire, is  one  of  the  sources  of  the  Androscoggin ; 
four  Connecticut  lakes,  the  source  of  the  river 
of  the  same  name,  are  in  the  north ;  and  Mas- 
coma,  Newfound,  Ossipee,  Sunapee,  and  Squam 
lakes,  and  several  smaller  bodies  of  water,  are 
the  sources  and  recipients  of  many  streams. 
— The  rocks  of  New  Hampshire  are  chiefly 
eozoic,  belonging  to  the  Laurentian,  Atlantic, 
Labradorian,  and  Huronian,  as  defined  by  the 
state  geologist.  Small  areas  of  Cambrian  slates 
and  larger  ones  of  supposed  Helderberg  occur 
in  the  ^W.  and  S.  W.  portions  of  the  state. 
Lithologically  the  rocks  are  gneiss,  granite, 
felsite,  ossipyte,  andalusite  gneiss  and  schists, 
mica,  talcose,  hydro-mica,  and  hornblende 
schists,  clay  slates,  limestones,  and  quartzites. 
The  most  recent  investigations  indicate  the 
existence  of  no  good  reasons  for  regarding  the 
New  Hampshire  formations  as  altered  palae- 
ozoic. Not  much  has  been  done  in  the  work- 
ing of  metallic  ores.  Iron  has  been  mined 
at  Franconia  and  Bartlett,  and  there  are 
smaller  veins  at  Landaff,  Piermont,  and  Gil- 
ford. The  ores  are  magnetic  and  specular.  A 
blast  furnace  has  been  erected  at  Franconia, 
but  the  amount  of  pig  thus  far  produced  has 
been  small,  and  the  works  have  been  aban- 


doned. Copper,  zinc,  and  lead  ores,  most  of 
the  last  argentiferous,  are  found  in  a  large 
number  of  towns.  In  'Madison  a  galena  rich 
in  silver  has  been  worked  extensively.  A  lead 
mine,  largely  argentiferous,  and  containing  also 
a  considerable  quantity  of  copper,  is  success- 
fully worked  in  Warren.  Large  deposits  of 
copper  sulphuret  exist  in  Gardner's  mountain, 
in  Lyman  and  Monroe.  Pyrites  is  abundant 
in  Hanover,  Lebanon,  Croydon,  and  Unity,  suit- 
able for  the  manufacture  of  sulphuric  acid.  A 
vein  containing  oxide  of  tin  in  small  quantity, 
and  associated  with  arsenic,  occurs  in  the  town 
of  Jackson.  Gold  is  mined  from  the  quartz  in 
Lisbon,  where  are  the  quartz  mills ;  two  com- 
panies are  at  work,  and  since  the  beginning 
of  operations  about  $30,000  worth  of  gold  has 
been  sold  to  the  United  States  mint.  Granu- 
lar quartz  has  been  worked  in  the  towns  of 
Unity  and  Keene,  and  applied  to  a  variety 
of  purposes.  It  is  ground  between  millstones 
and  bolted,  to  be  used  either  as  a  polishing 
powder  or  for  the  preparation  of  sand  paper 
at  the  manufactory  of  that  article  in  Eocking- 
ham,  Vt.  It  has  also  been  mixed  instead  of 
barytes  with  white  lead.  The  quartz  of  Lynde- 
borough  is  used  in  the  manufacture  of  glass. 
Acworth,  near  Bellows  Falls,  is  celebrated  for 
its  beryls,  gigantic  specimens  of  which  are 
found  in  the  collections  of  minerals  through- 
out Europe.  Tourmalines  and  mica  are  also 
found  in  great  perfection.  The  latter  is  ex- 
tensively quarried  at  Alstead,  a  few  miles  S. 
of  Acworth,  and  at  Grafton,  35  m.  N.  It  is 
sold  at  from  $2  to  $3  a  pound,  to  be  used  for 
the  windows  in  stoves,  for  lanterns,  compass 
cards,  &c.  Other  quarries  are  in  Springfield 
and  Alexandria.  Sulphuret  of  molybdenum  is 
found  in  many  places,  especially  at  Westmore- 
land ;  and  graphite  or  plumbago  is  also  a  com- 
mon mineral,  which  is  worked  for  the  manu- 
facture of  crucibles  at  Taunton,  Mass.  Steatite 
or  soapstone  is  also  found  in  many  localities, 
as  at  Orford,  Haverhill,  Richmond,  Weare, 
Warner,  and  Keene.  It  is  obtained  at  the 
quarry  in  Francestown  in  large  blocks,  which 
are  cut  to  the  dimensions  of  6  ft.  by  3  and  7 
ft.  by  5,  as  well  as  into  slabs  and  smaller  blocks. 
It  is  used  for  stoves,  fireplaces,  sinks,  rollers 
used  in  dressing  cotton  warp,  and  other  pur- 
poses. The  mills  for  sawing  the  stone  from 
Francestown  are  at  Nashua.  Granite  is  exten- 
sively quarried  at  Concord,  Plymouth,  Hook- 
sett,  Manchester,  Milford,  Fitzwilliam,  Rox- 
bury,  Troy,  Farmington,  and  Marlborough. 
The  variety  known  as  Concord  granite  is  fine- 
grained, soft,  and  well  adapted  for  monuments 
as  well  as  for  buildings,  and  takes  a  high  rank 
in  the  estimation  of  architects. — The  soil  of 
New  Hampshire  is  not  generally  very  fertile, 
but  by  industry  and  skill  the  inhabitants  have 
in  great  measure  overcome  its  natural  defects. 
The  best  lands  are  in  the  valleys  of  the  rivers, 
some  of  which  are  subject  to  occasional  over- 
flows. The  N.  part  of  the  state  is  chiefly  pas- 
ture and  wood  land.  The  climate  is  severe, 


294 


NEW  HAMPSHIRE 


being  somewhat  colder  than  that  of  Maine,  but 
more  steady.  Difference  of  elevation  within 
the  state  causes  great  difference  in  the  degree 
of  temperature;  so  much  even  as  20°  to  25° 
between  the  valleys  and  the  more  elevated 
positions.  In  summer  the  heat  sometimes 
rises  to  100°,  and  in  winter  the  cold  has  been 
known  to  freeze  the  mercury  in  the  ther- 
mometer. In  the  neighborhood  of  the  White 
mountains  the  winters  are  excessively  cold, 
and  the  peaks  are  covered  more  or  less  with 
snow  eight  months  in  the  year,  from  which 
circumstance  their  name  has  been  derived. 
The  Mt.  Washington  expedition  in  the  winter 
of  1870-'71  showed  that  the  weather  at  the 
altitude  of  6,300  ft.  is  characterized  by  violent 
winds,  whose  velocity  rose  as  high  as  130  m. 
an  hour,  by  more  abundant  precipitation  of 
moisture  than  the  low  country,  and  a  much 
lower  average  temperature;  there  was  a  fall 
of  55  inches  for  the  year,  against  46  at  New- 
found lake,  the  region  of  greatest  rainfall 
elsewhere  in  the  state.  The  Merrimack  valley 
below  Concord  is  the  warmest  part  of  the 
state ;  and  the  abundant  waterfalls  here  have 
caused  the  growth  of  the  manufacturing  towns 
of  Manchester,  Nashua,  Suncook,  and  Hook- 
sett.  All  parts  of  New  Hampshire  are  exceed- 
ingly healthful,  and  cases  of  remarkable  lon- 
gevity are  very  numerous.  The  cold  weather 
begins  about  the  last  of  October  and  con- 
tinues till  May;  and  from  the  latter  part  of 
November  till  the  opening  of  spring  the  whole 
country  is  usually  covered  with  snow,  and  the 
rivers  are  frozen. — The  natural  productions 
include  the  oak,  pine,  hemlock,  ash,  spruce, 
beech,  birch,  and  other  trees,  which  are  largely 
exported  in  the  shape  of  lumber.  The  sugar 
maple  is  abundant.  The  native  animals,  though 
scarce,  are  not  yet  exterminated ;  wolves,  bears, 
and  other  wild  beasts  are  still  found  in  the  N. 
part  of  the  state,  and  occasionally  commit  dep- 
redations on  the  farms.  Wild  fowl  and  game 
are  abundant,  and  both  lakes  and  rivers  are 
stocked  with  fish. — The  farm  lands  of  New 
Hampshire  in  1870  comprised  2,334,487  acres 
of  improved  and  1,271,507  of  unimproved  land, 
including  1,047,090  acres  of  woodland.  The 
total  number  of  farms  was  29,642,  of  which 
1,376  comprised  from  3  to  10  acres,  2,064  from 
10  to'20,  7,194  from  20  to  50,  10,107  from  50 
to  100,  8,804  from  100  to  500,  75  from  500  to 
1,000,  and  6  over  1,000.  The  average  size  of 
farms  was  169  acres  ;  percentage  of  improved 
to  total  land  in  farms,  68'8.  The  cash  value  of 
farms  was  $80,589,313  ;  of  farming  implements 
and  machinery,  $3,459,943;  total  amount  of 
wages  paid  during  the  year,  including  value  of 
board,  $2,319,164;  total  estimated  value  of  all 
farm  productions,  including  betterments  and 
additions  to  stock,  $22,473,547;  orchard  pro- 
ducts, $743,552 ;  produce  of  market  gardens, 
$119,997;  forest  products,  $1,743,944;  home 
manufactures,  $234,062 ;  value  of  animals 
slaughtered  or  sold  for  slaughter,  $3,720,243. 
The  chief  productions  were  189,222  bushels 


of  winter  and  4,399  of  spring  wheat,  47,420 
of  rye,  1,277,768  of  Indian  corn,  1,146,451  of 
oats,  105,822  of  barley,  100,034  of  buckwheat, 
58,375  of  peas  and  beans, '4,515,579  of  potatoes, 
612,648  tons  of  hay,  155,334  Ibs.  of  tobacco, 
1,129,442  of  wool,  5,965,080  of  butter,  849,118 
of  cheese,  99,469  of  hops,  1,800,704  of  maple 
sugar,  56,944  of  honey,  2,668  of  wax,  2,446 
gallons  of  wine,  2,352,884  of  milk  sold,  and 
16,884  of  maple  molasses.  The  total  value  of 
all  live  stock  on  farms  was  $15,246,545.  There 
were  39,095  horses,  90,583  milch  cows,  40,513 
working  oxen,  91,705  other  cattle,  248,760 
sheep,  and  33,127  swine.  Besides  these  there 
were  4,240  horses  and  13,368  neat  cattle  not 
on  farms. — New  Hampshire  ranks  high  as  a 
manufacturing  state,  and  is  especially  noted  for 
the  extent  of  its  textile  industries.  According 
to  the  census  of  1870,  only  Massachusetts, 
Rhode  Island,  and  Pennsylvania  ranked  above 
New  Hampshire  in  the  value  of  cotton  goods 
produced.  In  the  36  cotton  mills  of  this  state 
were  19,091  looms  and  447,795  frame  and 
302,048  mule  spindles.  The  principal  products 
of  the  41,469,719  Ibs.  of  cotton  used  were 
89,326,701  yards  of  sheetings,  shirtings,  and 
twilled  goods,  75,000  of  lawns  and  fine  muslins, 
40,843,969  of  print  cloth,  442,696  of  flannel, 
1,845,199  of  ginghams  and  checks,  5,260,000 
of  cassimeres,  cottonades,  and  jeans,  237,026 
Ibs.  of  bats,  wicking,  and  wadding,  28,300  of 
cordage,  lines,  and  twines,  and  1,595,700  seam- 
less bags.  The  156  woollen  mills  had  351  sets 
of  cards,  with  a  daily  capacity  in  carded  wool 
of  41,550  Ibs.,  909  broad  and  699  narrow  looms, 
and  117,057  spindles.  The  materials  used  com- 
prised 1,079,120  Ibs.  of  cotton,  1,380,000  of 
shoddy,  and  8,785,882  of  domestic  and  793,433 
of  foreign  wool.  Among  the  products  were 
184,800  pairs  of  blankets,  2,481,416  yards 
of  cassimeres  and  doeskins,  184,200  of  felted 
cloth,  13,141,565  of  flannels,  75,000  of  frock- 
ing,  1,001,000  of  kerseys,  720,507  of  satinets, 
32,000  of  tweeds  and  twills,  110,075  Ibs.  of 
rolls,  and  485,600  of  yarn.  In  the  production 
of  worsted  goods,  the  state  ranked  after  Massa- 
chusetts, Pennsylvania,  and  Rhode  Island,  and 
after  those  states  and  New  Jersey  in  the  pro- 
duction of  printed  goods.  In  1870  the  pro- 
ducts of  mining  were  valued  at  $323,805,  in- 
cluding stone  worth  $309,720,  silver  quartz 
$10,000,  lead  $3,000,  and  zinc  $1,085.  Other 
important  industries  are  the  production  of  boots 
and  shoes,  hosiery,  lumber,  starch,  and  wood- 
en ware.  The  total  number  of  manufactur- 
ing establishments  reported  by  the  census  of 
1870  was  3,342,  using  280  steam  engines  of 
8,787  horse  power,  and  2,312  water  wheels 
of  68,291  horse  power,  and  employing  40,783 
hands,  of  whom  25,829  were  males  above  16 
years  of  age,  12,775  females  above  15,  and  2,179 
youth.  The  total  amount  of  capital  employed 
was  $36,023,743;  wages  paid,  $13,823,091; 
value  of  materials  used,  $44,577,967;  of  pro- 
ducts, $71,038,249.  The  chief  industries  are 
shown  by  the  following  statement : 


NEW  HAMPSHIRE 


295 


No.  of 

HOE8E 

POWER. 

Hands 

Value  of 

INDUSTRIES. 

establish- 
ments. 

Steam 
engines. 

Water 
wheels. 

employed. 

Capital. 

Wages  paid. 

materials. 

products. 

Agricultural  implements 

24 

26 

458 

184 

$174  550 

$78  505 

$77  714 

Boots  and  shoes  

257 

97 

8,107 

1  008*215 

1  228  314 

8011  992' 

6  162  259 

Brick  .             .... 

57 

55 

544 

181  805 

112  040 

88*570 

*3  13*831 

Carpentering  and  building1 

109 

24 

182 

457 

154180 

204*875 

29l'431 

116 

84 

563 

782 

528  555 

856  692 

329  532 

Cars,  freight  and  passenger     

2 

225 

190 

200  000 

100  000 

256  250 

379  7rO 

Clothing,  men's 

75 

60 

798 

250340 

207  858 

451  930 

820  714 

Cotton  goods 

35 

915 

17767 

12541 

13  83l'710 

8  989  853 

12  318  447 

1  A  qqq'fiTO 

Flouring  and  grist  mill  products  

195 

320 

6,853 

388 

*669*340 

74,914 

2  496  054 

2  747  978 

Furniture  

79 

666 

1407 

1325 

957  900 

698  133 

*768*200 

1  782  162 

Hosiery 

28 

12 

868 

1  081 

855  460 

405  003 

881  646 

^7f)^AAf\ 

Iron,  forged  and  rolled  

2 

315 

10 

111 

131  000 

57400 

801*860 

455  000 

"     castings,  not  specified  

23 

176 

249 

419 

857  760 

236216 

891  993 

773  283 

Leather,  tanned 

72 

375 

925 

410 

875  800 

16o'l09 

1  566  950 

1  Q6'i'fi7f5 

"        curried  

42 

30 

96 

219 

312'600 

100  599 

1  488  419 

1  720  520 

"       dressed  skins  

12 

224 

88 

85400 

10930 

'  82'525 

58  140 

Liquors  malt  .  . 

4 

118 

113 

276810 

53'800 

873  156 

fioVfifiO 

Lumber  sawed 

723 

1928 

21  101 

3898 

2  428*193 

725*304 

2  471  427 

Machinery,  not  specified  .  ,  

30 

172 

609 

397 

341  150 

190  786 

165  266 

500  550 

"          cotton  and  woollen    . 

31 

163 

849 

886 

272450 

149  932 

126  389 

886  205 

"          fire  engines 

1 

150 

865 

300000 

46'497 

477  183 

"          railroad  repairing  

4 

215 

664 

368  000 

395544 

505864 

1  816  808 

"          steam  engines  and  boilers  
Paper  not  specified 

5 
14 

159 
120 

'855 

182 
810 

156,500 
418  000 

91*500 
111  973 

73,769 
511  642 

288,980 

QO*  Q1  ft 

"     printing  

7 

50 

715 

190 

444000 

74'  800 

859  240 

727865 

"     wrapping  

11 

30 

755 

148 

217  000 

53700 

209*490 

360  920 

Printing,  cotton  and  woollen  goods  

3 

850 

580 

635 

678  000 

273*225 

4  118  453 

4  670  388 

Saddlery  and  harness  

85 

260 

133540 

80401 

137  778 

*806*720 

Sash,  doors,  and  blinds  

28 

206 

541 

854 

248  450 

159'l30 

223931 

481  656 

Starch 

66 

122 

1  181 

294 

246  200 

23'381 

308  695 

A(\K  040 

Wooden  ware  

60 

177 

1,138 

416 

273*400 

144848 

149  322 

449220 

Woollen  goods  

66 

583 

4637 

8279 

4  598  800 

1  853  992 

5  264*520 

8  708  307 

Worsted  goods 

2 

1525 

1  161 

700  000 

*378  '017 

1  032  118 

1  447  422 

The  greater  portion  of  the  foreign  products 
consumed  in  New  Hampshire  is  entered  at  Bos- 
ton. Portsmouth,  however,  is  a  United  States 
port  of  entry,  where  the  value  of  imports  during 
the  year  ending  June  30,  1874,  amounted  to 
$41,388.  The  exports  were  unimportant.  The 
number  of  vessels  that  entered  in  the  foreign 
trade  was  54  of  9,794  tons,  and  62  were  cleared. 
The  entries  in  the  coastwise  trade  comprised 
1,032  vessels,  of  105,142  tons,  including  329, 
of  10,477  tons,  engaged  in  fisheries.  The  num- 
ber of  vessels  that  cleared  in  the  coastwise  trade 


was  1,032.  There  were  registered,  enrolled,  and 
licensed  at  this  port  74,  of  14,502  tons,  of  which 
69  were  sailing  vessels. — The  railroads  of  the 
state  are  subject  to  inspection  by  three  state 
commissioners,  who  are  required  to  report  an- 
nually to  the  legislature.  There  were  92  m. 
of  railroad  in  1844,  467  in  1850,  661  in  1860, 
736  in  1870,  and  946  in  1874.  The  railroads 
lying  wholly  or  partly  in  New  Hampshire, 
with  their  termini  and  the  number  of  miles 
completed  in  the  state  in  1874,  are  represented 
in  the  following  table : 


NAMES  OF  CORPORATIONS. 

TERI 

fan, 

•9  _g 

||1. 
i-isf 

Capital 
stock 

From 

To 

Pi 

III! 

paid  in. 

*Atlantic  and  St  Lawrence 

Portland  Me 

Island  Pond  Vt 

52 

149 

$5,000,000 

Boston,  Concord,  and  Montreal  

Concord          .  .        

Northumberland  

145 

1,800,000 

White  Mountain  branch.          .... 

Wing  Eoad 

Fabyan  Place  

15 

Boston  and  Maine 

Portland  Me         

35 

iie 

021,274 

Branch 

Kollinsford 

Great  Falls 

8 

Alton  Bay 

29 

West  Amesbury  branch 

Newton  Village 

West  Amesbury,  Mass.  .  .  . 

2 

4 

Cheshire  

South  Ashburnham,  Mass. 

Bellows  Falls,  Vt  .-.. 

48 

B3 

2,153,800 

Leased,  Ashuelot  

Keene 

South  Vernon,  Mass  .  . 

28 

28f 

Concord 

Nashua    

85 

1,500,000 

41 

Leased-s  Manchester  and  N  Weare 

North  Weare 

19 

(  Suncook  Valley 

Pittsfield 

20 

Branch   . 

Hillsborough  Bridge  

15 

^Eastern 

Massachusetts  State  line 

16 

Fitchburg 

4,000,000 

Mason  Village         

9 

23 

Manchester  and  Lawrence 

Lawrence,  Mass  

22 

26 

1,000,000 

Monadnock,. 

Winchendon  Mass 

Peterborough  

14 

16 

197,257 

Mount  Washington 

Base 

Summit  of  Mt.  Washington 

8 

Nashua,  Acton,  and  Boston  ...   . 

North  Acton  Mass 

Nashua  

5 

20 

268,500 

Nashua  and  Lowell  

Lowell  Mass  

5 

14 

800,000 

Leased.  Wilton.... 

Nashua  .. 

Wilton  .  .  . 

15 

215.000 

*  Leased  to  Grand  Trunk  railway. 


t  Leased  to  Eastern  of  Massachusetts. 


296 


NEW  HAMPSHIRE 


NAMES  OF  CORPORATIONS. 

TERMINI. 

i! 

N* 

3  a  £ 

a" 

Length  between 
termini  when 
different  from 
the  preceding. 

Capital 

stock 
paid  in. 

From 

To 

Concord  

White  River  Junction  
Bristol  

69 
13 
56 
10 
58 
3 
6T 
11 
26 
12 
7 
48 

110 
52 
71 

1  3,068,400 

'i,  045,276 

Franklin 

Leased,  Concord  and  Claremont  

Sullivan  R.  R.  in  Claremont 
Greenfield  

East  Wilton 

Portland  Me 

Dalton 

Portland  and  Rochester  
*Portland,  Great  Falls,  and  Conway  

Portland'  Me  

Rochester  

Conway  Junction,  Me  
Portsmouth                . 

North  Conway  



Dover  .... 

Sullivan  County  
*  Wolfeborough 

Bellows  Falls  
Wakefield  
Worcester,  Mass  
Nashua 

Windsor,  Vt  
Wolfeborough  

Nashua  

46 

1,706,700 

768,945 

Leased,  Nashua  and  Rochester  
Total 

Rochester. 

946 

On  Nov.  1,  1874,  there  were  43  national  banks 
in  operation,  with  a  paid-in  capital  of  $5,365,- 
000  and  an  outstanding  circulation  amounting 
to  $4,707,365,  being  $14  79  per  capita,  1  per 
cent,  of  the  wealth  of  the  state,  and  87' 7  per  cent, 
of  the  bank  capital.  In  May,  1874,  there  were 
64  savings  banks,  with  92,788  depositors,  and 
deposits  aggregating  $28,829,377.  The  total 
liabilities  amounted  to  $30,333,792;  loans, 
$15,487,642.  The  fire  insurance  companies  or- 
ganized under  the  laws  of  the  state  comprised 
16  town  companies,  6  mutual  not  limited  to 
towns,  and  the  New  Hampshire  joint  stock 
company.  The  amount  of  risks  carried  by  the 
town  companies  was  $2,241,627,  and  by  the 
mutual  $12,932,929.  There  were  56  fire  and 
5  marine  insurance  companies  of  other  states 
and  foreign  countries  licensed  to  transact  busi- 
ness in  New  Hampshire.  The  amount  of  risks 
assumed  by  these  companies  and  in  force  on 
Jan.  1,  1874,  was  $38,535,887;  premium  re- 
ceipts in  1873,  $486,679 ;  losses  paid,  $403,767. 
Thirty  life  insurance  companies  of  other  states 
were  transacting  business  in  New  Hampshire, 
and  had  in  force  on  Jan.  1,  1874,  10,150  poli- 
cies, insuring  $14,682,950. — The  constitution 
of  1784,  amended  in  1792,  is  the  fundamental 
law  of  the  state.  The  legislature,  styled  the 
general  court,  comprises  a  senate  of  12  mem- 
bers and  a  house  of  representatives,  the  num- 
ber of  which,  annually  varying,  in  1874-'5  was 
341.  The  state  is  divided  into  12  senatorial  dis- 
tricts, not  according  to  population  as  in  other 
states,  but  according  to  the  direct  taxes  paid  by 
the  different  districts.  The  representatives  are 
apportioned  among  the  towns  according  to  the 
number  of  ratable  polls.  A  town  having  150 
ratable  polls  may  choose  one  representative, 
and  one  additional  representative  may  be  cho- 
se a  for  every  additional  300  polls.  The  legis- 
lature meets  annually  on  the  first  Wednesday 
in  June.  The  governor  is  advised  in  his  ex- 
ecutive duties  by  a  council  of  five  members. 
The  members  of  the  legislature,  governor,  and 
councillors  are  elected  annually  on  the  second 
Tuesday  in  March.  A  majority  vote  is  neces- 
sary to  election.  If  no  candidate  for  governor 
receives  a  majority,  that  officer  is  elected  by  the 

*  Leased  to  Eastern  of  Massachusetts. 


legislature.  The  right  of  suffrage  is  extended 
to  every  male  21  years  old  who  has  resided  in 
the  town  six  months,  excepting  paupers  and 
persons  who  at  their  own  request  are  excused 
from  paying  taxes.  According  to  the  consti- 
tution only  Protestants  are  eligible  to  the  of- 
fice of  governor  or  as  senators  or  representa- 
tives ;  but  this  provision  is  practically  obsolete. 
The  selectmen  of  towns  must  submit  to  the 
inhabitants  once  in  seven  years  the  question 
of  amending  the  constitution,  when  if  a  ma- 
jority be  in  favor  thereof  a  convention  must 
be  called,  and  if  the  amendments  are  carried 
by  a  two-thirds  vote  when  submitted  to  the 
people  they  become  law.  The  secretary,  trea- 
surer, state  printer,  and  commissary  general  are 
chosen  annually  by  joint  ballot  of  the  legisla- 
ture. The  salary  of  the  governor  is  $1,000  per 
annum;  secretary,  $800  and  fees;  treasurer, 
$1,800;  adjutant  general,  $600.  Other  inter- 
ests of  the  state  are  under  the  supervision  of 
commissioners  of  railroads,  banks,  insurance, 
and  fisheries.  All  judicial  officers,  the  attor- 
ney general,  county  solicitors,  sheriffs,  coroners, 
and  registers  of  probate  are  appointed  by  the 
governor  and  council;  county  commissioners, 
treasurers,  and  registers  of  deeds  are  elected 
by  the  people.  The  judicial  power  is  vested 
in  a  superior  court  of  judicature  and  a  circuit 
court,  probate  and  police  courts,  and  justices  of 
the  peace.  The  superior  court  consists  of  a 
chief,  salary  $2,400,  and  two  associate  justices, 
who  receive  $2,200  a  year  each.  The  circuit 
court  consists  of  a  chief  and  two  associate 
justices,  who  receive  $2,200  a  year  each.  Two 
annual  law  terms  of  the  superior  court  are  held 
in  Concord,  beginning  on  the  first  Tuesdays  of 
June  and  December.  At  least  two  trial  terms 
of  the  circuit  court  are  held  annually  in  each 
county.  Besides  appellate  jurisdiction  of  all 
actions  brought  in  the  lower  courts,  the  cir- 
cuit court  has  general  jurisdiction  of  all  civil 
and  criminal  actions  at  law  and  equity,  and 
exclusive  cognizance  of  all  petitions  for  di- 
vorce. Married  women  may  hold  property  to 
their  sole  and  separate  use,  and  may  dispose 
of  it  by  will.  New  Hampshire  is  represented 
in  congress  by  three  representatives  and  two 
senators,  and  has  therefore  five  votes  in  the 


NEW  HAMPSHIRE 


297 


electoral  college.  The  total  debt  of  the  state 
on  June  1,  1874,  was  $3,826,590,  all  of  which 
is  funded  and  will  mature  in  31  years  in  nearly 
equal  annual  amounts.  The  actual  revenue 
and  expenses  of  the  state  for  two  years  end- 
ing May  31  were  as  follows : 

KEVENUE. 


SOURCES. 

1873. 

1874. 

State  tax.             

$800,000  00 
104,959  26 
11,710  92 
4,478  83 

$600,000  00 
102,918  94 
12,179  41 
20,721  44 
4,046  22 
196  23 

Railroad  tax         .  .     .           

Interest  

United  States  war  claims  

Balance  municipal  war  loan 

264  00 

Totals 

$421,412  51 

$740,062  24 

EXPENSES. 

DESCRIPTION. 

1873. 

1874. 

Ordinary  expenses 

$118,736  78 
44,808  58 
251,903  33 

$136,721  52 
37,566  97 
259,798  77 
404  46 

Extraordinary  expenses  
Interest  

Increase  municipal  war  loan 

Totals  

$415,448  69 

$434,491  82 
305,570  42 

Excess  of  revenue  over  expenses 

The  chief  items  of  expense  were  as  follows:  ex- 
ecutive department,  $3,130 ;  secretary's,  $2,845 ; 
treasury,  $3,023;  adjutant  general's,  $2,403; 
public  instruction,  $6,964;  insurance  depart- 
ment, $877;  legislature,  $45,549;  supreme  ju- 
dicial court,  $17,980 ;  probate  court,  $7,662  ; 
state  library,  $2,393 ;  compiling  provincial 
records,  $3,674;  state  house,  $3,804;  asylum 
for  insane,  $7,120 ;  education  of  deaf  and  dumb, 
$3,198;  education  of  blind,  $2,850;  reform 
school,  $8,263;  state  prison,  $2,467;  New 
Hampshire  medical  school,  $5,000;  normal 
school,  $5,486;  volunteer  militia,  $13,767; 
board  of  agriculture,  $4,934;  mountain  roads, 
$3,000  ;  geological  survey,  $4,525.  The  total 
valuation  of  property  in  the  state,  made  by 
the  assessors  of  the  several  cities  and  towns 
for  purposes  of  taxation,  was  reported  at 
$103,652,835  in  1850,  $127,018,117  in  1860, 
$129,856,167  in  1864,  $149,065,290  in  1868, 
and  $152,987,177  in  1872.  These  returns  are 
considered  to  be  very  much  below  the  real 
value,  which  is  estimated  at  more  than  $250,- 
000,000.  The  true  value  of  real  and  personal 
estate  was  reported  by  the  federal  census  of 
1870  at  $252,624,112,  and  the  assessed  value  at 
$149,065,290,  including  real  estate  valued  at 
$85,231,288  and  personal  property  at  $63,834,- 
002.  The  state  tax  is  divided  among  the  sev- 
eral cities  and  towns  according  to  an  appor- 
tionment made  every  fourth  year,  based  upon 
the  assessed  valuation  of  the  taxable  property. 
The  amount  varies.  Before  the  war,  when 
the  state  was  without  debt,  it  never  exceeded 
$70,000  a  year ;  but  since  1861  it  has  been  as 
follows:  for  1862,  $80,000;  1863,  $270,000; 
1864,  $500,000 ;  1865  and  1866,  $750,000  each ; 
1867  and  1868,  $625,000  each;  1869,  1870,  and 
1871,  $600,000  each;  1872,  $300,000;  1873, 


$600,000;  1874  and  1875,  $400, 000  each.  Each 
city  and  town  pays  its  proportion  of  this  tax 
directly  to  the  state  treasury.  Cities  and 
towns  also  levy  a  tax  for  local  purposes.  The 
rate  of  taxation  for  all  purposes  varies  in 
the  several  cities  and  towns,  but  is  generally 
from  1£  to  2£  per  cent.  Railroads  are  taxed 
separately,  the  judges  of  the  superior  court 
fixing  "the  actual  present  value  of  the  cap- 
ital" and  assessing  it  "as  near  as  may  be  in 
proportion  to  the  taxation  of  other  prop- 
erty "  in  the  towns  where  they  are  situated. 
The  railroads  pay  these  taxes  to  the  state  trea- 
surer ;  and  one  fourth  of  the  tax  of  each  road 
is  paid  by  him  to  the  towns  through  which 
the  road  passes,  in  proportion  to  the  share  of 
its  capital  therein  expended;  such  portion  of 
the  residue  to  towns  where  stock  is  owned  as 
the  number  of  shares  owned  there  bears  to 
the  whole  number  of  shares  of  the  road ;  and 
the  remainder  goes  to  the  state.  The  propor- 
tion of  this  tax  to  some  towns  more  than  pays 
their  state  tax.  Savings  banks  pay  1  per  cent, 
on  their  deposits,  which  is  divided  among  the 
towns  in  proportion  to  the  amount  of  deposits 
held  by  citizens  thereof. — New  Hampshire  has 
no  institution  for  the  blind  or  the  deaf  and 
dumb,  but  the  state  in  1874  paid  $2,850  for  the 
education  of  the  former  class  in  the  Perkins 
institute  in  Boston,  and  $3,198  for  the  educa- 
tion of  deaf  and  dumb  at  the  American  asy- 
lum in  Hartford.  The  asylum  for  the  insane, 
opened  in  1842,  is  in  Concord.  In  1874  the 
state  paid  $6,000  for  the  support  of  indigent 
insane,  and  $873  for  the  convict  insane.  The 
number  of  inmates  on  April  30,  1874,  was 
281,  while  the  total  number  cared  for  during 
the  year  was  416,  and  the  average  number  was 
267.  Of  the  140  admitted  during  the  year, 
109  were  supported  by  themselves  or  friends. 
The  state  prison  in  Concord  was  established  in 
1812,  and  on  May  1, 1874,  had  95  inmates.  The 
earnings  of  the  prison  for  the  preceding  year 
amounted  to  $23,679,  including  $22,106  from 
the  labor  of  the  convicts,  and  the  expenses 
were  $13,067,  leaving  a  net  profit  of  $10,612. 
The  average  number  of  working  men  was  75. 
The  prisoners  have  the  use  of  a  library,  and 
those  who  on  entering  cannot  read  or  write  are 
instructed  in  these  branches.  The  state  reform 
school  at  Manchester,  opened  in  1855,  had 
91  inmates  on  May  30,  1874;  the  whole  num- 
ber during  the  year  ending  at  that  date  was 
149.  Boys  and  girls  under  17  years  of  age  are 
committed  for  offences  against  the  laws.  The 
ordinary  English  branches  are  taught.  The 
chief  employments  are  chair  seating  and  farm- 
ing. The  ordinary  expenses  for  the  year  were 
$22,938;  total  expenses,  $27,684;  total  re- 
ceipts, $27,167,  including  $8,000  from  state 
treasurer,  $6,253  from  labor  of  inmates,  and 
$10,434  from  towns,  &c.,  for  board  of  in- 
mates. At  Franklin  is  the  New  Hampshire 
orphans'  home  school  of  industry,  a  corporate 
institution  which  was  opened  in  1871,  and  is 
supported  by  contributions. — The  general  su- 


298 


NEW  HAMPSHIRE 


pervision  of  education  is  vested  in  the  superin- 
tendent of  public  instruction,  who  is  appointed 
by  the  governor  and  council  for  two  years,  and 
receives  an  annual  salary  of  $1,200  and  ex- 
penses. The  several  towns  annually  choose 
committees,  who  superintend  the  schools,  ex- 
amine teachers,  grant  certificates,  dismiss  teach- 
ers and  pupils  when  necessary,  select  text 
books,  determine  with  the  selectmen  the  lo- 
cation of  school  houses  and  change  of  dis- 
tricts, and  make  annual  reports  to  the  town 
and  state.  Prudential  committees  are  annu- 
ally chosen  by  the  districts,  and  have  general 
charge  of  the  school  houses  and  the  employ- 
ment of  teachers.  In  1872  the  legislature 
passed  a  law  making  women  eligible  as  mem- 
bers of  the  town  and  prudential  committees. 
High  schools  may  be  established  by  vote  of 
the  town  or  by  the  union  of  contiguous  dis- 
tricts. There  is  no  general  state  revenue  for 
the  maintenance  of  common  schools.  Public 
schools  are  supported  by  local  taxation  of  prop- 
erty, each  town  being  required  to  raise  for  this 
purpose  $3  50  for  every  dollar  of  its  appor- 
tionment of  the  state  tax.  Towns  or  districts 
may  vote  additional  sums  for  school  purposes. 
There  is  also  a  literary  fund  for  the  maintenance 
of  public  schools,  arising  from  a  tax  of  one  half 
of  one  per  cent,  on  the  capital  stock  of  savings 
banks.  Several  towns  and  districts  have  per- 
manent local  funds  for  the  support  of  schools. 
The  state  provides  for  the  registration  of  pu- 
pils, statistical  returns,  and  annual  teachers' 
institutes  in  each  county.  A  compulsory  edu- 
cational law  was  passed  in  June,  1871,  requi- 
ring all  children  between  8  and  14  years  of  age 
to  attend  school  at  least  12  weeks  every  year, 
under  penalty  of  $10  for  the  first  and  $20  for 
every  subsequent  violation  of  the  statute.  The 
progress  of  the  state  in  respect  to  public  schools 
during  the  last  decade  is  as  follows : 


PARTICULARS. 

1863-  '4. 

1873-'4. 

2,148 
2,502 
830- 
20 
4  to  21 

Number  of  school  districts  
kk       of  schools  .         .  .        . 

2,328 

2,487 

"       of  graded  schools 

Average  length  of  schools  in  weeks.  .  . 
Legal  school  age  

20-5 
4  to  21 

Total  school  population  of  the  state  .  .  . 

Number  of  pupils  enrolled 

83,401 
52,826 

8,440 
759 
$26  99 
3,262 
$15  05 

$197,869 
$17,879 

$36,032 
$10,489 
$261,819 
$280.379 
$3  13 
$916,894 

69,178 
47,275 

2,593 
482 
$44  87 
8,380 
$24  90 

$354,529 
$85,590 

$43,473 
$9,272 
$488,104 
$606,846 
$7  05 
$2,208,025 

Average  daily  attendance  

Number  of  pupils  between  4  and  14 
not  attending  any  school  
Number  of  male  teachers 

Average  monthly  wages 

Number  of  female  teachers. 

Average  monthly  wages  .  .  . 

Amount  of  school  revenue  raised  by 
taxation  as  required  by  law  
Additional  amount  raised  by  town  or 
district  tax... 

Amount   received  from    local  funds, 
railroad  tax,  and  literary  fund  
Amount  contributed  by  individuals.  .  . 
Total  school  fund  . 

Total  expenditures  

Average  cost  per  pupil  

Estimated  total  value  of  school  houses 

The  state  normal  school  was  opened  in  1871  at 
Plymouth,  Graf  ton  co.     Up  to  June,  1874,  the 
legislature  had  appropriated  $18,000  for  perma- 

nent  improvements,  and  annual  appropriations 
have  been  made  for  current  expenses.  The 
institution  depends  upon  these  annual  appro- 
priations and  the  proceeds  from  tuition ;  the 
rate  per  pupil  is  about  $25  a  year.  Besides  a 
preparatory  course,  there  are  two  courses  of 
instruction  of  one  year  each.  A  certificate  of 
graduation  from  the  first  entitles  the  holder  to 
teach  in  the  state  three  years,  and  of  the  sec- 
ond five  years.  In  1874  there  were  four  in- 
structors in  the  normal  department ;  the  num- 
ber of  graduates  from  the  opening  of  the  school 
was  102.  In  1873  the  institutions  for  sec- 
ondary instruction  were  reported  as  27"  high 
schools,  17  academies,  5  seminaries  for  females, 
and  4  institutes ;  37  of  these  reported  an  aggre- 
gate attendance  of  3,685  pupils,  including  1,915 
females,  and  96  teachers,  of  whom  55  were  fe- 
males. There  are  three  schools  devoted  chiefly 
to  preparing  boys  for  college,  the  most  noted 
of  which,  Phillips  academy  at  Exeter,  is  de- 
scribed in  the  article  on  that  town.  The  oth- 
er two,  St.  Paul's  school  in  Concord  and  Kim- 
ball  union  academy  at  Meriden,  have  extended 
facilities  for  instruction  and  a  large  attendance. 
The  only  college  in  the  state  is  Dartmouth  at 
Hanover,  which  besides  the  college  proper  com- 
prises the  Chandler  scientific  school,  the  Thayer 
school  of  civil  engineering,  the  medical  school, 
and  the  New  Hampshire  college  of  agriculture 
and  mechanic  arts.  (See  DARTMOUTH  COLLEGE.) 
The  leading  institutions  for  the  superior  in- 
struction of  females  are  Adams  female  academy 
at  East  Derry,  Robinson  female  seminary  at 
Exeter  (see  EXETER),  Tilden  seminary  at  West 
Lebanon,  the  New  Hampshire  conference  semi- 
nary and  female  college  at  Tilton,  and  the  New 
Hampton  literary  institution  at  New  Hampton. 
— According  to  the  census  of  1870,  there  were 
1,526  libraries  in  the  state,  having  704,269  vol- 
umes. Of  these  856,  with  379,876  volumes, 
were  private,  and  670,  with  324,393  volumes, 
other  than  private,  including  the  state  library 
in  Concord,  with  13,500  volumes ;  32  town  and 
city,  44,744;  21  school  and  college,  30,800 ;  538 
Sabbath  school,  164,570 ;  38  church,  7,425 ;  4 
of  historical,  literary,  and  scientific  societies, 
18,510;  and  29  circulating,  47,217.  The  lar- 
gest library  in  the  state  is  that  of  Dartmouth 
college,  which  had  46,000  volumes  in  1874. 
The  other  chief  libraries  are  the  Manchester 
city  library,  20,000  volumes;  New  Hampshire 
historical  society,  Concord,  7,500 ;  Concord 
city  library,  6,400 ;  and  the  Portsmouth  Athe- 
naeum, 12,000.  The  whole  number  of  news- 
papers and  periodicals  in  1870  was  51,  having 
an  aggregate  circulation  of  173,919,  and  issu- 
ing annually  7,237,588  copies.  There  were  7 
daily,  with  a  circulation  of  6,100;  37  weekly, 
75,819 ;  and  1  semi-monthly,  67,000.  In  1874 
the  whole  number  reported  was  60,  including 
9  daily,  44  weekly,  6  monthly,  and  1  quarterly. 
The  total  number  of  religious  organizations  in 
1870  was  633,  having  624  edifices  with  210,090 
sittings  and  property  valued  at  $3,303,780. 
The  leading  denominations  were  as  follows : 


NEW  HAMPSHIRE 


NEW  HAVEN 


299 


DENOMINATIONS. 

Organi- 
zations. 

Edifices. 

Sittings. 

Property. 

Baptist,  regular  

102 

90 

31,935 

$492,200 

"       other  

82 

82 

19,990 

167,300 

Christian 

19 

19 

4600 

42400 

Congregational  
Episcopal,  Protestant.  .  . 
Friends. 

169 
21 
13 

172 
22 
13 

67,951 
7,475 
3,585 

1,150,380 
203,800 
15,500 

Methjodist  

118 

118 

86,351 

475,000 

New   Jerusalem   (Swe- 
denborgian)  . 

1 

1 

275 

2,000 

Presbyterian  

7 

7 

3,170 

65,000 

Roman  Catholic 

17 

16 

8,945 

267,500 

Second  Advent. 

21 

20 

4,405 

25,200 

Shaker 

2 

2 

300 

1  800 

Unitarian  
Universalist  

23 
24 

22 
28 

7,830 

8812 

207,000 
154,200 

Unknown  (union)  

12 

10 

4,066 

29,500 

— New  Hampshire  was  first  visited  by 'Euro- 
peans in  1614,  and  the  first  settlements  were 
made  at  Dover  and  Portsmouth  in  1623.  In 
1641  the  district  was  annexed  to  Massachu- 
setts; it  was  made  a  royal  province  in  1679, 
but  was  again  joined  to  Massachusetts  in  1689. 
In  1741  it  became  a  separate  province,  and 
remained  so  till  the  revolution.  The  early 
settlers  were  greatly  annoyed  by  the  Indians 
until  after  the  English  got  possession  of  Can- 
ada. In  1689,  in  revenge  for  some  injuries 
done  them  13  years  before,  a  party  of  Indians 
attacked  Dover,  killed  many  of  the  inhabitants, 
and  burned  several  houses.  The  settlements 
of  New  Hampshire  were  gradually  extended 
further  W.  than  the  original  limits  prescribed 
by  the  grant  to  John  Mason  in  1629,  and  it 
was  supposed  till  1764  that  the  territory  at 
present  included  in  Vermont  formed  part  of 
the  province,  and  grants  of  land  were  made  in 
that  direction  by  the  authorities.  The  disputed 
district  was  claimed  by  New  York,  and  a  vexa- 
tious controversy  ensued,  which  lasted  till  the 
independence  of  Vermont  was  acknowledged 
in  1790.  In  1776  New  Hampshire  made  a 
public  declaration  of  independence,  and  es- 
tablished a  temporary  government  to  continue 
during  the  war.  The  state  took  an  active  part 
in  the  war  of  independence,  and  the  men  of 
New  Hampshire  were  engaged  on  every  bat- 
tle field  from  Bunker  hill  to  the  surrender  of 
Oornwallis.  At  the  battles  of  Bennington, 
Stillwater,  Saratoga,  and  Monmouth  they  were 
particularly  distinguished  for  their  bravery. 
On  June  21,  1788,  the  state  in  convention  rati- 
fied the  constitution  of  the  United  States,  57 
votes  being  cast  for  and  46  against  it.  On  June 
12,  1781,  a  convention  assembled  and  prepared 
a  constitution  very  similar  to  that  which  had 
been  recently  adopted  in  Massachusetts.  After 
numerous  alterations  suggested  by  the  people, 
the  instrument  went  into  force  June  2,  1784. 
Pursuant  to  its  provision  for  submitting  the 
question  of  amending  it  to  a  vote  at  septennial 
periods,  a  convention  assembled  in  Concord, 
Sept.  7,  1791,  and  adopted  amendments,  which 
were  approved  by  the  people  and  went  into 
force  in  September,  1792.  This  constitution 
has  since  continued  the  supreme  law  of  the 
state.  In  1849  another  convention  was  called, 


which  sat  in  Concord  from  Nov.  6,  1850,  to 
April  17,  1851,  and  proposed  numerous  amend- 
ments; but  only  one  was  adopted,  removing 
the  property  qualification  of  representatives. 
In  1807  the  seat  of  government  was  perma- 
nently established  at  Concord.  The  aggregate 
number  of  troops  furnished  to  the  federal  army 
by  New  Hampshire  during  the  civil  war  was 
34,605,  or,  reduced  to  a  three  years'  standard, 
30,827.  The  geological  survey  of  New  Hamp- 
shire has  now  (1875)  been  in  progress  six 
years,  under  charge  of  the  state  geologist,  Prof. 
Charles  H.  Hitchcock.  Five  brief  annual  re- 
ports have  been  made,  and  the  first  volume 
of  the  final  report  was  published  in  1875.  It 
is  devoted  to  physical  geography,  and  treats 
among  other  things  of  climatology,  topogra- 
phy, altitudes,  river  systems,  distribution  of 
animals  (particularly  insects)  and  plants,  agri- 
cultural geology,  scenery,  &c.  Prof.  Hitch- 
cock has  drawn  a  new  map  of  the  state,  on 
a  scale  of  2£  m.  to  the  inch. 

NEW  HANOVER,  a  S.  E.  county  of  North  Caro- 
lina, bordering  on  the  Atlantic  and  bounded 
W.  by  the  Cape  Fear  river  and  one  of  its 
branches;  area,  about  1,000  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in 
1870,  27,978,  of  whom  16,199  were  colored. 
It  has  a  level  surface,  with  occasional  swamps, 
and  a  not  very  fertile  soil,  and  contains  large 
forests  of  pine.  Several  railroads  terminate  at 
Wilmington.  The  chief  productions  in  1870 
were  133,176  bushels  of  Indian  corn,  88,892  of 
peas  and  beans,  94,713  of  sweet  potatoes,  398,- 
925  Ibs.  of  rice,  11,629  of  wool,  29,950  of  honey, 
and  4,622  gallons  of  wine.  There  were  633 
horses,  410  mules  and  asses,  2,456  milch  cows, 
4,688  other,  cattle,  3,736  sheep,  and  14,712 
swine  ;  3  manufactories  of  carriages  and  wag- 
ons, 2  of  railroad  cars,  5  of  cooperage,  1  of 
fertilizers,  2  of  iron  castings,  3  of  machinery, 
8  of  tar  and  turpentine,  3  flour  mills,  12  saw 
mills,  and  1  ship  yard.  Capital,  Wilmington'. 

NEW  HARMONY,  a  town  of  Posey  co.,  In- 
diana, on  the  Wabash  river,  50  m.  from  its 
mouth,  and  150  m.  S.  W.  of  Indianapolis  ;  pop. 
in  1870,  836.  It  was  built  by  the  Harmonists 
under  George  Rapp  in  1815,  and  purchased 
from  them  in  1824  by  Robert  Owen  for  the 
purpose  of  testing  his  social  system,  an  experi- 
ment which  resulted  unsuccessfully.  Mr.  Owen 
sold  a  large  portion  to  William  Maclure,  who 
there  established  a  school  of  industry,  which 
after  a  trial  of  about  six  years  was  abandoned. 

NEW  HAVEN,  a  S.  county  of  Connecticut,  on 
Long  Island  sound,  bounded  W.  by  the  Housa- 
tonic  river,  and  drained  by  the  Naugatuck, 
Quinepiack,  and  other  streams;  area,  640  sq. 
m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  121,257.  The  surface  is 
generally  uneven,  mountainous  in  the  middle 
and  toward  the  east,  and  the  soil  is  moderately 
fertile.  On  the  coast  there  are  several  excel- 
lent harbors.  It  is  intersected  by  several  rail- 
roads, centring  in  New  Haven.  The  chief  pro- 
ductions in  1870  were  4,358  bushels  of  wheat, 
56,868  of  rye,  234,331  of  Indian  corn,  106,372 
of  oats,  17,039  of  buckwheat,  511,009  of  pota- 


300 


NEW  HAVEN 


toes,  73,971  tons  of  hay,  103,562  Ibs.  of  tobacco, 
24,751  of  wool,  and  804,246  of  butter.  There 
were  on  farms  4,752  horses,  10,841  milch  cows, 
5,050  working  oxen,  9,203  other  cattle,  8,591 
sheep,  and  6,648  swine.  There  were  940  manu- 
facturing establishments,  with  a  capital  of  $29,- 
445,641,  and  annual  products  valued  at  $45,156,- 
181.  The  most  important  were  62  manufac- 
tories of  carriages  and  wagons,  5  of  clocks,  18 
of  cutlery  and  edge  tools,  55  of  hardware,  10 
of  hoop  skirts  and  corsets,  7  of  India-rubber 
and  elastic  goods,  6  of  forged  and  rolled  iron, 
25  of  castings,  22  of  machinery,  14  of  plated 
ware,  1  of  straw  goods,  24  of  tin,  copper,  and 
sheet-iron  ware,  10  of  woollen  goods,  and  17 
saw  mills.  Capital,  New  Haven. 

NEW  HAVEN,  a  town,  city,  and  port  of  entry 
of  New  Haven  co.,  Connecticut,  capital  of  the 
county  and  the  largest  city  in  the  state,  situ- 
ated at  the  head  of  New  Haven  bay  or  harbor, 
4  m.  from  Long  Island  sound,  33  m.  S.  S.  W. 


of  Hartford,  and  65  m.  E.  N.  E.  of  New  York ; 
lat.  41°  18'  23"  N.,  Ion.  72°  56'  W"  W. ;  pop. 
in  1810,  5,772 ;  in  1820,  7,147;  in  1830, 10,180; 
in  1840,  12,960;  in  1850,  20,345;  in  1860, 
39,267;  in  1870,  50,840,  of  whom  14,356  were 
foreigners.  The  number  of  families  was  10,482 ; 
of  dwellings,  8,100.  The  city  stands  on  a  plain 
about  2  m.  wide,  and  is  nearly  surrounded  by 
hills,  from  which  delightful  views  may  be  ob- 
tained. Chapel  street,  the  principal  thorough- 
fare, extends  in  a  W.  N.  W.  direction  through- 
out the  length  of  the  city.  The  dwelling  houses 
are  generally  neatly  built  and  surrounded  by 
gardens,  and  many  of  them  are  almost  hidden 
from  view  among  trees.  The  number  of  mag- 
nificent elms  with  which  the  principal  avenues 
are  planted  has  caused  New  Haven  to  be  called 
"  the  city  of  elms."  They  were  mostly  set  out 
about  the  close  of  the  18th  century  by  James 
Hillhouse,  or  through  his  influence  and  exam- 
ple. Of  several  public  squares  which  adorn 


New  Haven,  from  Fort  Hill. 


the  city,  the  principal  are  Wooster  square,  an 
enclosure  of  5  acres  in  the  E.  part,  laid  out 
with  remarkable  elegance  and  good  taste,  and 
the  "  Green,"  16  acres  in  extent,  and  shaded 
by  beautiful  elms.  Hamilton  park,  a  private 
ground,  adjoining  West  river  and  Westville, 
comprises  55  acres.  Works  supply  the  city  with 
water  from  Mill  river,  which  flows  through  the 
E.  part.  Of  the  public  buildings,  the  first  in 
point  of  interest  are  those  connected  with  Yale 
college.  (See  YALE  COLLEGE.)  The  custom 
house,  on  Church  street,  is  of  Portland  stone, 
and  has  apartments  for  the  post  office  and 
United  States  courts.  The  state  house,  court 
house,  city  hall,  hospital,  medical  college,  orphan 
asylum,  and  almshouse  are  the  principal  other 
buildings.  The  New  Haven  burying  ground, 
containing  18  acres,  N.  W.  of  the  city,  is  beauti- 
fully laid  out.  The  Evergreen  cemetery,  on 
West  river,  is  large  and  tastefully  adorned,  and 
near  it  is  a  Catholic  burying  ground.  There 
are  several  horse  railroads.  New  Haven  has 


communication  with  New  York  and  the  prin- 
cipal points  in  New  England  by  the  following 
railroads :  New  York,  New  Haven,  and  Hart- 
ford ;  New  Haven,  New  London,  and  Stoning- 
ton ;  New  Haven,  Middletown,  and  Willim antic ; 
New  Haven  and  Northampton ;  and  New  Haven 
and  Derby.  It  has  regular  communication  with 
New  York  by  steamboats. — The  harbor  of  New 
Haven  is  shallow,  and  has  extensive  oyster 
beds ;  and  the  main  channel  from  the  junction 
of  Quinepiack  and  Mill  rivers  is  somewhat  cir- 
cuitous, and  not  of  sufficient  depth  for  large 
vessels.  To  meet  the  channel  from  the  busi- 
ness part  of  the  city  two  wharves,  3,500  and 
1,500  ft.  long,  have  been  built,  and  there  are 
other  landings  for  steamboats.  Operations  for 
improving  the  harbor  are  in  progress.  Apart 
from  the  coasting  trade,  the  chief  commerce  is 
with  the  West  Indies,  which  the  United  States 
commercial  reports  do  not  fully  exhibit,  as 
much  of  the  business  of  New  Haven  merchants 
is  done  through  New  York.  There  is  also  a 


NEW  HAVEN 


NEW  IRELAND 


301 


growing  commerce  with  Europe.  The  value 
of  imports  during  the  year  ending  June  30, 
1874,  was  $1,066,174  ;f  of  exports,  $592,903; 
entrances  in  the  foreign  trade,  95,  tonnage 
19,560 ;  clearances,  51,  7,720 ;  vessels  belong- 
ing in  the  district,  167,  21,051,  viz. :  142  sailing 
vessels,  13,499;  12  steamers,  4,900;  and  13 
unrigged  craft,  2,652.  There  are  550  to  650 
coastwise  entrances  and  clearances  annually. 
A  capital  of  about  $10,000,000  is  invested  in 
manufactures.  Clocks  are  made  here  very  ex- 
tensively, and  are  exported  to  the  most  distant 
countries.  Carriage  making  is  more  largely 
carried  on  than  in  any  other  part  of  New  Eng- 
land. Iron  working,  particularly  in  the  light- 
er and  more  valuable  products  of  that  metal, 
and  the  manufacture  of  India-rubber  goods, 
are  prominent  industries.  Among  the  other 
productions  are  hay  cutters,  scales,  boilers, 
brass  ware,  buttons,  cars;  coach  lamps,  lace, 
and  trimmings;  coffee  pots,  cutlery,  files,  fish 
hooks,  needles,  firearms,  harnesses  and  sad- 
dles, ivory,  jewelry,  organs,  melodeons,  pianos, 
paper,  pins,  saws,  corsets,  shirts,  and  specta- 
cles. There  are  nine  banks  of  deposit,  with 
an  aggregate  capital  of  $4,664,000;  a  trust 
company,  with  $100,000  capital;  four  savings 
banks,  with  deposits  amounting  to  $10,070,- 
693 ;  and  two  insurance  companies,  with  a 
joint  capital  of  $300,000.— The  city  is  divided 
into  ten  wards,  and  is  governed  by  a  mayor 
and  a  board  of  aldermen  of  two  and  a  council 
of  three  members  from  each  ward.  There  are 
efficient  fire  and  police  departments.  The 
streets  are  well  paved,  drained,  and  lighted 
with  gas.  The  principal  charitable  organiza- 
tions are  the  home  for  aged  and  destitute 
women,  the  home  for  the  friendless,  and  two 
orphan  asylums.  The  valuation  of  property  in 
1873  was  $56,556,179;  revenue,  $807,421 ;  ex- 
penditures, $726,910  90;  city  debt,  $790,000. 
The  public  schools,  besides  a  high,  grammar, 
and  primary  schools,  embrace  two  training 
schools  for  teachers,  two  truant  schools  for 
boys,  two  ungraded  schools  for  neglected  chil- 
dren, and  evening  schools  for  both  sexes.  The 
number  of  school  houses  occupied  in  1873  was 
24;  number  of  rooms,  155;  number  of  sittings, 
8,151;  teachers  employed,  200 ;  pupils  enrolled, 
8,807;  average  attendance,  6,850.  The  Hopkins 
grammar  school,  an  incorporated  institution  es- 
tablished in  1660,  is  chiefly  designed  for  pre- 
paring boys  for  Yale  college.  There  are  also  a 
collegiate  and  commercial  institute,  and  more 
than  20  private  schools.  The  city  has  five 
daily,  one  semi- weekly,  and  nine  weekly  news- 
papers, and  four  monthly  and  one  quarterly 
periodicals.  The  number  of  churches  is  51, 
viz.:  Baptist,  5;  Congregational,  13;  Episco- 
pal, 10;  Jewish,  2;  Lutheran,  1;  Methodist, 
11;  Roman  Catholic,  7;  Second  Advent,  1; 
Universal!  st,  1. — New  Haven  was  settled  in 
1638  by  a  company  chiefly  from  London  under 
Theophilus  Eaton,  their  first  governor,  and  the 
Rev.  John  Davenport.  It  was  a  distinct  colony 
till  1665,  when  after  a  protracted  struggle  it 


was  united  with  Connecticut  under  the  char- 
ter of  1662.  It  was  incorporated  as  a  city 
in  1784.  From  1701  to  1875  New  Haven  was 
one  of  the  state  capitals.  (See  HAETFOED,  vol. 
viii.,  p.  489.) 

NEW  HEBRIDES,  a  group  of  volcanic  islands 
in  the  S.  Pacific  ocean,  N.  E.  of  New  Caledonia, 
between  lat.  13°  15'  and  20°  10'  S.,  and  Ion.  166° 
30'  and  170°  10'  E. ;  area,  about  5,700  sq.  m. ; 
pop.  about  134,0.00.  Besides  a  great  number 
of  islets  and  rocks,  they  comprise  about  20 
islands  of  considerable  size,  the  most  impor- 
tant of  which  are  Espiritu  Santo,  70  m.  long 
by  about  25  m.  broad ;  Mallicollo,  60  by  28 
m.,  with  a  good  harbor  called  Port  Sandwich, 
in  lat.  16°  25'  S.,  Ion.  167°  46'  E. ;  Erromango, 
Tanna,  Ambrim,  Annatom,  Banks,  Sandwich, 
and  Whitsuntide.  Aurora,  one  of  the  most  fer- 
tile of  the  group,  said  to  have  been  36  m.  long 
by  more  than  5  m.  broad,  disappeared  in  1871, 
leaving  no  trace  of  its  existence.  There  is  an 
active  volcano  in  Tanna.  Most  of  the  islands 
are  hilly,  and  there  are  high  mountains.  With 
the  exception  of  Erromango  and  some  smaller 
ones,  they  are  all  well  wooded  and  supplied 
with  good  water,  and  present  a  luxuriant  vege- 
tation. Sandal  wood  and  ebony  are  found. 
Yams,  taro,  shaddocks,  bananas,  limes,  cucum- 
bers, cocoanuts,  and  a  species  of  sweet  potato 
are  cultivated.  There  are  few  animals;  the 
most  remarkable  is  a  diminutive  species  of  hog, 
which  when  full-grown  is  not  larger  than  a  rab- 
bit. The  natives,  of  the  Papuan  negro  race, 
are  less  intelligent  than  the  other  South  sea 
islanders,  and  are  accused  of  cannibalism.  Their 
habits  are  disgusting,  their  persons  filthy,  and 
their  faces  smeared  with  turmeric  and  char- 
coal. The  use  of  betel  nut  and  chunam  is  gen- 
eral ;  and  the  language  is  said  to  possess  a  simi- 
larity to  the  Malay.  They  have  no  canoes,  and 
use  a  sort  of  raft,  on  which  they  only  venture 
a  few  hundred  yards  from  the  shore. — The 
group  was  discovered  by  Quiros  in  1606  ;  but 
he  only  saw  the  N.  and  largest  island,  and  sup- 
posing it  to  be  a  portion  of  the  long-sought 
southern  continent,  he  named  it  Australia  del 
Espiritu  Santo.  He  speaks  of  it  as  one  land, 
and  made  no  attempt  to  verify  his  conjecture. 
Bougainville,  more  than  a  century  and  a  half 
later,  ascertained  that  the  N.  portion  consisted 
of  several  islands,  which  he  called  the  Great 
Cyclades.  Cook  discovered  the  greater  part 
of  the  S.  chain  in  1773,  and  called  the  whole 
group  the  New  Hebrides;  and  as  his  discov- 
ery much  exceeded  in  extent  those  previously 
made,  this  name  has  superseded  that  applied 
by  Bougainville.  Erromango,  one  of  the  most 
southerly  islands,  was  the  scene  of  the  murder 
of  the  well  known  missionary  the  Rev.  John 
Williams  (Nov.  20,  1839). 

NEW  HOLLAND.     See  ATJSTEALIA. 

NEW  IRELAND,  an  island  in  the  S.  Pacific 
ocean,  between  lat.  2°  and  5°  S.,  and  Ion.  150° 
30'  and  153°  E.  It  is  separated  from  New  Brit- 
ain on  the  southwest  by  St.  George's  channel, 
and  from  New  Hanover  on  the  northwest  by 


302 


NEW  JERSEY 


Byron's  straits;  length -about  200  m.,  average 
breadth  20  in. ;  area,  about  4,300  sq.  m. ;  pop. 
about  11,000.  The  hills  rise  to  the  height  of 
1,500  or  2,000  ft.,  and  are  clothed  from  base 
to  summit  with  the  most  luxuriant  forests. 
The  highest  peaks  are  known  as  "  Mother  and 
Daughter."  The  timber  grows  to  a  great  height, 
many  of  the  trees  being  80  or  90  ft.,  perfectly 
straight,  and  9  ft.  in  circumference.  The  in- 
dentations of  the  coast  offer  several  very  com- 
modious harbors.  The  lower  tracts  are  well 
cultivated,  and  produce  sugar  cane,  bananas, 
cocoanuts,  yams,  and  numerous  other  plants 
and  trees.  The  inhabitants  belong  to  the  Aus- 
tralian negro  race,  and  their  villages  are  very 
neat.  Their  canoes  are  well  built,  but  not 
large.  Dogs,  pigs,  and  turtles  are  the  chief 
animals.  The  islanders  trade  in  fancy  woods 
and  tortoise  shell,  the  latter  of  superior  quality. 
NEW  JERSEY,  one  of  the  thirteen  original 
states  of  the  American  Union,  situated  between 
lat.  38°  56'  and  41°  21'  N.,  and  Ion.  73°  54'  and 
75°  33'  W. ;  extreme  length  167  m.,  average 
breadth  50  m. ;  area,  8,320  sq.  m.  It  is  bounded 
N.  E.  by  New  York ;  E.  by  the  Hudson  river, 
which  separates  it  from  New  York,  by  New 
York  bay,  and  the  Atlantic  ocean ;  S.  by  the 
Atlantic  and  by  Delaware  bay ;  and  W.  by  Del- 


YEARS. 

White. 

Free 
colored. 

Slaves. 

Total. 

Rank. 

1790... 
1800  
1810         

169,954 
194.825 

226  868 

2,762 
4,402 

7843 

11,423 
12,422 
10851 

184,189 
211,149 
245562 

9 
10 
12 

1820 

257  409 

12460 

7557 

277'426 

•  18 

1S30 

800  266 

18808 

2254 

320  823 

14 

1840  

851,588 

21,044 

674 

373  306 

18 

I860  

465509 

23810 

236 

489  555 

19 

1860  .   .     . 

646699 

25818 

18 

672  035 

21 

1870 

875407 

80658 

906'  096 

17 

State  Seal  of  New  Jersey. 

aware  and  Pennsylvania,  from  which  it  is  sep- 
arated by  the  Delaware  river.  The  state  is 
divided  into  21  counties,  viz. :  Atlantic,  Ber- 
gen, Burlington,  Oamden,  Cape  May,  Cumber- 
land, Essex,  Gloucester,  Hudson,  Hunterdon, 
Mercer,  Middlesex,  Monmouth,  Morris,  Ocean, 
Passaic,  Salem,  Somerset,  Sussex,  Union,  and 
Warren.  The  cities,  according  to  the  census 
of  1870,  are  :  Bridgeton,  pop.  6,830  ;  Burling- 
ton, 5,817;  Camden,20,045;  Elizabeth,  20,832 ; 
Harrison,  4,129  ;  Hoboken,  20,297 ;  Jersey 
City,  82,546;  Millville,  6,101;  Newark,  105,- 
059;  New  Brunswick,  15,058;  Orange,  9,348; 
Paterson,  33,579 ;  Plainfield,  5,095 ;  Rahway, 
6,258 ;  Salem,  4,555  ;  and  Trenton,  the  capital, 
22,874.  The  population  of  the  state  and  its 
rank  in  the  Union,  according  to  the  federal 
enumerations,  have  been : 


Of  the  total  population  in  1870,  which  included 
16  Indians  and  15  Chinese  and  Japanese,  449,- 
672  were  males  and  456,424  females;  717,153 
were  native  born,  of  whom  575,245  were  born 
in  the  state,  74,750  in  New  York,  and  32,947 
in  Pennsylvania;  188,943  were  foreigners,  in- 
cluding 54,001  born  in  Germany,  3,130  in 
France,  26,614  in  England,  86,784  in  Ireland, 
and  5,704  in  Scotland.  The  density  of  the 
population  was  108-91  to  the  square  mile.  There 
were  183,048  families,  with  an  average  of  4'95 
persons  to  each,  and  155,936  dwellings,  with 
an  average  of  5-81  to  each.  The  increase  of 
population  from  1860  to  1870  was  34*83  per 
cent.  The  number  of  male  citizens  21  years 
old  and  upward  was  194,109 ;  of  persons 
from  5  to  18  years  of  age,  262,862  ;  attending 
school,  158,099.  There  were  37,057  persons 
10  years  old  and  upward  unable  to  read,  and 
54,687  who  could  not  write;  of  the  latter, 
29,726  were  of  native  and  24,961  of  foreign 
birth ;  42,821  were  21  years  of  age  and  over, 
of  whom  36,431  were  white  and  6,390  colored, 
17,396  males  and  25,425  females.  The  number 
of  paupers  supported  during  the  year  ending 
June  1,  1870,  was  3,356,  at  a  cost  of  $283,341. 
Of  the  total  number  (2,390)  receiving  support 
June  1,  1870,  1,669  were  of  native  birth,  in- 
cluding 301  colored,  and  721  were  foreigners. 
The  number  of  persons  convicted  of  crime 
during  the  year  was  1,040 ;  in  prison  June  1, 
1870,  1,079,  of  whom  640  (including  157  col- 
ored) were  natives,  and  439  foreigners.  There 
were  317  blind,  231  deaf  and  dumb,  918  insane, 
and  436  idiotic.  Of  the  total  population  10 
years  of  age  and  over  (680,687),  there  were 
engaged  in  all  occupations  296,036 ;  in  agri- 
culture, 63,128,  of  whom  29,240  were  laborers 
and  32,077  farmers  and  planters;  in  profes- 
sional and  personal  services,  83,380,  including 
1,236  clergymen,  26,242  domestic  servants, 
232  journalists,  39,820  laborers  not  specified, 
888  lawyers,  1,208  physicians  and  surgeons, 
and  2,698  teachers  not  specified;  in  trade  and 
transportation,  46,206 ;  and  in  manufactures, 
mechanical  and  mining  industries,  103,322, 
of  whom  3,823  were  blacksmiths,  5,849  boot 
and  shoe  makers,  and  12,569  carpenters  and 
joiners.  The  number  of  deaths  was  10,586,  or 
1'17  per  cent,  of  the  population.  There  were 
1,822  deaths  from  consumption,  or  5 '8  deaths 
from  all  causes  to  one  from  that  disease; 
from  pneumonia  700,  or  15'1  from  all  causes 
to  one  from  that  disease;  from  cholera  in- 
fantum,783;  croup,  215;  diphtheria,  177;  scar- 


NEW  JERSEY 


303 


let  fever,  781 ;  enteric  fever,  336 ;  diarrhoea, 
dysentery,  and  enteritis,  552.  In  1873  the 
state  authorities  reported  6,636  marriages, 
20,866  births,  and  11,479  deaths,  including 
1,502  from  consumption  and  638  from  chol- 
era infantum. — New  Jersey  has  a  direct  coast 
line  of  120  m.,  exclusive  of  the  coasts  on  the 
Raritan  and  Delaware  bays  ;  but  including 
smaller  bays,  islands,  and  tide-water  creeks, 
this  shore  line  is  much  longer.  On  the  north- 
east the  Hudson  river,  and  New  York,  New- 
ark, and  Raritan  bays,  afford  good  harbors. 
From  Sandy  Hook  to  Cape  May  there  is  a 
narrow  sandy  beach,  intersected  at  a  few 
points  by  narrow  inlets,  and  separated  from 
the  mainland  by  long  and  narrow  bays  and 
tide  meadows  traversed  by  numerous  tidal  wa- 
tercourses, called  thoroughfares.  These  bod- 
ies of  water  form  an  internal  water  route, 
and  afford  safe  harbors  for  vessels  of  light 
draught.  They  communicate  with  the  ocean 
through  Manasquan,  Barnegat,  Little  Egg  har- 
bor, Great  Egg  harbor,  and  other  inlets.  On 
the  Delaware  bay  there  is  a  belt  of  tide  meadow 
from  1  to  12  m.  wide  bordering  the  water,  with 
no  good  harbors.  The  state  is  well  watered 
by  a  river  system  which  flows  E.  into  the  bays 
and  the  Atlantic  ocean  and  W.  into  the  Dela- 
ware river  and  bay.  A  small  portion  of  the 
state  is  drained  by  the  Wallkill,  which  runs 
N.  E.  to  the  Hudson  river.  The  Hackensack 
and  Passaic  rivers  empty  into  the  northern 
end  of  Newark  bay;  the  Raritan,  into  Rari- 
tan bay ;  the  Nevisink,  into  Sandy  Hook  bay  ; 
and  the  Little  Egg  Harbor  or  Mullicas  river 
and  the  Great  Egg  Harbor  river,  into  the  At- 
lantic. Maurice  river,  emptying  into  Delaware 
bay,  is  the  largest  stream  of  S.  Jersey.  These 
are  all  navigable  for  distances  of  10  to  20  m. 
from  their  mouth.  The  Delaware  receives  a 
number  of  streams  from  10  to  40  m.  long,  but 
none  of  them  above  Trenton  are  navigable. — 
The  surface  of  the  state  in  the  N.  W.  portion 
is  mountainous  ;  in  the  N.  E.  and  central  por- 
tions, hilly;  in  the  southern,  low  and  gently 
undulating.  The  mountains  in  the  north  belong 
to  the  Appalachian  system,  and  consist  of  two 
main  ranges:  the  Blue  or  Kittatinny  moun- 
tain, near  the  Delaware  river,  known  in  New 
York  as  the  Shawangunk  mountain,  and  the 
Highland  range.  These  are  separated  by  a 
valley  about  10  m.  wide,  known  as  the  Kitta- 
tinny valley.  The  Highland  range  consists  of 
a  series  of  parallel  ridges  whose  heights  vary 
from  1,000  to  1,450  ft.  above  tide  water.  The 
most  prominent  of  these  are  the  Ramapo,  Trow- 
bridge,  Wawayanda,  Hamburg,  Schooley's, 
Musconetcong,  Scott's,  and  Jenny  Jump  moun- 
tains. The  Blue  mountain  range,  the  highest 
in  the  state,  is  from  1,400  to  1,800ft.  above 
the  ocean.  The  N.  E.  and  central  portions  of 
the  state  consist  of  a  great  plain,  diversified  by 
the  trap  ridges  of  the  Palisades  including  First 
and  Second  mountains,  Sourland  mountain,  and 
Rocky  hill,  from  300  to  600  ft.  high.  S.  E.  of 
a  line  connecting  Amboy  and  Trenton  the  sur- 
597  VOL.  xii. — 20 


face  is  lower  and  the  hills  slope  more  gently. 
The  Nevisink  Highlands  are  the  highest,  being 
375  ft.  above  the  ocean.  Very  few  other  ele- 
vations in  this  part  of  the  state  exceed  200  ft. 
— All  of  the  great  geological  periods  are  repre- 
sented in  New  Jersey,  excepting  the  carbonif- 
erous or  coal  and  the  Jurassic.  The  rock  for- 
mations cross  the  state  in  belts  from  N.  E.  to 
S.  "W.  The  oldest  of  these,  known  as  the  azoic 
or  archaic  formation,  constitutes  a  broad  belt 
forming  'the  Highlands.  On  the  line  between 
New  Jersey  and  New  York  it  is  23  m.  wide, 
stretching  from  Sufferns  to  the  Wallkill  river ; 
on  the  Delaware  it  is  only  9  m.  in  breadth. 
There  is  also  a  small  outcrop  of  the  rocks  of 
this  formation  near  Trenton  ;  they  extend  N.  E. 
from  Trenton,  along  the  N.  side  of  the  canal, 
about  6  m.,  and  northward  along  the  Delaware 
about  2  m.  A  very  limited  area  of  these  rocks 
underlies  Jersey  City.  The  rocks  of  this  for- 
mation are  nearly  everywhere  stratified,  and 
these  strata  have  a  strike  of  N.  E.  to  S.  W., 
and  dip  generally  at  a  high  angle  toward  the 
southeast.  They  are  mainly  gneiss,  crystalline 
limestone,  mica  schist  and  slate,  granite,  and  sye- 
nite. The  syenitic  gneiss  greatly  preponderates. 
No  fossils  are  found  in  them.  Near  the  surface 
in  the  S.  W.  portion  of  this  belt  these  rocks  are 
much  disintegrated,  forming  a  very  superior 
and  enduring  soil.  Toward  the  northeast  they 
are  much  firmer,  and  the  outcropping  ledges 
show  little  change  or  weathering.  The  granite 
and  gneiss  make  good  building  material,  and 
they  are  quarried  in  a  few  places  for  this  pur- 
pose. Magnetic  iron  ore  occurs  abundantly  in 
this  formation,  in  beds  interposed  between  the 
gneissic  strata,  and  also  as  a  mineral  compo- 
nent of  the  rocks.  There  is  a  large  number  of 
productive  mines  in  this  belt  in  Sussex,  Pas- 
saic, Morris,  and  Warren  counties ;  their  total 
product  in  1873  amounted  to  665,000  tons. 
About  one  fifth  of  the  production  is  annually 
worked  up  in  the  blast  furnaces  at  Ringwood, 
Boonton,  Stanhope,  Oxford  Furnace,  and  Phil- 
lipsburg,  in  the  state  ;  but  the  greater  portion 
goes  to  the  anthracite  furnaces  of  Pennsylva- 
nia. In  the  white,  crystalline  limestone  at 
Ogdensburg  and  Franklin,  in  Sussex  co.,  there 
are  large  beds  of  zinc  ore  associated  with  frank- 
linite,  supplying  the  extensive  zinc  works  at 
Newark  and  Jersey  City.  Northwest  of  the 
azoic  formation,  and  occupying  some  of  the  val- 
leys in  the  Highlands,  are  the  rocks  of  the  Silu- 
rian and  Devonian  epochs.  The  most  extensive 
of  these  is  the  magnesian  limestone,  a  blue  sedi- 
mentary rock  seen  in  the  Kittatinny,  German, 
Musconetcong,  Pohatcong,  and  Wallkill  valleys, 
and  to  a  less  extent  in  a  few  other  localities. 
Its  stone  is  largely  used  for  building  and  in  the 
manufacture  of  lime.  Hematite  ore,  of  which 
there  are  about  a  dozen  mines,  occurs  in  it. 
The  lowest  member  in  the  Silurian  system  is 
the  conglomerate  and  sandstone,  which  makes 
up  the  Bearfort  or  Rough,  Greenpond,  and 
Copperas  mountains,  and  other  lower  ridges, 
and  the  thin  belt  of  gray  sandstone  found  be- 


304: 


NEW  JERSEY 


tween  the  gneissic  rocks  and  the  magnesian 
limestone.  The  latter,  known  as  the  Potsdam 
sandstone,  crops  out  at  Franklin  and  Vernon 
in  Sussex  co.,  and  at  Oxford  Furnace  and  other 
points  in  Warren  co.  The  third  member  in 
this  system,  ascending,  is  the  Hudson  river 
slate,  which  has  an  extensive  outcrop  in  the 
Kittatinny  valley,  and  forms  the  E.  slope  of  the 
Blue  or  Kittatinny  mountain.  It  shows  nearly 
everywhere  its  tendency  to  cleavage,  and  it  is 
quarried  at  the  Delaware  Water  Gap  and  at 
Newton  for  roofing  slate.  Some  of  the  thicker 
and  more  arenaceous  beds  are  used  for  flagging 
stone.  In  the  Blue  mountain  the  gray  con- 
glomerate, the  equivalent  of.  the  Oneida  con- 
glomerate, has  a  wide  and  unbroken  outcrop 
from  the  Delaware  river  to  the  New  York  line. 
Overlying  it,  and  forming  the  western  and 
lower  slope  of  the  Blue  mountain,  is  the  Me- 
dina sandstone ;  the  rocks  are  red  sandstones 
and  shales,  and  a  few  vegetable  forms  are  oc- 
casionally seen  in  them.  West  of  this,  and 
occupying  the  narrow  valley  of  the  Delaware, 
are  several  formations  or  members  of  the  Si- 
lurian and  Devonian  epochs.  Southeast  of 
the  Highlands  there  is  a  wide  belt  of  red 
shales  and  sandstones  of  the  triassic  pe- 
riod. This  occupies  a  large  part  of  Bergen, 
Passaic,  Essex,  Union,  Somerset,  Hunterdon, 
Middlesex,  and  Mercer  counties,  and  is  30  m. 
wide  on  the  Delaware  river.  The  rocks  are 
red  argillaceous  shales  and  sandstone,  with  a 
few  limited  outcrops  of  calcareous  and  silicious 
conglomerates  on  the  N.  W.  border,  near  the 
azoic  rocks.  Within  the  limits  of  this  forma- 
tion there  are  several  long  outcrops  of  trap 
rock  lying  between  beds  of  shale  and  sandstone, 
forming  the  well  known  Palisades,  First  and 
Second  mountains,  Pickles  mountain,  Sourland 
mountain,  Rocky  hill,  and  others.  Narrow 
dikes  of  trap  are  also  known.  The  sandstone 
is  extensively  quarried  for  building  at  Pater- 
son,  Little  Falls,  Newark,  Trenton,  Centre 
Bridge,  and  in  other  places.  Fossil  fish  have 
been  found  in  the  rocks  of  this  formation 
at  Pompton,  Boonton,  and  near  Somerville. 
Fossil  plants  are  more  common.  Copper  ores 
and  native  copper  are  common  in  the  altered 
sandstone  near  the  junction  of  the  trap  rocks, 
occurring  irregularly  disseminated  through  the 
sandstone,  and  not  in  veins  or  beds.  Several 
copper  mines  were  early  opened,  but  none  of 
them  are  now  in  operation.  The  next  forma- 
tion S.  E.  of  the  triassic  rocks  is  the  plastic  clay 
series  belonging  to  the  cretaceous  period.  In 
this  are  the  valuable  beds  of  fire  clay  and  pot- 
ter's clay  which  are  so  largely  dug  in  the  vicini- 
ty of  Woodbridge  and  Amboy,  and  near  Trenton. 
Fossil  wood  and  leaf  prints  with  a  few  cretace- 
ous shells  are  found  in  this  series.  This  belt 
follows  the  Delaware  from  Trenton  S.  W.  to 
Salem.  The  next  geological  formation  on  the 
southeast  is  the  clay  marl,  occupying  a  nar- 
row belt  entirely  across  the  state.  The  beds 
are  mainly  astringent  clays  containing  a  small 
percentage  of  greensand.  The  next  belt  S.  E. 


is  that  of  the  greensand  marl  beds,  stretching 
from  Sandy  Hook  to  Salem.  There  are  three 
beds,  separated  by  beds  of  sand,  dipping  gently 
toward  the  southeast.  They  are  characterized 
by  the  mineral  glauconite  or  greensand  which 
makes  up  most  of  their  mass.  (See  GKEEN- 
SAND.)  Generally  there  is  some  carbonate  and 
some  phosphate  of  lime  in  these  beds,  and  hence 
the  value  of  this  marl  as  a  fertilizer.  Many 
fossils  characterize  these  beds  and  help  to  fix 
their  geological  age.  The  S.  E.  portion  of  the 
state  is  supposed  to  belong  to  the  tertiary  age. 
There  are  beds  of  calcareous  marl  near  Shiloh, 
Cumberland  co.,  which  are  undoubtedly  mio- 
cene,  and  are  very  full  of  shells.  Beds  of  glass 
sand,  which  are  extensively  worked,  occur 
along  Maurice  river  near  Millville,  at  Winslow, 
Jackson,  and  other  places.  The  higher  grounds 
in  this  part  of  the  state  are  gravelly,  and  prob- 
ably belong  to  the  modified  drift.  Bog  ore  is 
found  in  many  places,  generally  under  the  peat 
or  mud  of  wet  meadows.  The  drift  period  is 
represented  nearly  everywhere  throughout  the 
state  in  the  superficial  beds  of  sand,  gravel, 
and  bowlders.  These  beds  are  thicker  and  the 
bowlders  are  larger  in  the  northern  than  in  the 
southern  part  of  the  state.  The  smoothed, 
polished,  and  striated  rock  surfaces  so  common 
on  the  harder  rocks  also  represent  this  period. 
Alluvial  beds  are  found  in  isolated  patches, 
sometimes  of  great  extent,  as  in  the  wet  mea- 
dows along  the  Paulinskill,  Pequest,  and  Pas- 
saic rivers.  Peat  bogs  are  also  common,  al- 
though they  are  not  generally  of  great  area. 
Under  some  of  these,  in  the  limestone  districts 
of  Sussex  and  Warren  counties,  there  are  beds 
of  calcareous  or  shell  marl  a  few  feet  thick. 
There  are  extensive  tide  meadows  bordering 
the  tide  waters,  from  5  to  10  ft.  above  low- 
water  level,  and  still  in  process  of  formation. 
Along  the  Atlantic  coast  there  is  a  long  line 
of  sand  beach,  which  is  geologically  a  long 
dune,  constantly  changing  in  location,  extent, 
and  form.  These  belong  to  the  present  or 
historic  period. — New  Jersey  offers  numerous 
attractions  to  travellers,  among  which  are  the 
falls  of  the  Passaic  at  Paterson;  the  passage 
of  the  Delaware  through  the  Blue  moun- 
tains, called  the  Delaware  Water  Gap;  the 
well  known  bathing  places  of  Cape  May,  Long 
Branch,  Deal,  Squan  beach,  Atlantic  City,  and 
Tuckerton ;  Schooley's  mountain  in  Morris 
co.,  with  a  mineral  spring  on  its  summit; 
Lake  Hopatcong,  Greenwood  and  Budd's  lakes, 
and  other  points  in  the  northern  highlands. 
The  climate  varies  much  in  different  parts  of 
the  state.  In  the  north,  where  the  country  is 
more  elevated,  it  is  much  colder  than  toward 
the  south,  where  the  influence  of  the  ocean 
and  a  low  situation  is  felt.  The  annual  mean 
temperature  of  the  southern  end  of  the  state 
is  between  53°  and  54° ;  that  of  the  northern 
end  from  48°  to  50°.  The  annual  rainfall  is 
about  44  inches ;  annual  mean  barometer,  30. 
Fevers  and  ague  prevail  in  the  neighborhood  of 
the  marshes,  but  upon  the  seashore  and  in  the 


NEW  JERSEY 


305 


hilly  regions  the  climate  is  remarkably  healthy. 
The  soil  is  productive,  though  of  varied  char- 
acter. That  of  the  northern  part  of  the  state, 
including  the  Kittatinny  valley,  is  character- 
ized by  its  abundant  crops  of  grain  and  grass, 
and  rich  pasturage.  The  middle  portion  of 
the  state,  which  is  the  most  thickly  settled, 
has  been  enriched  by  the  judicious  use  of  lime, 
greensand  marl,  and  other  fertilizers,  and  yields 
abundant  farm  crops,  market  garden  products, 
fruit,  &c.  The  southern  part  of  the  state  has 
a  light  soil,  and  has  been  but  partially  cleared. 
The  nearness  of  New  Jersey  to  the  great  mar- 
kets of  New  York  and  Philadelphia  has  stimu- 
lated its  farmers  to  improve  their  soil.  The 
strip  bordering  on  the  Delaware  from  Tren- 
ton to  Salem  is  probably  the  most  skilfully 
cultivated  and  productive  land  in  the  United 
States. — The  vegetation  presents  no  remark- 
able features,  being  similar  to  that  of  the  cen- 
tral states  generally.  In  the  north  are  found 
the  oak,  hickory,  and  other  forest  trees,  and 
in  the  south  are  valuable  pine  woods,  cedar 
swamps,  and  a  considerable  growth  of  stunted 
oaks.  The  central  region  is  the  most  thorough- 
ly improved  part  of  the  state,  and  forms  a  vast 
market  garden  from  which  New  York  and 
Philadelphia  are  in  large  part  supplied.  The 
apples  and  cider  of  this  locality  are  famous, 
and  the  peaches  of  the  more  southerly  section 
are  excellent  and  abundant.  Muskmelons, 
watermelons,  sweet  potatoes,  Irish  potatoes, 
Indian  corn,  wheat,  rye,  oats,  hay,  flax,  grass 
seed,  plums,  apricots,  and  cherries  are  raised ; 
honey,  beeswax,  and  butter  are  made;  and 
there  is,  also  a  limited  production  of  barley, 
tobacco,  wine,  silk,  maple  sugar,  and  hops. 
Several  of  the  native  wild  animals,  such  as 
the  fox,  bear,  and  deer,  are  still  seen  in  the 
forests.  The  total  number  of  farms  in  1870 
was  30,652,  of  which  2,993  contained  from  3 
to  10  acres,  3,476  from  10  to  20,  7,376  from 
20  to  50,  9,415  from  50  to  100,  7,299  from  100 
to  500,  15  from  500  to  1,000,  and  8  over  1,000. 
The  average  size  was  98  acres.  The  land  in 
farms  was  1,976,474  acres  of  improved  and 
1,013,037  of  unimproved,  including  718,335 
of  woodland;  the  percentage  of  unimproved 
land  to  the  total  in  farms  was  33-9.  The 
cash  value  of  farms  was  $257,523,376  ;  farm- 
ing implements  and  machinery,  $7,887,991 ; 
wages  paid  during  the  year,  including  value 
of  board,  $8,314,548;  estimated  value  of  all 
farm  productions,  including  betterments  and 
additions  to  stock,  $42,725,198 ;  orchard  pro- 
ducts, $1,295,282  ;  products  of  market  gardens, 
$2,978,250;  forest  products,  $352,704;  value 
of  home  manufactures,  $144,016 ;  of  animals 
slaughtered  or  sold  for  slaughter,  $6,982,152. 
The  productions  were  2,099  bushels  of  spring 
and  2,299,334  of  winter  wheat,  566,775  of 
rye,  8,745,384  of  Indian  corn,  4,009,830  of 
oats,  8,283  of  barley,  363,983  of  buckwheat, 
56,221  of  peas  and  beans,  47,05,439  of  Irish 
and  1,550,784  of  sweet  potatoes,  26,306  of  clo- 
ver and  72,401  of  grass  seed,  6,095  of  flax  seed, 


CROPS. 

Bushels. 

Yield  per 
acre. 

Acres. 

Total  value. 

Indian  corn  
Wheat  
Rye  . 

10,442,000 
1,948,000 
485  000 

86 

16-2 
14'1 

290,055 
120,247 

$6,474,040 
8,214,200 

Oats  

2  737  000 

26'5 

103  283 

Barley 

7200 

24 

'OAA 

Buckwheat  
Potatoes  

Hav 

288,000 
8,560,000 
Tons. 
416  800 

16-5 
90 

1'08 

17,454 
89,555 

404  17^ 

276,480 
2,385,200 

521,975  tons  of  hay,  40,871  Ibs.  of  tobacco 
336,609  of  wool,  8,266,023  of  butter,  38,229 
of  cheese,  19,033  of  hops,  234,061  of  flax 
60,636  of  honey,  2,021  of  wax,  5,373,323  gal- 
lons of  milk  sold,  24,970  of  wine,  and  17,424  of 
sorghum  molasses.  The  total  value  of  all  live 
stock  was  $21,443,463.  There  were  on  farms 
79,708  horses,  8,853  mules  and  asses,  133,331 
milch  cows,  3,830  working  oxen,  60,327  other 
cattle,  120,067  sheep,  and  142,563  swine.  The 
staple  crops  of  1873  were  reported  as  follows : 


The  total  value  of  these  crops  was  $24,310,- 
580.  The  number  and  value  of  domestic  ani- 
mals in  1874  were  reported  as  follows : 


ANIMALS. 

Number. 

Average 
price. 

Total  value. 

Horses  . 

115  700 

$132  08 

$15  281  656 

Mules  
Oxen  and  other  cattle.  .  . 
Milch  cows  

is'ooo 

83,900 
147,900 

146  65 
33  86 
45  75 

2,199,750 

2,840,854 
6  766  425 

Sheep  

125  900 

5  14 

647  126 

Swine  . 

163000 

10  29 

1  677  270 

Total. 

651  400 

$29  418  081 

It  is  estimated  that  more  than  half  of  all  the 
cranberries  produced  in  the  United  States  are 
grown  in  New  Jersey.  In  1873  it  was  report- 
ed that  7,000  acres  of  cultivated  and  10,00.0 
of  wild  land  were  devoted  to  cranberries,  and 
that  the  crop  amounted  to  about  125,000  bush- 
els, worth  from  $2  50  to  $2  75  per  bushel. 
The  chief  cranberry  counties  are  Ocean,  At- 
lantic, and  Burlington. — The  abundant  water 
power  of  New  Jersey,  and  its  facilities  of  com- 
munication with  the  great  commercial  cities  of 
the  Union  by  railroads,  canals,  and  rivers,  have 
greatly  developed  its  manufactures.  In  1860 
the  amount  of  capital  invested  in  manufac- 
tures was  $40,521,048,  and  the  value  of  pro- 
ducts $76,306,104.  In  1870  the  state  ranked 
seventh  in  the  value  of  productions,  and  eighth 
in  the  extent  of  capital  invested ;  next  to  New 
York  in  the  production  of  hats  and  caps,  next 
to  Connecticut  in  India-rubber  goods,  next  to 
Pennsylvania  in  steel,  and  next  to  New  York 
and  Pennsylvania  in  refined  sugar  and  molasses. 
In  the  manufacture  of  silk  goods  and  trunks 
New  Jersey  ranked  above  all  other  states.  Of 
the  total  value  ($7,755,488)  of  all  the  trunks, 
satchels,  and  valises  manufactured  in  the 
United  States,  $3,793,000  were  produced  in 
New  Jersey.  The  total  number  of  manufac- 
turing establishments  reported  by  the  census 


306 


NEW  JERSEY 


of  1870  was  6,636,  using  984  steam  engines  of 
32,307  horse  power,  and  1,132  water  wheels  of 
25,832  horse  power,  and  employing  75,552 
hands,  of  whom  58,115  were  males  above  16, 
11,198  females  above  15,  and  6,239  youth. 


The  capital  invested  in  manufactures  was  $79,- 
606,719;  wages  paid,  $32,648,409;  value  of 
materials,  $103,415,245;  of  products,  $169,- 
237,732.  The  statistics  of  the  leading  indus- 
tries were  as  follows : 


INDUSTRIES. 

No.  of 
establish- 
ments. 

Steam 
engines, 
horse 
power. 

Water 

wheels, 
hone 
power. 

Number 
of 
hands. 

Capital. 

Wages  paid. 

Value  of 
materials. 

Value  of 
products.. 

12 

800 

220 

285 

$281,450 

$113,875 

$4,572,429 

$4,889,695 

579 

20 

8,090 

1,037,405 

1,250,720 

1,594,905 

3,639,076 

Bread,  crackers,  and  other  bakery  products 
Brick                       

138 
118 

55 
1,119 

.... 

550 
2,366 

357,500 
1,886,560 

196,645 
679,157 

900,922 
483,965 

1,377,386 
1,695,530 

570 

257 

10 

8,748 

1,488,992 

2,033,862 

4,443,001 

8,105,125 

267 

5 

25 

1,830 

1,286,150 

838,563 

787,868 

2,281,648 

204 

30 

2,455 

1,061,850 

704,789 

1,965,350 

3,269,825 

14 

1,175 

840 

2,249 

1,550,000 

629,171 

1,266,702 

2,326,167 

14 

683 

422 

1,373 

1,217,500 

387,530 

731,932 

1,739,061 

Flouring  and  grist  mill  products  
Glass  stained      

48G 
2 

1,520 
38 

11,103 

1,310 

27 

4,446,400 

72,000 

846.288 
22,061 

10,684,642 

28,527 

12,593,148 
65,900 

8 

125 

1,627 

1,277,000 

657,811 

579,913 

1,564,12? 

11 

248 

1,116 

1,164,500 

467.633 

637,763 

1,241,599 

49 

442 

43 

1,163 

957,700 

605,852 

519,692 

1,457,135 

81 

136 

22 

612 

848,200 

824,365 

206,783 

725,260 

64 

56 

2735 

550,100 

1,414,004 

2  469,179 

5  007  270 

India-rubber  and  elastic  goods  

12 

936 

80 

807 

1,034.200 

846,688 

1,284,967 

2,224,839 

21 

2,625 

817 

2,032 

2,123,097 

1,249,930 

8,430,850 

5,297,893 

"    nails  and  spikes,  cut  and  wrought.  .  . 

6 
3 

923 
155 

295 

'534 
278 

537,839 
896  595 

256,675 
131,700 

1,480,850 
501  712 

1,769,812 
722000 

6 

1,100 

250 

360 

1,405,000 

241,611 

1,125,261 

1,546,965 

85 

1,137 

1,054 

2039 

2,376,541 

1,146,689 

2,105  884 

8,897  805 

Jewelry,  not  specified    

39 

239 

1,502 

1,844,900 

942,081 

1,622,291 

8,815,679 

Leather  tanned         

67 

385 

110 

617 

1,273,887 

847,760 

2,444,205 

8,110,657 

"        curried  .                                     ... 

61 

43 

20 

279 

658,600 

220,814 

2444.170 

2  932  401 

"        morocco,  tanned  and  curried  
"       patent  and  enamelled  

5 
15 

2 
266 

"20 

117 

285 

199,500 
548,000 

82,500 
188,465 

828,635 
2,812,956 

525,949 
2,733,941 

Liquors  distilled  

56 

149 

89 

153 

187.930 

16,887 

167  860 

454,784 

"       malt 

46 

536 

5 

528 

2  942  300 

829,139 

1  659  118 

3  219  484 

15 

425 

60 

166 

299  100 

82,030 

414034 

585  452 

"       sawed  

285 

1318 

4655 

1145 

2  233,900 

869,835 

1,612  802 

2,745  817 

Machinery,  not  specified 

64 

591 

230 

1  160 

2  546  500 

640842 

794466 

1  772  842 

"           cotton  and  woollen  

13 

115 

146 

433 

410,000 

218,374 

270,898 

556,037 

"           railroad  repairing  

9 

485 

100 

2978 

2  887,300 

1,982,316 

1  878  870 

6528,167 

"           steam  engines  and  boilers  
Molasses  and  sugar,  refined  

16 
8 

246 
517 

10 

583 

404 

823,500 
645,000 

849,971 
272,000 

458,085 
10,046,744 

961,577 
11,199,740 

Paints,  lead  and  zinc  

8 

867 

25 

395 

1,395,000 

229,930 

722  804 

1  208  082 

Printing  cotton  and  woollen  goods 

5 

600 

280 

789 

1024400 

868  629 

4,359653 

5  005  997 

Saddlery  and  harness 

170 

25 

1  213 

694  610 

460  716 

859  880 

1  782805 

Sash,  doors,  and  blinds  

79 

1,245 

51 

1  210 

1,246700 

682  585 

1  049  425 

2,160,795 

Silk  goods  not  specified  

15 

182 

144 

1  652 

1  259  000 

404609 

1  327  258 

2  212  394 

"    sewin"  and  twist 

15 

243 

106 

1  188 

919  500 

232  227 

1  857  917 

2815270 

Soap  and  candles  

21 

195 

395 

1,170  700 

184,884 

1  281  820 

1,606,234 

Steel,  cast  

4 

940 

40 

293 

500  000 

190  000 

578  310 

1  401  773 

"     springs 

6 

155 

158 

287  600 

88697 

251  481 

446  109 

Stone  and  earthen  ware  

80 

394 

10 

1206 

1,175,800 

448,025 

372,668 

1,106,985 

Tin,  copper,  and  sheet-iron  ware  

143 

18 

759 

738  196 

848563 

878885 

1  667  020 

Trunks,  valises,  and  satchels 

13 

251 

1  350 

757400 

771150 

1  575  805 

8  798  000 

Woollen  goods.  .  .  . 

27 

627 

461 

1.090 

1.169.200 

334.442 

1.209.316 

1.896.S25 

The  mining  interests  of  New  Jersey  are  impor- 
tant. The  number  of  establishments  in  1870 
was  49;  capital,  $2,501,700;  annual  produc- 
tions, $2,554,475,  including  iron  ore  valued  at 
$2,025,497,  slate  $17,338,  stone  $411,640,  and 
zinc  $100,000.  The  products  of  mines,  quarries, 
and  clay  banks  in  1873  were  valued  at  $5,000,- 
000.  The  fisheries  in  the  neighboring  waters 
are  a  source  of  great  profit,  only  five  other 
states  exceeding  it  in  this  respect  according  to 
the  census  of  1870.  There  were  947  hands  and 
$231,231  employee!,  and  the  total  value  of  pro- 
ducts was  $374,912,  including  oysters  valued  at 
$152,350. — New  Jersey  is  divided  into  six  cus- 
toms districts,  of  which  the  ports  of  entry  are 
Newark,  Perth  Amboy,  Tnckerton  (district  of 
Little  Egg  Harbor),  Great  Egg  Harbor,  Bridge- 
ton,  and  Lamberton  (district  of  Burlington). 
The  direct  foreign  trade  is  carried  on  chiefly  at 
Newark,  where  during  the  year  ending  June 


30, 1874,  the  imports  amounted  to  $10,403  and 
the  domestic  exports  to  $8,387,  and  Perth  Am- 
boy, where  the  imports  were  $35,458  and  the 
exports  $5,747.  A  portion  of  the  northern 
part  of  the  state  is  in  the  district  of  New  York, 
and  much  of  the  foreign  trade  passes  through 
Philadelphia.  The  movement  of  vessels  in  the 
coastwise  trade,  and  the  number  registered, 
enrolled,  and  licensed,  were  as  follows : 


DISTRICTS. 

ENTERED. 

CLEARED. 

REGISTERED,  &C. 

No. 

Tons. 

No. 

Tons. 

No. 

Tons. 

•Newark  
Perth  Amboy  
Little  Egg  Harbor. 
Great  Egg  Harbor. 
Bridgeton. 

53 

57 

'9 

18.158 
11,572 

46 

84 

11.537 

7,733 

187 

892 
67 
181 
885 
62 

12,059 
35,407 
6.224 
15,397 

17,843 
7,752 

1,504 

2 

269 

1 

94 

Total  

120 

26,323 

82 

19,544 

1,124 

94,689 

NEW  JERSEY 


307 


Ship  building  is  carried  on  in  all  of  these  dis- 
tricts, there  having  been  75  vessels  of  8,302 
tons  built  in  1873. — By  the  free  railroad  law 
passed  in  April,  1873,  monopoly  is  abolished, 
and  railroads  may  now  be  built  in  all  parts 
of  the  state  under  a  general  law.  Among 


the  states,  only  Massachusetts  and  Connecticut 
have  more  railroads  in  proportion  to  territory 
than  New  Jersey.  This  state  had  186  m.  in  1845, 
466  in  1855,  864  in  1865,  1,125  in  1870,  and 
1,267  in  1874.  The  different  lines  in  operation 
in  1874,  with  their  termini  and  lengths,  were : 


RAILROADS. 

TERMINI. 

Milei  in 
operation  in 
the  state 
in  1874. 

From 

To 

Bridgeton  ai 
Cainden  and 
Branch  . 

id  Port  Morris 

Bridgeton  

Port  Morris 

20 
60 
7 
75 
5 
7 
16 
81 
6 
23 
20 
14 
11 
15 
28 
5 
6 
84 
84 
13 
6 
21 
74 
70 
10 
.     7 
18 
9 
46 
13 
10 
24 
7 
81 
56 
61 
6 
8 
7 
5 

0 

6      • 

08 
24 
7 
6 
3 
12 
14 
22 
28 
87 
22 
41 
17 
11 

Atlantic 

Cooper's  Point 

Atlantic  Citv 

Egg  Harbor  

May's  Landing. 

Central  of  N 
Branches. 
Erie 

ew  Jersey. 

Jersey  City  

Phillipsburg  

Elizabeth 

I  Newark  and  Elizabeth 

Newark  . 

•<  Newark  and  New  York  
(  South  Branch.          .                   ... 

Newark 

Somerville  

Fleinington  
Dunkirk,  N  Y 

Jersey  City 

Leased... 

Freehold  am 
Hibernia  Mil 
Jersey  City 

Leased  by  1 
Lackawan 
Western 

Newark  and  Hudson  

Bergen  Tunnel  

Newark  . 

New  Jersey  and  New  York  

Erie  Junction  

Spring  Valley 

Bergen 

Nyack  N  Y 

Paterson  and  Hudson  River  

Jersey  City  

Paterson 

Paterson  and  Newark 

Paterson. 

Newark 

Paterson  and  Rainapo  

Paterson  

Ramapo 

1  Jamesburg      

Jamesburg  

Sea-Girt 

Hibernia  Mine 

Morris  and  Essex  railroad  .  .  . 
Bergen  Point  

ind  Bergen.          ....        ...           ... 

Jersey  City  
Phillipsburg  .               

i  Morris  and  Essex  
Branch 

Hoboken 

Denville 

Chester  

Dover  

Chester  

Newark  and  Bloomfield 

Newark 

Montclair 

New  Jersey 
New  Jersey 

Branches. 

Warren 

Clarksville 

Delaware  river  
Union  ville  . 

Midland  .   .. 

Jersey  City.  ... 

Southern 

Sandy  Hook 

Atsion 

Eatontown  

Port  Monmouth  
Toms  River  

Manchester  

:  1 

Whitings  
Atsion           

Pemberton  Junction  
Atco 

Atsion  

Bayside  

Ogden  Mine 
Sussex 

•  i 

Toms  River  

Nolan's  Point               

Barnegat  Junction  
Ogden  Mine  

Waterloo  

Franklin 

Branch  .  .  . 
Tuckerton 

Branchville 

Whitings 

Tuckerton          .             

United  Kaili 
Branches. 

Leased..  - 

West  Jersey 

Cape  May  ai 
Salem 

i 

Jersey  City  

Trenton  

•oad  Companies  of  New  Jersey  •< 

South  Amboy        

Camden  

Junction 

Perth  Amboy 

East  Millstone 

Monmouth  Junction  
Monmouth  Junction  

Rocky  Hill  

1 

1 

r  Belvidere  Delaware 

Jamesburg  

Trenton  .                        .... 

Bordentown  

Trenton 

Manunka  Chunk 

Branch  .                                     .... 

Mount  Holly 

Burlington  
Medford      

Mount  Holly 

u 

Junction.  .  .        .  .         

Vincent  

Flemington 

Lambertville 

Flemington  

Kinkora  Division 

Near  Pemberton 

Mercer  and  Somerset  

Somerset  Junction 

Millstone  

Pemberton  and  Hightstown 

Hightstown  

Camden  

Bridgeton  .  .  f  

id  Millville 

Glassboro 

Millville  

Millville 

Cape  May.  .  . 

Elmer 

Salem              

Swedesboro 

Woodburv... 

Swedesboro  

The  Morris  canal  extends  from  Jersey  City 
to  Phillipsburg,  101  m.,  and  has  a  large  busi- 
ness in  conveying  coal  from  Pennsylvania  to 
New  York.  The  Delaware  and  Raritan  canal 
connects  Trenton  on  the  Delaware  with  New 
Brunswick  on  the  Raritan,  43  m.,  and  has  a 
feeder  22  m.  long,  from  Bull's  Island  (Dela- 
ware river)  to  Trenton.  In  1874  the  state 
contained  62  national  banks,  with  a  paid-in 
capital  of  $13,908,350  and  an  outstanding  cir- 
culation of  $11,092,810,  being  $12  24  per 
capita,  1-1  per  cent,  of  the  wealth  of  the  state, 
and  79-8  per  cent,  of  the  bank  capital.— The 


present  constitution  of  New  Jersey  was  adopted 
in  August,  1844,  and  came  into  operation  Sept. 
2.  It  secures  the  right  of  voting  to  every 
white  male  citizen  of  the  United  States  21 
years  of  age,  who  has  resided  in  the  state  one 
year  and  in  the  county  five  months  next  pre- 
ceding the  election.  The  general  election  is 
held  annually  on  the  first  Tuesday  after  the 
first  Monday  in  November,  and  all  votes  are 
taken  by  ballot.  The  legislature  consists  of  a 
senate  of  21  members,  one  from  each  county, 
elected  for  three  years,  one  third  every  year, 
and  an  assembly  of  60  representatives  elected 


308 


NEW  JERSEY 


annually.  The  legislature  meets  annually  on 
the  second  Tuesday  in  January.  A  majority 
of  each  house  is  sufficient  to  pass  a  bill  over 
the  governor's  veto.  The  chief  executive  offi- 
cers are  the  governor  (salary  $5,000),  elected 
by  the  people  for  three  years;  secretary  of 
state  (salary  $200  and  fees),  appointed  l?y  the 
governor  with  the  advice  of  the  senate,  and  ex 
officio  auditor  of  accounts;  treasurer  (salary 
$4,000),  elected  by  the  legislature  on  joint  bal- 
lot for  one  year ;  comptroller  (salary  $4,000)  ; 
and  the  superintendent  of  schools  (salary 
$2,000),  appointed  by  the  state  board  of  edu- 
cation. Senators  and  representatives  receive 
during  the  session  of  the  legislature  $3  a  day 
for  the  first  40  days,  and  $1  50  a  day  afterward. 
The  judiciary  consists  of  a  court  of  errors 
and  appeals,  court  of  chancery,  supreme  court, 
courts  of  common  pleas,  orphans'  courts,  courts 
of  general  quarter  sessions  of  the  peace,  circuit 
courts,  and  courts  of  oyer  and  terminer.  The 
court  of  errors  and  appeals  is  composed  of  the 
chancellor,  the  judges  of  the  supreme  court, 
and  six  other  judges  appointed  by  the  governor. 
It  has  appellate  jurisdiction  only,  and  is  the 
last  court  of  resort.  Three  terms  are  held  an- 
nually in  Trenton.  The  governor,  chancellor, 
and  six  judges  of  this  court  constitute  the  par- 
doning power.  The  chancellor  is  appointed  by 
the  governor  and  senate  for  seven  years,  and 
holds  a  court  of  chancery  three  times  annually 
in  Trenton ;  salary  $5,500  and  fees.  There  is 
also  a  vice  chancellor,  whose  annual  salary  is 
$5,000.  The  court  of  chancery  has  jurisdic- 
tion over  all  cases  in  equity,  and  exclusive 
original  jurisdiction  in  divorce  cases.  The 
supreme  court  consists  of  seven  justices,  ap- 
pointed for  seven  years  from  each  of  the  seven 
judicial  districts.  They  hold  circuit  courts 
and  courts  of  oyer  and  terminer  three  times  a 
year  in  each  county,  and  are  ex  officiis  judges 
of  the  court  of  common  pleas,  orphans'  court, 
and  court  of  general  quarter  sessions  of  the 
peace  of  the  several  counties.  They  receive 
salaries  of  $5,000  each,  except  t"he  chief  jus- 
tice, who  receives  $5,200.  Three  terms  of  the 
supreme  court  are  held  annually  in  Trenton. 
Judges  of  common  pleas,  not  exceeding  three 
in  each  county,  are  also  appointed  by  the  legis- 
lature for  five  years,  and  hold  court  three  times 
a  year  in  each  county.  Sheriffs,  coroners,  and 
justices  of  the  peace  are  elected  by  the  peo- 
ple. Justices  of  the  peace  have  jurisdiction  in 
certain  civil  suits  where  the  amount  in  contro- 
versy does  not  exceed  $100.  The  property  of 
a  woman  married  after  March  25,  1852,  which 
she  owns  at  the  time  of  marriage,  continues 
her  separate  property,  free  from  the  control  of 
her  husband  or  liability  for  his  debts.  If  over 
21  years  of  age,  she  may  make  a  will,  which 
must  not  however  dispose  of  any  interest  to 
which  her  husband  would  be  entitled  by  law 
at  her  death.  If  living  with  her  husband,  she 
cannot  convey  her  property  without  his  con- 
currence. The  grounds  for  divorce  are  adul- 
tery and  desertion  for  three  years.  Aliens 


may  bold  real  estate.  New  Jersey  is  repre- 
sented in  congress  by  seven  representatives 
and  two  senators,  and  has  therefore  nine  votes 
in  the  electoral  college. — The  state  debt  was 
contracted  during  the  war,  chiefly  for  the  sup- 
port of  families  of  volunteers,  and  amounted 
in  1874  to  about  $2,500,000.  It  is  represented 
by  bonds  of  which  about  $100,000  fall  due  an- 
nually. The  payment  of  principal  and  interest 
is  met  by  tax  and  the  income  of  the  sinking 
fund.  The  amount  of  money  received  and  dis- 
bursed by  the  state  treasury  during  the  year 
ending  Nov.  1,  1874,  was  as  follows : 


FUNDS. 

Receipts. 

Disbursements. 

State  fund 

$1,707,141  68 

$1,618,416  54 

War  fund 

288884  55 

286247  25 

School  fund  (including  state 
school  tax)        

1,363  547  20 

1,352.431  00 

Agricultural  college  fund  
State  library  fund 

6,960  00 
8,550  00 

6,960  00 
1,211  87 

Total 

$3  865  083  43 

$3  265  266  16 

The  chief  expenditures  from  the  state  fund 
included,  besides  smaller  items,  the  following : 

Northern  New  Jersey  lunatic  asylum $603,000  00 

Loans 200.000  00 

Printing 113,898  34 

State  militia 77,066  35 

Legislature 65,257  93 

Salaries  of  judiciary 60,880  96 

Salaries  of  state  prison 51,954  25 

Salaries  and  fees 46,488  30 

Public  schools 85,000  00 

Appropriation  to  state  reform  school 84,500  00 

Lunatic  asylum 34,112  26 

Transportation  and  costs 83,691  73 

State  industrial  school 23,000  00 

Pensions 21,865  73 

State  house  extension 20,000  00 

State  house  expenses 17,000  19 

Support  of  deaf  and  dumb 16,283  21 

Normal  school 15,000  00 

Support  of  blind 14,260  11 

According  to  the  federal  census,  the  total  as- 
sessed value  of  property  in  1860  was  $296,- 
682,492,  and  in  1870  it  was  $624,868,971,  in- 
cluding $448,832,127  real  and  $176,036,844 
personal  estate.  The  total  taxable  valuation 
was  returned  by  the  state  authorities  at  $603,- 
665,497  in  1872,  and  $612,796,106  in  1873.  In 
1874  the  personal  property  was  valued  at  $117,- 
431,284;  real  estate,  $359,357,510 ;  total,  $619,- 
057,903.  Upon  the  total  valuation  of  the  state 
there  is  levied  a  general  tax  of  one  and  a  half 
mill  and  a  school  tax  of  two  mills  per  dollar. 
Railroad  corporations  are  taxed  one  quarter 
of  one  per  cent,  on  the  value  of  their  roads, 
equipments,  &c.  New  Jersey  has  heretofore 
made  no  provision  for  the  education  of  its 
deaf  and  dumb,  blind,  or  feeble-minded;  but 
about  $40,000  is  annually  expended  by  the 
state  for  their  support  in  the  institutions  of 
other  states.  In  1873  a  committee  appointed 
pursuant  to  an  act  of  the  legislature,  to  inquire 
into  the  condition  and  needs  of  these  defec- 
tive classes,  reported  that  there  were  in  the 
state  not  fewer  than  500  deaf  and  dumb,  about 
600  blind,  and  more  than  1,000  feeble-minded, 
and  recommended  the  establishment  of  a  state 
institution  for  the  education  of  each  class. 


NEW  JERSEY 


309 


There  are  two  institutions  for  the  care  of  the 
insane.  The  lunatic  asylum  in  Trenton  was 
opened  in  1848,  since  which  time  4,588  patients 
have  been  treated.  During  the  year  ending 
Nov.  1,  1874,  840  were  under  treatment.  Of 
the  655  in  the  asylum  at  the  close  of  the  year, 
106  were  supported  by  their  friends,  21  by  the 
state,  arid  528  by  counties.  In  1875  an  addition- 
al asylum  for  the  insane  was  nearly  completed 
at  Morristown,  and  is  one  of  the  largest  institu- 
tions of  the  kind  in  the  United  States,  having  ac- 
commodations for  about  1,000  patients.  (See 
MOERISTOWN.)  Prior  to  1870,  $60,000  was  an- 
nually appropriated  by  the  legislature  for  the 
maintenance  of  convicts  in  the  state  prison  at 
Trenton ;  but  since  that  time  the  institution 
has  been  a  source  of  income  to  the  state. 
During  the  year  ending  Nov.  1, 1874,  the  earn- 
ings were  $104,042,  including  $101,814  from 
convict  labor,  and  the  expenses  $58,807,  leav- 
ing a  net  gain,  not  including  officers'  salaries 
(about  $30,000),  of  $45,334.  The  whole  num- 
ber in  confinement  during  the  year  was  1,025 ; 
at  the  end  of  the  year,  653.  The  state  reform 
school  at  Jamesburg  was  opened  in  1867,  and 
on  Nov.  1,  1874,  had  184  inmates ;  the  total 
number  during  the  year  was  298.  They  are 
chiefly  employed  in  making  chairs  and  shoes 
and  in  farm  labor.  The  state  industrial  school 
for  girls  is  near  Trenton,  and  in  1874  had  19 
inmates.  A  home  for  disabled  soldiers  is  sup- 
ported by  the  state  at  Newark,  in  which  1,365 
beneficiaries  were  cared  for  in  1874;  and  a 
soldiers'  children's  home  at  Trenton,  which 
had  150  inmates  at  the  close  of  1874. — Prior 
to  April,  1871,  New  Jersey  had  no  free  school 
system,  but  its  schools  were  then  made  free. 
The  tax  for  school  purposes  is  now  assessed 
and  collected  by  the  state  instead  of  the  town- 
ships, and  the  funds  are  apportioned  among 
the  different  districts  according  to  the  school 
population.  Every  district  is  required  to  main- 
tain a  school  for  at  least  nine  months  in  the 
year,  or  forfeit  its  share  of  the  apportionment. 
The  permanent  school  fund  amounts  to  $857,- 
426.  The  amount  of  the  income  from  this 
fund  that  is  devoted  to  schools  is  determined 
by  the  legislature,  and  is  now  $35,000  annu- 
ally; the  remainder  of  the  income  goes  to  in- 
crease the  principal.  In  1871  the  state  gave 
to  the  free  school  fund  the  proceeds  of  sales 
and  rentals  of  all  riparian  lands  lying  be- 
tween high  and  low  water  marks,  and  chiefly 
in  and  near  the  harbor  of  New  York  on  the 
New  Jersey  shore.  These  lands  will  add  to 
this  fund  not  less  than  $5,000,000,  and  pos- 
sibly $10,000,000.  The  sources  and  amount 
of  the  funds  for  the  support  of  the  schools 
for  the  year  ending  Aug.  31,  1874,  were :  1, 
the  two-mill  state  tax,  which  amounted  to 
$1,225,592 ;  2,  additional  state  appropriation, 
including  the  income  of  the  school  fund, 
$100,000 ;  3,  interest  of  the  surplus  revenue, 
$31,573  ;  4,  township  tax,  $23,834 ;  5,  district 
and  city  tax  for  teachers'  salaries,  $311,161 ; 
total,  $1,691,160,  besides  $613,238  derived  from 


district  and  city  taxation  for  building  and  re- 
pairing school  houses.  The  more  immediate 
supervision  of  the  schools  is  vested  in  a  state 
superintendent  and  county  superintendents, 
all  of  whom  are  appointed  by  the  state  board 
of  education.  County  superintendents  are  au- 
thorized to  hold  examinations  and  grant  cer- 
tificates to  teachers.  A  law  forbidding  cor- 
poral punishment  in  schools  was  enacted  in 
1867.  The  condition  of  the  public  schools  for 
the  year  ending  Aug.  31, 1874,  was  as  follows : 

Number  of  school  districts 1,869 

"      buildings 1,498 

"      departments 2,835 

Capacity  of  public  schools 155,152 

Number  of  unsectarian  private  schools 253 

"      of  sectarian  private  schools 101 

"      of  persons  between  5  and  18  years  old  .  298,000 

"      enrolled  in  public  schools  (63  per  cent.).  186,392 

Average  attendance  (52  per  cent.) 96,224 

Attendance  upon  private  schools  (12  per  cent.)  .  86,527 

Number  not  attending  school  (25  per  cent.) 71,895 

Average  time  schools  kept  open 9  mos.  12  days. 

Number  of  male  teachers  in  public  schools 960 

Average  wages  per  month $65  77 

Number  of  female  teachers 2,256 

Average  wages $88  00 

Total  amount  appropriated  for  schools  ($1,691,160 
for  maintenance  and  $618.238  for  building 

and  repairing  school  houses) $2,304,898 

Valuation  of  school  property $6,000,782 

Average  annual  cost  of  education  per  pupil  ac- 
cording to  school  population $5  67 

According  to  average  attendance $17  57 

In  several  of  the  manufacturing  cities  and 
towns  evening  schools  are  maintained  for  adults 
and  others  unable  to  attend  the  day  schools. 
There  is  an  institution  for  training  teachers 
at  Trenton,  comprising  a  normal  school  and  a 
model  school.  There  are  two  courses  of  study 
in  the  former,  one  of  two  and  one  of  three 
years.  In  1873-'4  there  were  12  instructors 
and  269  pupils  in  the  normal,  and  17  instructors 
and  443  pupils  in  the  model  school.  The  Farn- 
ham  school  at  Beverly,  which  is  aided  by  the 
state,  serves  as  a  preparatory  institution  for 
the  normal  school.  Since  1871  the  state  has 
supported  a  free  library  system  in  the  public 
schools  by  extending  aid  to  such  districts  as 
raise  funds  for  this  purpose,  and  nearly  400  free 
school  libraries  have  been  established  and  re- 
ceive annual  aid  from  the  state. — New  Jer- 
sey has  four  colleges  :  the  college  of  New  Jer- 
sey (evangelical  Protestant),  in  Princeton  (see 
PRINCETON)  ;  Rutgers  (Reformed  Dutch),  in 
New  Brunswick;  Seton  Hall  (Roman  Cath- 
olic), in  South  Orange ;  and  Burlington  college 
(Protestant  Episcopal),  in  Burlington.  Rut- 
gers college,  organized  in  1770,  has  a  classi- 
cal department  with  a  four  years'  course,  and 
a  scientific  department  with  courses  in  civil 
engineering  and  mechanics,  in  chemistry  and 
agriculture,  and  a  special  course  in  chemistry. 
The  scientific  department  of  this  institution 
has  been  designated  by  the  legislature  as  the 
state  college  of  agriculture  and  the  mechanic 
arts,  and  is  therefore  entitled  to  New  Jersey's 
share  of  the  national  grant  of  lands  made  for 
this  purpose  by  congress  in  1862  ;  and  40  state 
students  are  educated  in  this  department  free 
of  expense  for  tuition.  An  extensive  model 


310 


NEW  JERSEY 


farm  is  connected  with  it.  Several  funds  have 
been  established  for  the  aid  of  indigent  stu- 
dents and  to  afford  prizes  for  excellence  in 
scholarship.  In  1874- '5  there  were  14  in- 
structors and  188  students,  including  62  in  the 
scientific  department.  Seton  Hall  college  was 
founded  in  1856  at  Madison,  and  removed  to 
South  Orange  in  1860.  It  affords  collegiate, 
ecclesiastical,  and  commercial  courses.  In 
1873-'4  there  were  13  instructors  and  129  stu- 
dents in  the  collegiate  department,  and  4  in- 
structors and  33  students  in  the  ecclesiastical 
seminary.  Burlington  college,  organized  in 
1846,  has  a  collegiate  and  a  preparatory  course. 
In  1874-'5  there  were  11  instructors  and  59  stu- 
dents. Instruction  in  theology  is  afforded  by 
Drew  theological  seminary  (Methodist),  opened 
in  1867  at  Madison,  and  having  in  1874-'5 
9  instructors,  9  lecturers,  127  students,  a  li- 
brary of  12,000  volumes,  and  productive  funds 
amounting  to  $250,000 ;  the  theological  semi- 
nary of  the  Presbyterian  church  in  Princeton, 
organized  in  1812,  and  having  in  1874-'5  7  in- 
structors and  97  students;  the  German  theo- 
logical school  (Presbyterian)  at  Bloomfield,  or- 
ganized in  1869,  and  having  in  1874-'5  5  in- 
structors and  24  students ;  and  the  theological 
seminary  of  the  Reformed  (Dutch)  church  in 
America  at  New  Brunswick,  organized  in  1810, 
and  having  in  1874-'o  4  professors  and  39  stu- 
dents. The  last  named  is  the  chief  training 
school  in  the  United  States  for  the  ministry  of 
that  denomination.  It  is  substantially  a  theo- 
logical department  of  Rutgers  college,  as  the 
Princeton  seminary  is  of  the  college  of  New 
Jersey.  The  schools  of  science,  besides  that  of 
Rutgers  college,  are  the  Stevens  institute  of 
technology  at  Hoboken,  one  of  the  leading 
institutions  of  the  kind  in  the  United  States 
(see  HOBOKEN),  and  the  John  0.  Green  school 
of  science,  connected  with  the  college  of  New 
Jersey  (see  PRINCETON).  The  state  has  no 
medical  or  law  school.  There  is  a  business 
college  in  Trenton  and  one  in  Newark,  and 
New  Brunswick  has  a  conservatory  of  music. 
The  chief  institutions  for  the  superior  in- 
struction of  females  are  St.  Mary's  hall,  Bur- 
lington;  the  female  college  at  Bordentown; 
Ivy  hall,  Bridgeton;  Trinity  hall,  Beverly; 
and  the  seminary  and  female  collegiate  insti- 
tute at  Pennington.  St.  Mary's  hall  (Prot- 
estant Episcopal)  in  1874  had  28  instructors 
and  200  students. — According  to  the  census 
of  1870,  there  were  in  the  state  1,893  schools 
of  all  classes,  including  1,531  public,  13  clas- 
sical, professional,  and  technical,  278  day  and 
boarding,  and  71  parochial  and  charity.  The 
total  number  of  teachers  in  all  was  3,889, 
and  of  pupils,  129,800.  The  total  income  was 
$2,982,250,  including  $49,000  from  endowment, 
$1,499,550  from  taxation  and  public  funds,  and 
$1,433,700  from  other  sources,  including  tui- 
tion. The  total  number  of  libraries  in  1870 
was  2,413,  containing  895,291  volumes;  777 
with  359,612  volumes  were  private,  and  1,636 
with  535,679  volumes  other  than  private, 


including  14  circulating  libraries  with  75,250 
volumes.  The  most  important  libraries  are 
those  of  the  college  of  New  Jersey,  which  has 
28,000  volumes;  the  theological  seminary  in 
Princeton,  25,000;  Newark  library  associa- 
tion, 21,000  ;  the  theological  seminary  in  New 
Brunswick,  20,000;  and  the  state  library  in 
Trenton.  The  total  number  of  newspapers  and 
periodicals  reported  by  the  census  of  1870  was 
122,  with  a  circulation  of  205,500  copies,  and 
an  annual  issue  of  18,625,740.  There  were  20 
daily,  circulation  38,030;  95  weekly,  120,670; 
and  7  monthly,  46,800.  In  1874  there  were  20 
daily,  3  semi- weekly,  132  weekly,  1  bi-weekly, 
and  10  monthly ;  total,  166.  The  total  num- 
ber of  religious  organizations  was  1,402,  having 
1,384  edifices  with  573,303  sittings,  and  prop- 
erty valued  at  $18,347,150.  The  leading  de- 
nominations were  represented  as  follows : 


DENOMINATIONS. 

Organiza- 
tions. 

Edifices. 

Sittings. 

Property. 

Baptist,  regular  
"       other 

164 
4 

164 
4 

61,913 
1  200 

$2,376,400 
20500 

Christian  

10 

10 

8,430 

54,000 

Congregational  
Episcopal,  Protestant. 

14 
128 
63 

9 
122 
63 

5,050 
84,800 

28  750 

885,500 
2,586,000 
448450 

Jewish  

1 

1 

300 

8000 

Lutheran 

19 

19 

6,750 

111500 

Methodist 

518 

518 

196  860 

4498  650 

Moravian         (Unitas 
Fratrum)  

4 

4 

1,300 

16500 

New  Jerusalem  (Swe- 

6 

5000 

Presbyterian,  regular, 
other... 
Reformed   church   in 
America   (late    Re- 
formed Dutch)  
Reformed    church   in 
the    United    States 
(late    German    Re- 
formed)   

250 
1 

97 
6 

250 
1 

99 
6 

127,700 
500 

54,800 
1,800 

3,616,025 
7,000 

2,540,825 
17.000 

Roman  Catholic  
Spiritualist 

107 

2 

107 
2 

45,400 
800 

1,590,000 
8300 

Unitarian  

1 

1 

400 

10,000 

Universalist  

5 

2 

1,100 

103,000 

Unknown  (union)  

2 

2 

450 

4,500 

— The  precise  date  of  the  first  settlement  of 
New  Jersey  is  not  ascertained.  The  earliest 
colony  was  probably  planted  at  Bergen,  be- 
tween 1617  and  1620,  by  the  Dutch  of  New 
Amsterdam,  who  claimed  the  whole  country 
as  a  part  of  New  Netherland.  In  1623  a  Dutch 
company  under  Oornelis  Jacobson  Mey  and 
Adriaen  Jorisz  built  Fort  Nassau  on  the  E. 
shore  of  the  Delaware,  a  few  miles  below 
the  present  site  of  Philadelphia.  Sir  Edmund 
Ployden  obtained  a  grant  of  the  country  on 
the  Delaware  from  the  king  of  England  in 
1634,  and  called  it  New  Albion ;  and  in  1638 
a  small  party  of  Swedes  and  Finns  purchased 
land  in  the  same  region  from  the  natives,  and 
planted  several  settlements.  The  Dutch  and 
Swedes  afterward  drove  out  the  English  colo- 
nists, and  in  1655  the  Dutch  under  Peter  Stuy- 
vesant,  governor  of  New  Netherland,  dispos- 
sessed the  Swedes  and  sent  most  of  them  back 
to  Europe.  In  1664  Charles  II.  of  England, 
disregarding  the  claims  of  both  parties,  grant- 
ed all  the  territory  between  the  Delaware 


NEW  JERSEY 


311 


and  Connecticut  rivers  to  his  brother  the  duke 
of  York,  and  sent  an  expedition  to  take  pos- 
session of  it.  New  Amsterdam  was  first  con- 
quered, the  New  Jersey  settlements  at  once 
submitted,  and  under  the  authority  of  Nicholls, 
the  commander  of  •  the  expedition  and  first 
governor,  a  patent  was  granted  to  immigrants 
from  Long  Island  and  New  England.  Eliza- 
bethtown,  Newark,  Middletown,  and  Shrews- 
bury were  now  founded.  In  the  mean  time, 
however,  the  duke  of  York  had  sold  his  claim 
to  Lord  Berkeley  and  Sir  George  Carteret; 
they  named  the  tract  New  Jersey  in  honor 
of  Sir  George,  who  had  been  governor  of  the 
island  of  Jersey,  and  had  held  it  for  King 
Charles  in  his  contest  with  the  parliament. 
They  formed  a  constitution  for  the  colony,  and 
in  1665  sent  out  Philip  Carteret,  brother  of 
Sir  George,  as  governor.  He  fixed  the  seat  of 
government  at  Elizabethtown ;  but  his  admin- 
istration was  unpopular,  and  in  1670  the  peo- 
ple revolted  and  chose  James  Carteret,  an  ille- 
gitimate son  of  Sir  George,  for  their  governor. 
Philip  Carteret,  however,  obtained  several  con- 
cessions and  promises  from  the  proprietors, 
which  induced  the  people  to  submit  again  to 
his  authority.  The  first  legislative  assembly 
of  New  Jersey,  which  had  been  held  under  his 
proclamation  in  May,  1668,  passed  a  bill  of 
pains  and  penalties  remarkable  for  its  extreme 
severity,  the  punishment  of  death  being  assign- 
ed for  no  fewer  than  12  offences.  In  March, 
1673,  Berkeley  sold  his  interest  in  the  proprie- 
torship to  John  Fen  wick  and  Edward  By  Hinge, 
Quakers.  In  July  of  the  same  year  the  Dutch 
recaptured  New  York,  and  the  surrounding 
country,  including  the  whole  province  of  New 
Jersey,  at  once  fell  into  their  hands.  New 
Jersey  was  called  by  them  Achter  Kol.  It  re- 
verted to  Great  Britain  by  the  treaty  of  1674, 
and  the  question  now  arose  whether  the  title 
returned  to  the  proprietors  or  the  king.  To 
avoid  all  difficulty,  the  king  recognized  the 
claim  of  Carteret,  and  made  a  new  grant  to 
the  duke  of  York,  who  also  executed  a  fresh 
conveyance  to  Carteret,  covering  however  only 
a  part  of  the  original  territory  of  New  Jersey. 
But  before  making  this  conveyance,  the  duke 
had  included  the  province  in  a  commission 

?'ven  to  Sir  Edmund  Andros,  governor  of  New 
ork,  who  refused  to  recognize  the  authority 
as  governor  of  Philip  Carteret,  arrested  all 
magistrates  who  would  not  submit  to  his  own 
jurisdiction,  and  finally,  on  April  30,  1680,  car- 
ried Carteret  himself  prisoner  to  New  York. 
The  duke  was  at  last  prevailed  upon  to  ac- 
knowledge the  claims  of  the  proprietors,  and 
in  1681  the  government  of  Andros  came  to  an 
end.  In  the  mean  time  Fen  wick  and  Byllinge, 
to  whom  Berkeley  had  sold  his  share  in  the 
province,  conveyed  an  interest  in  it  to  William 
Penn  and  two  other  Quakers,  Garven  Lawrie 
and  Nicholas  Lucas ;  and  Fenwick  in  1675  es- 
tablished a  Quaker  settlement  at  Salem,  near 
the  Delaware.  He  claimed  authority  as  chief 
proprietor  over  all  that  part  of  New  Jersey  S. 


W.  of  a  line  drawn  from  Little  Egg  harbor  to 
a  point  on  the  Delaware  in  lat.  41°  N. ;  and  the 
province  continued  for  some  years  to  be  divi- 
ded into  East  Jersey,  subject  to  Sir  George  Car- 
teret and  his  heirs,  and  West  Jersey,  under  Fen- 
wick  and  his  associates.  In  February,  1 682,  the 
whole  territory  was  purchased  by  William  Penn 
and  11  other  Quakers.  The  first  governor  un- 
der the  new  proprietors  was  Robert  Barclay, 
a  Scotchman,  and  one  of  the  12  purchasers, 
under  whom  the  country  became  an  asylum 
for  the  oppressed  members  of  his  creed,  and 
for  a  time  enjoyed  great  prosperity.  But  the 
number  of  proprietors,  the  frequent  subdivi- 
sions and  transfers  of  shares,  and  various  oth- 
er difficulties  in  the  way  of  good  government, 
soon  involved  the  province  in  trouble  ;  and  in 
1702  the  proprietors  surrendered  the  rights  of 
government  to  the  crown.  Queen  Anne  ap- 
pointed Lord  Cornbury  governor  of  New  York 
and  New  Jersey,  but  each  continued  to  have  a 
separate  assembly.  In  1708  New  Jersey  peti- 
tioned for  a  distinct  administration,  and  Lewis 
Morris  was  appointed  governor.  The  popula- 
tion was  then  about  40,000.  Until  the  revolu- 
tion New  Jersey  was  the  scene  of  no  impor- 
tant event,  and  it  was  never  much  exposed  to 
the  ravages  of  the  Indians.  The  last  royal 
governor  was  William  Franklin,  the  natural 
son  of  Benjamin  Franklin.  A  state  constitu- 
tion was  adopted  in  1776,  and  throughout  the 
revolution  the  country  was  frequently  the  the- 
atre of  war.  The  battles  of  Trenton,  Prince- 
ton, Millstone,  Red  Bank,  and  Monmouth  were 
fought  on  its  soil.  The  first  legislature  met 
at  Princeton  in  August,  1776,  and  chose  Wil- 
liam Livingston  governor.  The  federal  consti- 
tution was  adopted  by  a  unanimous  vote,  Dec. 
18,  1787.  The  state  capital  was  established 
at  Trenton  in  1790.  The  present  constitution 
was  ratified  Aug.  13,  1844.  In  the  summer  of 
1873  a  board  of  14  commissioners  appointed  by 
the  governor  agreed  upon  certain  amendments 
to  the  constitution.  Several  of  these  were  ap- 
proved by  the  legislature  of  1874;  but  before 
becoming  a  part  of  the  constitution  they  must 
be  approved  by  the  legislature  of  1875  and  be 
ratified  by  the  people  at  a  special  election  held 
within  four  months  after  the  dissolution,  of 
the  legislature.  New  Jersey  furnished  79,511 
troops  to  the  federal  army  during  the  civil 
war,  or  55,785  reduced  to  a  three  years'  stan- 
dard. The  legislature  of  1870  refused  to  rati- 
fy the  fifteenth  amendment  to  the  federal  con- 
stitution, on  the  ground  that  the  right  to  regu- 
late suffrage  was  vested  in  the  respective  states. 
The  first  geological  survey  of  New  Jersey  was 
made  in  1839-'40  under  the  direction  of  Prof. 
Henry  D.  Rogers.  A  second  survey  was  begun 
in  1854  by  Dr.  William  Kitchell,  but  was  dis- 
continued in  1856.  The  work  was  resumed 
in  1864,  with  Prof.  George  H.  Cook  as  state 
geologist,  and  is  still  (1875)  in  progress.  The 
results  obtained  up  to  1868  are  given  in  the 
"Geology  of  New  Jersey,"  published  in  1868; 
and  annual  reports  have  since  been  published. 


312 


NEW  JERSEY 


NEW  LEBANON 


NEW  JERSEY,  College  of.     See  PRINCETON. 

NEW  JERSEY  TEA,  the  most  common  name 
for  ceanothus  Americanus,  which  is  also  called, 
in  common  with  several  other  plants,  red-root. 
The  genus  ceanothus  (a  name  of  unknown 
meaning),  belonging  to  the  buckthorn  family 
(rhamnacece),  is  represented  in  the  Atlantic 
states  by  only  four  species,  while  on  the  Pacific 
coast  there  are  about  20,  several  of  which  are 
large  shrubs  or  small  trees,  others  low  pros- 
trate mountain  shrubs,  and  some  have  ever- 
green leaves.  New  Jersey  tea  is  found  from 
Canada  to  Florida,  usually  growing  in  dry 
woods  as  a  low  much-branched  under-shrub, 
seldom  over  3  ft.  high ;  it  has  a  dark  red  root ; 
ovate,  finely  serrate,  three-ribbed,  very  veiny 
leaves,  which  are  downy  beneath ;  and  minute 
white  flowers  in  dense  clustered  panicles.  The 
flower  has  five-hooded  petals  on  long  claws, 
the  same  number  of  stamens,  and  a  single  pis- 
til, which  in  fruit  splits  into  three  one-seeded 


New  Jersey  Tea  (Ceanothus  Americanus). 

carpels.  It  blooms  in  July,  and  so  profusely 
as  to  be  worthy  of  a  place  among  ornamental 
shrubs.  The  leaves  were  among  the  many  sub- 
stitutes used  for  tea  during  the  revolution. 
During  the  civil  war  they  were  used  in  some 
of  the  southern  states,  and  were  made  the  basis 
of  an  attempted  fraudulent  speculation  at  the 
north.  It  was  announced  that  the  true  Chinese 
tea  plant  had  been  discovered  in  the  mountains 
of  a  certain  county  in  Pennsylvania,  and  its 
identity  was  certified  to  by  an  expert  from 
Assam.  After  a  time  the  prospectus  of  a  com- 
pany appeared,  with  engravings  of  the  true  tea 
leaf ;  but  the  fraud  was  soon  exposed.  An 
infusion  of  the  leaves  of  New  Jersey  tea,  pre- 

Eared  in  the  same  manner  as  the  true  tea, 
as  somewhat  the  taste  of  the  commoner 
grades  of  the  imported  article,  but  it  is  prob- 
ably quite  destitute  of  any  stimulating  prop- 
erties. The  strong  three-ribbed  leaves  dis- 
tinguish it  at  sight  from  the  true  tea.  The 
root  has  some  astringency,  and  has  been  used 
in  affections  of  the  bowels,  and  to  dye  wool  a 


cinnamon  color.  A  similar  species,  C.  ovalis, 
has  narrower,  smooth  leaves,  pointed  at  both 
ends,  and  somewhat  larger  flowers.  Some  of 
the  species  of  the  far  west  are  fine  ornamental 
shrubs.  G.  ihyrsiflorus  is  a  small  tree  pro- 
ducing an  abundance  of  light  blue  flowers,  and 
known  as  the  "  California  lilac."  They  are 
not  hardy  in  the  eastern  states,  though  some 
of  them  succeed  in  England. 

NEW  JERUSALEM,  the  name  applied  in  Rev. 
xxi.  2  to  the  city  which  John  saw  coming  down 
from  God  out  of  heaven.  Emanuel  Sweden- 
borg  interprets  this  symbol  as  signifying  the  new 
church  whose  doctrines  he  was  commissioned 
to  teach.  Hence  the  ecclesiastical  organiza- 
tions of  his  followers  call  themselves  societies, 
&c.,  "  of  the  New  Jerusalem,"  or  "  of  the  New 
Church  signified  by  the  New  Jerusalem."  (For 
an  account  of  their  doctrines  see  SWEDENBORG, 
EMANUEL.)  Swedenborg  himself  seems  not 
to  have  contemplated  the  formation  of  such 
organizations,  and  gave  no  instructions  for  the 
purpose.  In  1788,  16  years  after  his  death, 
Robert  Hindmarsh  and  others  hired  a  chapel 
in  London,  and  established  public  worship  and 
preaching  according  to  his  doctrines.  Their 
example  was  followed  in  other  places,  and 
about  the  beginning  of  the  present  century  a 
general  conference  was  formed  of  Swedenbor- 
gians  in  Great  Britain,  which  in  1873  em- 
braced 58  societies,  containing  altogether  4,019 
members  and  26  ministers ;  24  of  these  socie- 
ties, containing  2,147  members,  were  in  Lan- 
cashire and  the  neighboring  counties.  The 
first  Swedenborgian  church  in  this  country  was 
formed  in  Baltimore  in  1792 ;  and  in  1817  a 
general  convention  was  called,  which  has  met 
annually  ever  since,  and  in  1873  had  connected 
with  it  74  ministers  and  93  societies,  with  4,408 
members,  of  whom  1,320  were  in  Massachu- 
setts. There  are  besides  a  number  of  inde- 
pendent societies  in  the  United  States  and  on 
the  continent  of  Europe,  with  an  aggregate 
membership  of  perhaps  1,000.  The  denomi- 
nation has  no  uniform  liturgy  or  discipline, 
each  society  being  left  to  itself,  very  much  on 
the  congregational  system.  Baptism  (of  in- 
fants as  well  as  adults)  and  the  Lord's  supper 
are  observed,  and  the  worship  and  preaching 
resemble  those  of  Protestants  generally. 

NEW  RENT,  a  S.  E.  connty  of  Virginia,  bound- 
ed N.  E.  by  the  Pamunkey  river,  and  S.  W. 
by  the  Chickahominy ;  area,  about  200  sq.  m. ; 
pop.  in  1870,  4,381,  of  whom  2,361  were  col- 
ored. Its  surface  is  moderately  uneven,  and 
the  soil  light  and  sandy.  The  Richmond,  York 
River,  and  Chesapeake  railroad  passes  through 
it.  The  chief  productions  in  1870  were  20,719 
bushels  of  wheat,  92,676  of  Indian  corn,  19,959 
of  oats,  8,600  Ibs.  of  tobacco,  and  5,122  gal- 
lons of  sorghum  molasses.  There  were  358 
horses,  661  milch  cows,  399  sheep,  and  3,078 
swine.  Capital,  New  Kent  Court  House. 

NEW  LANARK.     See  LANARK. 

NEW  LEBANON,  a  town  of  Columbia  co.,  New 
York,  bordering  on  Massachusetts,  on  the 


NEW  LEON 


NEW  LONDON 


313 


Harlem  Extension  railroad,  20  m.  E.  S.  E.  of 
Albany;  pop.  in  1870,  2,124.  In  the  E.  part 
is  a  large  Shaker  settlement  (Mount  Lebanon) 
of  from  500  to  600  persons  (including  a  few  in 
the  adjoining  town  of  Canaan),  owning  about 
4,000  acres  of  land.  They  have  a  large  meet- 
ing house,  a  laboratory,  a  grist  mill,  five  saw 
mills,  a  chair  factory,  two  seed  establishments, 
two  machine  shops,  eight  dwellings,  a  stone 
barn  196  by  50  ft.,  said  to  be  the  most  perfect 
in  the  country,  and  seven  other  large  barns. 
There  are  26  buildings  used  as  workshops. 
Their  principal  occupation  is  the  raising  and 
putting  up  of  medicinal  plants  and  garden 
seeds,  the  preparation  of  roots  and  extracts, 
and  the  manufacture  of  brooms  and  baskets. 
Of  garden  seeds  and  medicinal  articles  the 
annual  production  is  about  200,000  Ibs.  The 
village  of  Lebanon  Springs  is  a  place  of  resort 
for  its  thermal  springs,  the  largest  of  which 
discharges  16  barrels  of  water  per  minute. 
According  to  the  analysis  of  Dr.  Meade,  a 
pint  of  the  water  contains  0'25  gr.  chloride  of 
calcium,  0'44  gr.  chloride  of  sodium,  0'19  gr. 
carbonate  of  lime,  and  0*37  gr.  sulphate  of  lime. 
Gas,  composed  of  89 -4  parts  nitrogen  and  10'6 
parts  oxygen,  is  constantly  given  out  in  the 
proportion  of  5  cubic  inches  for  every  pint  of 
water.  The  discharge  of  this  spring  supplies 
several  baths,  and  keeps  two  or  three  mills 
running  throughout  the  year.  The  waters 
have  a  uniform  temperature  of  73°  at  all  sea- 
sons. There  are  several  hotels.  The  town 
also  contains  an  extensive  establishment  for 
the  manufacture  of  medicinal  extracts  and 
pharmaceutical  preparations,  which  makes  its 
own  glass  ware;  and  it  has  the  oldest  ther- 
mometer factory  in  the  United  States. 

NEW  LEON.     See  NUEVO  LEON. 

NEW  LONDON,  a  S.  E.  county  of  Connecticut, 
on  Long  Island  sound,  bordering  on  Rhode 
Island,  bounded  E.  partly  by  the  Pawcatuck 
and  W.  by  the  Connecticut  river,  and  drained 
by  the  Thames  river ;  area,  about  650  sq.  m. ; 
pop.  in  1870,  66,570.  The  surface  is  hilly,  and 
in  the  southwest  mountainous  ;  the  soil  is  best 
adapted  to  grazing.  Fishing  is  extensively 
carried  on.  It  is  traversed  by  several  rail- 
roads. The  chief  productions  in  1870  were 
16,846  bushels  of  rye,  247,362  of  Indian  corn, 
174,300  of  oats,  17,546  of  buckwheat,  331,492 
of  potatoes,  64,441  tons  of  hay,  10,000  Ibs.  of 
tobacco,  64,738  of  wool,  803,406  of  butter,  and 
95,613  of  cheese.  There  were  3,916  horses, 
13,116  milch  cows,  5,711  working  oxen,  10,775 
other  cattle,  20,565  sheep,  and  7,560  swine. 
There  were  703  manufacturing  establishments, 
with  a  capital  of  $11,279,402,  and  annual  pro- 
ducts amounting  to  $19,797,065,  producing 
carriages  and  wagons,  clothing,  cotton  goods, 
cotton  thread,  firearms,  India-rubber  goods, 
iron  castings,  machinery,  paper,  woollens,  flour, 
and  a  variety  of  other  articles.  Capitals,  New 
London  and  Norwich. 

NEW  LONDON,  a  city,  port  of  entry,  and 
one  of  the  capitals  of  New  London  co.,  Con- 


necticut, on  the  W.  bank  of  the  Thames  river, 
3  m.  above  its  entrance  into  Long  Island 
sound,  and  40  m.  S.  E.  of  Hartford,  in  lat.  41° 
18'  57"  N.,  Ion.  72°  5'  4"  W. ;  pop.  in  1850, 
8,991 ;  in  I860,  10,115;  in  1870,  9,576.  It  is 
built  on  a  declivity  sloping  S.  and  E.,  and  the 
ground  in  the  rear  of  the  city  rises  to  a  con- 
siderable height.  The  streets  were  not  origi- 
nally laid  out  with  much  regularity,  but  have 
been  greatly  improved,  and  the  new  quarters 
are  well  graded.  The  private  residences,  owing 
partly  to  the  influx  of  summer  visitors  who  are 
attracted  by  the  beautiful  scenery  of  the  neigh- 
borhood, are  in  many  cases  elegant  and  pictu- 
resque. The  Pequot  house,  near  the  entrance 
of  the  harbor,  has  also  made  this  city  a  fashion- 
able summer  resort.  The  Crocker  house,  re- 
cently built  in  the  heart  of  the  city,  is  one  of 
the  largest  and  best  hotels  in  the  state.  Among 
the  public  buildings  are  a  handsome  granite 
custom  house,  a  substantial  and  elegant  brown- 
stone  city  building  in  which  also  the  post  of- 
fice is  situated,  the  court  house,  and  the  school 
houses  and  churches.  The  town  has  ample 
railroad  communication  by  means  of  the  New 
York,  New  Haven,  and  Hartford  (Shore  Line), 
the  New  London  Northern,  and  the  Stonington 
and  Providence  lines.  There  are  two  daily  lines 
of  steamers  to  New  York.  The  largest  wharf 
in  New  England  is  in  course  of  construction  at 
this  port ;  it  is  1,125  ft.  long,  220  ft.  wide  at 
the  river  end,  and  150  ft.  at  the  shore  end,  at 
which  vessels  drawing  18  ft.  may  lie  at  low 
tide.  The  harbor  is  the  best  on  Long  Island 
sound,  and  one  of  the  best  in  the  United  States. 
It  is  3  m.  long  and  5  fathoms  deep,  sheltered 
by  hills,  seldom  obstructed  by  ice,  and  defended 
by  Fort  Trumbull  at  the  entrance.  This  for- 
tress, which  has  been  almost  entirely  rebuilt 
since  1840,  is  one  of  the  best  in  the  country, 
and  mounts  80  pieces  of  heavy  ordnance.  It 
has  accommodations  for  a  garrison  of  800  men. 
At  the  town  of  Groton,  on  the  opposite  side 
of  the  river,  is  Fort  Griswold,  the  scene  of 
the  massacre  by  the  British  in  1781.  (See 
GROTON.)  On  the  E.  bank  of  the  Thames  a 
United  States  navy  yard  is  in  course  of  con- 
struction. The  inhabitants  of  New  London 
have  long  been  actively  engaged  in  the  whale 
fishery,  in  which  the  city  ranks  second  only  to 
New  Bedford.  Recently  the  seal  fishery  has  been 
pursued  by  vessels  from  this  port  at  Alaska  and 
the  South  Shetland  islands.  The  cod  and  mack- 
erel fisheries  for  the  New  York  and  other  mar- 
kets are  also  important.  There  is  some  foreign 
and  considerable  coasting  trade.  The  value  of 
exports  to  foreign  countries  for  the  year  end- 
ing June  30,  1874,  was  $90,585;  of  imports 
from  foreign  ports,  $237,714.  The  number  of 
entrances  in  the  foreign  trade  was  30,  aggre- 
gate tonnage  5,084;  clearances  18,  tonnage 
3,026.  The  number  of  vessels  engaged  in  the 
whale  fishery  was  17,  of  2,735  tons;  in  the  cod 
and  mackerel  fisheries  98,  of  2,107  tons.  The 
number  of  vessels  belonging  to  the  port  was 
191,  with  an  aggregate  tonnage  of  20,624,  viz.: 


314 


NEW  MADRID 


166  sailing  vessels,  tonnage  9,524 ;  24  steamers, 
10,935;  and  1  barge,  165.  The  town  contains 
several  iron  f ounderies,  machine  shops,  planing 
mills,  a  woollen  and  silk  factory,  &c.  It  has 


NEWMAN 

five  national  banks,  with  an  aggregate  capital 
of  $975,000;  graded  public  schools,  including 
two  high  schools ;  a  public  library ;  a  daily  and 
a  weekly  newspaper;  and  eleven  churches. — 


New  London. 


New  London  was  settled  in  1649  by  John  Win- 
throp,  son  of  the  governor  of  Massachusetts. 
On  Sept.  6,  1781,  it  was  captured  by  a  British 
force  under  Benedict  Arnold,  who  set  fire  to 
the  stores  and  shipping,  and  reduced  the  most 
valuable  part  of  the  town  to  ashes.  They  then 
attacked  Fort  Griswold  at  Groton,  and  massa- 
cred the  garrison  after  it  had  surrendered.  Fort 
Trumbull,  not  being  tenable,  as  it  was  much 
exposed  on  the  land  side,  had  been  evacuated. 

NEW  MADRID,  a  S.  E.  county  of  Missouri, 
bordering  on  the  Mississippi  river,  by  which  it 
is  separated  from  Kentucky  and  Tennessee, 
and  intersected  by  White  river ;  area,  880  sq. 
m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  6,357,  of  whom  1,425  were 
colored.  The  surface  is  low  and  level,  and  in 
some  places  very  productive.  The  remarkable 
earthquakes  of  1811-'12  (see  EARTHQUAKE, 
vol.  vi.,  p.  361)  severely  injured  this  region, 
leaving  a  large  portion  of  the  land,  now  known 
as  the  "  sunk  country,"  under  water.  Various 
efforts  have  been  made  to  reclaim  the  land. 
The  county  is  intersected  by  the  Cairo  and 
Fulton  railroad.  The  chief  productions  in  1870 
were  3,990  bushels  of  wheat,  717,495  of  In- 
dian corn,  and  2,875  of  oats.  There  were  1,150 
horses,  1,031  mules  and  asses,  1,744  milch  cows, 
699  working  oxen,  2,064  other  cattle,  465  sheep, 
and  13,172  swine.  Capital,  New  Madrid. 

NEWMAN,  Edward,  an  English  naturalist,  born 
at  Hampstead,  May  13, 1801.  He  was  a  print- 
er in  London  from  1840  to  1869,  and  published 
many  popular  scientific  works.  His  "  History 
of  British  Ferns"  (1840),  and  "The  Insect 
Hunters,  or  Entomology  in  Verse"  (1858), 
have  passed  through  several  editions.  Among 
his  subsequent  works  are  "Illustrated  Natu- 
ral History  of  British  Moths  "  (1869),  and  "  of 
British  Butterflies"  (1871). 


NEWMAN.  I.  John  Henry,  an  English  clergy- 
man, born  in  London,  Feb.  21,  1801.  He  grad- 
uated at  Trinity  college,  Oxford,  in  1820, 
was  elected  a  fellow  of  Oriel  college  in  1822, 
and  there  assisted  Dr.  Whately  in  preparing  for 
publication  the  "Dialogues  on  Logic."  He 
was  ordained  in  1824,  in  1825  became  vice 
principal  of  Alban  Hall  under  Dr.  Whately, 
and  in  1826  a  tutor  of  Oriel.  He  was  ap- 
pointed public  examiner  in  1827,  and  vicar  of 
St.  Mary's  in  1828.  In  1829  he  opposed  the 
reelection  of  Sir  Robert  Peel  as  member  for 
the  university  of  Oxford,  because  of  that  states- 
man's advocacy  of  Catholic  emancipation.  In 
1830  he  was  chosen  one  of  the  select  univer- 
sity preachers,  and  at  the  invitation  of  Hugh 
Rose  began  to  write  a  history  of  the  principal 
church  councils,  the  first  portion  of  which  was 
published  in  1833  under  the  title  of  "The 
Arians  of  the  Fourth  Century."  Meanwhile 
the  reform  measures  of.  Earl  Grey,  and  the 
spread  in  England  of  German  anti-dogmatic 
liberalism,  gave  rise  to  a  strong  conservative 
opposition  in  the  English  church,  which  New- 
man joined  with  the  purpose  of  forming  an 
Anglo-Catholic  party.  In  December,  1832,  he 
went  to  Italy  with  Hurrell  Froude,  and  with 
him  began  in  Rome  the  "Lyra  Apostolica," 
which  appeared  monthly  in  the  "  British  Mag- 
azine." Falling  sick  in  Sicily,  he  returned 
to  England  in  July,  1833.  Soon  after  his  ar- 
rival what  is  known  as  the  "  Oxford  move- 
ment "  was  inaugurated  by  John  Keble's  ser- 
mon entitled  "National  Apostasy."  Newman, 
finding  that  his  associates  differed  widely  as  to 
the  way  of  opposing  liberalism  and  neutral- 
izing the  tendencies  toward  Rome,  began  the 
series  called  "Tracts  for  the  Times,"  and  a 
series  of  letters  in  the  "  Record  "  under  the 


NEWMAN" 


315 


heading  of  "  Church  Reform."  He  now  wrote 
the  historical  sketches  that  appeared  in  the 
"British  Magazine,"  and  were  afterward 
printed  collectively  as  "  The  Church  of  the 
Fathers,"  aided  in  editing  "  The  Library  of  the 
Fathers,"  and  delivered  lectures  on  "  The 
Prophetical  Office  of  the  Church  viewed  rela- 
tively to  Romanism  and  popular  Protestantism" 
(London,  1837).  In  1837  appeared  his  "Essay 
on  Justification,"  controverting  the  Lutheran 
doctrine  on  that  subject,  while  his  "  University 
Sermons"  discuss  the  relation  of  faith  and 
reason,  and  investigate  the  ultimate  basis  of 
religious  belief.  In  the  summer  of  1838  he 
published  a  pamphlet  on  the  "  Real  Presence," 
in  which,  seeking  to  give  to  the  eucharistic 
doctrine  an  intellectual  basis,  he  denied  the  ob- 
jective reality  of  space.  He  now  became  edi- 
tor of  the  "  British  Critic,"  and  remained  so 
till  July,  1841.  The  bishop  of  Oxford  having 
in  1838  animadverted  publicly  on  the  "  Tracts 
for  the  Times,"  Dr.  Pusey  replied  by  denying 
their  Romanizing  tendencies.  This  opposition 
emboldened  the  traetarian  writers,  and  Dr. 
Newman  defined  more  and  more  clearly  the 
relative  positions  of  Anglicanism  and  Roman- 
ism, till  his  attempt  to  reconcile  the  Anglican 
teaching  of  the  thirty-nine  articles  with  Ro- 
man Catholic  dogma  culminated  in  Tract  No. 
90  in  February,  1841.  He  was  called  upon  to 
withdraw  the  tract,  but  refused.  When  the 
British  and  Prussian  governments  created  a 
bishopric  in  Jerusalem  (1841),  he  protested 
against  the  alliance  about  to  be  contracted  in 
the  East "  with  Nestorians,  Monophy sites,  &c." 
In  February,  1843,  he  made  a  formal  retrac- 
tion of  the  charges  which  he  had  uttered 
against  the  church  of  Rome,  and  in  Septem- 
ber gave  up  "his  living  and  resigned  his  office  as 
a  clergyman.  To  his  house  at  Littlemore  he 
had  invited  several  persons  whose  minds  were 
disturbed  like  his  own,  and  this  was  repre- 
sented as  an  attempted  revival  of  monasticism. 
He  busied  himself  and  his  associates  with 
"Translations  from  Athanasins,"  and  writing 
a  series  called  "  Lives  of  the  English  Saints," 
in  order  to  give  the  writers  "  an  interest  in  the 
English  soil  and  the  English  church,  and  keep 
them  from  seeking  sympathy  with  Rome." 
Some  thirty  writers  were  engaged  in  this  work, 
the  lives  to  form  a  periodical  series  with  Dr. 
Newman  as  editor.  The  first  two  numbers 
only,  containing  the  "Life  of  St.  Stephen  Har- 
ding "  and  "  The  Family  of  St.  Richard,"  were 
edited  by  him,  the  others  being  published  in- 
dependently by  their  respective  authors.  He 
began  his  "Essay  on  the  Development  of  Doc- 
trine" in  the  beginning  of  1845,  was  received 
into  the  Roman  Catholic  church  Oct.  9,  and 
left  Oxford  finally  Feb.  23,  1846.  Soon  after- 
ward Dr.  Wiseman  called  him  to  Oscott,  and 
thence  sent  him  to  Rome.  There  he  took 
orders,  and  returning  to  England  in  1848  es- 
tablished two  houses  of  the  Oratory  of  St. 
Philip  Neri  at  Brompton  and  Birmingham,  be- 
coming superior  of  the  latter,  which  in  a  few 


years  was  transferred  to  Edgbaston.  There  he 
built  a  large  convent  and  a  spacious  church, 
with  a  school  for  the  sons  of  the  gentry,  and 
poor  schools  and  other  pious  institutions  in 
the  neighborhood.  He  published  in  succession 
"Loss  and  Gain"  (1848)  ;  "  Sermons  to  Mixed 
Congregations"  (1849);  "Lectures  on  certain 
Difficulties  felt  by  Anglicans  in  submitting  to 
the  Catholic  Church "  (1850) ;  "  Lectures  on 
the  Present  Position  of  Catholics  in  England  " 
(1851);  and  "Lectures  on  the  History  of  the 
Turks  in  its  relation  'to  Christianity  "  (1853). 
In  April,  1853,  he  was  sued  for  libel  by  the  ex- 
Dominican  Achilli,  and  lost  the  suit,  the  costs 
of  which  were  paid  by  public  subscription.  In 
1854  he  w/as  appointed  by  the  pope  rector  of 
the  newly  founded  Catholic  university  of  Dub- 
lin. Here,  besides  conducting  the  "  Atlantis," 
the  organ  of  the  institution,  he  delivered  sev- 
eral series  of  discourses  and  lectures  on  uni- 
versities and  university  education,  published 
in  the  collection  of  his  works ;  "  Sermons 
preached  on  Various  Occasions"  (1857);  and 
"Callista,  a  Sketch  of  the  Third  Century." 
He  resigned  the  rectorship  of  the  university 
in  1859,  and  devoted  himself  to  his  labors 
and  duties  in  the  Oratory.  Canon  Kingsley 
having  in  "Macmillan's  Magazine"  for  Janu- 
ary, 1864,  accused  Dr.  Newman  and  the  Ro- 
man Catholic  priesthood  generally  of  thinking 
lightly  of  the  virtue  of  veracity,  a  correspon- 
dence on  this  subject  ensued,  which  was  pub- 
lished in  a  pamphlet  in  February.  This  drew 
forth  a  second  pamphlet  from  Kingsley,  in 
which  the  imputation  was  renewed  and  aggra- 
vated. Dr.  Newman  replied  in  "  Apologia  pro 
Vita  sua,"  issued  in  weekly  numbers  between 
April  21  and  June  2,  with  an  appendix  on 
June  16,  1864.  This  work  was  afterward  em- 
bodied in  his  "  History  of  my  Religious  Opin- 
ions "  (1865).  In  1864  appeared  "Verses  on 
Various  Occasions,"  and  in  1865  "Letter"  to 
the  Rev.  E.  B.  Pusey,  D.  D.,"  in  reply  to  some 
assertions  in  the  latter's  "  Eirenicon,"  relative 
to  the  honors  paid  to  the  Virgin  Mary.  At 
the  approach  of  the  Vatican  council  a  letter 
from  Dr.  Newman  was  published  expressing 
dissatisfaction  with  the  ultramontanes  for  ur- 
ging factiously  the  definition  of  pontifical  in- 
fallibility, but  professing  belief  in  the  doctrine 
itself.  In  1 870  appeared  a  philosophical  trea- 
tise entitled  "  An  Essay  in  aid  of  a  Grammar 
of  Assent;"  and  in  1875,  "A  History  of  Ari- 
anism."  In  January,  1875,  Dr.  Newman  pub- 
lished "A  Letter  addressed  to  his  Grace  the 
Duke  of  Norfolk,  on  occasion  of  Mr.  Glad- 
stone's recent  Expostulation."  A  new  uni- 
form edition  of  Dr.  Newman's  complete  works 
was  begun  in  London  in  1870,  of  which  25 
volumes  had  been  issued  up  to  December, 
1874.  II.  Francis  William,  an  English  author, 
brother  of  the  preceding,  born  in  London,  June 
27,  1805.  He  graduated  at  Worcester  college, 
Oxford,  in  1826,  and  in  November  became  a 
fellow  of  Balliol  college,  which  position  he 
resigned  in  1830,  being  unable  conscientiously 


316 


NEWMARKET 


NEW  MEXICO 


to  sign  the  thirty-nine  articles  previous  to  ta- 
king the  degree  of  M.  A.  The  three  following 
years  he  spent  in  the  East,  and  in  1834  he  be- 
came classical  tutor  in  Bristol  college.  In  1840 
he  was  chosen  classical  professor  at  Manches- 
ter New  college,  and  in  1846  professor  of  the 
Latin  language  and  literature  in  University 
college,  London,  which  office  he  resigned  in 
1863.  In  his  works  on  theological  subjects 
he  has  taken  an  exactly  contrary  course  to  that 
of  his  brother.  Among  them  may  be  men- 
tioned "Catholic  Union:  Essays  toward  a 
Church  of  the  Future  and  the  Organization  of 
Philanthropy"  (8vo,  1844)  ;  "A  State  Church 
not  Defensible,"  a  tract  (1846)  ;  "  A  History  of 
the  Hebrew  Monarchy,  from  the  Administra- 
tion of  Samuel  to  the  Babylonish  Captivity  " 
(1847) ;  "  The  Soul,  its  Sorrows  and  Aspira- 
tions "  (1849) ;  "  Phases  of  Faith,  or  Passages 
from  the  History  of  my  Creed  "  (1850) ;  and 
"  Theism,  Doctrinal  and  Practical "  (1858).  His 
other  works  include  "Four  Lectures  on  the 
Contrasts  of  Ancient  and  Modern  History" 
(1847) ;  "  An  Appeal  to  the  Middle  Classes  on 
the  urgent  Necessity  of  numerous  Radical  Re- 
forms, Financial  and  Organic"  (1848);  "On 
the  Constitutional  and  Moral  Right  or  Wrong 
of  our  National  Debt "  (1849) ;  a  tract  on  "  The 
Crimes  of  the  House  of  Hapsburg  against  its 
own  Liege  Subjects"  (1851);  "Lectures  on 
Political  Economy  "  (1851) ;  and  "Regal Rome, 
an  introduction  to  Roman  History"  (1852). 
He  has  also  published  "A  Collection  of  Poetry 
for  the  Practice  of  Elocution  "  (1850) ;  "  Odes 
of  Horace  translated  into  unrhymed  Metres" 
(1853);  "The  Iliad  of  Homer  translated  into 
unrhymed  Metres  "  (1856) ;  "  Homeric  Trans- 
lation in  Theory  and  in  Practice"  (1861); 
"Text  of  the  Iguvine  Inscriptions"  (1864); 
"  The  English  and  their  Reforms  "  (1865) ;  "  A 
Handbook  of  Modern  Arabic"  (1866);  "Mis- 
cellanies, Academical  and  Historical"  (1869); 
"  The  Cure  of  the  great  Social  Evil,  with  spe- 
cial reference  to  recent  laws,  delusively  called 
Contagious  Diseases  Acts  "  (1869) ;  "  Orthoepy, 
or  a  simple  Mode  of  accenting  English  "  (1869) ; 
and  "Europe  of  the  near  Future,  with  three 
Letters  on  the  Franco-German  War  "  (1871). 
He  assisted  in  editing  a  translation  of  Huber's 
work  on  "The  English  Universities"  (1843), 
and  in  1853  brought  out  an  edition  of  the  "  Se- 
lect Speeches  of  Kossuth."  He  is  likewise  au- 
thor of  "  Lectures  on  Logic,"  of  a  "  Grammar 
of  the  Berber  Language,"  and  of  a  work  on 
the  "Difficulties  of  Elementary  Geometry." 
He  has  in  preparation  (1875)  an  English- Ara- 
bic dictionary  in  Roman  type,  on  a  new  plan. 
NEWMARKET,  a  market  town  of  England, 
consisting  mainly  of  one  long  street,  wide  and 
well  lighted,  the  N.  side  of  which  is  in  Suffolk 
and  the  S.  side  in  Cambridgeshire,  13  m.  E.  by 
N.  of  Cambridge,  and  56  m.  N.  E.  of  London, 
with  which  it  is  connected  by  the  Eastern 
Counties  railway ;  pop.  in  1871, 4,534.  It  con- 
tains a  corn  market,  assembly  rooms,  a  hand- 
some church,  several  schools,  and  a  jockey 


club.  There  are  15  establishments  for  training 
horses,  which  is  the  principal  business  of  the 
place.  It  derives  its  chief  importance  from 
the  races,  seven  of  which  are  held  annual- 
ly, viz. :  the  Craven  and  the  first  and  second 
spring  meetings,  in  April  and  May,  at  fort- 
nightly intervals ;  the  July ;  and  the  first  and 
second  October  meetings  and  the  Houghton,  in 
October,  a  fortnight  apart.  The  race  course, 
considered  the  best  in  Great  Britain,  is  about 
3  m.  from  the  town,  and  between  4  and  5  m. 
in  circuit.  There  is  also  a  training  ground 
about  1£  m.  long.  In  the  principal  church  is 
a  monument  to  Frampton,  who  was  trainer  to 
Queen  Anne  and  to  George  I.  and  II.  Near 
Newmarket  is  Chippendale  park,  with  fine 
pleasure  grounds.  An  old  Roman  intrench- 
ment,  known  as  the  Devil's  ditch,  runs  in  a 
straight  line  directly  across  the  heath  upon 
which  the  race  course  is  situated. 

NEW  MEXICO,  a  territory  of  the  United 
States,  situated  between  lat.  31°  20'  and  37° 
N.,  and  Ion.  103°  and  109°  W. ;  length  on  the 
E.  boundary  345  m.,  and  on  the  W.  boundary 
390  m. ;  average  breadth  N.  of  the  32d  paral- 
lel, 335  m. ;  area,  121,201  sq.  m.  It  is  bound- 
ed N.  by  Colorado,  E.  by  Indian  territory  and 
Texas,  S.  by  Texas  and  Mexico,  and  W.  by 
Arizona.  The  territory  is  divided  into  13 
counties,  viz. :  Bernalillo,  Colfax,  Dona  Afia, 
Grant,  Lincoln,  Mora,  Rio  Arriba,  San  Miguel, 
Santa  Afia,  Santa  Fe,  Socorro,  Taos,  Valencia. 
Santa  Fe,  the  capital,  had  4,765  inhabitants  in 
1870.  The  principal  other  places  are  Albu- 
querque, Cimarron,  Fernando  de  Taos,  Las 
Cruces,  Las  Vegas,  Mesilla,  Mora,  Placita,  and 
Silver  City,  each  having  more  than  1,000  in- 
habitants. The  population  of  the  territory,  ac- 
cording to  the  federal  censuses,  has  been  as  fol- 
lows: 1850,61,547;  1860,93,516;  1870,91,874, 
of  whom  172  were  colored  and  1,309  non-tri- 
bal Indians.  The  apparent  decrease  between 
1860  and  1870  is  due  to  the  setting  off  of  terri- 
tory to  form  Arizona  and  a  portion  of  Colora- 
do. Making  allowance  for  the  inhabitants  thus 
transferred,  there  was  an  actual  increase  with- 
in the  present  limits  of  New  Mexico  of  about 
20,000.  Next  to  the  District  of  Columbia  it 
is  the  most  populous  territory  in  the  Union. 
Of  the  total  population  in  1870,  86,254  were 
native  and  5,620  foreign  born,  47,135  males 
and  44,739  females.  Of  the  natives,  83,175 
were  born  in  the  territory ;  of  the  foreigners, 
3,913  were  born  in  Mexico.  The  number  of 
male  citizens  of  the  United  States  21  years 
old  and  over  residing  in  the  territory  was 
22,442.  There  were  21,449  families,  with  an 
average  of  4*28  persons  to  each,  and  21,053 
dwellings,  with  an  average  of  4'36  to  each. 
There  were  48,836  persons  10  years  old  and 
over  who  could  not  read,  and  52,220  who  could 
not  write;  of  the  latter  49,311  were  natives 
and  2,909  foreigners,  23,779  males  and  28,441 
females ;  9,718  were  from  10  to  15  years  of  age, 
10,005  from  15  to  21,  and  32,497  were  21  years 
old  and  upward,  of  whom  15,031  were  males. 


NEW  MEXICO 


317 


The  number  of  blind  persons  was  159  ;  deaf  and 
dumb,  48  ;  insane,  50 ;  idiotic,  46.  There  were 
24  convicts  in  prison  on  June  1, 1870  ;  number 
of  persons  convicted  of  crimes  during  the  prece- 
ding year,  95.  Of  the  whole  number  (29,361) 
10  years  old  and  upward  returned  by  the  cen- 
sus as  engaged  in  all  occupations,  there  were 
employed  in  agriculture  18,668,  including  10,- 
847  agricultural  laborers  and  7,629  farmers  and 
planters  ;  in  professional  and  personal  services, 
7,535,  including  51  clergymen,  1,365  domestic 
servants,  3,348  laborers,  48  lawyers,  27  phy- 
sicians and  surgeons,  1,116  United  States  sol- 
diers, and  49  teachers  ;  in  trade  and  transpor- 
tation, 863  ;  in  manufactures  and  mining,  2,295. 
Nearly  all  the  inhabitants  are  of  Mexican  de- 
scent and  speak  the  Spanish  language.  Much 
of  New  Mexico,  especially  the  S.  and  W.  parts, 
has  until  recently  been  subject  to  Indian  incur- 
sions, and  the  Apaches  in  the  south  are  still 
somewhat  troublesome.  The  number  of  tribal 
Indians  (not  included  in  the  census)  in  the  ter- 
ritory in  1874,  according  to  the  report  of  the 
United  States  commissioner  of  Indian  affairs, 
was  25,268,  viz. :  Navajos,  occupying  a  reser- 
vation of  5,400  sq.  m.  in  the  northwest,  partly 
in  Arizona,  9,068,  besides  2,000  not  on  the  res- 
ervation ;  Mescalero  Apaches,  with  an  agency 
at  Fort  Stanton  in  the  southeast,  1,800 ;  South- 
ern or  Gila  Apaches,  on  a  reservation  near 
the  hot  springs  in  the  southwest,  400 ;  Capote 
Utes  (500),  Weeminuche  Utes  (750),  and  Jica- 
rilla  Apaches  (500),  of  the  Abiquiu  or  Tierra 
Amarilla  agency,  about  100  m.  N.  W.  of  Santa 
Fe,  1,750;  Muache  Utes  (290)  and  Jicarilla 
Apaches  (460),  of  the  Cimarron  agency  in  the 
northeast,  750;  Pueblos,  occupying  19  pueblos 
or  villages  in  the  N.  W.  part  of  the  territory, 
9,500.  The 'Pueblos  have  several  times  been 
decided  by  the  territorial  courts  to  be  citizens 
of  the  United  States,  but  have  preferred  to 
retain  their  tribal  organization,  each  village 
having  its  own  government.  (See  PUEBLO 
INDIANS.) — The  general  surface  of  New  Mex- 
ico consists  of  high  level  plateaus,  traversed 
by  ranges  of  mountains,  between  which  are 
many  broad  fertile  valleys,  and  from  which 
rise  occasional  isolated  peaks  of  great  height. 
The  valley  of  the  Rio  Grande  has  an  elevation 
of  between  5,000  and  6,000  ft.  above  the  sea 
near  the  N.  boundary,  4,800  ft.  at  Albuquerque 
(lat.  35°),  and  3,000  ft.  at  El  Paso,  Mexico, 
near  the  S.  boundary  of  the  territory.  The 
general  altitude  of  the  mountain  ranges  on 
each  side  of  the  valleys  of  the  Rio  Grande 
and  the  Pecos  is  between  6,000  and  8,000  ft. 
above  the  sea,  sometimes,  especially  in  the 
north,  rising  to  10,000  or  12,000  ft.,  the  sum- 
mits being  covered  with  perpetual  snow.  Mt. 
Taylor  in  the  Sierra  Madre  range,  S.  W.  of 
Santa  F6,  rises  10,000  ft.  above  the  valley  of 
the  Rio  Grande.  The  general  direction  of  the 
mountains  and  streams  is  from  N.  to  S.  The 
Rocky  mountains  before  entering  the  territory 
from  Colorado  are  divided  into  two  ranges. 
The  eastern,  formed  by  lofty  peaks  and  high 


continuous  ridges,  terminates  abruptly  a  few 
miles  S.  of  Santa  Fe" ;  the  western,  called  the 
Sierra  Madre,  consists  of  many  detached  moun- 
tains of  less  height,  with  low  passes  between 
them,  and  forms  the  connecting  link  with  the 
Sierra  Madre  of  Mexico.  Nearly  two  thirds 
of  the  territory  lies  E.  of  the  Sierra  Madre. 
S.  of  the  termination  of  the  E.  range  of  the 
Rocky  mountains  a  lofty  plateau  extends  be- 
tween the  Rio  Grande  and  Pecos,  interrupted 
by  numerous  minor  ranges  of  mountains.  The 
region  W.  of  the  Sierra  Madre  has  been  imper- 
fectly explored,  but  is  known  to  contain  table 
lands  or  mesas  (often  standing  apart  from  each 
other  and  bearing  great  resemblance  to  gigantic 
fortresses  and  castles)  and  detached  ranges  of 
mountains,  with  many  fertile  valleys  and  occa- 
sional peaks  of  extinct  volcanoes.  E.  of  the 
Pecos  river  and  the  E.  range  of  the  Rocky 
mountains  the  country  slopes  gradually  toward 
the  Mississippi  river  and  the  gulf  of  Mexico. 
The  S.  E.  part  of  the  territory  is  occupied  by 
the  W.  portion  of  the  Llano  Estacado  or  Staked 
Plain,  an  elevated  tract  destitute  of  wood,  and 
of  any  vegetation  except  immediately  after 
rain,  of  which  the  fall  here  is  slight. — The  prin- 
cipal river  is  the  Rio  Grande  del  Norte,  which, 
rising  in  Colorado  and  entering  New  Mexico 
between  the  Sierra  Madre  and  the  E.  range, 
flows  S.  through  the  entire  territory,  and,  after 
forming  the  boundary  between  Texas  and  Mex- 
ico, enters  the  gulf  of  Mexico.  The  Pecos  rises 
on  the  E.  slope  of  the  E.  range,  flows  S.  through 
the  E.  portion  of  the  territory,  and  joins  the 
Rio  Grande  in  Texas.  These  two  rivers  have 
many  small  tributaries,  chiefly  from  the  west. 
The  largest  of  those  of  the  Rio  Grande  are  in 
the  N.  part  of  the  territory.  The  N.  E.  sec- 
tion is  drained  by  the  head  waters  of  the  Ca- 
nadian, a  branch  of  the  Arkansas,  and  the  N. 
W.  corner  by  the  San  Juan,  a  tributary  of  the 
Colorado  of  the  West.  In  the  southwest  are 
the  sources  of  the  Gila,  and  here  also  is  the 
Rio  de  los  Mimbres,  which  flows  S.  into  Mex- 
ico. The  central  portion  of  the  region  W.  of 
the  Rio  Grande  contains  the  sources  of  the  Col- 
orado Chiquito  or  Little  Colorado,  which  flows 
N.  W.  and  joins  the  Colorado  of  the  West  in 
Arizona. — Most  of  the  mountains  of  the  central 
plateau  between  the  Rio  Grande  and  Pecos  are 
composed  chiefly  of  syenitic  rocks,  which  du- 
ring their  upheaval  broke  through  palaeozoic 
sandstones  and  carboniferous  limestones.  The 
limestones  are  found  generally  on  the  flanks  of 
the  ridges,  but  sometimes  on  their  tops.  Both 
the  syenites  and  carboniferous  limestones  are 
traversed  by  mineral  lodes.  Dikes  of  porphyry 
are  frequently  met  with  near  the  lines  of  in- 
tersection. The  plateau  itself  has  underlying 
it  for  the  most  part  tertiary  and  lower  creta- 
ceous rocks.  The  sandstone  frequently  forms 
table  mountains  or  mesas,  and  contains  in  many 
localities  beds  of  lignite  and  bituminous  coal, 
2  to  5  ft.  thick,  alternating  with  layers  of  iron 
ore,  fire  clay,  and  shales.  The  latter  are  fre- 
quently filled  with  large  fossil  leaves.  Wher- 


318 


NEW  MEXICO 


ever  eruptions  and  overflows  of  porphyry  have 
acted  upon  the  formations  containing  coal,  the 
latter  has  been  completely  metamorphosed  into 
anthracite  of  excellent  quality.  Variegated 
marls  and  heds  of  gypsum  are  exposed  in  many 
localities  on  this  plateau.  W.  of  the  Rio  Grande 
the  same  formations  are  met  with.  The  exten- 
sive layers  of  lava,  spread  in  several  localities 
horizontally  upon  the  sandstone  strata,  are  a 
characteristic  feature  of  the  geology  of  New 
Mexico.  Many  of  the  streams  flow  through 
deep  cafions,  that  of  the  Rio  Grande  W.  of  Taos 
being  more  than  1,000  ft.  deep,  with  perpendic- 
ular walls.  Mines  of  anthracite  have  been  open- 
ed at  the  Old  Placer  mountains.  There  are  hot 
and  mineral  springs  in  many  portions  of  the 
territory,  possessing  curative  properties.  Salt 
lakes  (salinas)  are  numerous,  particularly  be- 
tween the  Rio  Grande  and  Pecos,  S.  of  Santa 
F6 ;  they  furnish  a  large  portion  of  the  supply 
of  salt  for  the  territory  and  adjacent  portions 
of  Mexico.  The  precious  metals  and  copper 
are  abundant,  and  mines  of  -these  were  worked 
in  Spanish  and  Mexican  times;  more  recently 
lack  of  capital,  want  of  water  in  many  dis- 
tricts, and  Indian  hostilities  have  retarded 
their  development.  The  annual  product  of 
gold  for  several  years  past,  according  to  the 
United  States  commissioner  of  mining  statis- 
tics, has  been  about  $500,000.  The  principal 
mines  are  those  of  the  Moreno  gold  fields  in 
Oolfax  co.,  on  the  E.  slope  of  the  Rocky  moun- 
tains, in  the  N.  part  of  the  territory ;  of  the 
Pinos  Altos  district  in  Grant  co.,  in  the  S.  "W. ; 
and  of  the  Old  and  New  Placer  mountains  in 
Santa  Fe  and  Bernalillo  cos.  There  are  also 
gold  mines  in  the  Sierra  Blanca,  Oarrizo,  Pa- 
tos,  and  Jicarilla  mountains  in  Lincoln  co. ;  in 
the  Magdalena  mountains  in  Socorro  co. ;  in 
Rio  Arriba  and  Taos  cos.,  N.  and  N.  W.  of 
Santa  Fe ;  and  in  other  places.  These  are 
chiefly  placer  mines,  but  quartz  lodes  are 
worked  at  some  points  to  a  limited  extent. 
Silver  is  not  now  largely  mined,  but  there  are 
deposits  of  it  at  Pinos  Altos,  in  the  Organ 
mountains  in  the  south,  in  the  Oerillos  and 
Sandia  mountains  near  the  centre  of  the  ter- 
ritory, in  the  Magdalena  mountains,  and  in 
other  places.  Copper  is  found  in  the  Pinos 
Altos  region,  where  one  mine  is  in  operation, 
yielding  about  9,000  Ibs.  of  metal  a  week ;  in 
the  Manzano  mountains,  in  Bernalillo  and  Va- 
lencia cos. ;  in  the  Mogollon  mountains,  near 
the  Arizona  border ;  in  the  Magdalena  moun- 
tains, and  elsewhere.  Lead  occurs  in  the  Pi- 
nos Altos  mines,  in  the  Organ  mountains,  and 
in  other  parts  of  the  territory.  Iron  is  found 
at  the  Moreno  mines,  in  the  Placer  -moun- 
tains, near  Pinos  Altos,  and  near  Embudo, 
between  Santa  Fe  and  Taos,  as  well  as  at 
other  points.  Zinc,  manganese,  quicksilver, 
and  other  minerals  occur.  The  census  of 
1870  returns  17  mines  (all  gold),  of  which  12 
were  placer  and  5  quartz;  number  of  hands 
employed,  177;  capital  invested,  $2,384,000; 
wages  paid  during  the  year,  $107,550 ;  value 


of  materials  used,  $33,138 ;  of  products,  $343,- 
250.  The  amount  of  gold  from  New  Mexico 
deposited  at  the  United  States  mints  and  assay 
offices  to  June  30, 1874,  was  $1,004,755  72 ;  of 
silver,  $239,574  49. — The  climate  varies  much. 
Near  Santa  Fe  and  in  the  mountains  the  win- 
ter is  severe.  N.  of  Santa  F<§  the  days  are 
never  sultry  and  the  nights  are  always  cool. 
In  the  south  the  temperature  is  mild,  being 
seldom  below  the  freezing  point,  and  rarely 
rising  to  extreme  heat,  owing  to  the  elevation 
of  the  surface.  The  sky  is  generally  clear  and 
the  atmosphere  dry,  so  that  meat  may  be  pre- 
served for  a  long  time  without  .salt.  In  the 
south  the  rainy  season  is  in  July  and  August. 
The  annual  rainfall  varies  from  10  to  30  inches 
in  different  localities.  The  mean  temperature 
at  Santa  Fe  (lat.  35°  41',  elevation  6,862  ft.) 
for  six  years  has  been  as  follows:  spring, 
49-7°;  summer,  70-4°;  autumn,  50'6° ;  winter, 
31-6° ;  year,  50'6°.  For  the  year  ending  Sept. 
30,  1873,  the  mean  temperature  at  the  same 
place  was  49° ;  of  the  warmest  month  (July), 
71°;  of  the  coldest  month  (January),  29°; 
total  rainfall,  8-59  inches;  greatest  monthly 
rainfall  (August),  2*79  inches.  The  highest 
temperature  observed  during  the  calendar 
year  1873  was  88°;  lowest,  —5°.  The  dis- 
eases are  few.  Inflammations  and  typhoid  fe- 
vers sometimes  appear  in  the  winter  season ; 
rheumatism  is  more  prevalent,  arising  doubt- 
less from  the  common  practice  of  sleeping  on 
the  ground.  Pulmonary  complaints  are  scarce- 
ly known.  The  number  of  deaths  in  1870  was 
1,180,  of  which  420  were  from  general  dis- 
eases (including  36  from  scarlet  fever,  11  from 
typhus  fever,  90  from  enteric  fever,  12  from 
intermittent  fever,  31  from  remittent  fever,  39 
from  rheumatism,  and  45  from  consumption), 
60  from  diseases  of  the  nervous  system,  33  of 
the  circulatory  system,  305  of  the  digestive 
system,  161  of  the  respiratory  system  (inclu- 
ding 63  from  pneumonia),  and  the  rest  from 
miscellaneous  causes.  The  proportion  of 
deaths  from  consumption  was  smaller  than  in 
any  state  or  territory  except  Arizona. — The 
valleys  of  nearly  all  the  streams  and  such  por- 
tions of  the  table  lands  as  are  within  the  reach 
of  irrigation  are  very  productive.  The  most 
important  agricultural  regions  are  the  valleys 
of  the  Rio  Grande  and  Rio  Pecos,  which  are 
generally  from  1  to  4  m.  wide,  the  former  ex- 
panding in  places  ta  10  or  15  m.  Owing  to 
the  slight  fall  of  rain,  artificial  irrigation  is 
necessary.  The  supply  of  water  is  obtained 
by  constructing  from  the  streams,  at  the  gen- 
eral cost,  large  canals,  called  acequias  madres, 
of  sufficient  capacity  for  an  entire  settlement, 
from  which  each  farmer  constructs  a  minor 
canal  to-  his  own  land..  Some  of  these  main 
canals  are  20  or  30  m.  long.  Large  portions 
of  the  table  lands  too  remote  or  elevated  to 
be  irrigated  from  the  streams  possess  a  fer- 
tile soil.  "Whether  a  supply  of  water  for  their 
irrigation  can  be  obtained  by  artesian  wells  or 
otherwise  remains  undetermined.  Agriculture 


NEW  MEXICO 


319 


is  mostly  carried  on  in  a  very  primitive  man- 
ner. The  principal  crops  are  Indian  corn, 
wheat,  barley,  oats,  apples,  peaches,  melons, 
apricots,  and  grapes.  The  territory  is  espe- 
cially adapted  to  the  culture  of  the  grape, 
the  yield  of  fruit  being  abundant,  and  the 
wine  produced  of  excellent  quality.  Potatoes 
do  not  generally  thrive,  but  cabbages,  onions, 
pumpkins,  &c.,  grow  well ;  and  in  the  south 
quinces,  pomegranates,  and  figs  may  be  raised. 
The  country  is  better  adapted  to  stoqk  raising 
than  farming.  Large  tracts,  where  agriculture 
is  not  practicable,  afford  abundant  pasturage. 
Owing  to  the  mildness  of  the  climate,  arti- 
ficial shelter  is  never  required.  The  valleys, 
foot  hills,  and  table  lands  are  covered  with  nu- 
tritious grasses,  the  most  valuable  variety  being 
the  mezquite  or  grama  grass,  which  preserves 
its  nutritive  properties  and  furnishes  abundant 
food  throughout  the  winter.  Sheep  raising  is 
one  of  the  chief  industries  of  the  territory; 
the  flocks  are  almost  entirely  free  from  disease 
and  require  little  care.  The  principal  forests 
are  confined  to  the  mountain  ranges,  and  con- 
sist chiefly  of  pine,  cedar,  spruce,  and  other 
evergreens.  On  the  foot  hills  there  are  exten- 
sive tracts  of  pinon  or  nut  pine  and  cedar,  and 
along  the  margins  of  the  streams  belts  of  cot- 
tonwood,  sycamore,  and  other  deciduous  trees, 
while  in  the  south  groves  of  oak  and  walnut 
are  abundant.  The  principal  wild  animals  are 
the  deer,  mountain  sheep,  antelope,  elk,  cou- 
guar,  ocelot,  lynx,  bear,  coyote,  wolf,  weasel, 
hare,  squirrel,  and  beaver.  Wild  turkeys,  geese, 
ducks,  sage  hens,  prairie  chickens,  &c.,  occur. 
— The  number  of  acres  of  improved  land  in 
farms  in  1870  was  143,007;  number  of  farms, 
4,480,  of  which  1,345  contained  less  than  10 
acres  each,  1,172  from  10  to  20,  1,293  from  20 
to  50,  358  from  50  to  100,  299  from  100  to  500, 
9  from  500  to  1,000,  and  4  more  than  1,000; 
cash  value  of  farms,  $2,260,139;  of  farming 
implements  and  machinery,  $121,114;  amount 
of  wages  paid  during  the  year,  including  the 
value  of  board,  $523,888;  estimated  value  of 
all  farm  productions,  including  betterments 
and  additions  to  stock,  $1,905,060;  value  of 
orchard  products,  $13,609 ;  of  produce  of  mar- 
ket gardens,  $64,132 ;  of  forest  products,  $500 ; 
of  home  manufactures,  $19,592;  of  animals 
slaughtered  or  sold  for  slaughter,  $224,765  ;  of 
live  stock,  $2,389,157.  The  productions  were 
338,930  bushels  of  spring  wheat,  13,892  of 
winter  wheat,  42  of  rye,  640,823  of  Indian 
corn,  67,660  of  oats,  3,876  of  barley,  10  of 
buckwheat,  28,856  of  peas  and  beans,  3,102  of 
Irish  potatoes,  8,587  Ibs.  of  tobacco,  684,930 
of  wool,  12,912  of  butter,  27,239  of  cheese, 
19,686  gallons  of  wine,  813  of  milk  sold,  1,765 
of  sorghum  molasses,  and  4,209  tons  of  hay. 
The  live  stock  consisted  of  5,033  horses,  6,141 
mules  and  asses,  16,417  milch  cows,  19,774 
working  oxen,  21,343  other  cattle,  619,438 
sheep,  and  11,267  swine.  There  were  also 
21,467  horses  and  128,767  cattle  not  on  farms. 
The  number  of  manufacturing  establishments 
598  VOL.  xii.— 21 


was  182,  having  13  steam  engines  of  252  horse 
power,  and  42  water  wheels  of  659  horse 
power ;  number  of  hands  employed,  423 ;  cap- 
ital invested,  $1,450,695;  wages  paid  during 
the  year,  $167,281;  value  of  materials  used, 
$880,957;  of  products,  $1,489,868.  The  only 
important  establishments  were  36  flouring 
and  grist  mills,  value  of  products  $725,292; 
12  saw  mills,  $121,225;  and  7  quartz  mills, 
$399,*712.  There  are  no  railroads  in  ope- 
ration in  the  territory,  but  several  lines  are 
projected  through  it.  The  Texas  and  Pacific, 
in  progress  in  Texas,  is  to  pass  through  the  S. 
portion ;  the  Atchison,  Topeka,  and  Santa  Fe 
is  in  progress  from  Granada,  Colorado,  its 
present  terminus,  to  Santa  Fe,  through  the  N. 
E.  portion  of  the  territory;  and  the  Denver 
and  Eio  Grande,  in  operation  to  Pueblo,  Colo- 
rado, and  still  in  course  of  construction,  is  in- 
tended to  pass  down  the  valley  of  the  Rio 
Grande.  The  projected  line  of  the  Atlantic 
and  Pacific  railroad  passes  through  New  Mexi- 
co along  the  35th  parallel,  but  no  progress  has 
been  made  since  its  completion  some  years 
since  to  Vinita,  Indian  territory.  There  are 
two  national  banks  at  Santa  Fe,  with  a  joint 
capital  of  $300,000.— The  executive  power  is 
administered  by  a  governor  and  secretary,  ap- 
pointed by  the  president  with  the  consent  of 
the  senate  for  four  years,  and  by  an  auditor, 
treasurer,  adjutant  general,  and  attorney  gen- 
eral, chosen  by  the  territorial  legislature.  This 
body  consists  of  a  council  of  13  and  a  house 
of  representatives  of  26  members,  elected  by 
the  people  for  two  years.  The  judicial  power 
is  vested  in  a  supreme  court,  with  appellate 
jurisdiction ;  district  courts,  with  general  ori- 
ginal jurisdiction ;  probate  courts,  and  justices 
of  the  peace.  The  supreme  court  is  held  by 
three  judges,  appointed  by  the  president  with 
the  consent  of  the  senate.  The  district  courts, 
(one  in  each  of  the  three  judicial  districts  into 
which  the  territory  is  divided)  are  held  by  a 
single  judge  of  the  supreme  court.  There  is  a 
probate  court  for  each  county.  The  valuation 
of  property,  according  to  the  United  States 
censuses,  has  been  as  follows : 


YEARS. 

ASSESSED  VALUE. 

True  value 
of  real  and 
personal 
property. 

$5,174,471 
20,818,768 
81,849,798 

Real  estate. 

Personal 
property. 

Real  and 
personal. 

1850 

1860.  .  . 
18TO.  .  . 

$7,018,260 
9,91T,991 

$18,820,520 
7,866,028 

$20,888,780 
17,784,014 

The  total  taxation  in  1870  was  $61,014,  of 
which  $34,115  was  territorial,  $26,101  county, 
and  $798  town,  city,  &c.  There  was  no  terri- 
torial debt  at  that  date.  The  receipts  into  the 
territorial  treasury  in  1874  were  $46,317  82 ; 
expenditures,  $43,361  59.— Prior  to  1871  there 
were  no  public  schools  in  the  territory.  In 
that  year  a  law  was  passed  organizing  a  sys- 
tem of  free  public  schools,  and  placing  them 
under  the  management  of  a  board  of  supervi- 


320 


NEW  MEXICO 


sors  and  directors  for  each  county,  consisting 
of  three  persons  elected  biennially,  with  the 
probate  judge  of  the  county  as  ex  officio  presi- 
dent of  the  board.  The  school  fund  consists 
of  25  per  cent,  of  the  entire  tax  on  property, 
a  poll  tax  of  $1  on  every  male  citizen  above 
the  age  of  21  years,  and  any  "surplus  of  more 
than  $500  in  the  treasury  of  any  county  after 
paying  the  current  expenses  of  such  county." 
The  statistics  of  the  schools  for  1873  are  as 
follows : 


"3 

*! 

a  o 

CLASS  OF  SCHOOLS. 

H 

! 

| 

&^s 

08    O  'far, 

J» 

Income. 

Public  schools  supported 
by  taxation. 

183 

5,625 

186 

w 

$29,721  57 

Private  schools  

26 

1,370 

53 

94 

27,100  00 

Pueblo  schools      

6 

107 

7 

6 

4,000  00 

Total          

164 

7,102 

196 

$60,821  57 

Of  the  public  schools,  10  were  taught  in  Eng- 
lish, 111  in  Spanish,  and  12  in  both  languages. 
The  Pueblo  schools  were  all  English.  Of 
those  classed  as  private  several  are  conventual 
and  other  Catholic  schools;  7  were  English 
and  19  mixed.  According  to  the  census  of 
1870,  the  number  of  schools  of  all  kinds  was 
44,  with  72  teachers,  1,798  pupils,  and  an  in- 
come of  $29,886.  In  the  same  year  there 
were  116  libraries  with  39,425  volumes,  of 
which  83  with  29,805  volumes  were  private. 
Of  those  not  private,  24  were  church  libraries, 
with  3,250  volumes ;  3  Sabbath  school,  760 ;  2 
school,  college,  &c.,  1,200;  2  court  and  law, 
210;  1  territorial,  4,000;  and  1  circulating, 
200.  The  number  of  church  organizations 
was  158,  with  152  edifices,  81,560  sittings,  and 
property  to  the  value  of  $322,621.  Of  these, 
152  organizations,  with  149  edifices,  80,710 
sittings,  and  property  to  the  value  of  $313,321, 
were  Roman  Catholic.  There  were  also  a 
Baptist,  a  Methodist,  a  Presbyterian,  and  three 
Episcopal  organizations.  In  1874  one  daily 
(English  and  Spanish)  and  11  weekly  (5  Eng- 
lish and  6  English  and  Spanish)  newspapers 
and  one  semi-monthly  periodical  were  pub- 
lished.— New  Mexico  was  among  the  earliest 
of  the  interior  portions  of  North  America  vis- 
ited by  the  Spaniards ;  and  distant  as  it  is  from 
the  sea,  the  adventurous  spirit  of  that  people 
led  them  here  nearly  a  century  before  the  Eng- 
lish had  landed  on  the  shores  of  New  England. 
Alvar  Nunez  (Cabeca  de  Yaca),  with  the  rem- 
nant of  those  who  accompanied  Narvaez  to 
Florida,  reached  New  Mexico  before  1537, 
and  made  a  report  to  the  viceroy  of  Mexico  of 
what  they  saw.  The  expedition  of  Marco  de 
Niza  followed  in  1539,  and  that  under  Coro- 
nado  the  next  year.  The  latter  traversed  the 
country  N.  of  the  Gila  occupied  by  the  Pue- 
blo Indians,  and  pushed  his  way  eastward 
beyond  the  Rio  Grande  to  the  country  of  the 
cibola,  or  bison,  and  is  the  first  who  speaks 
of  that  animal,  which  he  calls  "  a  new  kind  of 


ox,  wild  and  fierce,  whereof  the  first  day  they 
killed  fourscore,  which  sufficed  the  army  with 
flesh."  The  great  prairies  and  desert  plains 
of  New  Mexico  are  so  truthfully  described  by 
Castaneda,  the  historian  of  the  expedition,  that 
no  doubt  remains  of  his  having  crossed  the 
entire  country.  In  1581  other  adventurers 
under  Capt.  Francisco  de  Bonillo  reached  the 
country,  and  on  their  return  made  known  the 
mineral  wealth  existing  there,  which  caused 
the  name  of  New  Mexico  to  be  applied  to  it. 
About  this  period  Agustin  Ruiz,  a  Franciscan 
missionary,  entered  the  country,  and  was  soon 
after  murdered  by  the  Indians.  A  more  suc- 
cessful official  of  the  government  was  Don  An- 
tonio Espejo,  who  took  with  him  a  body  of 
men  to  protect  the  missions.  The  viceroy  of 
Mexico  sent  Juan  de  Onate  to  take  formal  pos- 
session of  the  country  in  the  name  of  Spain, 
and  to  establish  colonies,  missions,  and  forts 
there.  The  year  of  his  arrival  is  by  some  wri- 
ters stated  to  be  1595,  by  others  1599.  The 
missionaries  met  with  great  success  in  Chris- 
tianizing the  native  tribes.  The  Pueblo  In- 
dians were  more  ready  to  adopt  the  new  faith 
than  the  roving  tribes ;  and  it  is  a  singular  fact 
that  on  rediscovering  some  of  these  Pueblos, 
when  they  had  been  without  any  priest  for 
nearly  a  century,  many  of  the  Christian  rites 
and  doctrines  were  found  among  them,  though 
strangely  blended  with  their  own  religion. 
Espejo  found  the  people  considerably  advanced 
in  civilization.  They  wore  garments  of  cot- 
ton of  their  own  manufacture.  Their  arms 
were  large  bows,  and  arrows  terminated  with 
sharp-pointed  stones ;  their  long  wooden  swords 
were  also  armed  with  sharp  stones.  They  car- 
ried shields  made  of  the  raw  hides  of  bisons. 
Some  of  the  people  lived  in  stone  houses  sev- 
eral stories  high,  the  walls  of  which  were  or- 
namented with  pictures;  these  lived  in  the 
valleys  and  cultivated  the  soil.  In  the  villages 
were  seen  a  great  many  idols,  and  in  every 
house  was  a  chapel  dedicated  to  some  evil  ge- 
nius. Ofiate  is  said  by  historians  to  have  been 
the  most  successful  of  all  the  officials  sent  to 
New  Mexico.  Many  new  missions  were  estab- 
lished, mines  were  opened  and  worked,  and 
the  country  was  in  a  flourishing  state.  But 
the  enslavement  of  the  Indians  by  the  colo- 
nists, who  compelled  them  to  labor  in  the 
mines,  was  too  much  for  them  to  bear.  They 
made  several  ineffectual  efforts  to  rid  them- 
selves of  their  oppressors,  and  finally  in  1680 
drove  out  the  Spaniards,  and  recovered  the 
whole  country  as  far  south  as  El  Paso  del 
Norte.  It  was  not  until  after  several  attempts 
that  the  Spaniards  regained  possession  of  the 
country  in  1698.  In  1846  Santa  Fe  was  taken 
by  a  United  States  force  under  Gen.  Kearny, 
who  soon  after  conquered  the  whole  territory 
from  Mexico.  In  1848  it  was  ceded  to  the 
United  States  by  the  treaty  of  Guadalupe  Hi- 
dalgo. A  territorial  government  was  organ- 
ized by  the  act  of  Sept.  9,  1850.  The  region 
S.  of  the  Gila  river,  known  as  the  Gadsden 


NEW  MILFOED 


NEW  ORLEANS 


321 


purchase,  was  obtained  from  Mexico  by  the 
treaty  of  Dec.  30,  1853,  and  was  annexed  to 
New  Mexico  by  the  act  of  Aug.  4,  1854.  The 
territory  then  contained,  besides  the  region 
within  its  present  limits,  the  whole  of  Arizona 
and  a  portion  of  Colorado  and  Nevada.  The 
tract  (about  14,000  sq.  m.)  E.  of  the  Rocky 
mountains  and  between  the  37th  and  38th  par- 
allels was  annexed  to  Colorado  by  the  act  of 
Feb.  28,  1861.  Arizona  was  set  off  by  the 
act  of  Feb.  24,  1863;  and  by  the  act  of  May 
5,  1866,  the  N.  W.  corner  of  Arizona  was  an- 
nexed to  Nevada.  The  question  of  the  ad- 
mission of  New  Mexico  as  a  state  has  several 
times  been  before  congress.  At  the  close  of 
the  43d  congress,  March,  1875,  a  bill  for  its 
admission  failed  to  become  a  law. — See  "New 
Mexico,  her  Natural  Resources  and  Attrac- 
tions," by  Elias  Brevoort  (Santa  F6,  1874). 

NEW  MILFORD,  a  town  of  Litchfield  co.,  Con- 
necticut, on  the  Housatonic  river  and  railroad, 
40  m.  W.  by  S.  of  Hartford;  pop.  in  1870, 
3,586.  The  principal  village,  on  the  left  bank 
of  the  river,  is  neatly  laid  out  with  wide  and 
well  shaded  streets,  has  a  handsome  common, 
and  is  supplied  with  pure  water.  It  has  a 
national  bank,  a  savings  bank,  a  weekly  news- 
paper, a  court  room  for  the  sessions  of  the 
district  court,  four  churches,  and  about  25 
stores.  It  is  the  centre  of  the  tobacco  trade 
of  the  entire  valley,  and  has  10  warehouses; 
it  also  contains  manufactories  of  paper,  but- 
tons, and  woollen  cloths. 

NEW  ORLEANS  (Fr.  La  Nbuvelle  Orleans),  the 
capital,  chief  city,  and  commercial  metropolis 
of  Louisiana,  the  ninth  city  of  the  United 


States  in  point  of  population,  nearly  coexten- 
sive with  the  parish  of  Orleans,  situated  on 
both  banks  (but  chiefly  on  the  left)  of  the 
Mississippi  river,  100  m.  above  its  mouth,  and 
960  m.  in  a  direct  line  S.  W.  of  Washington ; 
lat.  of  custom  house,  29°  57'  N.,  Ion.  90°  W. 
The  river  here  has  a  general  E.  and  W.  direc- 
tion. The  older  portion  of  the  city  is  built  on 
the  left  bank,  on  the  convex  side  of  a  bend 
of  the  river,  from  which  circumstance  it  de- 
rives its  familiar  sobriquet  of  the  "Crescent 
City."  In  the  progress  of  its  growth  up  stream, 
it  has  now  so  extended  itself  as  to  follow  long 
curves  in  opposite  directions,  so  that  the  river 
front  on  the  left  bank  presents  an  outline  some- 
what resembling  the  letter  S,  and  11  or  12 
m.  in  extent.  The  city  includes,  on  the  left 
bank,  the  town  of  Carrollton,  formerly  belong- 
ing to  the  parish  of  Jefferson,  and  the  whole 
of  the  parish  of  Orleans,  except  the  portion 
lying  between  Bayou  Chef  Menteur  and  the 
Rigolets  pass ;  and  on  the  right  bank,  the 
town  of  Algiers.  The  greater  portion  of  this 
region  is  not  built  up,  but  consists  of  mar- 
ket gardens,  swamps,  canebrakes,  and  bayous. 
The  boundaries  of  the  city  on  the  left  bank 
are :  on  the  west,  the  upper  line  of  Carrollton 
and  the  line  of  the  old  Jefferson  and  Lake 
railroad;  on  the  north,  Lake  Pontchartrain ; 
on  the  east,  Bayou  Chef  Menteur ;  and  on  the 
south,  Lake  Borgne,  Bayou  Bienvenu,  Fisher's 
or  Fisherman's  canal,  and  the  Mississippi.  On 
the  right  bank,  Algiers  is  bounded  N.  E.  by  the 
Mississippi  river  and  by  the  line  of  Ptolemy 
street,  running  southeasterly  (nearly  as  a  con- 
tinuation of  Canal  street  on  the  left  bank), 


New  Orleans. 


and  by  other  lines  zigzagging  more  easterly, 
and  terminating  at  Point  Becka  on  the  Mis- 
sissippi. That  portion  of  the  parish  of  Or- 
leans, which  alone  has  not  been  included  in 
the  city  consists  of  a  series  of  islets  called  Les 
Petites  Coquilles,  from  the  extent  to  which 


small  shells  enter  into  the  composition  of  their 
soil.  These  islets  surround  a  body  of  water 
from  Lakes  Pontchartrain  and  Borgne  which 
is  called  Lake  Catharine.  At  the  Pontchar- 
train end  of  the  Rigolets  pass,  on  one  of  these 
islets,  stands  Fort  Pike;  on  another,  at  the 


322 


NEW  ORLEANS 


Lake  Borgne  and  of  the  Rigolets,  stands  Fort 
Macomb.  Near  the  western  border  of  Bayou 
Chef  Menteur  stands  Fort  Wood.  Fort  Pike  is 
in  lat.  30°  10'  N.,  Ion.  89°  38'  W.,  about  30  m. 
from  the  centre  of  the  drainage  sections  of  the 
city.  Fort  Wood  is  in  lat.  30°  8'  N.,  Ion.  89° 
51'  W.  Fort  Macomb  is  about  6  m.  S.  E.  of 
Fort  Pike,  and  is  virtually  if  not  actually  aban- 
doned. Fort  Pike,  being  surrounded  by  salt 
water,  is  healthy,  while  Fort  Wood,  standing 
in  the  midst  of  marshes,  is  very  insalubrious. 
From  the  western  boundary  of  the  city  to  the 
northeastern  (that  is,  from  Carrollton  upper 
line  to  Bayou  Chef  Menteur)  the  distance  is 
about  22  m. ;  greatest  breadth,  at  the  N.  E.  ex- 
tremity, nearly  10m.;  breadth  from  the  lake  to 
the  river,  in  the  drainage  sections,  Y£  m. ;  least 
breadth,  from  Lake  Pontchartrain  to  Bayou 
Bienvenu,  about  5  m. ;  total  area  of  the  pres- 
ent statutory  city,  about  150  sq.  m.  The  actual 
city,  however,  is  comprised  within  the  drainage 
sections,  of  which  not  more  than  one  half  is 
closely  inhabited,  while  the  other  half  comprises 
much  that  is  but  barely  redeemed  from  original 
swamp.  These  sections  cover  an  area  of  26,026 
acres,  or  about  40$-  sq.  m.  They  are  bounded 
by  lines  which  have  been  run  for  a  contem- 
plated protection  levee,  and  by  the  river.  The 
W.  line  is  the  upper  line  of  the  city  from  the 
river  to  the  lake,  a  distance  of  nearly  5J  m. ; 
the  N.  line  skirts  the  shore  of  the  lake  for 
nearly  4£  m. ;  the  E.  line  is  irregular,  running 
from  the  lake  to  the  river,  a  total  distance  of 
about  7|  m.  It  is  proposed  to  make  this  pro- 
tection levee  sufficiently  broad  at  the  top  to 
form  a  good  road.  On  the  lake  shore  consid- 
erable progress  has  already  been  made,  the 
levee  along  the  river  having  long  since  been 
built.  The  region  enclosed  by  these  lines  is 
lower  than  the  surface  of  the  Mississippi  at 
high  water,  and  besides  has  a  slight  general 
declination  toward  the  lake.  Somewhat  further 
back  than  its  centre  it  is  crossed  by  an  irregu- 
larly curved  ridge,  called  the  Metairie  ridge  on 
the  W.  side  of  the  bayou  St.  John,  and  the 
Gentilly  ridge  on  the  E.  side.  Along  these 
ridges  run  a  bayou  and  a  road  bearing  the  same 
name,  but  the  bayou  Gentilly  is  better  known, 
at  least  in  its  eastern  course,  as  the  bayou  Sau- 
vage,  the  name  originally  given  to  it.  The 
bayou  St.  John,  running  southerly,  from  about 
the  centre  of  the  protection  levee  line  along 
the  lake,  for  a  distance  of  nearly  4  m.,  is  contin- 
ued by  the  Carondelet  canal  some  2  m.  further 
in  a  southeasterly  direction  to  what  is  known 
as  the  Old  basin,  which  stands  at  the  end  of 
Toulouse  street,  at  a  distance  of  about  half  a 
mile  from  the  river.  About  two  fifths  of  a 
mile  from  the  W.  extremity  of  the  lake  pro- 
tection line  the  New  Orleans  canal,  generally 
called  the  New  canal,  starts  parallel  to  the 
bayou  St.  John,  and  runs  S.  and  S.  E.  about 
6|-  m.  into  what  is  known  as  the  New  basin  at 
the  end  of  Julia  street,  about  three  quarters  of 
a  mile  from  the  river.  Connected  with  these 
bayous  and  canals  are  a  number  of  others  by 


means  of  which  the  city  within  the  limits  we 
are  considering  is  drained.  Many  new  ones 
are  contemplated,  several  have  lately  been  con- 
structed, old  ones  have  been  lengthened,  deep- 
ened, and  otherwise  improved,  and  some  use- 
less or  objectionable  ones  have  been  filled  up. 
By  the  bayou  St.  John  and  the  New  canal 
small  vessels  bring  large  quantities  of  articles 
from  Mobile,  Pensacola,  the  lake  shores,  and 
their  vicinities.  These  are,  besides  some  cot- 
ton, principally  lumber,  shingles,  sand,  shells, 
bricks,  tar,  oysters,  wood,  charcoal,  fire  clay, 
and  garden  produce.  As  many  as  50  or  60  ves- 
sels have  been  seen  in  the  basins  at  the  same 
time.  Some  of  these  are  large  schooners,  and 
a  few  small  stern- wheel  steamboats  have  plied 
among  them.  North  of  the  Metairie  bayou, 
near  the  western  protection  levee  line,  was  the 
famous  Metairie  race  course ;  and  south  of  the 
bayou,  somewhat  nearer  the  levee  line,  is  the 
Oakland  race  course.  On  the  same  ridge,  be- 
tween the  New  canal  and  the  bayou  St.  John, 
somewhat  nearer  the  latter,  is  the  old  city  park. 
Here  are  numbers  of  fine  large  oaks  and  other 
trees,  as  there  are  also  around  the  race  courses 
and  more  or  less  along  the  whole  ridge.  This 
park  has  never  had  any  proper  attention  paid 
to  it,  and  is  now  but  little  frequented.  A  little 
east  of  the  bayou  St.  John,  on  the  Gentilly 
ridge,  is  a  spot  called  the  fair  grounds,  where 
periodical  fairs,  generally  annual  ones,  are  held. 
There  is  a  race  course  here  also. — The  streets 
of  New  Orleans,  in  width,  length,  and  general 
appearance,  are  second  to  those  of  no  city  of 
its  size.  As  far  back  as  Claiborne  street, 
those  running  in  general  parallelism  with  the 
river  and  with  each  other  present  an  unbroken 
line  from  the  lower  to  the  upper  limits  of  the 
city,  a  distance  of  about  12  m.  Those  at  right 
angles  to  them,  or  rather  to  the  levee,  run  from 
the  Mississippi  toward  the  lake  with  more  regu- 
larity than  might  be  expected  from  the  very 
sinuous  course  of  the  river.  Claiborne,  Earn- 
part,  St.  Charles,  Elysian-fields,  Esplanade,  and 
Canal  streets  are  about  200  ft.  wide,  with  a 
banquette  or  sidewalk  about  12  ft.  wide  on 
each  side,  a  central  portion  25  ft.  wide  bor- 
dered on  each  side  by  a  row  of  trees  and  a  side- 
walk of  ample  width,  and  a  wide  road  between 
this  central  ground  and  each  of  the  main  ban- 
quettes. On  the  central  portion  railroad  tracks 
are  laid  for  several  lines  of  street  cars.  In 
Canal  street  there  are  many  very  fine  stores 
and  some  fine  private  residences.  A  number 
of  streets  are  substantially  paved  with  oblong 
granite  blocks  about  a  foot  square  by  two  feet 
long.  Some  of  them  are  shelled,  and  afford  very 
pleasant  driving ;  but  many  are  unpaved  and 
in  very  wet  weather  scarcely  available,  and  in 
dry  weather  intolerably  dusty.  S.ome  of  the 
finest  streets  in  the  city  are  in  this  condition, 
as  Jackson  street,  and  St.  Charles  street  in  the 
greater  length  of  its  upper  portion.  There  are 
ten  public  squares  in  the  city,  counting  as  such 
Tivoli  circle  and  the  polyhedral  oblong  Coli- 
seum place.  With  the  exception  of  Jackson 


NEW  ORLEANS 


323 


square  and  Douglas  square,  which  are  highly 
cultivated  and  well  kept,  trees  and  lawns  con- 
stitute the  only  horticultural  cultivation  these 
squares  exhibit.  Most  of  them  are  enclosed 
with  iron  railings,  but  some  are  barely  more 
than  in  embryo.  In  Lafayette  square  a  fine 
white  marble  statue  of  Franklin,  of  life  size, 
executed  by  Hiram  Powers,  has  been  erected. 
A  colossal  bronze  statue  of  Henry  Clay,  by 
Hart,  in  Canal  street,  and  that  of  Jackson  in 
Jackson  square,  are  the  only  others  in  the  city. 
All  parts  are  traversed  by  street  railroads,  ex- 
tending in  all  directions  between  the  river  and 
the  ridge,  from  the  upper  to  the  lower  line  of 
the  city.  There  are  over  20  lines,  all  of  which, 
with  one  exception,  have  one  terminus  in  Canal 
street. — Chief  among  the  public  buildings  is  the 
custom  house,  in  which  are  also  the  United 
States  marshal's  office  and  the  post  office.  It 
was  commenced  27  years  ago,  and  is  an  ex- 
tensive and  solid  structure,  covering  a  whole 
square,  and  built  of  massive  blocks  of  granite, 
with  immense  pillars  of  white  marble  and  heavy 
iron  staircases,  and  other  fittings  corresponding- 
ly substantial.  The  post  office,  the  fitting  up  of 
which  has  lately  been  completed,  is  one  of  the 
most  elegant  and  commodious  in  the  country. 
The  St.  Charles  hotel,  covering  half  a  square, 
surpasses  the  custom  house  in  elegance  of  front 
and  of  entrance,  with  its  spacious  balcony  and 
portico,  lofty  and  handsome  Corinthian  pil- 
lars, and  large  and  tasteful  rotunda.  The  city 
hall,  situated  in  St.  Charles  street,  opposite  La- 
fayette square,  is  perhaps  the  most  artistic  of 
the  public  buildings  of  the  city.  It  is  in  the 
Ionic  order,  principally  of  marble,  with  a  wide 
and  high  flight  of  steps  leading  to  an  elegant 
portico  supported  by  eight  columns.  The  mint 
is  in  the  Ionic  order,  covering  about  the  same 
area  as  the  city  hall,  but  not  so  handsome.  No 
coining  has  been  done  there  since  the  war,  but 
congress  has  taken  steps  to  recommence  opera- 
tions. The  United  States  assistant  treasurer  has 
his  office  there.  The  view  presented  by  the  St. 
Louis  cathedral,  and  the  adjacent  court  build- 
ings, with  Jackson  square,  the  open  levee,  the 
river,  and  the  country  on  the  right  bank  in 
front  of  them,  and  the  handsome  row  of  Pont- 
alba  buildings  on  each  of  the  other  sides  of 
the  square,  which  is  beautifully  adorned  with 
evergreen  shrubbery  and  flowering  plants,  with 
the  fine  equestrian  statue  of  Andrew  Jackson 
by  Mills,  and  with  well  kept  shell  walks,  is 
one  of  the  most  interesting  afforded  in  New 
Orleans.  There  are  many  fine  churches,  some 
yet  unfinished,  one  of  which,  a  Catholic  church 
in  Common  street,  promises  to  be  one  of  the 
most  substantial  and  beautiful  in  the  city.  The 
Catholic  church  of  St.  John  the  Baptist,  on 
Dryades  street,  between  Calliope  and  Clio 
streets,  which  was  opened  in  1872,  is  a  very 
elegant  building.  Another  new  place  of  wor- 
ship worthy  of  note  is  the  synagogue  of  Re- 
formed Israelites,  called  the  Temple  Sinai,  in 
Carondelet  street.  Parti-colored  bricks  and 
pointing  give  its  walls  a  light  airy  appearance, 


and  it  has  a  handsome  portico,  flanked  by 
two  towers  capped  with  tinted  cupolas.  The 
Gothic  windows  are  filled  with  beautifully 
stained  glass.  The  old  Gothic  St.  Louis  cathe- 
dral, originally  built  by  Don  Andres  Almo- 
naster  y  Roxas,  burned,  and  rebuilt  in  1850, 
has  often  been  described  and  represented.  It 
has  an  imposing  facade  surmounted  by  a  lofty 
steeple  and  flanked  by  two  towers,  each  sur- 
mounted by  a  smaller  steeple.  Among  the 
others  worthy  of  note  is  the  Jesuits'  church 
of  the  Immaculate  Conception  with  a  college 
attached,  in  Baronne  street,  at  the  corner 
of  Common  ;  St.  Patrick's  church,  in  Camp 
street ;  the  first  Presbyterian  church,  in  Lafay- 
ette square ;  St.  Alphonsus  Catholic  church, 
in  Constance  street ;  and  Trinity  church  (Epis- 
copal), in  Jackson  street,  which  has  lately  been 
much  improved  and  repaired.  There  are  33 
cemeteries,  about  one  sixth  of  which  are  within 
the  inhabited  limits  of  the  city ;  three  are  Jew- 
ish, one  is  masonic,  and  one  odd  fellows'.  A 
number  are  situated  in  Canal  street,  near  Me- 
tairie  ridge,  and  on  this  ridge  adjacent.  The 
old  Metairie  race  course  has  lately  been  pur- 
chased and  joined  to  them,  and  promises  to 
become  one  of  the  most  beautiful  in  the  coun- 
try. Those  without  the  limits  of  the  city  are 
all  more  or  less  beautified  with  magnolia,  cy- 
press, willow,  and  other  trees,  and  with  a 
variety  of  flowering  plants.  The  great  peculi- 
arity of  these  cemeteries  is  that,  from  the  na- 
ture of  the  soil,  which  is  almost  semi-fluid  at  a 
depth  of  2  or  3  ft.,  all  the  tombs  are  above 
ground.  Some  of  these  are  very  costly  and 
beautiful  structures  of  marble,  iron  &c. ;  but 
the  great  majority  consist  of  cells,  superim- 
posed on  each  other,  generally  to  the  height  of 
7  or  8  ft.  Each  cell  is  only  large  enough  to 
receive  the  coffin,  and  is  hermetically  bricked 
up  at  its  narrow  entrance  as  soon  as  the  fune- 
ral rites  have  been  performed.  In  most  in- 
stances a  marble  tablet  appropriately  inscribed 
is  placed  over  the  brickwork  by  which  the 
vault  (or  oven  as  it  is  called  by  many)  is  closed. 
It  is  a  general  custom  to  visit  the  cemeteries 
on  All  Saints'  and  All  Souls'  days  (Nov.  1  and 
2)  every  year,  and  to  have  the  tombs  decked 
with  flowers,  garlands,  immortelles,  and  other 
tributes  to  the"  memory  of  the  dead.  Near  the 
Battle  monument,  in  St.  Bernard  parish,  a  na- 
tional cemetery,  wherein  lie  remains  of  deceas- 
ed soldiers  of  the  Union,  has  been  established. 
— New  Orleans  has  been  known  ever  since  its 
foundation  to  have  suffered  much  from  febrile 
diseases,  and  especially  from  yellow  fever. 
Sauvolle,  brother  of  Iberville  and  Bienville, 
founders  of  the  city,  died  of  la  fitore;  and 
numbers  of  colonists  and  troops  died  of  les 
maladies  de  Vete  (summer  diseases  of  febrile 
character).  The  distinction  of  these  from  yel- 
low fever  has  been  argued,  but  by  no  means 
proved.  Apart  from  yellow  fever,  however,  the 
healthfulness  of  New  Orleans  is  not  surpassed 
by  that  of  any  large  city ;  and  including  all  risks, 
the  natives  and  thoroughly  acclimated  residents 


324: 


NEW  ORLEANS 


compare  favorably  with  those  of  any  other 
community  in  respect  of  health  or  longevity. 
Yellow  fever  prevailed  with  some  severity  in 
1799,  and  has  repeatedly  ravaged  the  city  du- 
ring the  present  century.  Some  of  the  most 
memorable  epidemics  were  those  of  1819,  '22, 
'29,  '33,  '35,  '37,  '39,  '41,  '43,  '47,  '53,  '58,  and 
'67.  Even  in  the  most  fatal  seasons  the  na- 
tives and  older  residents  have  been  to  a  great 
extent  exempted,  most  of  the  mortality  oc- 
curring among  strangers  and  foreigners. — The 
population  of  New  Orleans  has  increased  with 
great  rapidity.  In  1769  it  was  3,190;  in  1785, 
4,980;  in  1788,  5,331;  and  in  1797,  8,056. 
According  to  the  federal  censuses  it  has  been 
as  follows:  1810,17,243;  1820,27,176;  1830, 
46,310;  1840,  102,193;  1850,  116,375;  1860, 
168,675;  1870,  191,418,  of  whom  50,456  were 
colored  and  48,475  foreigners.  In  1875  the 
number  of  inhabitants  was  estimated  by  local 
authorities  at  more  than  210,000.  Of  the  total 
inhabitants  in  1870,  90,279  were  males  and 
101,139  females;  there  were  25,941  males  and 
28,657  females  between  the  ages  of  5  and  18, 
and  47,737  males  21  years  old  and  upward,  of 
whom  38,586  were  citizens.  Of  the  foreign- 
ers, 17,361  were  born  in  Great  Britain  (of 
whom  14,693  were  natives  of  Ireland),  15,239 
in  Germany,  8,845  in  France,  1,571  in  Italy, 
960  in  Spain,  936  in  Cuba,  668  in  Switzer- 
land, and  593  in  the  West  Indies,  exclusive 
of  Cuba.  There  were  39,139  families  and 
33,656  dwellings.  Of  the  total  population, 
28,063  attended  school,  of  whom  945  were 
foreign  born  and  5,025  were  colored.  There 
were  28,109  persons  10  years  old  and  upward 
who  could  not  read,  and  31,826  who  could 
not  write,  of  whom  5,450  were  foreigners, 
6,915  white,  and  24,884  colored.  Of  66,092 
persons  10  years  old  and  upward  engaged  in 
all  occupations,  31,235  were  employed  in  per- 
sonal and  professional  pursuits,  17,404  in  trade 
and  transportation,  16,074  in  manufactures, 
mechanical  and  mining  industries,  and  1,319 
in  agriculture.  Since  1870  the  births  have  av- 
eraged about  4,480  per  annum,  and  the  mar- 
riages about  1,860.  The  deaths  in  1867  num- 
bered 9,580;  in  1868,4,838;  in  1869,5,593; 
in  1870,  6,943  ;  in  1871,  5,595  ;  in  1872,  6,122; 
in  1873,  7,505 ;  in  1874,  6,798.— There  are  three 
railroads  connecting  with  northern,  eastern,  and 
western  roads,  running  from  New  Orleans :  the 
New  Orleans,  Jackson,  and  Great  Northern, 
by  Jackson  and  Canton,  Miss.,  Grand  Junction, 
Tenn.,  and  Cairo,  111. ;  the  New  Orleans  and 
Mobile,  by  Les  Petites  Coquilles,  a  bridge  over 
the  Rigolets,  the  watering  places  on  Lake 
Borgne,  and  Mississippi  sound,  Mobile,  and 
roads  running  thence ;  and  Morgan's  Louisiana 
and  Texas  (formerly  the  Opelousas),  crossing 
by  ferry  to  Algiers,  and  running  thence  to 
Brashear,  on  the  Atchafalaya.  There  are  also 
a  railroad  to  Donaldsonville,  crossing  the  river 
by  ferry  and  running  up  the  left  bank;  and 
the  Pontchartrain  railroad,  running  to  the  lake 
and  connecting  by  a  boat  with  Madisonville, 


Mandeville,  Covington,  and  adjacent  points  on 
the  lake.  There  are  steamship  lines  running 
to  Havana  by  Florida  ports,  to  Baltimore  via 
Havana  and  Key  West,  to  Philadelphia  via 
Havana,  to  Florida,  to  New  York  (several 
lines),  to  Boston,  to  Texas  ports,  to  Vera  Cruz, 
to  Liverpool  (several  lines),  to  Havre,  and  to 
Bremen ;  and  others,  including  one  to  Rio  de 
Janeiro,  are  about  being  established.  Inclu- 
ding those  of  the  railroads  and  that  of  the 
"  Slaughter-house  Company,"  seven  ferry  boats 
cross  the  river  at  short  intervals  to  and  from 
various  points  on  the  respective  banks  of  the 
river.  Among  late  improvements  on  the  levee 
is  a  line  of  sugar  sheds,  affording  protection  to 
dealers  in  that  staple.  These,  with  26  cotton 
presses,  20  cotton  pickeries,  40  cotton  brokers, 
20  cotton  buyers,  and  over  100  cotton  factors, 
with  their  various  employees  and  servitors, 
suggest  the  origin  and  ramifications  of  the 
chief  industries  of  New  Orleans.  The  customs 
district,  of  which  New  Orleans  is  the  port  of 
entry,  embraces  nearly  the  entire  valley  of  the 
Mississippi,  with  ports  of  delivery  at  various 

Eoints.  The  direct  foreign  commerce  of  a 
irge  extent  of  country  accordingly  is  trans- 
acted through  this  port.  In  the  value  of  its 
exports  and  of  its  entire  foreign  commerce 
it  ranks  next  to  New  York,  though  several 
ports  surpass  it  in  the  value  of  imports.  The 
entire  sugar  and  rice  crops  of  the  state  are 
brought  here  for  shipment,  while  the  cotton 
crop  of  Louisiana,  most  of  that  of  Mississippi, 
and  much  from  Arkansas  and  Texas,  are  like- 
wise brought  here,  making  New  Orleans  the 
first  cotton  market  in  the  country.  The  num- 
ber of  entrances  in  the  foreign  trade  for  the 
year  ending  June  30,  1874,  was  840,  of  630,- 
940  tons;  clearances,  855,  of  658,513  tons; 
belonging  to  the  port,  574  vessels,  of  91,768 
tons,  of  which  30,  of  19,824  tons,  were  sea- 
going, and  150,  of  37,201  tons,  river  steamers; 
entrances  in  the  coastwise  trade  the  previous 
year,  472,  of  300,879  tons;  clearances,  533,  of 
300,104  tons.  The  value  of  imports  and  exports 
from  and  to  foreign  countries  for  the  eight 
years  ending  June  30, 1874,  has  been  as  follows: 


YEARS. 

Imports. 

Exports. 

1866-'67.  .  . 

$11  142  249 

$35426851 

1867-'68  

11  386  858 

60  175  896 

1868-'69 

11  414  893 

75  890  224 

1869-'70  

14,993  754 

108'l47'847 

1870-71  

19  427  238 

95  246  791 

1871-'72  .. 

18  542  188 

90  802  849 

1872-'>73 

19933844 

104  898  732 

1873-'74  

14,533,864 

98,716,110 

The  sugar  product  from  1870  shows  an  annual 
decrease  in  quantity  and  value,  but  more  serious 
decrease  has  been  felt  at  other  periods.  Be- 
tween 1834  and  1861  the  yield  varied  from 
30,000,000  Ibs.,  valued  at  $2,700,000,  in  1835, 
to  528,321,500  Ibs.,  valued  at  $25,095,271,  in 
1861 ;  during  the  civil  war  it  fell  to  10,780,000 
Ibs.,  valued  at  $1,994,300.  The  product  and 
value  for  four  years  have  been  as  follows: 


NEW  ORLEANS 


325 


1870,    168,878,592    Ibs.,    $14,260,636;    1871, 
146,906,125  Ibs.,  $12,487,020;  1872,  125,346,- 
493  Ibs.,  $10,027,717;  1873,  103,241,119  Ibs., 
$8,122,575.     Similar  fluctuations  are  noticed 
in  the  statistics  of  cotton  from  1860  to  1874: 

YEARS. 

Receipts, 
bales. 

Value. 

YEARS. 

Receipts, 
bales. 

Value. 

i86o-'6i. 

1861-'62. 
1862-'63. 
1863-'64. 
1864-'65. 
1865-'66. 

i866-'67. 

1,849,312 
38,800 
22,078 
131,044 
271,015 
787,886 
780,490 

$92,465,600 
1,769,040 
6,107,082 
46,677,872 
73,820,398 
140,812,185 
97,639,299 

1867-'68. 

i868-'69. 

1869-'70. 
1870-'71. 
1871-'72. 
1872-'73. 
1873-'74. 

668,395 
841,216 
1,207,333 
1,548,136 
1,067,011 
1,382,958 
1,322,106 

$68,510,487 
98,825,025 
120,129,633 
101,015,874 
94,430,473 
116,168,472 
94,530,000 

The  rice  crop  shows  on  the  whole  a  very  large 
increase  during  the  seven  years  from  1867  to 
1874 ;  the  yearly  product  has  been  as  follows : 


YEARS. 

Bbls. 

YEARS. 

Bbls. 

1867-'68    . 

21  663 

1871  '72 

29973 

i868-'69  

1869-70  .  . 

29,960 
57956 

1872-'73.... 

1878-'  74. 

52.206 
96546 

1870-'71  

87,585 

In  corn  there  has  been  an  effort  of  late  years 
to  create  a  large  foreign  trade,  which  has  met 
with  fair  success.  The  exports  to  transatlantic 
ports  in  1873-'4  were,  according  to  one  au- 
thority,-1,034,348  bushels,  against  695,925  in 
1872-'3.  The  total  value  of  the  principal  arti- 
cles received  from  the  interior  from  1863-'4 
to  1873-14  is  shown  in  the  following  table : 


YEARS. 

Value. 

YEARS. 

Value. 

1868-'  64.... 

$79,288,948 

1869-'70.... 

$200  820  496 

1864-'65. 

113,549,285 

1870-'71.... 

170  100  414 

1865-'  66 

201  722  179 

1871-'72. 

169*  756*667 

1866-'67  

168,343,569 

1872-'78  

140*000*000 

1867-'  68. 

127,459,561 

1873-'74... 

170  000  000 

1868-'69. 

167559658 

The  receipts  of  leading  articles  for  1872-'3  and 
1873-'4  were  as  follows : 


ARTICLES. 

1872-'73. 

1873-'74. 

Apples,  bbls.  and  boxes  

118,934 

74298 

Bacon,  casks  and  hhds  
Bacon,  boxes  

40,385 
10,933 

27,985 
7915 

Bacon,  hams,  tcs  

20,401 

18578 

Green  meat,  hhds 

11748 

8849 

Green  meat,  boxes  

Meats,  Ibs  in  bulk. 

3,551 
1,459,208 

8,076 
2  878  974 

Bagging,  pieces. 

7409 

8960 

Butter,  firkins  and  kegs  
Bran,  sacks     

32,152 
191880 

22*344 
117  373 

Beef,  bbls.  and  tcs. 

6769 

9374 

Cotton  seed,  sacks  

889,738 

908993 

Cheese,  boxes    

52330 

88281 

Candles,  boxes 

61  797 

54630 

Coal,  bushels  

5,841,264 

4  948*406 

Corn,  bushels 

1  877  910 

1433472 

Corn,  sacks  . 

1  884  127 

1  316236 

Corn  meal,  bbls  

151,465 

*169'ST3 

Flour,  bbls... 

1,046  124 

1  001  504 

Hides  

439522 

876  073 

Hay,  bales  . 

165698 

152  050 

Lard,  tcs  

50257 

81  683 

Lard,  kegs  

55669 

89  586 

Lime,  bbls.  western. 

49905 

44935 

Malt,  sacks 

55721 

62602 

Molasses,  bbls  

150640 

151*531 

Molasses,  half  bbls.... 

5.340 

5.262 

ARTICLES. 

187S->73. 

ISTS-^. 

Oats,  sacks  

559518 

Onions,  bbls. 

26*260 

Oils,  cases. 

16  788 

Oils,  bbls  

23*203 

OQ  fiflO 

Oil  cake,  sacks 

98'523 

Potatoes,  bbls... 

201*597 

176  420 

Pork,  bbls  

101  324 

76*427 

Shingles,  M... 

6*255 

11*474 

Soap,  boxes 

27*169 

QA'AOO 

Staves,  M  

3967 

4004 

Tallow,  bbls.  and  tcs.  . 

5541 

6827 

Tobacco,  hhds. 

8o'l82 

Ifi  7ft8 

Tobacco,  pkgs.,  manufactured  
"Whiskey,  bbls  

69,045 
51  219 

57,628 
83  163 

Wheat,  bushels,  in  bulk  

725 

823385 

The  following  table  gives  the  shipments  of  a 
number  of  commodities  by  sea  and  to  Mobile 
and  Texas,  during  the  same  period : 


ARTICLES. 

1872-'73. 

1873-'74. 

Bacon,  casks  and  hhds  
Bacon,  boxes  

18,029 
8625 

10,655 
8443 

Bran,  sacks 

42855 

87229 

Coffee  sacks 

82867 

24,756 

Corn,  bushels  

833411 

1  001  630 

Corn,  sacks 

833484 

570  256 

Corn  meal,  bbls  

25,226 

23,182 

Flour,  bbls  

479,747 

476044 

Hides. 

568521 

858  708 

Hay,  bales  

22,842 

15,075 

Hams,  tcs  

5351 

Lard,  tcs 

21518 

18759 

Lard,  kegs  

16,598 

9,528 

Molasses,  bbls  

108,282 

93218 

Oats,  sacks 

160635 

126871 

Oils,  bbls  

87,060 

86,068 

Oil  cake,  sacks  

220,835 

256,985 

Pork,  bbls 

15592 

8762 

Salt,  sacks  

60,682 

21,512 

Staves   ..           

6,514,857 

Sugar  hhds 

15996 

9170 

Sugar,  bbls  

22,596 

21,804 

Tobacco,  hhds. 

19,989 

25,947 

Tobacco,  pkgs.,  manufactured  
Whiskey,  bbls  

28,910 
88,559 

82,782 
27,069 

Wool,  sacks         

12,972 

14,080 

Wheat,  bushels,  in  bulk  

None. 

823,082 

The  manufactures  of  the  city  are  not  exten- 
sive. According  to  the  census  of  1870,  the 
parish  of  Orleans  contained  911  manufacturing 
establishments,  employing  517  steam  engines 
and  5,640  hands;  capital  invested,  $5,751,985; 
amount  of  wages  paid  during  the  year,  $2,554,- 
554 ;  value  of  materials  used,  $4,566,543 ;  of 
products,  $9,980,278.  The  principal  manufac- 
tories in  1875  were  5  of  cotton-seed  oil,  8  of 
sirup  and  cordial,  7  of  tobacco,  3  of  fertili- 
zers, 3  of  vinegar,  13  of  soap,  5  sugar  refine- 
ries, 5  distilleries,  and  15  breweries.  There 
were  also  3  gas  companies,  2  ice-manufactur- 
ing companies,  5  dry-dock  companies  or  firms, 
42  insurance  companies,  23  banking  institu- 
tions, 5  tow-boat  companies,  and  24  custom- 
house warehouses,  arranged  in  four  classes. 
— For  municipal  purposes  the  city  is  divided 
into  seven  districts,  Algiers  constituting  the 
fifth,  Carrollton  the  seventh,  and  the  rest  of 
the  territory  on  the  left  bank  the  other  five. 
It  forms  part  of  the  first  two  congressional 
districts  of  the  state,  and  for  state  legislative 
purposes  is  divided  into  17  representative  dis- 
tricts (in  some  cases  with  adjacent  parishes) 


326 


NEW  OKLEANS 


and  6  senatorial  districts.  The  government  of 
the  city  is  administered  by  a  mayor  and  seven 
administrators  (of  finance,  commerce,  accounts, 
water  works  and  public  buildings,  assessments, 
improvements,  and  police,  respectively)  elected 
by  the  people  for  two  years.  The  salary  of 
the  mayor  is  $7,000  a  year,  that  of  each  of  the 
administrators  $6,000.  Two  coroners  are  elect- 
ed for  the  same  period,  one  serving  in  the  dis- 
tricts below  Canal  street,  the  other  in  those 
above  it  (Algiers,  or  the  fifth  district,  being 
included  in  the  upper),  at  a  salary  of  $5,000 
and  $7,000  each,  respectively.  There  is  no  city 
police  proper,  but  a  body  called  metropolitan 
police,  which  is  virtually  a  state  militia  police 
or  state  police  militia,  under  the  command  of 
the  governor,  includes  in  its  duties  those  of 
policing  the  city.  Its  organization  is  control- 
led by  a  board  of  police  commissioners,  five  in 
number,  appointed  by  the  governor,  and  having 
for  its  president  ex  officio  the  lieutenant  gov- 
ernor, and  the  city  administrator  of  police  as 
a  member  ex  officio.  The  board  appoints  a 
superintendent,  who  ordinarily  commands  the 
force.  A  portion  of  the  body  is  regularly 
mounted  on  suburban  duty,  and  another  por- 
tion is  devoted  to  harbor  duty.  The  annual 
expenditure  for  the  body  is  about  $260,000. 
A  fire  alarm  and  police  telegraph  is  under  the 
control  of  the  police  board.  All  police  expenses 
are  paid  by  a  city  tax.  There  are  ten  police 
stations  in  which  persons  arrested  are  confined 
until  examination.  There  are  five  municipal, 
police,  or  recorders'  courts,  in  which  minor 
offences  are  disposed  of,  and  others  sent  before 
higher  courts.  Of  the  least  grave  of  these  the 
first  district  court  has  cognizance  ;  the  superior 
criminal  court  of  the  more  heinous  ones.  Mi- 
nor offenders  are  confined  in  the  workhouse, 
others  in  the  parish  prison,  and  convicted  fel- 
ons are  sent  to  the  state  penitentiary  in  Baton 
Rouge.  Capital  punishments  are  carried  out 
in  the  parish  prison.  The  recorders  are  ap- 
pointed by  the  governor,  are  paid  by  the  city 
$2,500  per  annum  each,  and  have  to  remit  to 
the  city  all  fines  levied.  The  judges  of  the 
district  courts  receive  a  salary  from  the  state 
each  of  $5,000  per  annum,  except  the  judge  of 
the  superior  district  court,  who  is  paid  $7,500. 
The  civil  administration  of  justice  in  cases  in- 
volving less  than  $100  is  effected  through  eight 
courts  held  by  justices  of  the  peace,  two  in  the 
first  district  and  one  in  each  of  the  other  districts 
of  the  city.  For  amounts  above  $100  there 
are  six  district  courts,  all  sitting  in  the  same 
building,  adjacent  to  the  St.  Louis  cathedral. 
The  judges  and  clerks  of  these  courts  are  elect- 
ed by  the  people  for  four  years.  The  state 
supreme  court  sits  in  New  Orleans  from  No- 
vember to  May,  in  a  building  contiguous  to 
the  St.  Louis  cathedral.  The  United  States 
district  and  circuit  courts  sit  in  the  custom 
house.  The  fire  department  is  an  extensive 
and  influential  organization.  The  city  con- 
'  tracts  with  it  for  the  extinction  of  all  fires, 
which  costs  about  $160,000  a  year.  This  is  all 


devoted  to  the  general  expenses  of  the  asso- 
ciation, the  support  of  widows  and  orphans, 
the  purchase  of  engines,  horses,  hose,  carriages, 
and  other  apparatus,  and  the  erection  and  re- 
pair of  engine  houses,  &c.  The  members  of 
the  association,  with  the  exception  of  the  en- 
gineers, housekeepers,  and  hostlers,  give  their 
services  voluntarily.  There  are  18  engine  com- 
panies, all  of  whom  have  fine  steam  engines, 
besides  four  hook  and  ladder  companies.  Fire 
alarms,  for  which  there  are  more  than  100  sta- 
tions, indicate  the  precise  locality  of  the  station 
from  which  they  are  sent.  The  fire  depart- 
ments in  Jefferson,  Algiers,  and  Carrollton  are 
separate  organizations,  and  have  nine  engines, 
several  of  which  are  hand  machines. — The 
water  of  the  Mississippi  was  introduced  into 
the  city  for  domestic  uses  in  1836.  In  1868 
the  city  assumed  its  reserved  right  of  purcha- 
sing the  works,  paying  for  them  $1,300,000  in 
city  bonds.  They  are  situated  a  mile  and  a 
half  above  Canal  street,  about  200  yards  from 
the  river.  About  11,000  hydrants  and  12,000 
fire  plugs  are  attached  to  them ;  but  many  of 
the  former  are  cut  off  from  supply  in  conse- 
quence of  inability  or  unwillingness  to  pay 
the  rates  charged  for  water  by  the  city.  These 
are  $12  per  annum  for  each  family  of  four, 
and  $1  additional  for  each  additional  inmate. 
Most  of  the  dwellings  are  also  provided  with 
large  cisterns  for  rain  water.  According  to 
the  census  of  1870,  the  assessed  value  of  real 
and  personal  estate  (which  in  1860,  before 
the  recent  additions  to  the  city's  jurisdiction, 
was  computed  at  $125,284,305)  was  $146,718,- 
888;  its  true  value,  $185,625,187.  The  to- 
tal taxation  not  national  was  $4,191,417,  of 
which  $3,050,000  was  imposed  by  the  parish, 
and  $1,141,417  by  the  state.  The  public  debt 
of  the  city  was  stated  to  be  $26,500,000.  The 
state  assessment  rolls  for  1874  show  a  taxation 
of  $1,986,082  52. — Near  Jackson  square  are 
the  several  buildings  constituting  the  French 
market.  Their  extent  and  antique  appearance, 
the  abundance  and  varied  character  of  their 
supplies,  the  number  of  various  races  seen, 
and  the  Babel  of  languages  heard  there,  have 
given  this  market  a  world-wide  fame,  which 
it  still  deserves.  There  are  20  other  mar- 
kets, several  of  which  are  noteworthy  for 
their  neatness,  substantiality,  and  commodious- 
ness.  They  are  farmed  out  by  the  year  to  the 
highest  bidders,  who  reimburse  themselves  by 
the  rents  of  stalls.  For  1875  they  yielded  to 
the  city  about  $260,000.  Besides  these  public 
markets  there  were  three  wholesale  and  about 
80  private  ones,  the  latter  of  which  a  late  act 
of  the  legislature  prohibited.  The  former 
transact  their  business  at  the  abattoir,  con- 
structed by  a  corporate  company  styled  "  The 
Crescent  City  Live  Stock  Landing  and  Slaugh- 
ter-house Company,"  on  a  property  240  acres 
in  extent.  It  is  situated  on  the  leit  river  bank 
adjacent  to  the  lower  line  of  the  city.  The 
establishment  comprises  two  cattle-landing 
wharves ;  12  covered  cattle  pens,  each  having 


NEW  ORLEANS 


327 


an  area  of  over  1,000  sq.  ft. ;  28  open  pens, 
each  with  an  area  of  about  1,125  sq.  ft. ;  18 
other  pens  for  sheep,  hogs,  &c. ;  two  receiving 
pens,  each  of  an  area  of  600  sq.  ft.,  for  cattle 
immediately  to  be  slaughtered ;  a  slaughter 
house  for  cattle  in  22  divisions,  each  of  an  area 
of  800  sq.  ft. ;  a  slaughter  house  for  smaller 
animals  well  supplied  with  hot  as  well  as  cold 
water,  and  covering  an  area  of  21,200  sq.  ft. ; 
and  22  stables.  These  buildings  are  separated 
from  each  other  by  wide  and  well  constructed 
causeways,  and  are  lofty  and  airy.  Attached 
to  them  are  two  steam  engines  by  which  a 
plentiful  supply  of  water  is  commanded  and 
the  fluid  offal  is  pumped  off,  covered  hide  vats, 
an  apparatus  for  the  rapid  curing  of  hides,  and 
a  Barbarin  patent  gas  apparatus  for  lighting 
the  whole  establishment.  Several  dwellings 
and  other  buildings  are  also  comprised  within 
the  property  of  the  slaughter-house  company. 
The  average  number  of  cattle  slaughtered  is 
about  1,000  a  day  in  winter  and  about  TOO  in 
summer.  The  slaughtering  of  any  of  these 
animals  elsewhere  within  the  city  limits  is 
prohibited  by  law.  An  inspector,  appointed 
by  the  governor,  examines  all  cattle  killed 
and  certifies  to  their  fitness  for  food. — The 
Howard  association  is  one  of  the  most  promi- 
nent charitable  bodies  in  the  world,  in  view  of 
the  wide  extent  of  its  operations,  the  immense 
amounts  it  has  disbursed,  and  the  vast  number 
of  patients  it  has  succored.  Its  special  mission 
has  been  to  labor  for  the  relief  of  sufferers 
in  epidemics,  particularly  of  yellow  fever  and 
cholera.  In  these  cases  its  operations  have 
extended  to  every  city  and  district  in  the 
south  which  has  been  afflicted.  In  seasons  of 
epidemic  infliction  it  has  been  the  depositary 
of  contributions  from  all  parts  of  the  country 
as  well  as  from  the  citizens  of  New  Orleans. 
The  hospitals,  infirmaries,  and  asylums  in  the 
city  are  some  55  in  number.  Prominent  among 
them  are  the  H6tel-Dieu  and  Charity,  Luzen- 
berg,  and  smallpox  hospitals;  the  Orleans, 
Touro,  and  Circus  street  infirmaries ;  the  Jew- 
ish widows'  and  orphans'  home;  and  the 
John  McDonogh  asylum.  The  Charity  hos- 
pital, founded  by  Don  Andres  Almonaster  y 
Eoxas  in  1784,  is  widely  known.  It  has  stood 
on  its  present  site,  in  Common  street,  since 
1832,  affording  a  refuge  to  an  average  of  500 
or  600  patients  in  ordinary  seasons,  and  to 
nearly  or  quite  double  the  number  in  others. 
Its  domestic  management  is  in  the  hands  of  the 
sisters  of  charity.  It  depends  almost  or  entire- 
ly upon  state  appropriations,  and  hitherto  has 
been  well  supported.  The  Hotel-Dieu,  half  a 
mile  further  back  from  the  river,  is  a  very  fine 
hospital  established  by  the  sisters  of  charity, 
and  supported  entirely  by  receipts  from  pa- 
tients, some  of  whom  are  nevertheless  bene- 
ficiary. It  occupies  a  full  square,  and  is  sur- 
rounded by  a  well  kept  garden  of  shrubbery 
and  flowers.  Other  prominent  institutions  are 
the  Poydras  female  orphan  asylum,  in  Maga- 
zine street,  in  the  sixth  district,  the  St.  Anna's 


widows'  asylum,  the  St.  Vincent's  orphan  asy- 
lums, the  indigent  colored  orphan  asylum,  the 
convent  de  la  Sainte  Famille  for  colored  wid- 
ows, and  the  German  Protestant  asylum.  The 
Touro  almshouse,  founded  by  Judah  Touro, 
was  burned  during  the  civil  war  by  colored 
troops  who  had  occupied  it.  Unsuccessful 
efforts  have  been  made  to  induce  congress 
to  grant  an  appropriation  for  the  restoration 
of  the  buildings.  Besides  the  relief  afforded 
through  the  various  channels  already  noticed, 
much  more  is  derived  from  the  freemasons, 
odd  fellows,  and  numerous  similar  societies. 
— To  almost  all  the  churches  Sunday  schools 
are  attached,  and  a  large  proportion  of  them 
have  also  regular  day  schools  connected  with 
them.  The  Catholic  church  schools  are  very 
largely  attended,  the  charges  being  very  low, 
and  in  many  cases  entirely  remitted.  The  pub- 
lic schools  in  the  city  are  under  state  control, 
although  the  city  is  called  upon  to  pay  the 
taxes  by  which  they  are  supported,  amount- 
ing at  present  to  $360,000  a  year.  The  state 
board  of  education,  consisting  of  the  state  su- 
perintendent and  six  division  superintendents, 
appointed  by  the  governor  on  the  state  super- 
intendent's recommendation,  elect  18  directors 
for  the  city,  who  choose  the  assistant  superin- 
tendent, secretary,  assistant  secretary,  teachers, 
porters,  &c.  There  are  nearly  80  schools,  inclu- 
ding one  boys'  high  school  and  two  girls'  high 
schools.*  The  other  schools  are  of  five  grades. 
There  are  employed  on  the  average  425  teach- 
ers, of  whom  about  nine  tenths  are  females. 
The  salaries  vary  from  $2,400  a  year  for  the 
principal  and  $1,500  for  associates  in  the  boys' 
high  school,  to  an  average  of  $T66  for  teachers 
in  the  lowest  grade.  Teachers  in  the  first  grade 
of  grammar  schools  get  $1,500.  There  are 
very  few  private  schools  of  any  importance  ex- 
cept those  attached  to  religious  bodies,  and  the 
great  majority  of  others  are  for  young  ladies. 
The  Peabody  normal  institute  is  supported 
from  a  fund  bequeathed  for  such  purposes 
by  George  Peabody.  The  Straight  university, 
founded  by  Mr.  Seymour  Straight,  is  exclusive- 
ly for  colored  students.  It  has  a  corps  of  six 
teachers  and  an  average  attendance  of  100  stu- 
dents. Its  instruction  is  of  good  grammar  school 
grade.  There  are  separate  schools,  both  public 
and  private,  for  colored  pupils ;  and  a  few  col- 
ored pupils  have  been  admitted  into  some  of  the 
public  schools  which  are  nominally  exclusive- 
ly attended  by  white  pupils.  Yet  the  general 
opposition  to  "mixed  schools"  is  very  deep- 
seated  and  resolute  in  the  minds  of  the  white 
population.  The  "  Agricultural  and  Mechanical 
College,"  founded  under  a  congressional  grant 
of  scrip  for  over  200,000  acres  of  land,  opened 
in  May,  1874,  is  a  thoroughly  "mixed  school." 
As  yet  nothing  has  been  taught  in  practical 
agriculture  or  mechanics.  It  has  been  estab- 
lished in  one  of  the  university  buildings  in  the 
city,  and  has  a  professor  of  mathematics,  a 
professor  of  chemistry,  a  tutor  in  mechanical 
drawing,  and  a  tutor  in  modern  languages  and 


328 


NEW  ORLEANS 


history.  The  board  of  control  have  taken 
steps  for  a  permanent  location  of  the  college 
at  Ohalmette,  St.  Bernard  parish,  on  land  be- 
longing to  the  state,  to  be  added  to  by  the 
purchase  of  adjacent  property  on  which  there 
are  suitable  buildings.  They  report  in  Janua- 
ry, 1875,  actual  assets  to  the  amount  of  $240,- 
300  77,  and  further  contingent  assets  to  the 
amount  of  $170,800,  making  a  total  of  $411,- 
100  77.  The  state  university  comprises  only 
two  departments,  law  and  medicine,  but  both 
of  these  are  of  very  high  order,  and  are  very 
largely  patronized,  especially  the  medical  de- 
partment, which  during  the  past  several  years 
has  had  an  annual  average  of  nearly  200  stu- 
dents and  of  about  65  graduates.  The  state 
constitution  requires  a  literary  department  to 
be  connected  with  the  university,  but  the  legis- 
lature has  hitherto  neglected  to  provide  for  it. 
Children  are  sent  to  Virginia,  to  the  north,  or 
to  Europe  for  a  higher  education.  A  dental  col- 
lege exists,  but  has  not  many  students.  There 
are  four  commercial  colleges.  There  is  an 
academy  of  sciences,  founded  in  1853,  but  it 
has  suffered  from  lack  of  encouragement  and 
support.  To  some  of  the  educational  establish- 
ments there  "are  libraries  attached,  as  to  the 
Straight  university  and  the  boys'  high  school ; 
but  these  are  very  limited  in  extent  and  char- 
acter. There  is  a  library  belonging  to  the 
city  and  another  to  the  state,  which  are  still 
respectable,  but  very  far  from  what  they  have 
been.  The  state  library  was  removed  and 
greatly  damaged  by  neglect  and  pilfering  du- 
ring the  war.  Some  of  the  clubs  of  the  city 
have  small  libraries.  There  are  a  few  good 
private  libraries,  but  they  have  shared  the 
common  fate. — There  are  about  20  clubs  in 
the  city,  prominent  among  which  are  the  Bos- 
ton, the  Pickwick,  the  Shakespeare,  and  the 
Jockey  clubs.  The  Jockey  club  has  a  beauti- 
ful house  and  highly  decorated  and  cultivated 
grounds,  on  property  purchased  from  the  fair 
grounds.  The  Shakespeare  club  gives  occa- 
sional dramatic  performances  which  are  al- 
ways largely  and  fashionably  attended.  The 
existing  theatres  properly  so  called  are  the  St. 
Charles,  the  Varieties,  the  academy  of  music, 
the  opera  house,  and  the  National  or  Globe. 
Of  these,  the  St.  Charles  and  the  academy  are 
th'e  only  two  which  have  been  able  to  con- 
tinue in  operation  with  success  during  the 
late  unprosperous  times.  Besides  the  theatres 
there  are  a  score  or  more  of  halls  in  which  en- 
tertainments of  various  kinds  are  given.  The 
principal  of  these  are  the  masonic  hall  in  St. 
Charles  street,  odd  fellows'  hall  and  St.  Pat- 
rick's hall  in  Camp  street,  opposite  Lafayette 
square,  exposition  hall  in  St.  Charles  street, 
and  Griinewald  hall  in  Baronne  street,  be- 
tween Canal  street  and  the  university  buildings. 
The  lyceum  hall  in  the  city  hall,  which  was 
built  for  such  purposes,  has  been  transformed 
into  public  offices.  Among  the  societies  which 
have  been  formed  for  the  purpose  of  festival 
celebrations  are  that  known  as  the  "  King  of 


the  Carnival"  or  "Rex,"  in  which  an  effort 
was  made  to  merge  all  others,  the  "Mistick 
Krewe  of  Comus,"  the  "  Twelfth  Night  Revel- 
lers," and  the  "  Knights  of  Momus."  From 
Christmas  to  Lent  these  various  associations 
give  entertainments  and  processions  through 
the  streets,  with  a  gaiety  and  universal  en- 
joyment unequalled  elsewhere  in  the  United 
States,  and  culminating  in  a  display  of  profusion 
and  abandon  on  Mardi  gras  or  Shrove  Tues- 
day which  have  made  them  widely  famous. — 
There  are  in  New  Orleans  7  daily  (1  French 
and  1  German),  1  semi-weekly,  and  12  week- 
ly newspapers,  besides  a  monthly  and  a  bi- 
monthly periodical.  The  number  of  churches 
is  142,  viz. :  Baptist,  22 ;  Congregational,  8 ; 
Episcopal,  12 ;  Evangelical  Protestant,  5 ;  Jew- 
ish, 6 ;  Lutheran,  4 ;  Methodist  Episcopal,  22 ; 
Methodist  Episcopal,  South,  11 ;  Presbyterian, 
12 ;  Roman  Catholic,  38 ;  Swedenborgian,  1 ; 
Unitarian,  1. — The  site  of  New  Orleans  was 
surveyed  in  1717  by  De  la  Tour ;  it  was  settled 
on  in  1718,  but  abandoned  in  consequence  of 
overflows,  storms,  and  sickness ;  resettled  in 
1723,  held  by  the  French  till  1769,  then  by 
the  Spanish  till  1801,  and  by  the  French  again 
till  1803,  when,  with  the  state,  it  was  ceded 
to  the  United  States.  It  was  incorporated  in 
1804,  and  in  1836  it  was  divided  into  three 
municipalities,  each  with  a  separate  govern- 
ment; but  in  1852  these  municipalities  were 
consolidated,  and  the  limits  of  the  corporation 
were  extended  to  include  the  town  of  Lafay- 
ette, lying  in  the  adjacent  parish  of  Jefferson. 
In  1870  (before  the  census)  Algiers  was  inclu- 
ded within  the  city  limits,  and  by  the  same  act 
the  corporation  was  extended  over  the  entire 
parish  of  Orleans  on  the  left  bank,  except  Les 
Petites  Coquilles,  which  are  said  to  have  been 
omitted  through  a  misapprehension  in  regard 
to  the  legal  boundaries  of  the  parish.  The 
city  of  Jefferson,  Jefferson  parish,  was  also  an- 
nexed by  this  act,  and  in  1874  Carrollton  was 
added  from  the  same  parish.  New  Orleans 
was  made  the  capital  of  the  state  by  the  con- 
stitution of  1868.  The  most  memorable  event 
in  the  history  of  New  Orleans,  from  its  trans- 
fer to  the  United  States  to  the  breaking  out  of 
the  civil  war,  was  the  battle  on  Jan.  8,  1815, 
for  an  account  of  which  see  JACKSON,  ANDREW. 
The  battle  was  fought  on  the  plains  of  Chal- 
mette  in  the  parish  of  St.  Bernard,  4  m.  from 
the  city,  where  stands  an  unfinished  marble 
monument. — New  Orleans,  being  the  largest 
city  of  the  south,  its  principal  shipping  port, 
and  the  commercial  entrepot  of  the  valley  of 
the  Mississippi,  was  of  great  importance  during 
the  first  two  years  of  the  civil  war.  Its  popu- 
lation mainly  sympathized  with  the  movement 
for  secession,  and  directly  after  the  passage  of 
the  South  Carolina  ordinance  the  city  came 
practically  into  the  hands  of  the  state  authori- 
ties, who  took  possession  of  the  forts  below, 
which  commanded  the  passage  of  the  Missis- 
sippi, and  on  Feb.  1,  1861,  seized  the  United 
States  mint  and  custom  house ;  and  soon  after 


NEW  PHILIPPINES 


NEWPORT 


329 


the  city  was  occupied  by  a  considerable  con- 
federate force.  Plans  for  its  recapture  were 
at  once  formed  by  the  federal  government; 
but  the  first  definite  action  took  place  in  Feb- 
ruary, 1862,  when  a  combined  naval  and  mili- 
tary force,  under  Commodore  Farragut  and 
Gen.  Butler,  was  sent  thither.  The  main  ob- 
stacle to  its  advance  was  Forts  Jackson  and 
St.  Philip,  on  opposite  banks  of  the  Missis- 
sippi, about  83  m.  below  New  Orleans.  They 
were  supposed  to  be  very  strong,  and  there 
was  a  considerable  fleet  stationed  above  them ; 
but  on  April  24  Farragut  succeeded  in  passing 
the  forts  and  destroying  the  vessels  above. 
Passing  up  the  river,  he  met  little  opposition, 
and  reached  New  Orleans,  which  was  entirely 
commanded  by  his  fleet.  He  then  demanded 
the  formal  surrender  of  the  city.  The  confed- 
erate military  force  had  been  withdrawn,  and 
the  civil  officers  declared  that  they  had  no  au- 
thority to  make  a  formal  surrender;  but  it 
was  agreed  that  Farragut  should  take  peaceful 
possession.  In  the  mean  while  the  forts  be- 
low, which  Farragut  had  merely  passed,  were 
given  up,  and  on  May  1  Butler  took  formal 
possession  of  New  Orleans  as  military  gover- 
nor. He  ruled  the  city  with  great  vigor  un- 
til Dec.  14,  when  he  was  superseded  by  Gen. 
Banks.  Since  the  close  of  the  war  the  city 
has  been  the  scene  of  several  disturbances, 
growing  mainly  out  of  the  conflicting  preten- 
sions of  the  two  parties  claiming  to  be  the  le- 
gal authorities  of  the  state  of  Louisiana. 

NEW  PHILIPPINES,    See  CAROLINE  ISLANDS. 

NEWPORT,  a  S.  E.  county  of  Rhode  Island, 
consisting  of  a  small  portion  of  the  mainland 


and  several  islands,  including  Rhode,  Canonicut, 
and  Prudence  islands  in  Narragansett  bay,  and 
Block  island,  S.  W.  of  it;  area,  136  sq.  m. ; 
pop.  in  1870,  20,050.  It  has  an  undulating 
surface  and  a  generally  fertile  soil,  and  con- 
tains large  quantities  of  coal.  The  Old  Col- 
ony railroad  terminates  in  Newport.  The 
chief  productions  in  1870  were  92,975  bushels 
of  Indian  corn,  76,980  of  oats,  16,661  of  bar- 
ley, 92,878  of  potatoes,  39,044  Ibs.  of  wool, 
266,775  of  butter,  and  17,229  tons  of  hay. 
There  were  1,426  horses,  3,659  milch  cows, 
1,620  working  oxen,  2,007  other  cattle,  19,930 
sheep,  and  2,615  swine.  The  total  number  of 
manufacturing  establishments  was  184,  with 
a  capital  of  $993,350,  and  annual  products 
amounting  to  $2,346,232.  The  most  impor- 
tant were  1  copper-smelting  establishment,  2 
manufactories  of  cotton  goods,  3  of  furniture, 
1  of  cotton  and  woollen  machinery,  6  of  brick 
and  stone,  10  of  fish  oil,  5  of  tin,  copper,  and 
sheet-iron  ware,  3  of  upholstery,  14  flour  mills, 
and  13  ship  yards.  Capital,  Newport. 

NEWPORT,  one  of  the  capitals  of  the  state 
of  Rhode  Island,  on  the  W.  shore  of  Rhode 
island,  and  on  Narragansett  bay,  5  m.  from 
the  ocean,  and  22  m.  S.  S.  E.  of  Providence, 
in  lat.  41°  29'  N.,  Ion.  71°  19'  12"  W. ;  pop.  in 
1870,  12,521.  It  is  a  port  of  entry,  and  has 
a  fine  harbor,  which  may  be  entered  at  all 
times  without  a  pilot,  and  is  safe,  commodious, 
and  deep  enough  for  the  largest  ships.  It  is 
defended  by  Fort  Adams  on  Brenton's  point. 
The  city  is  on  a  declivity  facing  the  harbor, 
and  contains  a  state  house,  custom  house,  city 
hall,  the  Redwood  library  with  20,000  vol- 


Newport. 


umes,  the  People's  library  (free)  with  15,000 
volumes,  the  masonic  hall,  armory  hall,  and 
numerous  elegant  private  residences.  Its  salu- 
brious climate,  refreshing  ocean  breezes,  fa- 
cilities for  sea  bathing,  and  charming  natural 
scenery  have  rendered  it  one  of  the  most 


popular  summer  resorts  in  the  United  States, 
and  the  visitors  during  the  fashionable  season 
are  numbered  by  thousands.  The  whole  S. 
portion  of  the  island  is  now  dotted  over  with 
villas,  and  there  are  several  large  hotels.  The 
older  part  of  the  city  is  interesting  for  its  quaint 


330 


NEWPORT 


and  picturesque  appearance.  The  "  old  stone 
mill,"  whose  origin  and  purpose  were  once  a 
theme  of  much  learned  discussion,  and  which 
is  still  asserted  by  some  antiquaries  to  have 
been  built  by  the  Northmen  500  years  be- 
fore the  arrival  of  Columbus ;  the  ruined  Fort 


Old  Mill,  Newport. 

Louis,  at  the  entrance  of  the  harbor,  and  its 
surrounding  rocks,  called  "the  Dumplings;" 
Fort  Adams,  one  of  the  most  costly  and  ex- 
tensive fortifications  in  the  Union;  the  "Pur- 
gatory Rocks"  and  "Hanging  Rocks;"  the 
"Spouting  Gave,"  and  "the  Glen,"  are  the 
principal  objects  of  interest.  The  beaches  are 
excellent  for  bathing,  and  for  promenades  at 
low  tide.  Bellevue  avenue,  2  m.  long,  and 
lined  with  villas,  is  at  fashionable  hours  crowd- 
ed with  elegant  equipages;  and  a  fine  drive, 
called  the  "Ocean  drive,"  has  lately  been  laid 
out  along  the  southern  shore  of  the  island. 
A  favorite  resort  is  Touro  park,  given  to  the 
town  by  Judah  Touro,  who  was  born  here. 
The  Jewish  cemetery  and  synagogue  are  still 
carefully  preserved  through  bequests  left  by 
him,  although  there  are  now  no  Jews  to  use 
them.  The  commerce  of  Newport  is  now  very 
limited,  and  its  manufactures  are  almost  con- 
fined to  a  few  cotton  mills,  a  brass  foundery, 
and  lead  works.  The  value  of  imports  for  the 
year  ending  June  30,  1874,  was  $11,135;  of 
exports,  $19,544;  vessels  belonging  in  the  dis- 
trict on  that  date,  135,  tonnage  8,660.  The  city 
is  connected  with  Boston  by  the  Old  Colony 
railroad,  and  daily  steamers  from  New  York  to 
Fall  River,  Mass.,  touch  here. — Newport  was 


settled  in  1638  by  17  colonists  from  Roger 
Williams's  party,  headed  by  William  Codding- 
ton.  The  settlers  were  early  distinguished  for 
their  enterprise  as  merchants  and  navigators, 
and  for  their  activity  in  the  whaling  business. 
As  early  as  1764  their  trade  with  the  West 
Indies  employed  150  vessels,  and  14,000  hhds. 
of  molasses  were  annually  imported,  to  be 
converted  into  rum  for  the  African  market. 
Some  years  before  the  Boston  tea  party  the 
British  armed  sloop  Liberty,  stationed  here  to 
exact  an  odious  tax,  was  burned  in  the  harbor. 
During  the  revolution  8,000  British  and  Hes- 
sian troops  were  quartered  on  the  town,  and 
its  commercial  interests  have  never  recovered 
from  the  injury  which  they  inflicted.  They 
destroyed  480  houses,  robbed  the  library,  then 
the  finest  except  one  in  America,  burned  the 
shipping,  cut  down  all  the  groves  and  orchards 
for  fuel,  and  carried  oif  the  town  records.  Be- 
fore this  period  Newport  had  been  a  favorite 
resort  of  men  of  science  and  letters,  and  was 
noted  for  the  opulence  and  refinement  of  its 
inhabitants.  Bishop  (then  Dean)  Berkeley  re- 
sided here  2£  years,  and  built  a  house  which 
is  still  standing  in  the  adjacent  town  of  Mid- 
dletown.  It  was  here  that  he  composed  his 
celebrated  work,  the  "Minute  Philosopher." 
Commodore  O.  H.  Perry  was  born  near  New- 
port, and  is  buried  there,  with  a  monument  to 
his  memory.  A  bronze  statue  of  his  brother, 
Commodore  M.  0.  Perry,  a  native  of  Newport, 
has  lately  been  placed  in  Touro  park.  It  is  by 
J.  Q.  A.  Ward,  and  has  bass  reliefs  on  the 
pedestal,  representing  Commodore  Perry's  ex- 
ploits in  Mexico,  Japan,  and  elsewhere. 

NEWPORT,  a  city  of  Campbell  co.,  Kentucky, 
on  the  Ohio  river,  immediately  above  the  mouth 
of  the  Licking,  and  opposite  Cincinnati,  63  m. 
N.  N.  E.  of  Frankfort;  pop.  in  1850,  5,895; 
in  1860,  10,046 ;  in  1870,  15,087.  It  is  hand- 
somely built  on  an  elevated  plain  commanding 
a  fine  view,  and  is  ornamented  and  made  at- 
tractive by  numerous  shade  trees.  In  the  city 
and  its  suburbs  are  a  large  number  of  elegant 
residences.  Communication  with  Cincinnati 
is  maintained  by  a  steam  ferry  and  a  splendid 
new  iron  bridge  for  ordinary  travel  and  rail- 
road trains.  There  is  a  suspension  bridge  over 
Licking  river  between  Newport  and  Coving- 
ton,  and  a  street  railroad  running  over  this 
bridge  and  the  Covington  and  Cincinnati  bridge 
connects  the  three  cities.  A  street  railroad 
also  connects  Newport  with  the  two  villages 
of  Dayton  and  Bellview,  situated  on  the  Ohio 
river  above  the  town.  The  Louisville,  Cin- 
cinnati, and  Lexington  railroad  passes  through 
the  city.  It  is  noted  for  its  excellent  schools. 
There  are  several  large  rolling  mills,  iron 
founderies,  saw  mills,  and  various  manufacto- 
ries. The  city  contains  a  bank,  a  United  States 
arsenal  and  military  post,  a  daily  and  weekly 
newspaper,  and  ten  churches.  The  principal 
courts  of  the  county  are  held  here. 

NEWPORT.  I.  A  municipal  and  parliamen- 
tary borough  and  market  town  of  Monmouth- 


NEWPORT 


NEW  SOUTH  WALES 


331 


shire,  England,  on  the  right  bank  of  the  river 
Usk,  about  5  m.  from  its  mouth,  and  20  m. 
S.  W.  of  Monmouth;  pop.  in  1871,  27,069.  It 
is  largely  engaged  in  ship  building,  and  has 
several  iron  founderies,  nail  works,  and  manu- 
factories of  anchors,  chain  cables,  &c.  There 
is  a  dock  capable  of  admitting  large  vessels. 
In  1872  there  entered  the  port  2,573  Brit- 
ish vessels,  tonnage  279,159,  and  363  foreign 
vessels,  tonnage  91,429;  cleared,  8,110  Brit- 
ish vessels,  tonnage  718,063,  and  566  foreign 
vessels,  tonnage  179,868.  The  imports  of  for- 
eign and  colonial  merchandise  were  valued  at 
£362,245,  the  exports  at  £2,233,770 ;  the  gross 
amount  of  customs  duties  was  £51,374.  The 
town  is  connected  with  Gloucester  and  Cardiff 
by  railway,  and  with  Pontypool  by  railway 
and  the  Monmouthshire  canal.  Of  the  castle  of 
Newport,  which  is  supposed  to  have  been  built 
by  the  earl  of  Gloucester,  a  son  of  Henry  I., 
only  a  square  tower  and  a  part  of  the  great 
hall  remain.  In  1839  it  was  the  scene  of  the 
chartist  insurrection  for  which  John  Frost  and 
others  were  found  guilty  of  high  treason  and 
transported  for  life.  II.  A  municipal  and  par- 
liamentary borough  of  Hampshire,  England,  in 
the  isle  of  Wight,  on  the  left  bank  of  the  river 
Medina,  which  is  navigable  for  small  vessels, 
18  m.  S.  S.  E.  of  Southampton;  pop.  in  1871, 
8,522.  Lace  and  agricultural  implements  are 
manufactured. 

NEWPORT,  Christopher,  one  of  the  founders  of 
the  colony  at  Jamestown,  Va.  He  commanded 
the  three  vessels  which  carried  out  in  1606  the 
first  settlers  of  that  colony,  and  was  one  of  the 
council  appointed  by  the  king  for  governing 
the  province.  After  visiting  Powhatan  with 
Capt.  John  Smith  and  others,  he  returned  to 
England  in  June,  1607.  He  came  back  the 
next  year  with  supplies  and  120  emigrants, 
chiefly  goldsmiths  and  gentlemen,  "packed 
hither,"  says  Smith,  "by  their  friends  to  es- 
cape ill  destinies."  As  their  object  was  gold, 
"  there  was  no  talk,  no  hope,  no  work,  but  dig 
gold,  wash  gold,  refine  gold,  load  gold ;"  and 
some  yellow  mica  having  been  discovered  near 
the  present  site  of  Richmond,  Newport  filled 
his  vessels  with  it  under  the  impression  that  it 
was  gold,  and  carried  it  to  England.  He  sub- 
sequently returned  to  Virginia  in  the  fleet  con- 
veying Lord  Delaware  and  the  new  charter  to 
the  colony,  but  was  wrecked  in  the  Bermudas, 
where  they  built  a  vessel  with  which  they 
reached  their  destination.  Newport's  "Dis- 
coveries in  America"  was  first  published  in 
vol.  iv.  of  ArcJicBologia  Americana,  in  1860. 

NEW  PROVIDENCE,  one  of  the  Bahama  isl- 
ands, near  the  centre  of  the  group,  and  con- 
taining Nassau,  the  seat  of  government ;  pop. 
about  9,000.  It  is  17  m.  long  from  E.  to  W., 
and  7  m.  broad.  It  was  colonized  by  the  Eng- 
lish in  1629,  and  twice  taken  from  them  by 
the  Spaniards,  but  finally  restored  at  the  peace 
of  1783.  It  is  more  hilly  than  most  of  the 
other  islands  of  the  group,  has  some  fertile 
land,  and  produces  good  fruits. 


NEW  ROSS,  a  parliamentary  borough  of  Ire- 
land, partly  in  Wexf  ord  and  partly  in  Kilkenny 
county,  on  the  Barrow,  2  m.  below  its  junc- 
tion with  the  Nore,  73  m.  S.  S.  W.  of  Dublin ; 
pop.  in  1871,  6,738.  The  river,  which  admits 
vessels  of  600  tons  to  discharge  at  the  quay  at 
all  times  of  the  tide,  and  those  of  800  at  high 
springs,  is  crossed  by  an  iron  bridge,  with  a 
draw.  The  town  has  a  fever  hospital,  dispen- 
sary and  lying-in  hospital,  union  workhouse, 
and  barracks.  Above  and  below  the  town  is 
an  important  salmon  fishery,  in  which  more 
than  800  men  are  employed. 

NEWRY,  a  parliamentary  borough  and  river 
port  of  Ireland,  on  the  borders  of  the  counties 
of  Down  and  Armagh,  on  the  Newry  water 
and  canal  and  the  Dublin  and  Belfast  junction 
railway,  34  m.  S.  W.  of  Belfast,  and  57  m.  N. 
of  Dublin ;  pop.  in  1871,  14,181.  There  are 
two  Roman  Catholic  churches,  one  of  which  is 
the  cathedral  of  St.  Patrick,  Dromore,  two  con- 
vents, and  several  Protestant  churches.  The 
chief  manufactures  are  linen,  cotton,  iron,  beer, 
and  cordage;  and  there  are  numerous  mills, 
distilleries,  and  potteries.  Extensive  water 
works  have  recently  been  erected.  The  town 
exports  large  quantities  of  butter,  grain,  and 
cattle.  Its  principal  trade  is  with  Liverpool 
and  Glasgow,  but  it  has  also  some  foreign  com- 
merce. The  river,  which  is  here  crossed  by 
four  stone  bridges,  admits  vessels  of  600  tons 
to  the  town  and  of  1,000  tons  6  m.  below.  The 
imports  in  1872  were  valued  at  £368,835,  and 
the  exports  at  £20,180. 

NEW  SOUTH  WALES,  a  British  colony  occu- 
pying the  S.  E.  part  of  Australia,  stretching 
along  the  S.  Pacific  ocean  from  Cape  Howe  to 
Point  Danger,  bounded  N.  by  the  colony  of 
Queensland,  E.  by  the  Pacific,  S.  by  the  colony 
of  Victoria,  and  W.  by  the  interior  territory 
of  the  colony  of  South  Australia.  It  extends 
between  lat.  28°  and  37°  30'  S.,  and  Ion.  141° 
and  154°  E.  Its  greatest  length,  E.  and  W.,  is 
about  780  m. ;  greatest  breadth,  N.  and  S.,  620  m. 
The  area,  according  to  an  official  statement,  is 
323,437  sq.  m. ;  according  to  a  planimetric  cal- 
culation, believed  to  be  more  correct,  308,560. 
The  population  according  to  the  census  of 
April  2,  1871,  was  503,981 ;  on  Jan.  1,  1873, 
it  was  officially  computed  at  539,190.  The 
colony  of  Queensland,  extending  from  lat.  26° 
to  30°  S.,  was  formerly  the  Moreton  Bay  dis- 
trict of  New  South  Wales,  and  was  separated 
from  the  latter  colony  in  June,  1859.  In  1873 
New  South  Wales  was  divided  into  118  coun- 
ties, of  which  20,  which  have  been  settled  a 
long  time,  are  called  the  old  counties;  the 
others,  called  the  new  counties,  are  principally 
in  the  interior. — The  coast  line  presents  in 
general  bold  perpendicular  cliffs  of  sandstone, 
occasionally  interrupted  by  low  sandy  beaches, 
some  of  which  stretch  a  considerable  distance 
inland,  and  appear  to  have  been  covered  by 
the  sea  at  no  very  remote  period.  There  are 
numerous  indentations  along  the  shore,  some 
of  which  form  excellent  harbors.  The  most 


332 


NEW  SOUTH  WALES 


important  are  Port  Stephens,  Port  Hunter, 
Port  Jackson,  Botany  bay,  Jervis  bay,  and 
Twofold  bay. — The  principal  ranges  of  moun- 
tains are  the  interior  ranges,  the  great  dividing 
chain,  and  the  coast  ranges.  The  former  lie 
near  the  western  boundary  of  the  colony,  and 
form  the  western  watershed  of  the  Darling 
river;  the  loftiest  elevation  is  Arrowsmith, 
2,000  ft.  The  great  dividing  chain  extends 
throughout  the  whole  length  of  the  E.  and 
S.  E.  coasts  of  Australia,  and  forms  the  main 
watershed  of  the  country.  It  consists  of  seven 
main  branches,  viz. :  the  New  England  range, 
highest  point  Ben  Lomond,  5,000  ft. ;  the 
Liverpool  range,  highest  point  Oxley's  peak, 
4,500  ft. ;  the  Blue  mountain,  Oullarin,  Gou- 
rock,  and  Maneroo  ranges ;  and  the  Muniong 
range,  highest  point  Kosciusko,  7,176  ft.  All 
this  series  is  connected  with  the  Cordillera,  di- 
viding the  E.  and  W.  watersheds.  The  coast 
ranges  lie  E.  of  the  great  dividing  chain,  and 
parallel  to  it  for  a  considerable  distance.  They 
generally  form  the  edge  of  the  elevated  table 
land  upon  which  lies  the  great  dividing  chain. 
The  loftiest  peak  is  Mount  Seaview,  6,000  ft. 
The  space  between  the  mountains  and  the  sea 
has  an  undulating  wooded  surface,  broken  by 
spurs  from  the  mountain  range,  and  in  some 
places  covered  with  dense  brushwood.  The 
ground  to  the  west  continues  rugged  and 
mountainous  for  a  considerable  width,  and 
at  last  assumes  the  form  of  an  elevated  pla- 
teau, a  great  part  of  which  remains  unexplored. 
Several  considerable  rivers  rise  on  the  W.  side 
of  the  mountains,  but  have  only  the  first  part 
of  their  course  in  New  South  Wales.  The 
more  important  are  the  Murray,  Murrumbid- 
gee,  Lachlan,  Darling,  Bogan,  and  Macqua- 
rie.  The  rivers  E.  of  the  mountain  range  are 
mostly  small,  and  many  of  them  are  dry  du- 
ring part  of  the  year.  The  chief  are  the 
Hawkesbury,  Hunter,  Macleay,  Shoalhaven, 
Clarence,  and  Richmond. — The  prevailing  rock 
on  the  E.  side  of  the  mountains  is  sandstone, 
and  on  the  W.  granite.  Much  of  the  sandstone 
belongs  to  the  carboniferous  system,  and  there 
are  several  workable  seams  of  good  coal.  The 
Newcastle  field  on  the  Hunter  river  is  ex- 
cellent, and  contains  five  seams,  two  of  5  ft. 
and  three  of  3  ft.  in  thickness.  This  field  is 
worked  extensively,  and  the  produce,  after 
supplying  colonial  demands,  is  shipped  to  In- 
dia, China,  and  California  to  supply  steamers. 
Several  other  fields  are  known,  and  one  is 
worked  at  Wollongong.  Iron  ore  is  found 
in  many  places,  and  some  of  it  is  worked. 
Rich  copper  ore  is  abundant  in  and  around 
Wellington  district.  Fine  pebbles  are  so 
plentiful  in  the  Hunter  river  that  it  is  sup- 
posed in  some  part  of  its  course  to  flow  over 
rocks  of  jasper,  agate,  opal,  and  chalcedony. 
But  all  these  were  regarded  as  comparatively 
unimportant  after  the  discovery  of  rich  de- 
posits of  gold  in  May,  1851.  Gold  has  since 
been  found  in  numerous  places  throughout  the 
colony,  and  in  the  territories  both  N.  and  S.  of 


it.  Near  the  frontiers  of  Victoria,  particularly 
in  the  counties  of  Wellesley  and  Wallace,  it  oc- 
curs in  several  localities ;  and  N.  of  these  it  is 
met  with  in  several  other  counties,  and  is  found 
on  the  banks  of  the  Macquarie  river.  There 
are  considerable  deposits  about  the  Peel  and  its 
tributaries,  and  also  on  the  Fitzroy  river  some- 
what beyond  the  N.  frontier.  Australia  being 
in  the  southern  hemisphere,  the  seasons  are  the 
reverse  of  ours;  December  is  there  midsum- 
mer, and  June  midwinter.  Summer  extends 
over  December,  January,  and  February;  and 
the  mean  heat  during  these  three  months  is 
about  80°  at  noon,  tempered  by  the  sea  breeze, 
which  begins  to  blow  regularly  along  the  coast 
about  9  in  the  morning,  and  continues  till  even- 
ing. The  whole  colony  is  subject  to  hot  winds, 
which  are  liable  to  happen  three  or  four  times 
during  the  summer,  and  which  blow  from  the 
northwest,  raising  the  thermometer  to  125° 
when  exposed  to  their  influence.  These  winds 
seldom  last  longer  than  a  few  hours,  and  are 
succeeded  by  a  very  heavy  squall  from  the 
south,  generally  accompanied  by  thunder  and 
rain,  cooling  the  atmosphere  immediately.  At 
Sydney  the  average  annual  temperature  is  64° ; 
that  of  spring  being  65°,  of  summer  72°,  of 
autumn  66°,  and  of  winter  55°,  showing  an 
annual  average  range  of  the  thermometer  of 
17°.  The  temperature  of  the  country  above 
the  mountains  is  much  lower,  and  at  some 
places  snow  falls  in  winter.  The  annual  fall 
of  rain  is  52  inches  at  Port  Jackson,  and  62  at 
Port  Macquarie.  Droughts  are  frequent,  but 
the  climate  is  both  healthful  and  agreeable,  and 
its  influence  is  highly  beneficial  in  consumptive 
diseases. — For  5  or  6  m.  from  the  seacoast  the 
country  is  in  general  barren,  the  soil  being 
mostly  composed  of  drift  sand  covered  with  a 
stunted  vegetation.  Some  rich  and  fertile  dis- 
tricts occur  at  intervals.  Further  inland  well 
wooded  and  fertile  valleys  lie  between  the  hills, 
but  the  land  on  the  E.  side  of  the  Blue  moun- 
tains is  as  a  general  rule  much  inferior  both 
for  agriculture  and  pasture  to  that  on  the  W. 
Above  the  range  it  consists  of  a  dry  black  soil, 
covered  with  open  forests  and  luxuriant  her- 
bage. Wheat,  barley,  oats,  rye,  grasses,  maize, 
tobacco,  and  small  quantities  of  cotton,  are  all 
profitably  cultivated  in  different  parts  of  the 
colony;  and  potatoes,  cabbage,  carrots,  par- 
snips, turnips,  peas,  beans,  cauliflowers,  lettuces, 
cucumbers,  pumpkins,  sweet  potatoes,  yams, 
and  plantains  thrive  remarkably  well.  At  Syd- 
ney the  market  is  supplied  with  green  peas  all 
the  year  round ;  very  few  vegetables  degener- 
ate, and  many  are  more  productive  than  else- 
where. Peaches,  apricots,  nectarines,  loquats, 
oranges,  pears,  plums,  figs,  pomegranates,  rasp- 
berries, strawberries,  mulberries,  and  melon? 
attain  great  perfection.  The  N.  districts  pro 
duce  pineapples,  bananas,  guavas,  lemons,  cit- 
rons, and  various  other  tropical  fruits,  while 
W.  and  S.  of  Sydney  the  apple,  currant,  goose- 
berry, and  cherry  are  found  to  grow  well.  In 
1871,  4,152  acres  were  planted  with  the  vine, 


NEW  SOUTH  WALES 


333 


and  the  grapes  are  of  the  finest  quality.  The 
total  number  of  acres  under  cultivation  was 
417,801.  There  were  304,100  horses,  2,014,888 
horned  cattle,  16,278,697  sheep,  and  213,193 
swine.  The  climate  is  particularly  well  suited 
to  all  these  animals.  Horses  are  exported  in 
large  numbers  to  India;  horned  cattle  grow  to 
an  immense  size ;  and  the  wool  of  the  sheep  is 
very  superior.  Asses,  mules,  and  goats  are 
seldom  seen.  The  camel  has  been  introduced 
for  exploring  purposes,  but  has  not  thriven. 
Llamas,  alpacas,  and  vicufias  have  been  intro- 
duced. Domestic  fowl  of  every  description 
thrive  remarkably  well,  and  are  reared  at  small 
expense.  Fish  are  abundant  on  the  coasts; 
and  there  is  a  kind  of  fresh-water  codfish  in 
the  Murray  river  which  weighs  sometimes  as 
much  as  70  Ibs.  Oysters  are  plentiful,  and 
turtles  are  procured  from  the  N.  part  of  the 
colony.  Much  of  the  soil  of  New  South  Wales 
is  very  fertile.  Within  a  few  years  the  im- 
proved agricultural  machines  have  been  intro- 
duced, but  the  attention  of  the  colonists  is  still 
devoted  chiefly  to  the  produce  of  the  pasture 
lands,  wool,  hides,  and  tallow.  In  1871  the 
amount  of  wool  exported  was  48,700,000  Ibs., 
valued  at  £4,700,000.  Very  superior  wines 
are  made,  resembling  Sauterne,  Barsac,  hock, 
and  claret.  In  1873  more  than  200  wine  presses 
were  in  operation.  The  chief  manufactures  are 
leather  and  a  kind  of  woollen  cloth  called  "co- 
lonial tweed,"  which  is  exceedingly  durable  and 
in  high  favor  among  the  settlers.  Sugar  refining 
is  carried  on  to  a  considerable  extent  at  Syd- 
ney ;  and  there  are  extensive  distilleries,  brew- 
eries, various  sorts  of  mills,  f ounderies,  tallow- 
boiling  establishments,  and  docks,  in  different 
places  throughout  the  colony.  The  total  num- 
ber of  manufactories  of  all  kinds  in  1872  was 
6,242.  The  imports  in  that  year  were  valued 
at  £9,208,496,  of  which  £3,569,559  were  from 
the  United  Kingdom  and  the  British  colonies ; 
the  exports  at  £10,447,000,  of  which  £3,710,- 
000  were  to  the  United  Kingdom  and  British 
colonies,  including  wool  to  the  value  of  £2,782,- 
000.  The  exports  included  also  gums,  bark, 
copper  ore,  and  timber.  In  1871, 1,891  vessels 
of  706,019  tons  entered  the  ports,  and  2,123  of 
794,460  tons  cleared.  Four  fifths  of  all  were 
under  the  British  flag.  Gold  in  its  natural 
state  is  subject  to  a  duty  of  2s.  6d.  an  ounce  on 
leaving  the  colony,  and  so  appears  in  the  cus- 
tom-house returns ;  but  the  coined  gold,  hav- 
ing already  paid  this  tax  in  the  shape  of  mint 
charges,  is  allowed  to  pass  free.  Some  of  the 
imports  from  the  neighboring  colonies,  the 
whole  produce  of  the  whale  fisheries,  and  the 
greater  part  of  what  is  received  from  the  South 
sea,  are  merely  transshipped  in  the  ports  of 
New  South  Wales  while  in  transitu  to  other 
parts  of  the  world.  The  first  railway  was  pro- 
jected in  1846,  to  connect  Sydney  with  Mel- 
bourne. In  1872  the  aggregate  length  of  rail- 
ways in  the  colony  was  405  m.  There  are  570 
post  offices.  Sydney  is  the  capital ;  the  other 
principal  towns  are  East  and  West  Maitland, 


Liverpool,  Bathurst,  Goulburn,  Windsor,  New- 
castle, Yass,  Penrith,  and  Paramatta.  There  is 
a  university  at  Sydney,  with  two  affiliated  col- 
leges ;  and  in  1871  the  colony  had  1,450  schools, 
with  2,089  teachers  and  77,889  pupils.  There 
is  a  branch  of  the  London  mint,  which  issues 
gold  coin,  current  in  all  the  neighboring  colo- 
nies and  in  Mauritius,  Ceylon,  and  Hong  Kong. 
The  public  press  includes  three  daily  newspa- 

Eers  and  several  other  periodicals  published  at 
ydney,  and  newspapers  at  Maitland,  Bathurst, 
Goulburn,  and  other  places. — The  government 
of  New  South  Wales  consists  of  a  governor 
appointed  by  the  crown,  an  executive  council 
chosen  by  the  governor,  and  two  houses  of  legis- 
lature, one  nominated  by  the  governor  and 
called  the  legislative  council,  and  the  other 
elected  by  the  people  and  called  the  legisla- 
tive assembly.  No  allowance  is  paid  to  any  of 
these  members,  except  to  those  of  the  ministry 
or  executive  council,  which  is  composed  of  the 
colonial  secretary,  the  treasurer,  the  postmas- 
ter general,  the  solicitor  general,  the  attorney 
general,  and  the  minister  of  lands  and  public 
works.  These  ministers  are  all  required  to 
possess  seats  in  the  house  of  assembly,  and  re- 
tain their  offices  only  so  long  as  they  can  secure 
a  majority  in  this  branch  of  the  legislature. 
The  qualifications  required  for  a  voter  are  that 
he  should  be  a  householder,  or  if  living  in  lodg- 
ings that  he  shall  be  earning  wages  at  the  rate 
of  £100  a  year,  and  that  he  should  have  resided 
six  months  in  the  colony.  All  voters  are  eligi- 
ble to  membership.  The  house  of  assembly, 
composed  of  72  members,  makes  laws  within 
the  colony  not  repugnant  to  those  of  Great 
Britain;  it  regulates  the  revenue,  and  makes 
all  appropriations  for  the  public  service.  Mea- 
sures passed  by  it  do  not  become  law  till  they 
have  been  approved  by  the  legislative  council 
and  the  governor,  who  has  power  to  dissolve 
the  house  at  pleasure.  The  revenue  is  derived 
from  import  duties  and  miscellaneous  taxes, 
and  from  the  proceeds  of  the  sale  of  public 
lands  and  licenses  to  depasture.  In  1872  it 
amounted  to  £2,794,274,  and  the  expenditures 
to  £2,362,482.  For  1874  the  revenue  was 
officially  estimated  at  £3,168,935.  The  public 
debt  on  Sept.  30,  1873,  amounted  to  £10,829,- 
885.— According  to  the  census  of  1856,  barely 
a  third  of  the  population  of  New  South  Wales 
was  born  in  Australia;  about  75,000  were  sup- 
plied by  England  and  Wales,  50,000  by  Ireland, 
16,000  by  Scotland,  5,000  by  Germany,  and 
2,000  by  China.  The  population  now  (1874) 
includes  a  large  admixture  of  Chinese,  many 
Americans,  and  some  of  almost  all  European 
nationalities.  From  1866  to  1872  the  total 
number  of  immigrants  exceeded  150,000,  while 
about  100,000  emigrated.  The  emigration  in- 
cluded 4,917  Chinese,  while  the  number  of 
Chinese  immigrants  was  only  1,520.  The  num- 
ber of  births  in  each  of  the  seven  years  from 
1866  to  1872  was  more  than  double  that  of  the 
deaths,  and  in  1870  and  1871  it  was  three  times 
as  large.  In  appearance  and  character  the  na- 


334: 


NEWSPAPERS 


tive-born  part  of  the  community  bear  a  strong 
resemblance  to  those  of  Anglo-Saxon  descent 
in  the  United  States.  Since  the  establishment 
of  the  colony  in  1787-'8,  the  total  number  of 
convicts  sent  into  it  from  Great  Britain  up  to 
1840,  when  the  importation  ceased,  was  54,383. 
Many  whose  progenitors  came  to  New  South 
Wales  as  prisoners  are  intelligent  and  estima- 
ble members  of  the  community.  Some  of  the 
emancipists,  and  several  of  their  descendants, 
are  among  the  wealthiest  people  in  the  colony. 
The  religious  division  of  the  inhabitants  in  1871 
was  as  follows:  Church  of  England,  229,243; 
Presbyterians,  49,122  ;  Wesleyans,  36,277  ; 
Congregationalists,  9,253;  Roman  Catholics, 
147,627;  Mohammedans  and  other  Asiatic 
creeds,  7,455 ;  the  remainder  belonged  to  vari- 
ous minor  denominations.  For  information 
concerning  the  aborigines,  the  native  animals, 
botany,  geology,  and  history  of  New  South 
Wales,  see  AUSTRALIA.  —  See  Lang's  "New 
South  Wales  "  (new  ed.,  2  vols.,  London,  1875). 
NEWSPAPERS,  printed  sheets  published  at 
stated  intervals,  chiefly  devoted  to  intelligence 
on  current  events.  Newspapers  were  preceded 
in  antiquity  by  the  Roman  Acta  Diurna,  which 
were  daily,  official,  written  reports  of  public 
occurrences ;  and  in  modern  Europe  by  period- 
ical publications  in  manuscript.  Of  the  origin 
of  newspapers  in  England,  Alexander  Andrews 
says  ("History  of  British  Journalism,"  Lon- 
don, 1859) :  "First  we  have  the  written  news 
letter  furnished  to  the  wealthy  aristocracy; 
then,  as  the  craving  for  information  spread, 
the  ballad  of  news  sung  or  recited;  then  the 
news  pamphlet,  more  prosaically  arranged ;  then 
the  periodical  sheet  of  news;  and  lastly  the 
newspaper."  The  first  regular  series  of  week- 
ly newspapers  hitherto  discovered  was  entitled 
"The  Weekly  Newes  from  Italy,  Germanie, 
&c."  (1622).  The  "  English  Mercurie  of  1588," 
long  regarded  as  the  first  printed  English  news- 
paper, was  proved  a  forgery  in  1839  and  again 
in  1850  by  Thomas  Watts  of  the  British  mu- 
seum. Prominently  connected  with  most  of 
the  early  weekly  sheets,  which  appeared  under 
the  name  of  "  Weekly  Newes,"  "  Times  Newes," 
"Newes,"  &c.,  was  Nathaniel  Butter,  who  is 
regarded  as  the  father  of  the  regular  newspa- 
per press.  The  first  attempt  at  parliamentary 
reporting  was  made  in  1641 ;  the  first  adver- 
tisement was  inserted  as  early  as  1648,  and 
the  first  paper  exclusively  devoted  to  advertise- 
ments and  shipping  intelligence  appeared  in 
1657.  The  news  given  in  the  papers  treated 
chiefly  of  foreign  affairs.  Home  politics  were 
scarcely  discussed  till  after  the  abolition  of  the 
star  chamber  in  1641.  Various  partisan  sheets 
were  published  during  the  civil  war,  chiefly 
under  the  name  of  "  Mercuries,"  and  counting 
among  their  most  eminent  editors  Needham, 
Birkenhead,  Digby,  and  Heylin,  the  last  re- 
garded as  the  ablest  of  them  all.  Many  of  the 
papers  were  notorious  for  their  eccentricity 
and  coarseness,  and  still  more  for  their  bitter- 
ness. After  the  restoration  the  censorship  of 


the  newspapers  became  more  stringent.  A 
semi-official  organ,  edited  by  Sir  Roger  L'Es- 
trange,  who  was  the  licenser  of  the  press,  and 
held  for  some  time  a  kind  of  monopoly  of  jour- 
nalism, was  supplanted  in  1665  by  the  "  Ox- 
ford Gazette,"  published  during  the  temporary 
removal  of  the  court  to  that  city  on  the  out- 
break of  the  plague.  On  the  return  of  the 
royal  family  to  the  metropolis  (1666)  it  ap- 
peared as  the  "London  Gazette,"  and,  as  the 
official  organ  of  the  government,  was  placed 
under  the  control  of  the  under-secretary  of 
state.  The  press  was  for  a  long  time  subjected 
to  many  persecutions,  and  the  licensing  act 
was  not  abolished  until  after  the  accession  of 
William  and  Mary.  In  the  mean  time  the  first 
commercial  newspaper,  the  "City  Mercury," 
was  published  in  1675 ;  the  first  literary  paper, 
the  "Mercurius  Librarius,"  in  1680;  the  first 
sporting  paper,  the  "Jockey's  Intelligencer," 
in  1683;  and  the  first  medical  paper  in  1686. 
From  that  year  to  1692,  26  new  journals  sprang 
into  existence,  including  the  first  bearing  the 
title  of  a  reform  paper,  the  "Mercurius  Re- 
formatus;"  the  first  publication  in  the  style 
of  "  Notes  and  Queries,"  the  "  Athenian  Mer- 
cury;" the  first  ladies'  paper,  the  "Ladies' 
Mercury;"  the  first  agricultural  and  an  increas- 
ing number  of  literary  journals.  Daily  news- 
papers did  not  make  their  appearance  until  the 
18th  century.  The  first  daily  morning  news- 
paper was  the  "Daily  Courant"  (1709),  con- 
sisting of  but  one  page  of  two  columns,  and 
containing  five  paragraphs  translated  from  for- 
eign journals.  The  leading  London  weekly 
journals  at  that  time  were  mostly  sold  for  a 
penny ;  Supplements  with  the  latest  news  com- 
manded an  extra  price.  Home  affairs  were 
then  little  discussed;  foreign  news  supplied 
the  staple  of  newspaper  information,  and  cor- 
respondents were  employed  in  the  principal 
cities  of  Europe.  In  1726  appeared  the  first 
number  of  the  "  Craftsman,"  which  obtained 
for  a  time  a  circulation  of  nearly  12,000  copies. 
In  1730  200  half  sheets  a  month  were  issued  in 
London  alone,  besides  daily  and  weekly  jour- 
nals. The  aggregate  number  of  copies  of  news- 
papers sold  in  England  in  1757  was  about 
7,000,000;  in  1760,  9,000,000;  and  in  1767, 
upward  of  10,000,000.  The  "  North  Briton," 
edited  by  Wilkes,  who  was  so  conspicuous  in 
consolidating  the  liberty  of  the  press,  first  ap- 
peared in  1762.  The  "  Englishman,"  established 
in  the  same  year,  attracted  attention  in  1766 
on  account  of  several  of  Burke's  contributions. 
The  letters  of  Junius  began  to  appear  in  1767 
in  the  "Public  Advertiser,"  and  contributed 
powerfully  to  raise  the  political  importance  of 
the  daily  press.  The  leading  daily  journals  of 
London  in  the  latter  part  of  the  18th  century 
were  the  "Morning  Chronicle"  (founded  in 
1769),  the  "  Morning  Post "  (1772),  the  "  Morn- 
ing Herald  "  (1781),  the  "  Times  "  (1 785),  and  the 
"  Morning  Advertiser  "  (1794).  The  "  Times," 
destined  to  eclipse  all  other  English  journals, 
originally  appeared  under  the  name  of  the 


NEWSPAPERS 


335 


"Daily  Universal  Register."    It  was  printed 
and  published  by  John  Walter  of  Printing 
House  square,  who,  in  the  impression  of  Jan. 
1, 1788,  added  to  the  original  n-ame  of  his  jour- 
nal that  of  the  "Times."    Its  circulation  at 
the  beginning  of  this  century  was  only  1,000 
copies  a  day,  while  that  of  several  others  was 
about  4,000.     The  "Morning  Chronicle"  and 
"  Morning  Post "  were  at  this  time  the  most  im- 
portant of  the  London  journals,  and  both  pos- 
sessed great  literary  merit  as  well  as  political 
influence ;  Coleridge,  Southey,  Lamb,  Words- 
worth, and  several  of  their  friends  writing 
for  the  "Post,"  while  Fox  and  Sheridan  were 
among   the   "Chronicle's"   contributors.     In 
1813  there  were  56  journals  in  London,  of  which 
8  were  published  every  morning,  7  every  even- 
ing (the  first  evening  paper  having  been  estab- 
lished as  early  as  1778),  7  every  other  evening, 
16  every  Sunday  (the  first  Sunday  paper  had 
appeared  in  1788),  and  18  weekly  on  other 
days.     The   "Courier"  was  then  considered 
the  best  informed  daily  journal.     The  remark- 
able success  of  the  "  Times  "  was  ascribed  to  a 
firm  attitude  toward  the  government  and  a 
freedom  from  party  ties ;  to  an  efficient  system 
in  securing  the  earliest  transmission  of  news ; 
to  a  constant  care  in  improving  the  mechanical 
resources  of  the  paper,  and  in  securing  the  best 
available  talent;  and  above  all  to  the  applica- 
tion of  steam  power  to  its  printing  press  in 
1814,  the  number  for  Nov.  29  in  that  year  being 
printed  on  one  of  Konig's  newly  invented  ma- 
chines.    In  1815  the  number  of  newspapers  in 
the  United  Kingdom  amounted  to  252,  viz. : 
55  in  London  (15  daily),  122  in  other  parts  of 
England  and  Wales,  26  in  Scotland,  and  49  in 
Ireland ;  and  Cobbett's  weekly  "  Political  Re- 
gister," established  at  the  beginning  of  the  cen- 
tury, was  sold  in  1817  to  the  extent  of  50,000 
copies  a  week.     After  the  close  of  the  Na- 
poleonic wars  the  growth  of  English  journal- 
ism was  exceedingly  rapid,  and  in  the  course 
of  a  decade  the  increase  both  in  the  number 
and  circulation  of  newspapers  was  very  great. 
On  Jan.  29,  1829,  the  "  Times "  came  out  on 
a  double  sheet,  composed  of  8  pages  of  48 
columns.     The  reform  excitement  greatly  in- 
creased the  sale  of  that  and  of  other  journals, 
and  nearly  13,000,000   copies  of  newspapers 
passed  through  the  post  office  in   1830.     In 
1832  there  was  one  newspaper  to  every  55,000 
of  the  population,  against  one  to   90,000  in 
1821,  and  one  to  110,000  in  1782.     The  free 
expression  of   political  opinion  through  the 
press  was  rather  increased  than  checked  by 
the  fact  that  the  editors  of  various  unstamped 
newspapers,  among  them  the  violent  "Poor 
Man's  Guardian,"  were  prosecuted  during  the  - 
discussion  on  the  reform  bill.     In  1833  the 
number  of  journals  published  in  the  United 
Kingdom  was  about  400,  and  of  copies  passing 
through  the  post  offices  of  Great  Britain  and 
Ireland  nearly  42,000,000.— A  new  stimulus 
was  given  to  newspaper  enterprise  in  1836  by 
the  reduction  of  the  stamp  duty  from  four 
599  VOL.  xii.— 22 


pence  to  a  penny,  causing  in  the  first  year  of 
the  full  operation  of  the  new  act  an  increase 
of  8,000,000  in  the  stamps  issued,  and  of  61 
in  the  number  of  newspapers,  which  a  year 
before  the  reduction  was  397,  and  a  year  after- 
ward 458.     Fourteen  of  the  new  journals  were 
established  in  London  alone,  including  a  short- 
lived ultra-liberal  morning  newspaper  called 
"The   Constitutional"   (in  place  of    the  old 
"  Public  Ledger  "),  of  which  Laman  Blanchard 
was  the  editor,  Thornton  Hunt  the  sub-editor, 
Douglas  Jerrold  the  dramatic  critic,  and  Thack- 
eray the  Paris  correspondent.     A  socialist  or- 
gan was  published  by  Robert  Owen,  the  "  New 
Moral  World,"  and  a  Chartist  organ  by  Fear- 
gus  O'Connor,   the   "Northern  Star."      The 
"Economist,"  celebrated  for  its  collections  of 
financial  and  commercial  statistics  and  disqui- 
sitions, was  established  in  1834  by  James  Wil- 
son (died  in  1860),  whose  ability,  first  mani- 
fested in  the  conduct  of  this  journal,  raised 
him  to  the  secretaryship  of  the  treasury.     The 
"Illustrated  London  News,"  the  first  of  the 
great  illustrated  newspapers,  was  founded  in 
1842  by  Herbert  Ingram.     The  stamps  on  news- 
papers in  the  United  Kingdom  increased  from 
65,000,000  in  1843  to  71,000,000  in  1844.     The 
railway  mania  produced  in  London  many  news- 
papers devoted  to  railway  matters,  their  num- 
ber amounting  to  about  30  in  1845,  but  only 
three  of  them  survived  the  crisis  of  1846.     The 
"Daily  News"  was  established  in  1846,  under 
the  editorship  of  Charles  Dickens ;  he  was  soon 
succeeded  by  Charles  Wentworth  Dilke,  who 
established  in  connection  with  it  the  "  Express  " 
evening  journal.     The  "Daily  News"  at  one 
time  enjoyed  a  circulation  second  only  to  that 
of  the  "Times."    The  ordinary  daily  circula- 
tion of  the  latter  rose  from  23,000  in  1846 
to  29,000  in  1848,  and  to  36,000  in  1852.     In 
1854,  during  the  Crimean  war,  its  average  daily 
circulation  was  51,648,  about  double  the  ag- 
gregate of  all  the  other  daily  morning  jour- 
nals, which  was  only  26,268.     The  number  of 
newspaper  stamps  issued  in  1854  in  the  United 
Kingdom  was  about  120,000,000.     In  1855  the 
stamp  duty  was  totally  abolished  as  a  tax, 
making  it  optional  with  the  publishers  to  use 
the  stamp  as  a  means  of  paying  postage  on  such 
copies  of  their  impressions  as  were  to  be  sent 
through  the  mails.      The  five-penny  papers, 
except  the  "Times,"  which  followed  their  ex- 
ample later,  immediately  reduced  their  price  to 
4d.,  the  six-penny  weekly  papers  to  5<?.,  and 
the  three-penny  papers  (which  were  established 
on  the  abolition  of  the  four-penny  tax  in  1836) 
to  2d. ;  while  a  great  number  of  penny  week- 
ly and  daily  papers  sprang  up.     The  prices  of 
the  leading   metropolitan  dailies  have   since 
been  still  further  reduced,  as  will  be  seen  by 
consulting  the  list  given  below ;   but  of  the 
many  new  daily  papers  established  since  1855, 
only  the  "Daily  Telegraph,"  the  "Standard," 
and  the  "  Pall  Mall  Gazette  "  have  taken  a  per- 
manent place  among  the  leading  London  jour- 
nals.   The  following  is  a  list  of  the  principal 


336 


NEWSPAPERS 


daily  newspapers  now  (1875)  published  in  Lon- 
don, with  their  prices  and  some  indication  of 
their  character : 

MORNING    PAPEES. 

TIMES— established  Jan.  1,1788;  Sd. ;  politics  independent; 

DAILY  TELEGRAPH— established  June  2,  1855;  Id.;  politics 
liberal.  Remarkable  for  enterprise  in  collecting  news,  and 
for  its  correspondence. 

STANDARD-nestablished  June  29,  1857;    Id.',    organ  of  the 

DAiLYSNEW8^established  Jan.  21,  1846 ;  Id. ;  politics  lib- 
eral and  independent.  Its  correspondence  and  critical 
articles  have  always  held  a  high  rank. 

MORNING  POST— established  in  1772;  8d.;  politics  liberal- 
conservative  ;  the  chief  fashionable  journal,  devoted  largely 
to  social  topics. 

MORNING  ADVERTISER— established  Feb.  8,  1794;  Sd . ;  poli- 
tics liberal  and  independent;  largely  devoted  to  the  in- 
terests of  merchants  and  tradesmen. 

PUBLIC  LEDGER— established  in  1759 ;  2Jrf. ;  exclusively  com- 
mercial. 

FiNANCiER-established  in  March,  1870;  2eZ.;  financial  and 
commercial. 

DAILY  RECORDER— established  in  November,  1869;  3d. ; 
financial. 

EVENING   PAPERS. 

EVENING  STANDARD— established  in  1827 ;  Id. ;  now  forms 
an  evening  edition  of  the  "  Standard." 

PALL  MALL  GAZETTE— established  in  1865 ;  Id. ;  politics 
liberal;  remarkable  for  literary  ability,  and  in  part  a 
literary  review. 

ECHO— established  in  December,  1868;  JcZ.;  independent; 
general  newspaper. 

GLOBE— established  in  1803;  \d. ;  politics  conservative. 

SHIPPING  AND  MERCANTILE  GAZETTE— established  in  Janu- 
ary, 1836 ;  5d. ;  commercial. 

There  are  also  several  local  daily  papers,  like 
the  "  Daily  Chronicle  and  Clerkenwell  News  " 
and  others,  devoted  to  London  interests  exclu- 
sively, or  to  particular  localities.  The  "  Lon- 
don Gazette,"  the  organ  of  publication  for  offi- 
cial acts,  appointments,  &c.,  appears  twice,  and 
several  other  papers  (in  one  or  two  cases  sum- 
maries of  news  for  the  foreign  mails)  thrice  a 
week.  There  are  more  than  150  weekly  pa- 
pers in  London ;  they  include  "  Punch  "  and 
such  literary  organs  as  the  "  Athenaeum,"  "  Sat- 
urday Review,"  " Spectator,"  "Academy,"  &c., 
and  a  very  great  number  of  papers  devoted  to 
special  branches  of  science  and  art  and  occupa- 
tions and  classes  of  society.  Among  the  week- 
ly papers  which  reach  the  highest  circulation 
are  the  "Illustrated  London  News"  and  the 
"Graphic,"  the  latter  an  illustrated  paper  of 
very  great  artistic  merit.  Both  devote  much 
space  to  the  illustration  of  current  events. — 
French  newspapers  date  their  origin  from  the 
publication  of  the  Mercure  francois  (1605-'45), 
a  kind  of  historical  compilation.  Their  more 
immediate  prototype  was  the  Gazette  issued  by 
Theophraste  Renaudot  in  1631,  and  continued 
under  the  name  of  Gazette  des  Recueils  and 
Gazette  de  France  till  about  1789,  appearing 
generally  once,  and  for  some  time  twice  a 
week,  and  at  length  daily.  A  poetical  news- 
paper, which  chiefly  treated  of  local  gossip  and 
scandal,  was  published  by  Loret  for  about  15 
years  during  the  second  half  of  the  17th  cen- 
tury. The  Mercure  galant  (1672),  a  species  of 
literary  journal,  was  succeeded  by  the  Nou- 
veau  Mercure  and  Mercure  de  France,  which 


was  discontinued  in  1815.  The  Journal  Stran- 
ger, edited  by  the  abbe  Arnaud  and  Frerois, 
and  having  among  its  contributors  Rousseau, 
Grimm,  and  Prevost,  existed  till  1763,  when 
Arnaud  became  one  of  the  editors  of  the  Ga- 
zette de  France.  The  Moniteur,  the  official  or- 
gan of  the  government,  was  founded  in  1789 
and  treated  of  moral  and  political  subjects; 
while  some  of  its  contemporaries,  especially 
the  notorious  Nouvelles  a  la  Main,  contained 
a  budget  of  scandalous  intelligence.  From  the 
close  of  the  17th  century  to  the  middle  of  the 
18th,  many  weekly  and  monthly  journals  were 
published  in  Paris,  chiefly  literary  and  scien- 
tific, with  which  the  most  eminent  men  of 
France  were  connected.  The  first  daily  po- 
litical newspaper  was  the  Journal  de  Paris, 
ou  Poste  du  Soir  (1777-1825).  The  first  polit- 
ical editor  who  attracted  general  attention  was 
Linguet,  who  was  connected  from  1774  till 
1783  with  the  Journal  de  Politique  et  de  Litte- 
rature,  better  known  under  the  title  of  Journal 
de  Bruxelles,  although  it  was  issued  in  Paris. 
The  famous  Gourrier  de  VEurope  was  pub- 
lished in  London  (l776-'89)  twice  a  week  for 
6d.  a  number ;  on  its  staff,  were  Morande,  Bris- 
sot,  and  the  count  de  Montlosier.  The  revo- 
lution gave  a  powerful  impulse  to  French  jour- 
nalism, and  Mirabeau's  Gourrier  de  Provence 
(1789)  became  the  precursor  of  thousands  of 
newspapers  of  every  description,  the  most  vio- 
lent of  which  was  Marat's  Ami  du  Peuple.  Af- 
ter the  18th  Brumaire  all  the  political  journals 
of  Paris  excepting  13  were  suppressed  by  the 
first  consul,  and  under  the  empire  only  five  were 
permitted  to  appear,  viz. :  the  Moniteur,  Gazette 
de  France,  Journal  de  Paris,  Journal  des  De- 
bats  (under  the  temporary  name  of  Journal  de 
V Empire),  and  Petites  Affiches.  The  condition 
of  the  press  did  not  much  improve  after  the 
restoration.  The  censorship  was  replaced  in 
1825  by  securities  to  be  furnished  by  each  pro- 
prietor of  a  Parisian  journal  to  the  extent  of 
200,000  francs,  and  somewhat  less  in  the  prov- 
inces. The  increase  of  the  stamp  duty  from  5 
to  10  centimes  caused  the  price  of  the  leading 
journals  to  be  raised  from  72  to  80  francs  a 
year.  The  Journal  des  Debats  was  originally 
founded  Aug.  29,  1789,  by  the  printer  Bau- 
douin,  Barrere,  and  Louvet,  passed  in  1800  into 
the  hands  of  Louis  FraHCois  Bertin  the  elder, 
and  has  since  remained  the  property  of  the 
Bertin  family.  It  was  conspicuous  for  the 
support  of  existing  authorities,  but  after  the 
restoration  it  advocated  a  moderate  liberalism. 
Its  literary  and  scientific  departments  have 
always  held  the  highest  rank;  and,  besides 
many  others  of  nearly  equal  fame,  it  has  count- 
ed among  its  regular  contributors  Royer-Col- 
lard,  Malte-Brun,  Geoffroy  Saint-Hilaire,  Saint- 
Marc  Girardin,  Jules  Janin,  Michel  Chevalier, 
Philarete  Chasles,  Prevost-Paradol,  and  Hippc 
lyte  Taine.  The  Journal  des  Debats  has  con- 
tinued to  hold  its  prominent  place  through  all 
the  political  changes  of  recent  years,  and  still 
advocates  a  policy  of  moderate  liberalism.  Om 


NEWSPAPERS 


337 


of  the  most  prominent  journals  during  the  lat- 
ter part  of  the  restoration  was  the  Globe,  which 
counted  among  its  contributors  Guizot,  Cousin, 
Jouffroy,  and  the  duke  de  Broglie,  and  after- 
ward Remusat,  Saint-Marc  Girardin,  and  Oar- 
not.  Many  of  its  writers  were  brought  into 
political  prominence  by  the  revolution  of  1830, 
after  which  the  Globe  appeared  for  a  few  years 
as  an  organ  of  St.  Simonism.  The  Constitu- 
tional, established  in  the  early  period  of  the 
restoration,  opposed  the  elder  Bourbons,  and 
reflected  in  a  great  measure  the  views  of  as- 
piring and  influential  politicians  of  the  high- 
er middle  class  and  of  the  military  and  civil 
aristocracy  created  by  Napoleon.  Thiers  and 
Mignet  wrote  largely  for.  this  journal  until 
toward  the  end  of  the  restoration,  when  they 
found  a  more  energetic  outlet  for  their  liberal 
opinions  in  the  National;  and  shortly  after 
the  July  revolution  the  Comtitutwnnel  lost  its 
political  influence.  The  National,  founded  at 
the  beginning  of  1830,  rapidly  gained  impor- 
tance through  the  influence  of  Louis  Philippe, 
Talleyrand,  LafStte,  and  other  opponents  of 
the  elder  branch  of  the  Bourbons;  and  its 
first  editoral  staff  comprised  Thiers,  Mignet, 
and  Carrel.  It  contributed  powerfully  to  the 
overthrow  of  the  government  of  Charles  X., 
soon  after  which  it  became,  under  the  sole  edi- 
torship of  Carrel,  equally  opposed  to  that  of 
his  successor.  Carrel  was  succeeded  by  Bas- 
tide,  and  the  latter  by  Armand  Marrast ;  and 
the  National  took  as  prominent  a  part  in  the 
overthrow  of  Louis  Philippe  as  it  had  in  that 
of  Charles  X.  The  foundation  in  1836  of  the 
Presse,  by  Emile  de  Girardin,  at  40  francs  a 
year,  half  the  price  of  the  leading  journals, 
called  the  cheap  press  into  existence.  A  pow- 
erful means  of  the  success  of  the  Presse  and 
of  the  Siecle,  which  also  reduced  its  price  to 
40  francs,  was  the  publication  of  novels  in  their 
feuilletons,  for  which  the  services  of  Eugene 
Sue,  Alexandre  Dumas,  and  other  celebrated 
writers  were  enlisted  at  extravagant  prices. 
The  fortunes  of  the  Constitutional  were  also 
revived  under  the  editorship  of  Dr.  Veron,  by 
the  reduction  of  its  price,  and  by  the  publica- 
tion in  its  feuilletons  of  Le  Juif  errant,  for 
which  he  paid  Eugene  Sue  100,000  francs. 
Sainte-Beuve  was  for  a  long  time  its  literary 
critic.  Under  the  direction  of  Veron,  the  Con- 
stitutionnel  increased  its  circulation  to  upward 
of  20,000 ;  and  the  general  influence  of  the 
cheap  press,  and  its  handmaid  the  feuilleton, 
increased  the  aggregate  of  subscribers  from 
70,000  in  1835,  when  the  number  of  the  princi- 

Eal  daily  journals  in  Paris  was  20,  to  180,000 
i  1845,  when  there  were  26.  The  Siecle  be- 
came the  favorite  paper  of  the  lower  middle 
classes,  and  reached  in  1846  a  circulation  of 
upward  of  40,000.  Within  three  months  after 
the  revolution  of  1848,  about  400  new  jour- 
nals sprang  into  existence,  many  of  which  were 
ultra  socialistic  or  democratic.  The  principal 
organ  of  the  moderate  republicans  was  still 
the  National,  and  of  the  more  radical  party 


the  Reforme,  founded  by  Godefroy  Cavaignac 
and  edited  by  Flocon.  After  June,  1848,  the 
newspapers  were  again  required  to  deposit  se- 
curity and  pay  stamp  duty,  and  many  were 
consequently  obliged  to  stop.  The  estimated 
daily  circulation  of  newspapers  in  Paris  in  1850 
was:  of  republican  organs,  129,000;  Orlean- 
ist  and  legitimist,  83,000 ;  Bonapartist,  65,000 ; 
total,  277,000.  The  coup  d'etat  of  Dec.  2, 
1851,  terminated  the  existence  of  the  Natio- 
nal, as  well  as  of  many  other  liberal  organs. 
The  restrictions  imposed  under  the  second 
empire  were  extremely  unfavorable  to  the 
growth  of  the  French  political  press,  and 
comparatively  few  new  papers  attained  other 
than  literary  importance  during  the  earlier 
years  of  Napoleon's  rule.  In  1853,  instead  of 
the  former  multitude  of  Parisian  daily  jour- 
nals, there  were  but  14  having  the  slightest 
importance ;  of  these  the  following  are  note- 
worthy :  the  Journal  des  Debate,  Presse,  Siecle, 
Constitutional,  Pays,  Patrie,  Univers,  Assem- 
blee  nationale,  Gazette  de  France,  Union,  and 
Charivari.  The  Moniteur  was  the  official 
journal  till  1869,  when  it  was  replaced  by  the 
Journal  officiel.  Of  later  origin  than  those 
just  named  were  the  Temps,  France,  Avenir 
national,  Opinion  nationale,  Liberte,  Courrier 
franfais,  Epoque,  National,  Paris-Journal, 
the  long  prominent  Gaulois,  and  the  very  suc- 
cessful Figaro.  All  of  these  met  with  some 
success  and  influence,  though  only  the  last  has 
attained  any  remarkable  permanent  position. 
Nearly  all  were  subjected  to  frequent  prosecu- 
tions, and  several  were  suppressed.  It  was 
only  in  the  later  years  of  the  empire  that  the 
political  press  again  became  a  formidable  pow- 
er in  France.  Rochefort's  Lanterne  (1868),  a 
weekly  publication  entirely  devoted  to  attacks 
upon  the  emperor  and  his  party,  marks  an 
epoch  in  the  history  of  French  journalism, 
and  attained  a  most  extraordinary  success  an'd 
influence.  The  Rappel,  Cloche,  Marseillaise, 
Journal  de  Paris,  and  many  other  political 
sheets  sprang  up  and  became  involved  in  end- 
less difficulties  with  the  government ;  but  their 
influence  was  great  and  their  circulation  in 
some  cases  phenomenal.  The  revolution  of 
Sept.  4,  1870,  had  much  the  same  influence 
upon  the  French  press  as  that  exercised  by 
the  proclamation  of  the  republic  in  1848;  call- 
ing into  existence  a  multitude  of  new  papers, 
many  of  which  attained  considerable  tempo- 
rary success  in  spite  of  the  Prussian  siege 
and  the  disturbed  state  of  the  capital.  Such 
were  the  Verite,  Constitution,  Mot  d'Ordre, 
Patrie  en  Danger,  Bien  public,  and  Soir. 
The  communal  insurrection,  largely  excited 
by  and  under  the  partial  guidance  of  jour- 
nalists of  the  revolutionary  order,  gave  rise 
to  an  immense  number  of  popular  journals, 
most  of  them  of  the  most  violent  character; 
but  only  one  or  two  survived  the  downfall  of 
the  commune.  Prominent  among  them  were 
the  Cri  du  Peuple,  Paris  libre,  Sociale,  Bon- 
net Rouge,  Commune,  Affranchi,  Reveil  du 


338 


NEWSPAPERS 


Peuple,  P&re  Duchene,  and  Montague.  Among 
the  more  prominent  journals  which  have  ap- 
peared since  the  suppression  of  the  commune 
and  the  return  of  political  affairs  to  the  or- 
dinary channel,  are  the  Republique  francaise, 
the  Radical  (which  was  suppressed  after  a 
brief  existence),  and  the  XIXIM  Siecle.  In  all, 
Paris  has  791  periodicals,  of  which  113  are 
political,  90  scientific,  78  religious,  58  devoted 
to  fashion,  42  legal,  39  financial,  14  military, 
9  naval,  and  8  architectural. — Italian  newspa- 
pers are  traced  to  the  early  gazzette  of  Ven- 
ice of  the  16th  century,  many  volumes  of 
which  in  manuscript  are  preserved  in  the  Ma- 
gliabecchian  library,  while  one  printed  copy 
dated  1570  is  in  the  British  museum.  In  more 
modern  times  the  principal  newspapers  con- 
sisted at  first  only  of  those  serving  as  official 
organs  of  the  respective  authorities,  as  the  Di- 
ario di  Roma  and  Gazzetta  di  Napoli.  The 
Voce  della  Veritd,  published  in  Modena  (1831), 
was  ultra  conservative;  and  the  Antologia, 
established  ten  years  earlier  in  Florence,  was 
ultra  liberal.  The  total  number  of  Italian 
newspapers  in  1836  was  171 ;  in  1845,  205. 
After  the  accession  of  Pope  Pius  IX.  in  1846, 
Italy  produced  an  enormous  crop  of  new  jour- 
nals, chiefly  revolutionary,  which  were  discon- 
tinued in  1849;  and  with  the  exception  of 
Sardinia,  the  Italian  press  was  again  put  under 
restraint  until  1859-'60.  The  changes  of  those 
years  conferred  an  almost  complete  freedom 
upon  the  whole  Italian  press,  and  called  into  ex- 
istence a  great  number  of  new  political  journals. 
In  1859  the  Turin  Opinione,  which  is  still  an 
important  Italian  journal,  reduced  its  price  to 
one  sou.  With  the  Diritto,  another  important 
paper,  the  Opinione  was  removed  to  Florence 
in  1865,  on  the  removal  of  the  capital  to  that 
city.  Between  that  year  and  1870  Florence 
remained  the  central  point  of  Italian  journalism, 
and  all  parties  were  represented  there  by  polit- 
ical newspapers ;  but  on  the  second  transfer  of 
the  seat  of  government  to  Rome  nearly  all  of 
these  again  removed  thither,  and  are  now  pub- 
lished in  the  new  political  centre.  The  chief 
of  them,  besides  the  Opinione  already  referred 
to,  are  the  official  organ,  the  Gazzetta  ufficiale 
del  Regno  d?  Italia,  and  L'ltalie,  published  in 
French  and  looked  upon  as  the  organ  of  the 
department  of  foreign  affairs. — The  first  regu- 
lar newspaper  in  Spain  was  the  court  journal, 
Diario  d&  Madrid,  established  about  the  middle 
of  the  18th  century.  After  the  establishment 
of  the  liberty  of  the  press  in  1834,  nearly  20 
political  journals  were  started  in  Madrid  alone, 
and  more  than  40  were  published  there  in 
1844,  the  Heraldo  (moderado  organ)  circulating 
7,000  daily.  Satirical  and  humorous  papers 
have  played  an  important  part  in  the  history 
of  Spanish  journalism,  and  many  of  the  ablest 
writers  are  engaged  in  the  conduct  of  literary, 
scientific,  artistic,  and  religious  papers.  About 
30  journals  were  published  at  the  beginning  of 
1861  in  Madrid,  the  most  important  of  which 
were  the  Clamor  publico  and  Espana;  and  in 


1863  the  total  number  in  Spain  was  279,  of 
which  93  were  devoted  to  special  scientific  or 
literary  branches.  After  the  political  reaction 
of  1866  all  the  more  influential  liberal  papers 
were  suspended.  Many  of  them  were  renewed 
in  1868,  but  without  force  or  vigor,  and  suffer- 
ing constant  official  persecution.  At  this  time 
the  Diario  espanol,  Politica,  and  other  jour- 
nals, represented  the  liberal  party;  the  abso- 
lutist organs  were  the  Esperanza,  Pensamiento 
espanol,  Lealtad,  and  several  other  papers;  the 
Espanol  and  Espana  were  ministerial  organs. 
Portuguese  newspapers  are  confined  to  the  or- 
gan of  government,  the  Diario  do  Governo,  and 
some  half  dozen  other  journals  published  in  Lis- 
bon, and  to  a  corresponding  number  in  Oporto 
and  other  cities. — German  newspapers  were 
preceded  by  irregular  publications  of  news,  a 
specimen  of  the  oldest  of  which,  dated  in  1494, 
is  preserved  in  the  university  library  of  Leipsic. 
Summaries  of  events,  generally  in  Latin,  and 
with  such  titles  as  Relationes  Semestrales,  Re- 
lationum  Historicarum  Pentaplus,  &c.,  were 
frequently  published  at  stated  intervals  in  Ger- 
many during  the  16th  century.  The  first  reg- 
ular journal  was  a  weekly  paper  established 
in  1615  by  Egenolph  Emm  el,  a  bookseller  at 
Frankfort,  and  published  at  his  own  expense. 
In  imitation  of  this  the  Frankfurter  Ober- 
postamts-Zeitung,  the  oldest  successful  German 
paper,  was  founded  in  1616  by  the  postmas- 
ter, Johann  von  der  Birghden.  Beginning  as 
a  weekly,  it  was  many  years  later  made  a  daily 
paper,  and  as  such  existed  till  1866.  This  was 
followed  by  newspapers  in  all  the  leading  cities 
of  Germany,  and  by  the  middle  of  the  17th 
century  they  had  become  subject  in  most  cases 
to  government  censorship,  and  generally  con- 
tained little  besides  official  publications.  One 
considerable  journal,  Der  Hamburgische  Cor- 
respondent, was  founded  in  1714;  but  with 
this  exception  the  history  of  the  German  press 
is  unimportant  until  the  period  of  the  French 
revolution,  when  many  political  papers  sprang 
up  in  Germany  as  elsewhere.  The  Vossische 
Zeitung,  still  an  important  journal  of  Berlin, 
and  the  Spener^scJie  Zeitung,  which  held  a 
prominent  place  until  the  year  1874,  when  it 
stopped  publication,  had  been  founded  before 
that  period,  but  were  almost  exclusively  literary 
until  the  events  of  l789-'93.  In  1798  appeared 
at  Tubingen  the  Allgemeine  Zeitung  (now  of 
Augsburg),  destined  to  surpass  in  success  and 
permanence  all  other  German  journals.  It 
was  founded  by  Gotta  the  publisher,  and  was 
at  first  called  Neueste  Weltkunde,  but  almost 
immediately  changed  to  its  permanent  title. 
It  suffered  from  repeated  government  persecu- 
tions on  account  of  its  outspoken  character; 
and  in  1799  it  was  transferred  from  Tubingen 
to  Stuttgart,  in  1803  to  Ulm,  and  in  1824' to 
Augsburg,  the  present  place  of  publication. 
Its  conductors  have  been  successively  Posselt, 
Huber,  Stegmann,  Kolb  and  Mebold,  Kolb  and 
Altenhofer,  and  since  Kolb's  death  in  1865 
Altenhofer  alone.  After  the  beginning  of  the 


NEWSPAPERS 


339 


present  century  the  growth  of  the  German 
press  was  very  rapid,  though  for  a  time  the 
French  rule  prevented  the  existence  of  any 
really  national  school  of  journalism,  and  politi- 
cal papers  of  consequence  only  appeared  after 
1813.  Kotzebue's  Russisch-deutsches  Volksblatt 
(Berlin),  Mebuhr's  Der  Preussische  Correspon- 
dent, Brockhaus's  Deutsche  Blatter,  Gorres's 
Der  Rheinische  Mercur,  and  Der  Deutsche  Beo- 
bachter  of  Hamburg  were  among  the  most 
influential  journals  of  this  period,  though  most 
of  them  were  short-lived.  Vienna  had  at  this 
time  the  Austrian  official  organ,  the  Wiener 
Zeitung,  and  Der  Oesterreichische  Beolachter, 
which  was  regarded  as  semi-official.  In  Ber- 
lin, the  Preussische  Staatszeitung  was  founded 
about  1816.  In  1819  a  decree  of  the  Bundestag 
placed  the  press  throughout  Germany  under 
an  exceedingly  strict  censorship,  and  thus  its 
rapid  increase  was  again  suddenly  checked. 
The  French  revolution  of  1830  gave  a  fresh 
impetus  to  its  progress,  and  called  into  exist- 
ence several  radical  journals,  as  Siebenpfeiffer's 
Westbote,  Wirth's  Deutsche  Tribune,  and  Der 
Freisinnige  by  Rotteck  and  Welcker ;  but  most 
of  them  were  suppressed  in  1833.  Among  the 
ablest  journals  published  between  that  period 
and  the  revolution  of  1848  was  the  Rheinische 
Zeitung,  established  in  Cologne  in  1841,  where 
it  continued  until  1850.  The  increase  from 
1840  to  1848  was  steady  and  moderately  rapid. 
Several  noteworthy  journals  attained  success 
during  this  period,  the  more  important  being 
the  Leipziger  Allgemeine  Zeitung  (begun  in 
October,  1837),  which  in  1843  changed  its  name 
to  that  of  Deutsche  Allgemeine  Zeitung,  and  the 
Kolnische  Zeitung.  The  Bremer  Zeitung  and 
Weserzeitung  also  gained  their  first  importance 
at  this  time.  The  revolution  of  1848  caused 
the  birth  of  a  great  multitude  of  journals,  most 
of  them  of  the  violent  political  order,  and  very 
lort-lived.  In  1849  the  total  number  of  Ger- 
lan  newspapers,  excluding  purely  scientific 
ad  literary  journals,  was  1,551.  This  includes 
the  German  papers  of  Austria,  Switzerland, 
and  the  Baltic  provinces  of  Russia.  From  that 
date  the  number  steadily  increased ;  in  1855  it 
was  estimated  at  1,600,  besides  860  scientific 
and  literary  journals;  and  in  1868  the  number 
of  journals  of  all  kinds  was  2,566,  of  which 
761  were  entirely  political.  The  wars  of  1866 
and  1870-'71,  the  unification  and  rapid  advance 
in  power  of  the  German  empire,  and  other 
causes  have  contributed  to  foster  the  growth 
of  the  German  press.  Its  gain  in  influence 
Europe  has  been  accompanied  by  a  cor- 
responding increase  in  ability,  and  it  is  now 
more  prominent  than  ever  as  a  political  power. 
In  March,  1872,  the  most  trustworthy  statistics 
obtainable  gave  the  number  of  German  jour- 
nals as  follows  (excluding  all  purely  literary 
and  scientific  publications  not  properly  included 
under  the  name  of  newspaper):  in  Prussia, 
951;  Bavaria,  250;  Saxony,  119;  Wurtem- 
berg,  102;  Baden,  72;  Hesse,  53;  Mecklen- 
burg-Schwerin,  51 ;  other  states  of  the  empire, 


145 ;  total,  1,743.  The  principal  dailies  in  Ber- 
lin (1875)  are  the  Vossische  Zeitung,  Vollcszei- 
tung,  Staats'burgerzeitung,  Nationalzeitung, 
Neue  Preussische  Zeitung  (commonly  known 
as  the  Kreuzzeitung),  Nor ddeutsche  Allgemeine 
Zeitung  (semi-official),  Post,  and  Zulcunft 
(democratic).  The  Borsenzeitung  and  Banlc- 
und  Eandelszeitung  are  the  principal  financial 
journals.  The  Staatsanzeiger  and  (since  1871) 
the  Reichsanzeiger  are  official,  corresponding 
to  the  London  "Gazette."  The  Intelligenz- 
llatt  is  an  important  local  sheet,  and  is  the 
favorite  for  advertisements.  Kladderadatsch 
is  a  humorous  weekly  corresponding  to  the 
London  "Punch,"  and  there  are  great  numbers 
of  other  weekly  papers.  In  all,  Berlin  in  1871 
published  175  newspapers,  including  weeklies 
and  similar  periodicals.  Leading  journals  of 
the  empire  outside  of  Berlin  are  the  very  influ- 
ential Augsburger  Allgemeine  Zeitung,  already 
mentioned,  the  Kolnische  Zeitung,  the  Ham- 
burger Correspondent,  the  l)eutsche  Allgemeine 
Zeitung  of  Leipsic,  and  the  Stettiner  Zeitung. 
The  Austrian  press  is  much  inferior  to  that  of 
the  German  empire,  and  has  had  its  growth 
almost  entirely  in  Vienna.  In  1846  there 
were  in  the  whole  territory  of  Austria  but 
155  periodicals  of  all  classes,  and  among  them 
only  41  political  journals,  most  of  which  were 
practically  made  up  from  the  Wiener  Zeitung, 
the  official  government  organ.  The  revolution 
of  1848  called  forth  in  Austria  as  elsewhere 
a  multitude  of  political  newspapers;  but  they 
were  unimportant  and  short-lived.  Only  witj^- 
in  the  last  decade  has  Austrian  journalism  at- 
tained a  greater  influence;  and  this  is  now 
almost  entirely  centred  in  the  Vienna  press. 
The  chief  journals  of  that  city,  besides  the 
official  Wiener  Zeitung,  are  the  Neue  freie 
Presse  (which  in  ability  and  influence  rivals 
the  foremost  journals  of  the  German  empire), 
the  Presse,  and  the  Abendpost ;  and  there  are 
several  cheaper  journals  of  wide  circulation, 
such  as  the  Morgenpost,  Fremderiblatt,  and 
Vorstadtzeitung.  Outside  of  Vienna  are  the 
Bohemia  at  Prague,  the  Mdhrischer  Correspon- 
dent at  Brtinn,  and  the  Triester  Zeitung  at 
Trieste. — The  first  regular  series  of  Hungarian 
newspapers  was  published  in  Latin  in  1721, 
and  the  first  in  the  vernacular  tongue  ap- 
peared in  1781  in  Presburg.  The  principal 
Hungarian  journals  shortly  before  the  revo- 
lution of  1848-'9  were  the  Jelenkor  ("Pres- 
ent Age"),  the  organ  of  Count  Szechenyi, 
Vildg  ("Light"),  Budapesti  h'lradb  ("Buda- 
Pesth  Intelligencer,"  edited  by  Count  Emil 
Dessewffy),  Pesti  hirlap  ("Pesth  Journal," 
edited  by  Kossuth),  and  the  Pesther  Zeitung, 
in  German.  Among  the  most  celebrated  jour- 
nals which  sprang  up  during  the  revolution 
were  the  Kozlony  ("Organ"),  the  revolution- 
ary Moniteur,  and  Kossuth  hirlapja  ("Kos- 
suth's  Journal"),  edited  by  Bajza.  Among 
the  principal  newspapers  which  have  appeared 
in  Hungary  since  the  revolution  are  the  Buda- 
pesti naplo  ("Buda-Pesth  Diary"),  edited  by 


340 


NEWSPAPERS 


Baron  Kemeny,  the  Eon  ("Fatherland"),  edit- 
ed by  Jokai,  and  the  Pesther  Lloyd,  in  German. 
In  1868  the  total  number  of  journals  and  sim- 
ilar periodical  publications  was  205,  53  being 
political;  111  were  printed  in  Hungarian,  29 
in  Slavic  languages,  55  in  German,  6  in  Rou- 
manian, and  4  in  Italian. — The  first  Turkish 
newspaper  appeared  in  French  in  1795,  but 
the  actual  founder  of  journalism  in  Turkey 
was  Alexandre  Blacque  (father  of  Blacque  Bey, 
late  Turkish  minister  to  the  United  States), 
who  established  at  Smyrna  in  1825  the  Spec- 
tateur  d1  Orient,  which,  under  its  subsequent 
title  of  Courrier  de  Smyrne,  exerted  consid- 
erable influence  during  the  Greek  revolution. 
The  official  journal  has  appeared  in  French 
since  1831  under  the  title  of  Moniteur  Otto- 
man, and  in  Turkish  since  1832  under  that  of 
Taquimi  Vaqdi.  The  leading  Constantinople 
journals  are  now  the  Journal  de  Constantino- 
ple in  French,  the  Dyeridei  ffavadis  in  Turk- 
ish, and  the  "Levant  Herald"  and  "Levant 
Times  "  in  English;  besides  which  several  other 
papers  in  French,  Italian,  modern  Greek,  and 
Armenian  are  published  in  various  parts  of 
the  Ottoman  empire.  A  modern  Syrian  news- 
paper has  been  published  by  missionary  enter- 
prise since  1850  at  Oroomiah.  Armenian  jour- 
nals have  existed  at  various  periods  in  Vienna, 
Venice,  Transcaucasia,  Calcutta,  Madras,  and 
Singapore,  some  of  which  are  still  in  existence. 
— The  origin  of  Greek  newspapers  dates  from 
the  national  independence.  The  centre  of  Greek 
journalism  is  Athens.  The  number  of  period- 
icals published  in  Greece  is  more  than  80,  of 
which  about  75  are  in  the  Greek  language. 
The  leading  political  journal  of  Athens  is  the 
Spectateur  d"1  Orient,  a  semi-monthly  journal 
published  there  in  French  since  1852.  There 
are  journals  published  at  Syra,  and  in  the 
Ionian  islands ;  there  are  several  publications 
in  English  and  Italian  as  well  as  in  Greek. — 
Newspapers  were  established  in  the  Low  Coun- 
tries before  they  were  known  in  Great  Britain, 
France,  or  Germany.  The  earliest  appears  to 
have  been  the  Nieuwe  TydingJien,  published  at 
Antwerp  by  Abraham  Verhoeven  in  1605.  No 
copy  of  this  journal  anterior  to  1619  is  now 
known  to  exist,  and  it  is  somewhat  uncertain 
whether  it  was  from  the  beginning  a  regular 
periodical.  It  was  followed  by  the  Port-Ty- 
dingJien,  which  was  published  between  1637 
and  1644,  and  was  the  foundation  of  the  Ga- 
zette van  Antwerpen,  which  continued  till  1827. 
At  Brussels  at  least  two  newspapers  were  in 
existence  between  1637  and  1645.  The  Annales 
politiques  of  that  city  was  a  famous  journal 
of  the  last  century,  and  the  Austrian  govern- 
ment subscribed  for  1,200  copies  of  it  annu- 
ally. It  was  so  popular  that  a  pirated  edition 
was  regularly  printed  and  circulated.  The 
most  noted  Belgian  journals  at  the  present 
day  are  the  Moniteur  beige,  the  official  paper, 
the  Independance  beige,  an  organ  of  the  liberal 
party,  and  Le  Nord,  a  Russian  organ,  published 
in  Brussels,  and  conducted  with  much  abil- 


ity. Independent  newspapers  are  the  ficho  de 
Bruxelles  and  the  Journal  de  Belgique,  both 
published  at  Brussels.  Holland  has  numerous 
newspapers,  but  none  of  much  political  im- 
portance. The  principal  ones  are  the  Han- 
delsblad  of  Amsterdam,  the  Courant  of  Haar- 
lem, and  the  Staats  Courant  and  the  Journal 
de  la  Haye,  both  published  at  the  Hague. — In 
proportion  to  its  population,  Switzerland  has 
a  more  productive  periodical  literature  than 
almost  any  other  European  nation;  and  the 
Swiss  political  and  general  press  is  especially 
flourishing.  In  1868  there  were  375  journals 
of  all  classes,  of  which  246  were  printed  in 
German,  116  in  French,  and  13  in  Italian. 
Most  of  these  papers  are  circulated  in  small 
neighborhoods,  discuss  local  affairs,  and  have 
little  political  influence;  but  a  few,  such  as 
Der  Bund  in  Bern,  the  Neue  Zuricher  Zeitung, 
the  Journal  de  Geneve,  and  the  Gazette  de 
Lausanne,  are  more  widely  known  and  read. 
— Peter  the  Great  took  a  personal  part  in 
the  establishment  of  the  first  Russian  journal, 
published  at  Moscow  in  1703.  Journals  ap- 
pearing once  or  twice  a  week  are  published  in 
almost  every  chief  city  of  the  Russian  govern- 
ments ;  but  the  principal  seats  of  Russian  jour- 
nalism are  St.  Petersburg  and  Moscow.  There 
is  no  journal  in  Russia  which  corresponds  ex- 
actly to  the  French  Moniteur.  The  "  Gazette 
of  the  Senate  "  is  official  in  regard  to  the  pub- 
lication of  laws,  ukases,  and  other  regulations 
of  a  strictly  administrative  character.  Other 
official  organs  are  the  Journal  de  St.  Peters- 
lourg,  published  in  French,  for  information  in 
regard  to  the  imperial  court  and  to  foreign 
affairs,  and  the  "Northern  Post,"  concerning 
the  interior  administration.  During  the  reign 
of  Nicholas  the  "Northern  Bee"  had  con- 
siderable influence.  The  Invalide  russe  is  a 
semi-official  organ  in  military  affairs.  The 
"Police  Gazette"  of  St.  Petersburg  relates 
chiefly  to  police  regulations.  Among  the  oth- 
er daily  journals  are  the  "  Son  of  the  Father- 
land," the  "  St.  Petersburg  Gazette,"  and  the 
"Commercial  Gazette,"  which  last  is  pub- 
lished both  in  Russian  and  German ;  and  the 
most  prominent  of  them  all  is  the  Golos  ("  The 
Voice").  The  most  popular  humorous  jour- 
nal is  IsTcra  ("The  Spark").  The  principal 
daily  journals  of  Moscow  are  the  "Russian 
Messenger,"  the  "  Police  Gazette,"  and  the 
"  Moscow  Gazette,"  the  oldest  and  most  influ- 
ential political  journal  of  the  empire,  edited  by 
Katkoff.  In  the  Baltic  provinces  daily  jour- 
nals are  published  in  German,  particularly  in 
Riga.  The  journals  of  Finland  are  published 
in  Swedish,  and  those  of  Poland  and  Lithuania 
in  Polish.  Owing  to  the  restrictions  on  the 
press,  however,  the  Polish  journals  of  Warsaw 
and  Wilna  are  insignificant  compared  with 
those  published  in  Galicia,  such  as  the  Cra- 
cow Czas  ("Times")  and  the  Lemberg  Gazeta 
Narodowa  (  "  National  Gazette"),  or  in  Posen. 
In  Kazan  a  journal  is  published  in  Tartar,  in 
Astrakhan  one  in  Kalmuck.  Odessa  has  daily 


NEWSPAPERS 


341 


journals  in  French  and  Italian. — The  earliest 
newspaper  in  Sweden  was  the  Ordinarie  Post- 
Tidning,  established  in  1643 ;  but  the  journals 
had  little  political  influence  till  1820,  when  the 
Argus  appeared  at  Stockholm.  Since  then  the 
Faderneslandet  and  the  Aftoribladet  have  been 
the  principal  journals  of  the  capital,  the  for- 
mer conservative,  the  latter  liberal.  There  is 
a  newspaper  published  in  every  considerable 
town  of  the  kingdom;  the  total  number  of 
periodicals  published  in  1867  was  179.  The 
Christiania  IntelligentesedUr,  founded  in  1763, 
is  the  oldest  newspaper  in  Norway.  The  Con- 
stitutionelle  at  Bergen  is  the  organ  of  the  gov- 
ernment; and  the  Morgenblad,  established  at 
the  same  place  in  1819,  is  the  journal  of  the 
popular  party.  The  oldest  newspaper  of  Den- 
mark is  the  Berlingske  Tidende,  which  was 
first  published  in  1749  in  German,  but  now 
appears  in  Danish.  Until  1830  Copenhagen 
had  but  two  journals,  and  those  of  little  in- 
fluence. In  1849  the  number  of  political  pa- 
pers in  the  kingdom  was  36.  The  total  num- 
ber of  periodicals  is  now  upward  of  200. — 
In  China,  a  species  of  newspaper  has  existed  at 
Peking  for  centuries  under  the  title  of  King 
Chau,  "Court  Transcripts,"  which  is  common- 
ly called  by  Europeans  the  "  Peking  Gazette." 
It  is  compiled  from  the  papers  presented  before 
the  general  council  of  the  empire,  and  con- 
stitutes the  principal  medium  available  to  the 
people  for  ascertaining  what  is  going  on  in  the 
country.  Couriers  are  despatched  to  all  parts 
of  China  bearing  copies  of  these  papers  to  the 
high  provincial  officers.  Anybody  is  permit- 
ted to  print  these  documents  without  note  or 
change,  and  to  sell  them  to  the  people.  In  the 
provinces  thousands  of  persons  find  employ- 
ment in  copying  and  abridging  them.  In  1827 
an  English  weekly  newspaper,  the  "  Canton 
Register,"  was  established  at  Canton ;  and  in 
1836  a  similar  journal,  the  "  Canton  Press," 
made  its  appearance.  At  present  the  "  North 
China  Mail"  and  "  Shanghai  Herald'"  at 
Shanghai,  and  the  "  China  Mail "  at  Hong 
Kong,  are  the  principal  English  newspapers  in 
that  quarter.  In  the  island  of  Penang  the 
"  Prince  of  Wales  Island  Gazette  "  was  found- 
ed in  1805,  suspended  for  some  years,  and  re- 
vived in  1833.  At  Singapore,  the  "  Singapore 
Chronicle "  was  established  in  1823 ;  at  the 
same  place  the  "  Straits  Times  "  is  now  pub- 
lished.— In  India,  "  Hicking's  Gazette  "  was 
established  at  Calcutta,  in  January,  1871 ;  and 
in  1795  the  Bengal  Hurkuru  made  its  appear- 
ance and  still  continues,  the  oldest  of  the  Indian 
newspapers.  It  became  a  daily  in  April,  1819. 
Until  1835  the  press  in  India  was  restrained 
either  by  a  censorship  or  by  the  right  as- 
sumed by  the  East  India  company  of  deport- 
ing to  Europe  obnoxious  editors.  (See  BUCK- 
INGHAM, JAMES  SILK,  and  DFANE,  WILLIAM.) 
A  law  in  1835  removed  all  arbitrary  restric- 
tions upon  the  press.  On  the  outbreak  of  the 
sepoy  mutiny  in  1857,  an  act  was  passed  pro- 
hibiting the  use  of  the  press  except  under  a 


license;  this  act,  however,  was  by  its  term 
limited  to  one  year  from  date.  The  leading 
English  journals  now  in  existence  in  Hindostan 
are  the  " Friend  of  India"  at  Serampore,  the 
"Gazette"  and  "Englishman"  at  Calcutta, 
the  "Athenaeum"  and  "Spectator"  at  Madras, 
the  "Herald"  at  Bangalore,  the  "Times," 
"  Telegraph,"  and  "  Gazette"  at  Bombay,  the 
"  Gazette "  at  Delhi,  the  "  Observer "  at 
Poonah,  and  the  "  Chronicle  "  at  Lahore.  At 
Calcutta  and  at  some  other  cities  there  are 
newspapers  in  the  native  languages. — The  first 
newspaper  in  Australia  was  the  "  Sydney 
Gazette  and  New  South  Wales  Advertiser," 
founded  in  1803  by  George  Howe.  At  present 
a  great  number  exist  in  the  various  colonies, 
of  which  the  principal  dailies  are:  at  Mel- 
bourne, the  "Argus,"  the  "Age,"  and  the 
"Herald;"  at  Sydney,  the  "Herald"  and  the 
"Empire."  In  New  Zealand  the  "Southern 
Cross,"  "New  Zealand  Gazette,"  and  a  num- 
ber of  other  papers  are  published.  Several  are 
published  in  Tasmania,  at  Hobart  Town  and 
Launceston,  and  also  several  in  Cape  Colony, 
the  first  of  which  was  the  "South  African 
Commercial  Advertiser,"  established  in  1824. 
— In  the  Hawaiian  islands  several  newspapers 
are  published  in  Hawaiian  and  English.  The 
chief  of  the  latter  are  the  "  Honolulu  Gazette  " 
and  "  Pacific  Advertiser."  In  Japan  there  are 
several  papers  in  English,  the  "Japan  Herald" 
of  Yokohama  being  the  best  known ;  in  the 
native  language  there  is  an  official  government 
gazette,  and  within  a  few  years  several  politi- 
cal journals,  modelled  upon  those  of  Europe, 
have  been  begun  at  Tokio  (Yedo). — Among 
the  countries  of  South  America,  Brazil,  with 
a  total  of  about  60  dailies  and  a  very  large  num- 
ber of  weeklies  and  periodicals,  has  the  most 
important  press.  The  leading  papers  are  of 
course  published  at  Rio  de  Janeiro ;  the  num- 
ber of  periodical  publications  of  all  kinds  in 
that  city  is  58.  The  leading  dailies  are  the 
Diario  official  and  the  Jornal  do  Rio.  There 
are  also  four  English  and  four  French  newspa- 
pers, and  one  German.  An  influential  daily, 
the  Diario  de  Bahia,  is  published  at  Bahia. 
The  press  of  the  Argentine  Republic,  having 
its  chief  activity  in  Buenos  Ayres,  ranks  next 
to  that  of  Brazil.  "  The  Standard,"  published 
in  English,  is  the  leading  daily ;  others  are  the 
Tribuna,  the  National,  and  the  usual  Diario 
official.  There  are  also  papers  in  French, 
German,  and  Italian.  Venezuela  has  several 
important  dailies,  chief  among  them  the  Fede- 
ralista  and  the  Opinion  national,  published  at 
Caracas.  Peru  has  a  very  influential  press,  the 
Comercio  and  Heraldo  of  Lima  having  a  wide 
circulation  outside  the  country  as  well  as  in  it. 
In  all,  Peru  has  nearly  40  journals.  In  Chili 
the  Ferrocarril,  Independiente,  and  Mercurio 
are  the  most  important  among  the  eight  dailies 
of  Santiago.  Valparaiso  has  four  dailies,  of 
which  the  Mercurio,  Patria,  and  "  West  Coast 
Mail "  are  important.  The  press  of  the  United 
States  of  Colombia  is  unimportant ;  the  papers 


342 


NEWSPAPERS 


are  numerous,  but  very  ephemeral.  The  long- 
est-lived and  best  known  is  the  Tradicionista 
of  Bogota.  The  "Panama  Star  and  Herald," 
which  can  hardly  be  classed  as  a  Colombian 
paper,  has  considerable  commercial  importance. 
In  Mexico  the  oldest  and  most  important  daily 
is  the  Siglo  XIX. ;  there  are  also  the  Univer- 
sal, Revista  Universal,  Idea  Progresista,  and 
Iberia,  all  published  in  the  city  of  Mexico.  At 
Vera  Cruz  the  Pensamiento  is  an  important 
paper.  In  Cuba  the  chief  journals  are  the 
following,  at  Havana:  Diario  de  la  Marina, 
Espaila,  Progreso,  and  Voz  de  Cuba.  Three 
dailies  are  published  at  Cienfuegos,  two  at 
Santiago,  two  at  Matanzas,  and  two  at  Sagua 
la  Grande. — The  first  American  newspaper 
was  issued  at  Boston,  Sept.  25,  1690.  It  was 
printed  by  Richard  Pierce  and  published  by 
Benjamin  Harris,  and  was  intended  to  be 
issued  once  a  month,  but  was  immediately 
suppressed  by  the  authorities.  The  only  copy 
known  to  be  in  existence  is  in  the  state  paper 
office  in  London,  and  it  is  headed  "Publick 
Occurrences,  both  Foreign  and  Domestick." 
The  "  Boston  News  Letter,"  published  by 
John  Campbell,  appeared  April  24,  1704,  and 
continued  to  be  issued  weekly  till  1776.  It 
was  followed  by  the  "  Boston  Gazette,"  Dec. 
21,  1719  ;  and  the  "American  Weekly  Mercu- 
rie  "  was  issued  by  Andrew  Bradford  at  Phil- 
adelphia, Dec.  22,  1719.  On  Aug.  17,  1721, 
James  Franklin,  elder  brother  of  Benjamin 
Franklin,  established  at  Boston  the  "  New 
England  Courant "  (weekly),  which  soon  be- 
came involved  in  a  violent  controversy  with 
the  Rev.  Increase  Mather  and  other  ministers 
on  the  subject  of  inoculation,  and  was  so  free 
in  its  remarks  on  public  affairs,  that  in  1722 
the  legislature  issued  an  order  forbidding 
James  Franklin  "  to  print  or  publish  the  '  New 
England  Courant '  or  any  other  pamphlet  or 
paper  of  the  like  nature,  except  it  be  first 
supervised  by  the  secretary  of  this  province." 
James  Franklin's  name  was  consequently  taken 
from  the  paper,  and  that  of  Benjamin,  then 
but  16  years  of  age,  and  an  apprentice  in  the 
office,  was  substituted.  In  the  "  Courant "  he 
began  his  literary  career,  and  at  this  period  he 
was  one  of  the  most  frequent  and  pungent  of 
its  writers.  On  Oct.  16,  1725,  William  Brad- 
ford, father  of  Andrew  Bradford  of  Phil- 
adelphia, began  the  publication  of  the  "New 
York  Gazette,"  the  first  newspaper  issued  in 
that  city.  In  1728  Benjamin  Franklin  estab- 
lished in  Philadelphia  the  "  Pennsylvania  Ga- 
zette," which  continued  under  different  pub- 
lishers till  Nov.  3,  1845,  when  it  was  merged 
in  the  "  North  American."  In  1754  four  news- 
papers were  published  in  Boston,  two  in  New 
York,  two  in  Philadelphia,  and  the  "  Virginia 
Gazette"  at  Williamsburg,  which  was  first 
issued  in  1736  by  William  Parks,  who  had  pre- 
viously published  for  nine  years  the  "  Maryland 
Gazette"  at  Annapolis.  In  1776  seven  were 
published  in  Massachusetts,  one  in  New  Hamp- 
shire, two  in  Rhode  Island,  four  in  Connecti- 


cut, four  in  New  York,  nine  in  Pennsylvania, 
two  each  in  Maryland,  Virginia,  and  North 
Carolina,  three  in  South  Carolina,  and  one  in 
Georgia — in  all,  37.  These  were  all  weeklies, 
with  the  exception  of  the  "Advertiser"  of 
Philadelphia,  which  was  semi-weekly.  Dur- 
ing the  revolution  the  principal  journal  in  Bos- 
ton was  the  "  Gazette,"  established  in  April, 
1755.  In  this  journal  John  Adams,  under  the 
signature  of  Novanglus,  wrote  in  1775  a  se- 
ries of  papers  in  defence  of  the  colonial  cause. 
The  "Massachusetts  Spy,"  edited  by  Isaiah 
Thomas,  the  historian  of  American  printing, 
was  established  in  Boston  March  7,  1771,  and 
removed  to  Worcester  in  1775,  where  it  is  still 
published  under  the  title  of  the  "Worcester 
Spy."  In  New  York,  during  the  revolution, 
Rivington's  "Royal  Gazette,"  established  in 
1773,  was  a  zealous  supporter  of  the  royal 
cause,  and  was  discontinued  soon  after  the 
peace  of  1783.  In  1797  was  established  the 
"  Commercial  Advertiser,"  now  the  oldest  of 
New  York  newspapers.  In  1800  the  number 
of  newspapers  in  the  United  States  had  in- 
creased to  200,  of  which  several  were  dailies, 
the  first  daily  having  been  the  "Pennsylva- 
nia Packet,  or  the  General  Advertiser,"  called 
afterward  the  "  Daily  Advertiser,"  which  con- 
tinued to  be  issued  daily  from  1784  to  1837. 
In  1801  the  "Evening  Post"  was  founded  by 
William  Coleman,  and  William  0.  Bryant,  Wil- 
liam Leggett,  and  Parke  Godwin  have  been  its 
editors.  The  "  National  Intelligencer  "  was 
founded  at  Washington  by  Samuel  Harrison 
Smith,  and  was  first  issued  as  a  tri-weekly  on 
Oct.  31,  1800.  Joseph  Gales  became  connect- 
ed with  it  in  1807,  and  continued  its  editor  till 
his  death  in  1860.  In  1812  he  took  into  part- 
nership his  brother-in-law,  William  W.  Seaton, 
by  whom  the  journal  was  edited  till  January, 
1865.  It  was  issued  as  a  daily  from  January, 
1813,  to  1869,  when  it  was  discontinued.  From 
1800  to  1810  the  number  and  circulation  of 
American  newspapers  largely  increased.  By 
the  census  of  1810  the  number  of  journals  was 
359,  of  which  27  were  dailies,  and  the  total 
annual  issue  was  22,321,000  copies.  In  1824 
there  were  11  daily  newspapers  in  Philadel- 
phia and  12  in  New  York,  with  a  circulation 
varying  from  1,000  to  4,000  copies.  In  1828 
the  whole  number  had  increased  to  852,  with 
a  yearly  issue  of  68,117,796  copies.  In  1830 
the  number  was  estimated  at  1,000.  The  cen- 
sus of  1840  returned  1,631  newspapers,  with 
a  yearly  issue  of  195,838,673  copies;  in  1850 
the  number  had  reached  2,526  newspapers, 
with  5,142,177  circulation,  and  a  yearly  issue 
of  426,409,978  copies;  in  1860,  4,501  news- 
papers, 13,663,409  circulation,  yearly  issue 
927,951,548  copies;  and  in  1870,  5,871  news- 
papers, 20,842,475  circulation,  yearly  issue 
1,508,548,250  copies.  Rowell's  "American 
Newspaper  Directory  "  (New  York)  gives  the 
following  table  showing  the  number  of  news- 
papers published  in  the  United  States  and 
territories  and  British  America  in  1874: 


NEWSPAPERS 


343 


STATES. 

1 

£ 

1 

STATES. 

>> 

s 

f 

10 

78 

4 

33 

Arkansas  

4 

55 

Pennsylvania  .  . 

74 

4S5 

California  
Connecticut  
Delaware  

86 
18 
3 

144 
69 
16 

Rhode  Island.... 
South  Carolina.  .  . 
Tennessee 

6 
5 
13 

14 
60 
107 

District    of    Co- 

Texas   

VO 

127 

lumbia  
Florida  

5 

12 
29 

Vermont  
Virginia  

6 
18 

57 

80 

Georgia  

ii 

104 

West  Virginia.. 

7 

56 

Illinois     

36 

457 

Wisconsin  . 

18 

194 

25 

223 

Iowa  

22 

275 

fi54 

5,456 

Kansas 

14 

136 

Territories  . 

94 

98 

Louisiana  

7 

71 

Total      United 

Maine  

9 

58 

States 

678 

5554 

Maryland  

8 

85 

Massachusetts  .  .  . 
Michigan  .... 

26 
21 

212 
230 

BRITISH  AMEEICA. 

Minnesota 

7 

112 

. 

21 

Mississippi  
Missouri  . 

6 
24 

84 
284 

Nova  Scotia  
Ontario 

23 

24 

212 

Nebraska 

10 

77 

Quebec 

12 

41 

Nevada  

7 

8 

British  colonies  . 

3 

17 

New  Hampshire 

9 

44 

New  Jersey  
New  York  

20 

98 

132 
681 

Total      British 
America  

46 

815 

North  Carolina.. 
Ohio 

10 
29 

80 
386 

724 

e.  Qffn 

About  one  seventh  of  the  daily  papers  print  tri- 
weekly or  semi-weekly  editions ;  nearly  every 
daily  issues  a  weekly;  a  few  journals  issue 
only  semi-  or  tri-weekly  editions ;  the  weekly 
total  includes  religious,  literary,  agricultural 
and  horticultural,  technical  and  professional, 
illustrated,  and  miscellaneous  papers. — In  1833 
a  "  penny  paper  "  called  "  The  Sun  "  was  estab- 
lished in  New  York  by  Benjamin  H.  Day,  but  it 
soon  passed  into  the  hands  of  Moses  Y.  Beach. 
It  was  at  first  about  10  inches  square,  and  being 
sold  for  one  cent,  grew  rapidly  into  a  circulation 
of  60,000  copies.  It  was  afterward  enlarged, 
and  its  management  and  character  having  been 
changed  in  1867,  its  circulation  was  greatly  in- 
creased, the  price  being  two  cents.  In  1835 
James  Gordon  Bennett  began  the  publication 
of  the  "  New  York  Herald,"  at  first  as  a  penny 
paper,  but  afterward  raised  the  price  to  two 
cents,  and  subsequently  to  four  cents.  At  his 
death  it  passed  into  the  hands  of  his  son,  James 
Gordon  Bennett,  jr.,  by  whom  it  is  now  con- 
ducted. On  April  10,  1841,  the  "Tribune" 
was  founded  by  Horace  Greeley,  and  it  was 
edited  by  him  till  his  nomination  for  the  presi- 
dency in  1872,  when  he  was  succeeded  by  White- 
law  Reid.  Politically  it  is  now  independent. 
The  "  New  York  Times "  was  established  in 
1850  by  Henry  J.  Raymond.  "  The  World  " 
was  established  in  June,  1860,  as  a  religious 
daily,  and  in  July,  1861,  united  with  itself 
the  "  Courier  and  Enquirer."  In  1862  it  was 
purchased  by  Manton  Marble,  who  made  it 
a  democratic  journal,  and  who  still  edits  it. 
"The  Graphic,"  established  in  1873,  was  the 
first  attempt  in  this  country  to  publish  an  illus- 
trated daily  paper.  The  "  Herald,"  "  World," 
and  "Times"  are  published  every  day  in  the 
year,  and  their  Sunday  issues  are  sold  at  five 
cents.  In  1849  the  New  York  "Journal  of 


Commerce,"  "Courier  and  Enquirer,"  "Tri- 
bune," "  Herald,"  "  Sun,"  and  "Express"  com- 
bined to  form  the  "New  York  Associated 
Press,"  of  which  the  "  Times  "  on  its  establish- 
ment in  1850  became  a  member;  the  "World  " 
when  founded  in  1860  was  made  a  participant 
in  its  news  privileges,  and  in  1861  by  absorb- 
ing the  "  Courier  and  Enquirer "  became  a 
member.  The  association  collects  and  distrib- 
utes to  the  newspapers  the  latest  news  by 
telegraph  from  all  quarters,  at  an  annual  ex- 
pense (in  1875)  of  about  $1,000,000.  The  New 
York  "Evening  Post,"  "Commercial  Adver- 
tiser," and  Staats-Zeitung  buy  their  telegraphic 
news  from  the  associated  press,  as  also  do  the 
local  associations  known  as  the  "New  York 
State  Associated  Press,"  the  "  Western  Asso- 
ciated Press,"  the  "New  England  Associated 
Press,"  and  the  "  California  Associated  Press." 
The  "American  Press  Association,"  organized 
in  Boston  in  July,  1870,  is  independent.  Some 
of  the  New  York  weekly  papers,  as  "  Harper's 
Weekly,"  "  Frank  Leslie's  Illustrated  Newspa- 
per," and  the  "  New  York  Ledger,"  have  an 
immense  circulation,  that  of  the  last  having  at 
times  exceeded  400,000  a  week.  A  noteworthy 
one  is  the  chief  American  sporting  paper,  "  The 
Spirit  of  the  Times,"  founded  by  William  T. 
Porter,  Dec.  10, 1831,  conducted  by  him  for  25 
years,  and  merged  in  the  present  journal  of  the 
same  name,  originally  "Wilkes'  Spirit  of  the 
Times,"  under  the  management  (still  continued) 
of  George  Wilkes.  The  religious  newspapers, 
of  which  the  earliest  was  the  "  Boston  Record- 
er," established  in  1815,  are  weekly.  The  chief 
of  these  published  in  New  York  are  the  "  Ob- 
server" and  "Evangelist,"  Presbyterian;  "In- 
dependent," Congregational ;  "  Churchman," 
Episcopal;  "Christian  Advocate,"  Methodist; 
"Examiner,"  Baptist;  "Liberal  Christian," 
Unitarian ;  "  Christian  Intelligencer,"  Reform- 
ed ;  "  Christian  Union,"  Congregational ; 
"  Morning  Star,"  Freewill  Baptist  (chief  office 
at  Dover,  N.  H.);  "Tablet,"  Roman  Catholic; 
"  New  Jerusalem  Messenger,"  Swedenborgian ; 
and  the  "  Jewish  Messenger."  Many  country 
publishers  now  purchase  "auxiliary  papers," 
having  one  side  filled  with  general  matter,  and 
print  the  other  side  for  their  respective  local- 
ities. Newspapers  in  foreign  languages  were 
published  in  the  United  States  in  1874  as  fol- 
lows :  German,  310—58  in  Pennsylvania,  50 
in  New  York,  33  in  Ohio,  25  in  Wisconsin,  24 
in  Illinois,  16  in  New  Jersey,  15  in  Indiana, 
14  in  Missouri,  11  in  Iowa,  9  in  California,  7 
in  Texas,  6  each  in  Kentucky,  Michigan,  and 
Minnesota,  4  each  in  Maryland,  Kansas,  and 
Nebraska,  2  each  in  Massachusetts,  Connec- 
ticut, Virginia,  Louisiana,  and  Colorado,  and 
1  each  in  Delaware,  the  District  of  Columbia, 
West  Virginia,  South  Carolina,  Georgia,  Ten- 
nessee, Dakota,  and  Oregon ;  French,  28—18  in 
Louisiana,  5  in  New  York,  2  in  Massachusetts, 
and  1  each  in  Rhode  Island,  Illinois,  and  Cali- 
fornia; Scandinavian,  19 — 8  in  Illinois,  3  in 
Minnesota,  2  in  New  York,  and  1  each  in  Iowa, 


344: 


NEWSTEAD  ABBEY 


NEWTON 


Wisconsin,  Kansas,  Nebraska,  Utah,  and  Cali- 
fornia; Spanish,  16—7"  in  New  York,  6  in 
New  Mexico,  and  3  in  California ;  Dutch,  6 — 
5  in  Michigan  and  1  in  Iowa;  Italian,  2 — 1 
each  in  New  York  and  California ;  Welsh,  4 — 
3  in  Pennsylvania  and  1  in  New  York  ;  Bohe- 
mian, 5 — 2  in  Nebraska,  and  1  each  in  Ohio, 
Iowa,  and  Wisconsin ;  Polish,  2—1  each  in  Illi- 
nois and  Missouri.  There  is  a  Portuguese  pa- 
per in  New  York,  a  Chinese  in  San  Francisco, 
and  a  Cherokee  at  Tahlequah,  Indian  territory. 
(See  PEKIODICAL  LITERATUEE.) 

NEWSTEAD  ABBEY,  the  family  seat  of  Lord 
Byron,  situated  on  the  verge  of  Sherwood  for- 
est, England,  8£  m.  W.  of  Nottingham.  The 
building  was  originally  a  priory  of  black  can- 
ons, founded  in  1170  by  Henry  II.,  and  at  the 
dissolution  of  the  monasteries  was  granted  by 
Henry  VIII.  to  Sir  John  Byron.  It  was  then 
a  fine  specimen  of  the  early  Anglo-Gothic,  un- 
surpassed in  elegance  of  composition  and  deli- 


Newstead  Abbey. 

cacy  of  execution,  and  "stood  embosomed  in  a 
happy  valley,"  the  slopes  of  which  were  cov- 
ered by  the  broad  oaks  of  Sherwood  forest. 
The  new  possessor  converted  a  portion  of  the 
building  into  a  dwelling;  and  his  successors 
have  altered,  embellished,  or  added  to  it,  until 
it  presents  a  singular  mingling  of  opposite 
styles  of  architecture.  The  fifth  Lord  Byron, 
great-uncle  of  the  poet,  pulled  down  a  large 
part  of  the  house,  cut  down  extensive  planta- 
tions, and  did  all  he  could  to  injure  the  estate, 
from  some  cause  of  irritation  against  his  son 
and  heir,  who  however  died  before  him.  In 
1817  Byron  parted  with  Newstead  for  £180,000 
to  Col.  Thomas  Wildman,  an  old  schoolfellow, 
who  carefully  preserved  whatever  relics  of  the 
poet  he  found  there,  and  spent  more  than 
£200,000  on  the  reparation  of  the  property, 
which  on  his  demise  in  1859  was  put  up  at 
auction,  the  reserved  price  being  £180,000. 
As  the  highest  bid  was  but  £121,000,  the 


estate  was  bought  in  by  Col.  Wildman's  repre- 
sentatives, and  subsequently  it  came  into  the 
possession  of  William  Frederick  Webb,  who 
now  (1875)  owns  and  occupies  it. 
NEWT.  See  TRITON. 
NEW  TESTAMENT.  See  BIBLE. 
NEWTON,  the  name  of  counties  in  six  of  the 
United  States.  I.  A  central  county  of  Georgia, 
bounded  S.  W.  by  South  river,  and  intersected 
by  Yellow  and  Ulcofauhachee  rivers,  all  three 
uniting  at  its  S.  extremity  to  form  the  Ocmul- 
gee ;  area,  about  400  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870, 
14,615,  of  whom  6,014  were  colored.  It  has 
an  undulating  surface  and  a  soil  very  fertile 
near  the  streams.  It  is  intersected  by  the 
Georgia  railroad.  The  chief  productions  in 
1870  were  38,414  bushels  of  wheat,  192,587  of 
Indian  corn,  31,974  of  oats,  23,455  of  sweet 
potatoes,  5,770  bales  of  cotton,  5,871  Ibs.  of 
wool,  67,455  of  butter,  9,887  of  honey,  and 
1,512  gallons  of  molasses.  There  were  968 
horses,  1,112  mules 
and  asses,  1,936  milch 
cows,  489  working 
oxen,  2,293  other  cat- 
tle, 3,602  sheep,  and 
7,704  swine;  2  man- 
ufactories of  cotton 
yarn,  9  tanneries,  and 
4  saw  mills.  Capital, 
Covington.  II.  A  cen- 
tral county  of  Mis- 
sissippi, drained  by 
the  head  branches  of 
the  Chickasawha  riv- 
er; area,  about  625 
sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870, 
10,067,  of  whom  3,386 
were  colored.  It  is 
intersected  by  the 
Vicksburg  and  Me- 
ridian railroad.  The 
chief  productions  in 
1870  were  2,492  bush- 
els of  wheat,  201,704 

of  Indian  corn,  7,205  of  oats,  30,262  of  sweet 
potatoes,  3,399  bales  of  cotton,  5,650  Ibs.  of 
wool,  42,030  of  butter,  and  1,311  gallons  of 
molasses.  There  were  1,256  horses,  643  mules 
and  asses,  2,737  milch  cows,  1,238  working 
oxen,  3,763  other  cattle,  4,205  sheep,  and  12,920 
swine.  Capital,  Decatur.  III.  A  S.  E.  county 
of  Texas,  separated  from  Louisiana  by  the  Sa- 
bine  river  and  drained  by  its  branches ;  area, 
964  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  2,187,  of  whom  831 
were  colored.  The  surface  is  undulating  to- 
ward the  south  and  somewhat  hilly  in  the 
north.  The  soil  of  the  bottom  lands  is  highly 
productive,  but  much  of  the  upland  is  poor 
and  sandy.  Timber  is  abundant.  The  chief 
productions  in  1870  were  51,303  bushels  of 
Indian  corn,  11,890  of  sweet  potatoes,  1,001 
bales  of  cotton,  and  4,574  gallons  of  molasses. 
There  were  556  horses,  1,370  milch  cows,  6,208 
other  cattle,  1,456  sheep,  and  4,331  swine. 
Capital,  Newton.  IV.  A  N.  W.  county  of  Ar- 


NEWTON 


345 


kansas,  drained  by  the  Buffalo  fork  of  White 
river  and  its  head  branches;  area,  about  900 
sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  4,374,  of  whom  9  were 
colored.  It  has  a  diversified  surface,  much  of 
it  still  covered  with  forests,  and  a  generally 
fertile  soil.  The  chief  productions  in  1870 
were  9,830  bushels  of  wheat,  169,825  of  Indian 
corn,  13,645  Ibs.  of  tobacco,  43,292  of  butter, 
14,019  of  honey,  and  3,472  gallons  of  sorghum 
molasses.  There  were  1,148  horses,  1,232  milch 
cows,  781  working  oxen,  1,549  other  cattle, 
2,355  sheep,  and  14,126  swine.  Capital,  Jas- 
per. V.  A  N.  W.  county  of  Indiana,  bordering 
on  Illinois,  bounded  N.  by  the  Kankakee  river, 
and  intersected  in  the  S.  by  the  Iroquois ;  area, 
about  400  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  5,829.  Beaver 
lake,  a  considerable  body  of  water,  is  in  the  N. 
part.  The  surface  is  level,  and  in  parts  swampy. 
It  is  traversed  by  the  Pittsburgh,  Cincinnati,  and 
St.  Louis  railroad.  The  chief  productions  in 
1870  were  23,802  bushels  of  wheat,  142,096  of 
Indian  corn,  111,333  of  oats,  18,855  of  potatoes, 
8,456  Ibs.  of  wool,  155,755  of  butter,  and  14,854 
tons  of  hay.  There  were  2,814  horses,  2,362 
milch  cows,  6,987  other  cattle,  3,320  sheep,  and 
4,995  swine.  Capital,  Kentland.  VI.  A  S.  W. 
county  of  Missouri,  bordering  on  Kansas  and 
the  Indian  territory,  and  drained  by  branches 
of  the  Grand  or  Neosho  river ;  area,  about  750 
sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  12,821,  of  whom  350 
were  colored.  It  is  intersected  by  the  Atlantic 
and  Pacific  railroad.  The  chief  productions  in 
1870  were  67,725  bushels  of  wheat,  359,945  of 
Indian  corn,  81,045  of  oats,  26,982  of  Irish  and 
6,879  of  sweet  potatoes,  16,480  Ibs.  of  tobacco, 
10,387  of  wool,  90,824  of  butter,  and  15,619 
gallons  of  sorghum  molasses.  There  were  3,134 
horses,  2,496  milch  cows,  894  working  oxen, 
4,072  other  cattle,  6,511  sheep,  and  16,077 
swine ;  5  flour  mills,  6  saw  mills,  and  1  manu- 
factory of  pig  lead.  Capital,  Neosho. 

NEWTON,  a  city  of  Middlesex  co.,  Massachu- 
setts, on  a  curve  of  the  Charles  river,  which 
bounds  it  N.,  W.,  and  S.,  and  on  the  Boston 
and  Albany  and  the  Boston,  Hartford,  and 
Erie  railroads,  8  m.  W.  of  Boston ;  pop.  in 
1840,  3,351;  in  1850,  5,258;  in  1860,  8,382; 
in  1870,  12,825;  in  1875,  estimated  at  17,000. 
The  surface  is  high  and  undulating,  the  scenery 
beautiful,  and  the  situation  healthy.  The  city 
is  divided  into  six.  wards,  and  contains  nine 
post  villages,  viz. :  Auburndale,  Chestnut  Hill, 
Newton,  Newton  Centre,  Newton  Highlands, 
Newton  Lower  Falls,  Newton  Upper  Falls, 
Newtonville,  and  West  Newton.  There  are 
ten  railroad  stations.  Near  the  centre  of  the 
city  there  is  a  cemetery,  with  a  diversified 
surface  partly  improved,  embracing  82  acres. 
Many  of  the  residents  do  business  in  Boston, 
but  considerable  manufacturing  is  carried  on 
in  the  city,  the  river  furnishing  extensive  wa- 
*er  power  at  the  upper  and  lower  falls.  The 
principal  articles  produced  are  braid  and  cor- 
dage, boots  and  shoes,  carriages,  print  cloths, 
dye  stuffs,  emery  cloth,  glue,  hosiery,  orna- 
mental goods,  photograph  frames,  ink,  paper, 


shoddy,  soap,  and  rolling  mill  products.  There 
are  a  national  and  a  savings  bank.  The  city 
is  lighted  with  gas  and  has  a  fire  depart- 
ment. The  valuation  of  property  in  1872  was 
$24,256,854;  in  1874,  $28,081,445;  city  debt 
at  the  close  of  1874,  $387,000.  At  Newton 
Centre  is  the  Newton  theological  institution, 
founded  by  the  Baptists  in  1826.  The  build- 
ings occupy  the  summit  of  a  hill  commanding 
a  fine  view.  The  regular  course  is  three  years. 
Tuition  and  room  rent  are  free.  In  1873-'4  it 
had  5  resident  professors,  1  other  instructor, 
72  students,  and  a  library  of  12,000  volumes. 
Lasell  female  seminary,  at  Auburndale,  estab- 
lished in  1851,  is  beautifully  situated,  and  em- 
braces instruction  in  the  English  branches  and 
a  four  years'  classical  course.  In  1873-'4  it 
had  11  instructors  and  42  students.  The  most 
important  of  the  other  educational  institutions 
is  the  English  and  classical  school  at  West 
Newton,  established  in  1854.  The  public 
schools  embrace  a  high,  a  training,  8  grammar, 
and  8  primary  schools,  and  have  an  average 
attendance  of  about  2,000  pupils.  There  are 
several  libraries :  the  free  library,  with  8,500 
volumes ;  the  Athena3um  library ;  the  New- 
ton Centre  library,  1,500  volumes;  and  the 
Lower  Falls  library,  1,500  volumes.  The  city 
has  two  weekly  newspapers,  two  asylums  for 
male  and  female  orphans  and  destitute  chil- 
dren, and  25  churches,  viz. :  4  Baptist,  7  Con- 
gregational, 3  Episcopal,  5  Methodist,  2  Ro- 
man Catholic,  1  Swedenborgian,  2  Unitarian, 
and  1  Universalist. — Newton  was  settled  in 
1630,  and  was  incorporated  as  a  town  in  1679, 
being  separated  from  Cambridge.  A  city  char- 
ter was  granted  in  1873. 

NEWTON,  Charles  Thomas,  an  English  archaeol- 
ogist, born  in  Herefordshire  in  1816.  He  grad- 
uated at  Oxford  in  1837,  and  from  1840  to 
1852  was  an  assistant  in  the  department  of 
antiquities  in  the  British  museum.  In  1856", 
while  vice  consul  at  Mytilene,  he  discovered  at 
Boodroom  (anc.  Halicarnassus)  the  site  of  the 
Mausoleum.  (See  HALICARNASSUS.)  He  was 
engaged  in  other  interesting  excavations  from 
1856  to  1859,  and  enriched  the  British  museum 
with  numerous  sculptures,  inscriptions,  vases, 
coins,  and  other  relics.  In  1860  he  became 
consul  at  Rome,  and  in  1861  keeper  of  the 
Greek  and  Roman  antiquities  in  the  British 
museum.  His  wife,  who  was  known  as  an 
artist,  died  Jan.  2,  1866. 

NEWTON,  Gilbert  Stuart,  an  English  painter, 
born  in  Halifax,  Nova  Scotia,  Nov.  2,  1794, 
died  in  Chelsea,  England,  Aug.  3,  1835.  On 
the  death  of  his  father  he  removed  in  1803 
with  his  mother  to  Boston,  and  was  instructed 
in  painting  by  his  maternal  uncle,  Gilbert 
Stuart.  About  1816  he  went  to  Italy;  and 
after  studying  a  while  at  Florence  and  else- 
where, he  went  in  1817  to  London  and  became 
a  student  in  the  royal  academy.  Here  he 
formed  an  intimacy  with  Charles  R.  Leslie 
and  Washington  Irving.  He  early  adopted  a 
style  founded  on  that  of  Watteau,  and  attracted 


346 


SIR  ISAAC  NEWTON 


notice  by  his  "Forsaken  "  and  "Lovers'  Quar- 
rel," from  Moliere's  Depit  amoureux,  which 
were  engraved  for  the  u  Literary  Souvenir " 
of  1826.  Among  his  other  works  are  "  Shylock 
and  Jessica,"  "  Yorick  and  the  Grisette,"  "The 
Abbot  Boniface,"  "  A  Poet  reading  his  Verses 
to  an  impatient  Gallant,"  "  Macheath,"  "  Lear 
attended  by  Cordelia  and  the  Physician,"  "  The 
Vicar  of  Wakeneld  restoring  Olivia  to  her 
Mother,"  and  "Abelard  in  his  Study,"  most 
of  which  have  been  engraved.  He  was  elected 
a  member  of  the  academy  in  1833.  In  1832 
he  revisited  the  United  States.  Shortly  after 
his  return  in  1833  he  exhibited  symptoms  of 
mental  aberration,  and  the  last  two  years  of 
his  life  were  passed  in  a  lunatic  asylum. 

NEWTON,  Sir  Isaac,  an  English  philosopher, 
born  at  Woolsthorpe,  Lincolnshire,  Dec.  25, 
1642,  died  in  Kensington,  a  suburb  of  London, 
March  20,  1727.  He  was  a  posthumous  and 
only  child,  like  Kepler,  and  was  born  prema- 
turely. He  was  descended,  according  to  his 
own  account,  from  Sir  John  Newton  of  West- 
by  in  Lincolnshire,  and  according  to  another 
from  a  Scotch  family  in  East  Lothian.  When 
he  was  three  years  of  age,  his  mother,  having 
married  again,  gave  him  to  the  charge  of  his 
maternal  grandmother.  He  went  to  school 
at  Skillington  and  Stoke  till  his  12th  year, 
when  he  was  sent  to  the  free  school  at  Gran- 
tham,  six  miles  from  his  native  hamlet,  taught 
by  a  Mr.  Stokes.  He  ranked  low  in  his  classes 
£or  some  time,  but  being  ill  treated  by  the  boy 
who  stood  next  above  him  he  determined  to 
defeat  his  opponent  in  class  work,  and  applied 
himself  with  such  resolution  to  his  books  that 
he  at  length  stood  at  the  head  of  the  whole 
school.  He  was  usually  less  interested  in  the 
sports  of  his  schoolmates  than  in  construct- 
ing little  mechanical  contrivances,  in  which  he 
showed  marked  facility  of  imitation  and  in- 
vention. He  arranged  a  set  of  pins  or  gno- 
mons upon  the  adjacent  houses  so  as  to  mark 
the  time  of  day  by  their  shadows ;  the  arrange- 
ment served  as  a*  sort  of  town  clock,  and  was 
known  as  "  Isaac's  dial."  On  the  outside  wall 
of  his  house  at  Woolsthorpe  there  is  still  a 
sun  dial  which  he  must  have  carved  there. 
There  were  formerly  two,  but  the  stone  on 
which  the  other  was  cut  was  removed  in  1844 
and  presented  to  the  royal  society.  In  1656 
his  mother,  again  a  widow,  took  him  to  help  in 
the  management  of  the  farm  at  Woolsthorpe ; 
but  such  was  his  passion  for  study  that  he 
found  little  time  to  look  after  the  concerns  of 
the  farm.  His  mother  sent  him  back  to  Gran- 
tham,  where  he  was  fitted  to  enter  Trinity 
college,  Cambridge,  in  1661.  It  does  not  ap- 
pear that  he  showed  a  marked  preeminence  in 
the  studies  of  the  university,  but  he  extended 
his  acquirements  beyond  the  prescribed  routine 
in  several  directions.  In  the  winter  of  the 
year  in  which  he  was  elected  scholar  (1664), 
or  earlier,  he  invented  his  binomial  theorem, 
to  which  he  had  been  led  by  investigations  into 
the  problem  of  the  quadrature  of  the  circle, 


and  directed  his  attention  to  the  subject  of 
circles  or  halos  around  the  moon,  of  which  he 
gave  the  theory  in  his  treatise  on  optics.  In 
1665  he  took  the  degree  of  B.  A.,  and  proba- 
bly in  the  same  year  invented  fluxions.: — At 
this  period  the  thoughts  of  philosophers  were 
strongly  directed  to  the  telescope.  Huygens 
had  constructed  instruments  which  revealed 
the  rings  and  satellites  of  Saturn.  Descartes 
had  explained  the  theory  of  refraction,  and 
had  pointed  out  how  glasses  could  be  ground 
of  such  a  shape  as  to  unite  parallel  rays  of 
light  in  a  focus.  Still  these  glasses  had  the 
great  defect  of  giving  a  confused  image,  which 
was  thought  to  be  owing  to  imperfect  manu- 
facture, and  Newton  applied  himself  to  grind- 
ing them  with  more  accuracy.  But  he  also 
experimented  with  a  ray  of  light,  and  soon 
came  to  the  conclusion  "that  light  was  not 
homogeneous,  but  composed  of  rays,  some  of 
which  were  more  refrangible  than  others." 
This  showed  him  that  the  defect  of  the  lens 
of  the  refracting  telescope  was  inherent  and 
not  accidental.  He  accordingly  abandoned  his 
attempts  to  improve  that  instrument,  and  de- 
voted himself  to  the  construction  of  a  reflect- 
ing telescope,  which  James  Gregory  of  Aber- 
deen, in  view  of  the  defects  of  the  refracting 
medium,  had  already  invented.  While  New- 
ton was  engaged  on  this,  the  plague  forced 
him  to  retire  to  Woolsthorpe  (1666),  and  it 
was  more  than  two  years  before  he  resumed 
his  researches.  During  his  retreat  at  Wools- 
thorpe (whether  in  this  or  the  previous  year  is 
uncertain)  he  first  conceived  the  identity  of 
gravity  with  the  force  which  holds  the  plan- 
ets to  their  orbits,  and  made  his  first  test  cal- 
culations; but,  starting  with  the  erroneous  es- 
timate then  entertained  of  the  earth's  mass, 
he  failed  to  verify  the  happy  conjecture  (see 
ASTRONOMY)  ;  and  it  was  not  till  about  1680 
that  he  resumed  work  upon  the  problem. 
On  the  cessation  of  the  plague  he  returned  to 
Cambridge,  was  made  junior  fellow  in  Octo- 
ber, 1667,  and  senior  fellow  in  March,  1668, 
and  graduated  M.  A.  in  July  of  the  same  year. 
In  the  autumn  of  1668  he  completed  a  reflect- 
ing telescope  6  in.  in  length,  magnifying  40 
times,  which  enabled  him  to  see  Jupiter's  sat- 
ellites and  the  phases  of  Venus.  This  was  the 
first  reflecting  telescope  ever  directed  to  the 
heavens,  for  Gregory  never  completed  the  in- 
strument which  he  had  invented.  Compared 
with  the  much  earlier  refractors  of  Hevelius 
and  Huygens,  however,  this  was  a  small  and 
ill-made  instrument.  In  the  autumn  of  1671 
Newton  made  another,  which  was  sent  up  in 
December  "  for  his  majesty's  perusal."  It  is 
carefully  preserved  in  the  library  of  the  royal 
society  of  London.  His  mind  appears  to  have 
been  much  occupied  at  this  time  and  for  many 
years  afterward  with  "  chemical  studies  and 
practices."  His  celebrated  letter  (1669)  of  ad- 
vice to  Mr.  Aston,  who  was  about  to  set  out 
for  a  tour  of  the  continent,  reveals  a  strong 
belief  in  the  doctrines  of  alchemy ;  and  he  cer- 


SIR  ISAAC  NEWTON 


347 


tainly  pursued  his  experiments  to  a  late  period 
of  his  life  in  the  hope  of  effecting  some  valua- 
ble transmutations. — In  1669  he  became  Luca- 
sian  professor  of  mathematics  at  Cambridge, 
and  during  that  and  the  next  year  spent  con- 
siderable time  in  writing  notes  for  a  Latin 
translation  of  Kinckhuysen's  algebra.  In  1669- 
'72  he  delivered  a  course  of  lectures  on  optics 
in  the  university,  and  from  time  to  time  com- 
municated to  the  royal  society  the  results  of 
his  researches  on  light  and  colors.  The  new 
doctrine  of  the  compound  nature  of  light  in- 
volved Newton  in  a  long  and  acrimonious  con- 
troversy both  at  home  and  abroad.  Newton 
considered  light  to  consist  of  material  parti- 
cles. Hooke  believed  it  to  result  from  a  se- 
ries of  undulations  of  an  elastic  medium  per- 
vading all  bodies.  With  this  theory,  which 
Huygens  maintained  in  common  with  Hooke, 
Newton's  alleged  discovery  seemed  incompati- 
ble, and  was  accordingly  strenuously  resisted. 
On  the  other  side  Newton  himself  rejected 
Huygens's  beautiful  law  of  double  refraction 
in  Iceland  spar,  "founded  on  the  finest  ex- 
perimental analysis  of  the  phenomena,"  be- 
cause it  was  presented  as  a  corollary  of  the  un- 
dulatory  theory.  Hooke  in  the  one  case,  and 
Newton  in  the  other,  failed  alike  to  see,  or  re- 
fused to  admit,  that  the  principle  in  question 
was  true  or  false  independently  of  what  light 
is,  or  how  it  is  propagated.  It  is  remarkable 
that  Newton  should  have  missed,  in  the  course 
of  his  optical  experiments  and  the  controversy 
which  followed,  the  discovery  of  the  different 
dispersive  powers  of  different  bodies.  The 
opinion  that  all  bodies  produce  spectra  of  equal 
length  under  the  same  angle  of  refraction, 
though  "unsupported  by  experiments,"  ob- 
serves Brewster,  "  and  not  even  sustained  by 
any  theoretical  views,  seems  to  have  been  im- 
pressed upon  his  mind  with  all  the  force  of  an 
axiom  ;  and  when,  under  the  influence  of  this 
blind  conviction,  he  pronounced  the  improve- 
ment of  the  refracting  telescope  to  be  despe- 
rate, he  checked  for  a  long  time  the  progress 
of  this  branch  of  science,  and  furnished  to 
future  philosophers  a  lesson  which  cannot  be 
too  deeply  studied."  .From  1671  to  1676  his 
optical  researches  and  the  disputes  in  which 
they  involved  him  seem  to  have  occupied  most 
of  his  time.  He  wrote  to  Leibnitz,  Dec.  9, 1675  : 
"I  was  so  persecuted  with  discussions  arising 
out  of  my  theory  of  light,  that  I  blamed  my 
own  imprudence  for  parting  with  so  substantial 
a  blessing  as  my  quiet  to  run  after  a  shadow." 
In  January,  1672,  he  was  elected  fellow  of 
the^  royal  society ;  but  he  offered  his  resig- 
nation in  March,  1673,  on  the  ground  of  being 
unable  to  attend  the  meetings.  An  interesting 
document  in  Newton's  handwriting,  entitled 
"  A  Scheme  for  establishing  the  Royal  Soci- 
ety," has  been  brought  to  light  by  Sir  David 
Brewster.  His  desire,  it  seems,  was  to  con- 
vert the  royal  society  into  an  institution  like 
the  academy  of  sciences  in  Paris.  On  Dec.  9, 
1675,  he  sent  to  the  society  his  "  Hypothesis 


explaining  the  Properties  of  Light "  (reprinted 
in  the  "Philosophical  Magazine,"  September, 
1846),  and  his  "  Explanation  of  the  Colors  of 
Thin  Plates  and  of  Natural  Bodies,"  which 
Brewster  says  "is  perhaps  the  loftiest  of  all 
his  speculations."  The  phenomena  of  colors  he 
ascribes  to  a  supposed  property  of  light,  which 
he  calls  "fits  of  easy  reflection  and  transmis- 
sion." The  theory  is  that  every  particle  of 
light,  from  its  first  discharge  from  a  luminous 
body,  possesses,  at  equally  distant  intervals, 
dispositions  to  be  reflected  from  and  transmit- 
ted through  the  surfaces  of  bodies  upon  which 
it  is  incident.  This  appears  to  have  been  his 
last  communication  to  the  society  on  optical 
subjects.  In  1704  he  published  his  great  work 
on  optics  ;  much  of  it  was  written  as  early  as 
1675,  and  most  of  the  remainder  about  1687. 
— In  1679  Newton's  attention  was  recalled  to 
the  subject  of  universal  gravitation  by  a  letter 
from  Hooke,  who  declared  that  "  if  gravity 
decreased  according  to  the  reciprocal  of  the 
square  of  the  distance,  the  path  of  a  projectile 
would  be  an  ellipse  having  the  centre  of  the 
earth  in  the  focus."  Newton  had  hitherto  con- 
fined his  researches  to  bodies  revolving  in  cir- 
cular orbits.  He  now  demonstrated  the  mathe- 
matical necessity  of  the  three  laws  of  Kepler 
as  applied  to  the  motion  of  a  body  projected 
in  free  space,  and  acted  upon  continually  by  a 
force  directed  toward  the  focus  and  varying 
inversely  as  the  square  of  the  distance.  New- 
ton could  not  consider  the  law  of  gravitation 
established  so  long  as  the  serious  discrepancy 
found  in  his  calculations  upon  the  moon  re- 
mained unaccounted  for.  In  1680,  hearing  of 
a  new  measurement  of  a  degree  of  the  merid- 
ian by  Picard,  the  French  astronomer,  which 
differed  materially  from  the  commonly  received 
estimate,  he  went  over  the  calculation  again 
on  the  basis  of  the  new  measure,  and  the  result 
was  in  exact  agreement  with  observation.  He 
perceived  that  the  earth,  by  its  axial  rotation 
and  the  mutual  attraction  of  the  particles  of 
matter  composing  its  mass,  must  be  flattened 
at  the  poles,  and  he  determined  the  amount  of 
this  flattening,  though  according  to  an  incorrect 
law  for  the  variation  of  the  earth's  density. 
He  showed  that  the  spheroidal  figure  of  the 
earth,  combined  with  its  diurnal  motion,  would 
cause  the  weights  of  bodies  at  the  surface  to 
vary  in  different  latitudes ;  and  this  result  of 
pure  theory  explained  a  singular  fact  first  no- 
ticed by  the  French  astronomer  Richer,  who 
in  1672  had  found  that  a  clock  regulated  to 
mean  time  of  Paris  lost  2m.  28s.  daily  at  Cay- 
enne, within  5°  of  the  equator.  This  led  him 
to  an  explanation  of  the  precession  of  the  equi- 
noxes. Kepler  and  others  before  him  had 
spoken  of  an  attraction  of  the  waters  of  the 
earth  by  the  moon.  Newton  explained  the 
tides.  He  saw  that  the  masses  of  the  planetary 
bodies  could  be  determined  by  observing  the 
effects  of  their  mutual  attraction,  and  that 
from  this  cause  their  several  motions  would 
be  disturbed.  Thus  he  was  conducted  to  an 


348 


SIR  ISAAC  NEWTON 


elucidation  of  the  intricate  subject  of  the 
moon's  motions,  which  had  long  been  a  stum- 
bling-block to  astronomers.  He  deduced  theo- 
retically the  two  lunar  inequalities  known 
as  the  variation  and  the  annual  equation,  and 
also  the  progression  of  the  apogee  and  the  re- 
gression of  the  nodes,  though  it  was  reserved 
for  the  mathematicians  of  the  next  century  to 
complete  the  lunar  theory.  It  is  not  known 
that  he  made  any  public  announcement  of 
his  discoveries  before  February,  1685,  when  he 
sent  to  the  royal  society  a  paper  containing  his 
early  researches  on  centripetal  forces.  Halley, 
who  had  endeavored  in  1684  to  calculate  the 
law  of  the  solar  force  directed  to  the  planets 
moving  in  elliptical  orbits,  consulted  Newton, 
and,  finding  that  he  had  gone  over  the  whole 
ground,  induced  him  to  communicate  to  the 
royal  society  the  paper  already  alluded  to. 
On  its  presentation  Hooke  raised  a  violent  re- 
clamation relative  to  the  asserted  discovery  of 
the  law  of  gravitation.  As  early  as  1666  he  had 
arrived  at  very  accurate  notions  of  centripetal 
forces.  He  had  published  in  1674  "  An  At- 
tempt to  prove  the  Motion  of  Earth  from  Ob- 
servations," in  which,  as  Mr.  Grant  observes, 
he  describes  the  general  nature  of  gravity  with 
remarkable  clearness  and  accuracy.  (There  is 
a  Latin  translation  of  this  work,  printed  in 
1679.)  But  he  had  not  attempted  to  compute 
the  law  of  the  variation  of  the  force  at  differ- 
ent distances  from  the  centre,  which,  as  ap- 
plied to  the  elliptical  orbits  of  the  planets, 
was  the  very  problem  which  Newton  had 
solved.  The  pretensions  of  Hooke  called  forth 
from  Newton  a  long  letter,  dated  June  20, 
1686,  in  which  he  recounts  the  progress  of  his 
researches,  and  intimates  his  resolution  to  sup- 
press the  third  book  of  his  Principia  rather 
than  have  his  peace  of  mind  disturbed  by  a 
controversy  with  envious  rivals.  By  Halley's 
persuasion,  however,  Newton  consented  to  let 
the  whole  appear.  In  April,  1686,  the  first 
book  of  the  Principia  was  exhibited  at  the 
royal  society;  in  June  Halley  undertook  its 
publication  at  his  own  expense,  although  it 
involved  him  in  considerable  pecuniary  risk; 
and  it  appeared  the  next  year,  bearing  the 
following  title  page:  Philosophies  Naturalis 
Principia,  Mathematica.  Imprimatur  Julii 
5,  1686.  Londini,  1687.  It  is  divided  into 
three  books.  The  first  treats  of  motion  in 
free  space ;  the  second  treats  chiefly  of  resisted 
motion ;  and  the  third  deduces  from  these  the 
system  of  the  world.  The  doctrines  of  the 
Principia,  like  all  discoveries  which  tend  to 
overthrow  cherished  opinions,  were  hotly  com- 
bated for  many  years.  The  philosophy  of  Des- 
cartes, which  the  Newtonian  theories  at  length 
supplanted,  was  predominant  throughout  Eu- 
rope ;  and  Voltaire  said  that  at  the  time  of  his 
death  Newton  had  not  more  than  20  followers 
outside  of  England.  "  The  language  of  the 
French  mathematicians,"  observes  the  author 
of  the  "History  of  the  Inductive  Sciences," 
"is  Cartesian  for  almost  half  a  century  after 


the  publication  of  the  Principia  of  Newton." 
"  The  profound  and  intricate  reasoning  which 
Newton  was  compelled  to  adopt,"  says  Mr. 
Grant,  "formed  a  serious  impediment  to  the 
early  dissemination  of  his  doctrines."  The  Brit- 
ish universities,  however,  early  introduced  the 
Newtonian  philosophy  as  a  subject  of  study. 
The  university  of  St.  Andrews  in  Scotland  took 
the  lead  in  1690,  followed  by  Cambridge  in 
1699,  and  by  Oxford  in  1704.  Dr.  Bentley 
made  the  new  principles  the  basis  of  a  theo- 
logical argument  in  the  Boyle  lectures  preached 
in  London  in  1692-'3. — After  the  publication 
of  the  Principia,  Newton  was  content  to  ex- 
tend and  develop  the  principles  of  his  philos- 
ophy without  advancing  into  any  new  fields  of 
science ;  and  even  these  developments  appear 
to  have  been  based  for  the  most  part  on  ex- 
periments and  observations  previously  made. 
He  was  elected  to  represent  the  university  in 
parliament  in  1689,  and  again  in  1701 ;  and 
though  he  was  rejected  in  1705,  those  who  op- 
posed him  acknowledged  him  to  be  "  the  glory 
of  the  university,"  but  considered  that  he  was 
sent  to  "  tempt  them  from  their  duty  by  the 
great  and  just  veneration  they  had  for  him." 
On  the  dissolution  of  parliament  in  1690  he 
resumed  his  philosophical  and  mathematical 
studies  at  Cambridge.  After  this  his  health  be- 
came impaired.  In  December,  1692,  and  Jan- 
uary and  February,  1693,  he  wrote  the  four 
celebrated  letters  to  Dr.  Bentley  on  the  exis- 
tence of  a  Deity.  He  was  greatly  affected  about 
the  beginning  of  1692  by  the  loss  of  valuable 
manuscripts,  which  were  consumed  in  his  study 
by  the  upsetting  of  a  candle.  The  notable 
story  of  his  little  dog  Diamond  having  occa- 
sioned the  mischief,  and  of  Newton's  remark- 
able equanimity  on  seeing  what  had  happened, 
Brewster  considers  a  fiction.  In  a  letter  to 
Pepys,  dated  Sept.  13,  1693,  and  one  to  Locke 
about  the  same  time,  there  are  evidences  of 
loss  of  judgment.  A  fortnight  after  the  for- 
mer was  written,  Newton  told  a  common  friend 
"  that  he  had  writ  a  very  odd  letter  to  Pepys, 
at  which  he  was  much  concerned;"  adding 
"  that  it  was  in  a  distemper  that  much  seized 
his  head,  and  that  kept  him  awake  for  above 
five  nights  together."  Not  many  days  after 
his  painful  letter  to  Locke  was  written  he 
wrote  again  with  child-like  simplicity  and 
tenderness,  asking  to  be  forgiven  for  think' 
ing  ill  of  him,  and  subscribing  himself, 
"  Your  most  humble  and  unfortunate  servant.'1 
About  this  time  began  the  celebrated  quarrel  be- 
tween Newton  and  Flamsteed,  the  astronomer 
royal,  which  was  only  terminated  by  Flam- 
steed's  death  (1719).  They  had  been  on  terms 
of  cordial  intimacy  till  1696,  when  a  coolness 
began  to  spring  up.  Newton  was  engaged 
on  his  lunar  theory,  and  required  observations 
of  the  moon's  places.  Flamsteed,  who  at  his 
own  expense  had  put  himself  in  possession  of 
the  proper  instruments,  was  the  only  one  who 
could  furnish  the  observations.  They  were 
supplied,  though  not  as  promptly  as  Newton 


SIR  ISAAC  NEWTON 


349 


wished.  Complaint  followed,  with  little  out- 
breaks of  temper  on  both  sides.  Newton  was 
at  the  summit  of  his  fame,  and  Flamsteed  saw 
the  vast  importance  of  his  own  labors,  then 
unappreciated,  but  since  fully  allowed.  Halley, 
devoted  to  Newton,  embittered  the  difference. 
The  quarrel  culminated  in  the  publication, 
under  Halley's  name,  of  Flamsteed's  celestial 
observations,  which  Halley  had  mutilated. 
(See  FLAMSTEED.)  Newton  received  in  1695 
the  appointment  of  warden  of  the  mint,  worth 
between  £500  and  £600  a  year;  and  in  1699 
he  was  promoted  to  the  mastership  of  the 
mint,  worth  £1,200  to  £1,500,  which  office  he 
held  during  the  rest  of  his  life.  The  chancel- 
lor of  the  exchequer  declared  that  he  could  not 
have  carried  on  the  recoinage  of  1699  without 
his  assistance.  On  his  promotion  he  appointed 
Mr.  Winston  to  be  his  deputy  at  Cambridge, 
with  the  full  profits  of  the  place ;  and  in  1V01 
he  resigned  the  chair.  In  1699  he  was  elected 
foreign  associate  of  the  academy  of  sciences  at 
Paris.  He  was  chosen  president  of  the  royal 
society  in  1703,  and  annually  reflected  during 
his  life.  In  1705  he  was  knighted  by  Queen 
Anne.  In  1713  he  communicated  a  paper  to 
the  royal  society  on  the  different  kinds  of 
years  in  use  among  the  nations  of  antiquity ;  it 
was  published  in  the  "  Gentleman's  Magazine  " 
for  January,  1715,  and  the  original  is  in  the 
British  museum.  In  1717  he  prepared  two 
reports  on  the  state  of  the  coinage,  which  were 
laid  before  the  houses  of  parliament.  They 
were  followed  by  a  proclamation  in  December, 
1717,  reducing  the  value  of  guineas  from  21s. 
6d.  to  21s. — In  1705  began  the  famous  dispute 
with  Leibnitz.  Newton  and  Leibnitz,  it  is  now 
clear,  were  both  original  inventors  of  the  in- 
finitesimal analysis,  Newton  being  the  earlier. 
But  Leibnitz  published  his  method  in  1684, 
while  Newton's  did  not  appear  till  1687.  The 
geometry  of  the  former  spread  rapidly  over 
Europe ;  he  was  considered  as  the  sole  inventor, 
and  Newton,  in  the  first  edition  of  the  Princi- 
pia,  acknowledged  his  claims  as  an  indepen- 
dent inventor.  In  1699  a  remark  was  dropped 
in  the  royal  society  casting  suspicion  upon  the 
originality  of  Leibnitz's  discovery.  Leibnitz 
replied  in  the  Leipsic  Journal  without  asperity, 
asserting  his  claim.  On  Jan.  1,  1705,  the  same 
publication  criticised  with  marked  severity 
Newton's  "  Quadrature  of  Curves,"  then  lately 
published,  in  which  the  method  of  fluxions  was 
for  the  first  time  announced  to  the  world,  as- 
serting in  effect  that  the  fluxionary  method 
was  not  an  original  discovery.  Newton  and 
his  friends  were  justly  indignant,  and  Keill,  an 
astronomer,  undertook  his  defence,  but  was 
betrayed  into  doing  similar  injustice  to  Leib- 
nitz, charging  him  in  effect  with  having  bor- 
rowed his  calculus  from  hints  thrown  out  by 
Newton.  Leibnitz  appealed  to  the  royal  so- 
ciety, which  appointed  a  commission  in  the 
premises.  Their  report,  which  vindicates 
Newton's  claims,  forms  what  is  called  the 
Commercium  Epistolicum  (1712);  for  the  con- 


tents of  which,  as  also  of  a  second  edition  with 
a  Review  entitled  Recemio  (1722),  Newton  was 
himself  fully  responsible.  In  a  new  edition, 
edited  by  MM.  Biot  and  Lefort  (4to,  Paris, 
1856),  this  report  is  shown  to  be  in  many 
points  unfair.  The  dissension  continued  with- 
out abatement  up  to  Leibnitz's  death  (1716). 
Newton  published  soon  after  what  Biot  char- 
acterizes as  a  "  bitter  refutation."  In  the  first 
edition  of  the  Principia  (book  ii.,  scholium  to 
lemma  2)  justice  was  done  to  Leibnitz's  claim. 
In  the  third  edition  (1725)  another  scholium  is 
substituted,  in  which  Leibnitz's  name  is  not 
mentioned.  —  During  his  residence  at  Cam- 
bridge Newton  was  in  the  habit,  as  he  ex- 
presses it,  "  of  refreshing  himself  with  history 
and  chronology  when  he  was  weary  with  other 
studies."  Hence  grew  up  a  system  of  chronol- 
ogy, which  however  was  very  imperfect  and 
only  existed  in  separate  papers  till  the  prin- 
cess of  Wales  (afterward  queen  consort  of 
George  II.),  who  enjoyed  the  privilege  of  his 
conversation  during  the  latter  part  of  his  life, 
requested  a  copy  of  it  for  her  private  use.  The 
manuscript  after  some  years  was  printed  in 
Paris  (1725)  surreptitiously,  and  involved  New- 
ton in  an  annoying  controversy,  in  consequence 
of  which  he  was  induced  to  prepare  a  larger 
work,  which  was  interrupted  by  his  death.  It 
appeared  toward  the  end  of  1727,  under  the 
title,  "  The  Chronology  of  Ancient  Kingdoms 
amended,  to  which  is  prefixed  a  Short  Chron- 
icle from  the  first  Memory  of  Things  in  Eu- 
rope to  the  Conquest  of  Persia  by  Alexander 
the  Great."  His  system  was  based  on  the 
astronomical  observations  of  the  ancients. — 
Previous  to  1692  Newton  was  known  by  the 
appellation  of  an  "excellent  divine."  It  is 
therefore  probable  that  his  posthumous  papers 
on  religious  subjects  were  composed  in  the 
prime  of  life,  at  Cambridge.  His  "Observa- 
tions on  the  Prophecies  of  Daniel  and  the 
Apocalypse  of  St.  John  "  appeared  in  London 
in  1733  (4to).  His  "Historical  Account  of 
two  Notable  Corruptions  of  Scripture,"  main- 
ly composed  prior  to  1690,  but  finished  in  that 
year,  was  first  published  in  1754,  under  the 
erroneous  title  of  "  Two  Letters  from  Sir  Isaac 
Newton  to  M.  Le  Clerc."  In  some  catalogues 
of  Newton's  works  another  edition  is  men- 
tioned, entitled  "  Two  Letters  to  Mr.  Clarke, 
late  Divinity  Professor  of  the  Remonstrants 
in  Holland"  (1734).  It  appears  to  have  been 
first  published  entire  in  Horsley's  edition  of 
Newton's  works,  under  the  title,  "Historical 
Account  of  two  Notable  Corruptions  of  Scrip- 
ture, in  a  Letter  to  a  Friend."  That  friend 
was  probably  Locke.  In  this  work  he  con- 
siders the  two  noted  texts,  1  John  v.  7,  and  1 
Tim.  iii.  16.  The  former  he  attempts  to  prove 
spurious,  and  the  latter  he  considers  a  false 
reading.  The  publication  of  several  of  his 
private  papers  in  Sir  David  Brewster's  memoir 
places  the  fact  of  his  entertaining  Arian  opin- 
ions beyond  question.  About  the  beginning 
of  1691  Locke  contemplated  going  to  Holland, 


350 


NEWTON 


and  Newton  sent  him  the  above  mentioned 
tract  in  strict  confidence,  requesting  him  to 
take  it  with  him  and  procure  its  translation 
and  publication  in  French,  anonymously,  as  is 
evident ;  the  object  being  apparently  to  ascer- 
tain the  judgment  of  Biblical  critics  before 
bringing  it  out  under  his  own  name  in  English. 
Locke  abandoned  his  intention  of  visiting  Hol- 
land, but  sent  the  manuscript  to  his  friend  Le 
Olerc  in  that  country,  who  in  January  of  the 
next  year  informed  Locke  that  he  was  about 
to  publish  it  in  Latin.  Newton,  hearing  of 
this,  became  alarmed  at  the  risk  of  detection, 
and  stopped  the  publication.  He  left  many 
manuscripts  on  religious  subjects,  which  have 
never  been  published.  Besides  a  Latin  dis- 
sertation on  the  sacred  cubit  of  the  Jews, 
printed  in  1737  among  the  miscellaneous  works 
of  Mr.  John  Greaves,  Newton's  only  other 
published  religious  writings  are  the  four  cele- 
brated letters  addressed  to  Dr.  Bentley,  first, 
printed  in  1756.  They  are  directed  against 
atheism,  and  aim  to  show  that  matter  could 
never  have  arrayed  itself  in  its  present  forms 
without  a  divine  power  being  impressed  upon 
it.  Except  a  short  tract  on  the  nature  of 
acids,  his  only  chemical  paper  is  one  printed 
in  the  "  Philosophical  Transactions"  for  March 
and  April,  1701,  under  the  title  of  Scala, 
Graduum  Caloris.  It  contains  a  comparative 
scale  of  temperatures,  from  that  of  melting  ice 
to  that  of  a  small  kitchen  coal  fire.  To  the 
second  English  edition  of  the  "Optics"  are 
appended  several  queries,  the  18th  and  24th 
of  which  contain  his  opinions  in  favor  of  the 
existence  of  an  elastic  ether  diffused  through 
all  space,  "  much  subtler  than  air." — During 
the  last  20  years  of  his  life,  which  he  spent 
in  London,  the  charge  of  his  domestic  con- 
cerns, as  he  was  never  married,  devolved  upon 
his  niece,  Mrs.  Catharine  Conduitt.  For  two 
or  three  years  prior  to  1725  he  had  been 
troubled  with  a  disorder  of  the  bladder,  ac- 
companied with  cough  and  gout.  In  Janu- 
ary of  that  year  he  was  seized  with  a  vio- 
lent cough  and  inflammation  of  the  lungs,  in 
consequence  of  which  he  removed  his  resi- 
dence to  Kensington,  where  his  health  im- 
proved. From  this  time  the  duties  of  his  of- 
fice at  the  mint  were  discharged  by  Mr.  Con- 
duitt. On  Feb.  28,  1727,  he  went  to  London 
to  preside  at  a  meeting  of  the  royal  society, 
and  became  greatly  fatigued.  His  old  com- 
plaint returned  with  increased  violence,  and 
soon  proved  fatal.  He  was  buried  with  great 
pomp  in  Westminster  abbey,  where  a  monu- 
ment to  him  was  erected  in  1731.  Though 
he  had  accumulated  a  personal  estate  worth 
at  his  death  £32,000,  he  does  not  appear  to 
have  lived  narrowly.  He  often  evinced  great 
generosity;  to  his  relatives  in  particular  he 
was  lavish.  He  was  of  medium  stature,  and 
in  the  latter  part  of  his  life  inclined  to  cor- 
pulency. In  old  age  he  had  a  fine  head  of 
hair,  as  white  as  silver,  without  any  baldness. 
He  never  wore  spectacles,  and  it  is  said  he 


never  lost  more  than  one  tooth  to  the  day 
of  his  death.  The  house  in.  which  Newton 
was  born  was  purchased  in  1858  by  Miss 
Charlwood  of  Grantham,  to  be  pulled  down, 
that  a  scientific  college  might  be  erected  on  its 
site.  His  statue  was  inaugurated  at  Grantham, 
Sept.  21,  1858.  His  dwelling  house,  with  an 
observatory  which  he  built  on  the  top,  still 
remains  in  St.  Martin's  street,  London,  and  is 
a  place  of  scientific  pilgrimage. — Besides  the 
first  edition  of  the  Principia  above  noticed,  a 
second  was  published  at  Cambridge  in  1713, 
under  the  superintendence  of  Cotes,  whose 
correspondence  with  Newton  at  the  time  has 
been  published  (London,  1850),  under  the  edi- 
torship of  Mr.  Edleston.  A  third  edition  ap- 
peared in  London  in  1726  (4to),  edited  by 
Pemberton;  a  fourth  in  1729  (2  vols.  8vo), 
Englished  by  Motte ;  and  a  fifth  in  1730  (2  vols. 
8vo).  Several  editions  have  been  published  on 
the  continent,  the  most  famous  of  which  is  the 
Jesuits'  edition  (4  vols.  4to,  Geneva,  1739-'42), 
republished  in  Glasgow  under  the  editorship  of 
Wright  (4  vols.  8vo,  1822).  A  Latin  transla- 
tion of  the  "  Optics,"  by  Dr.  Clarke,  appeared 
in  1706  (4to),  for  which  Newton  presented 
the  translator  with  £500.  Many  other  edi- 
tions have  been  published.  Of  his  "  Universal 
Arithmetic"  there  are  several  editions,  both 
English  and  continental.  The  "  Optical  Lec- 
tures" appeared  in  1728;  "Fluxions,"  with  a 
commentary,  in  1736.  His  principal  works 
were  collected  by  Bishop  Horsley  (5  vols.  4to, 
London,  1779-'85).  His  communications  to  the 
royal  society  are  comprised  in  vols.  vii.  to  xi. 
of  the  "  Transactions." — See  Sir  David  Brew- 
ster's  "Memoirs  of  the  Life,  Writings,  and 
Discoveries  of  Sir  Isaac  Newton "  (2  vols., 
1855 ;  new  ed.,  revised  by  W.  T.  Lynn,  1875). 
NEWTON,  John,  an  English  clergyman,  born 
in  London,  July  24,  1725,  died  there,  Dec.  81, 
1807.  While  a  boy  he  accompanied  his  father, 
who  was  master  of  a  ship,  to  the  Mediterra- 
nean, and  subsequently  made  several  voyages. 
In  his  19th  year  he  was  seized  by  a  press  gang 
and  taken  on  board  the  Harwich  man-of-war, 
where  he  was  made  a  midshipman.  While  the 
ship  lay  at  Plymouth  he  deserted,  but  was  soon 
caught,  flogged,  degraded,  and  treated  with  such 
severity  that  he  willingly  exchanged  into  an 
African  trader  off  Madeira.  He  left  this  ship 
at  Sierra  Leone,  and  hiring  himself  out  as  a 
laborer  to  a  slave  trader  in  the  island  of  Bena- 
noes,  he  remained  there  till  1747,  when  an 
English  captain  arrived  at  Sierra  Leone,  com- 
missioned by  his  father  to  bring  him  back. 
Shortly  afterward  he  commanded  a  Liverpool 
slave  ship,  was  engaged  in  that  business  four 
years,  and  confesses  that,  during  all  the  time  he 
was  in  it,  "he  never  had  the  least  scruples  as 
to  its  lawfulness."  But  growing  disgusted  with 
the  occupation,  he  obtained  in  August,  1755, 
the  situation  of  surveyor  of  the  port  of  Liver- 
pool. While  in  Africa  he  had  studied  Euclid ; 
during  his  voyages  had  taught  himself  Latin  ; 
and  he  now  devoted  himself  to  acquiring  Greek 


NEWTON 


NEW  YEAR'S  DAY 


351 


and  Hebrew.  He  engaged  zealously  in  the 
religious  movement  originated  by  Wesley  and 
Whitefield,  and  in  1758  applied  to  the  arch- 
bishop of  York  for  holy  orders,  but  was  re- 
fused on  the  ground  of  irregularity.  In  April, 
1764,  however,  he  was  ordained  by  the  bishop 
of  Lincoln  and  appointed  curate  of  Olney  in 
Buckinghamshire,  and  shortly  afterward  pub- 
lished "  An  Authentic  Narrative  of  some  Re- 
markable and  Interesting  Particulars  in  the 
Life  of  the  Rev.  John  Newton."  At  Olney 
he  remained  nearly  16  years,  forming  a  close 
friendship  with  Cowper,  in  conjunction  with 
whom  he  wrote  the  "  Olney  Hymns."  In  1779 
he  was  presented  with  the  rectory  of  the  united 
parishes  of  St.  Mary  Woolnoth  and  St.  Mary 
Woolchurch  Haw,  Lombard  street,  London, 
where  he  remained  till  his  death,  preaching 
three  times  a  week  even  when  more  than  80 
years  old.  He  was  a  Calvinist,  and  was  a  prom- 
inent leader  in  the  so-called  evangelical  party 
in  the  church  of  England.  Among  his  works 
are  a  volume  of  "Six  Discourses"  (1760);  a 
series  of  "Letters  on  Religion"  (1762),  under 
the  signatures  of  Omicron  and  Vigil ;  "  Cardi- 
phonia;"  and  a  "  Review  of  Ecclesiastical  His- 
tory" (1770),  besides  numerous  sermons  and 
tracts.  A  collected  edition  of  his  works  was 
published  in  1816  (6  vols.  8vo,  London).  His 
life  was  written  by  the  Rev.  Richard  Cecil 
(London,  1808) ;  and  several  of  his  letters  to 
Cowper  are  published  in  Southey's  edition  of 
the  life  and  works  of  that  poet. 

NEWTON,  Robert,  an  English  clergyman,  born 
at  Roxby,  Yorkshire,  Sept.  8,  1780,  died  April 
30,  1854.  With  a  limited  education  he  began 
to  preach  in  1798,  and  in  1799  was  received 
into  the  British  conference.  In  1803  he  was 
appointed  to  Glasgow  circuit,  where  he  at- 
tended lectures  in  the  university  on  theology 
and  philosophy.  While  he  received  his  ap- 
pointments regularly  from  the  conference, 
most  of  his  time  was  spent  in  special  labors  in 
various  parts  of  England  and  Scotland.  His 
appointment  to  London  in  1812  brought  his 
extraordinary  pulpit  talents  more  prominently 
before  the  public,  and  he  was  employed  with 
great  success  in  advocating  the  cause  of  the 
British  and  foreign  Bible  society.  He  was 
also  associated  with  Thomas  Coke  in  promo- 
ting the  cause  of  Christian  missions.  The  de- 
mands for  his  labors  throughout  England, 
Scotland,  and  Ireland  were  extraordinary. 
During  more  than  50  years  he  probably  trav- 
elled more  continuously  in  the  interests  of 
the  church  than  any  other  man  of  the  cen- 
tury. He  was  four  times  elected  president  of 
the  British  conference,  and  for  many  years 
acted  as  its  secretary.  In  1839  he  was  sent  as 
delegate  of  the  British  conference  to  the  Meth- 
odist Episcopal  church  of  the  United  States, 
and  during  this  stay  his  marvellous  eloquence 
attracted  vast  crowds. 

NEWTON,  Thomas,  an  English  bishop,  born 
in  Lichfield,  Jan.  1,  1704,  died  Feb.  14,  1782. 
He  graduated  at  Trinity  college,  Cambridge, 
600  VOL.  xii. — 23 


took  orders  in  1729,  received  the  curacy  of  St. 
George's,  Hanover  square,  London,  and  after- 
ward that  of  Grosvenor  chapel,  and  in  1744 
was  presented  by  the  earl  of  Bath  to  the  rec- 
tory of  St.  Mary-le-Bow.  He  was  chosen  in 
1747  lecturer  of  St.  George's,  Hanover  square. 
In  1761  he  became  bishop  of  Bristol,  and  in 
1768  dean  of  St.  Paul's.  In  1749-'52  he  pub- 
lished the  first  critical  edition  of  Milton's  "  Po- 
etical Works"  with  variorum  notes  (3  vols. 
4to).  His  " Dissertations  on  the  Prophecies" 
(3  vols.  8vo,  1754-'8)  became  very  popular, 
and  were  translated  into  German  and  Danish. 
A  collected  edition  of  his  writings  appeared  in 
1783  (3  vols.  4to,  London). 

NEW  WESTMINSTER,  a  city  and  till  1867  the 
capital  of  British  Columbia,  on  the  N.  bank  of 
Eraser  river,  15  m.  above  its  mouth  in  the  gulf 
of  Georgia,  and  65  m.  N.  N.  E.  of  Yictoria; 
lat.  49°  13'  N.,  Ion.  122°  53'  W. ;  pop.  about 
2,000,  including  some  Indians.  It  has  a  mag- 
nificent site,  and  an  equable  and  delightful  cli- 
mate. In  the  river  (here  about  a  mile  wide) 
are  several  islands,  most  of  them  inhabited. 
Writhin  a  few  miles  are  extensive  deposits  of 
silver,  which  have  not  been  worked.  Steam- 
ers run  to  Yale,  the  head  of  navigation,  100 
m.  above,  and  there  is  a  semi-weekly  line  to 
Victoria.  Salmon  fishing  is  the  principal  in- 
dustry, five  large  establishments  being  engaged 
in  it,  and  shipping  annually  large  quantities  of 
canned  and  barrelled  salmon  to  all  parts  of  the 
world.  The  principal  buildings  are  the  court 
house,  council  hall,  post  office,  library,  masonic 
and  odd  fellows'  halls,  and  the  penitentiary 
in  course  of  erection.  The  Episcopal  church 
has  a  fine  peal  of  bells,  and  there  are  also  a 
Presbyterian,  a  Roman  Catholic,  and  two  Wes- 
leyan  Methodist  churches.  The  city  has  two 
common  schools,  a  Catholic  college  for  boys,  a 
young  ladies'  school  conducted  by  the  sisters 
of  St.  Anne,  a  hospital,  a  savings  bank,  a  tele- 
graph office,  and  a  semi-weekly  newspaper. 

NEW  TEAR'S  DAY,  the  first  day  of  the  year. 
Ancient  and  modern  civilized  peoples,  while 
differing  as  to  the  day  from  which  they  reck- 
oned the  beginning  of  the  civil  year  (see  YEAB), 
have  agreed  in  distinguishing  it  by  special  fes- 
tivities. The  Romans  dedicated  the  day  and 
the  whole  ensuing  month  to  Janus,  offered  sac- 
rifices to  him  on  12  altars,  and  were  careful  so 
to  order  their  conduct  on  that  day  that  every 
word  and  action  should  be  a  happy  augury  of 
the  12  months  of  the  year.  They  exchanged 
kindly  greetings  and  wishes,  and  sent  to  their 
kinsfolk,  friends,  and  acquaintance  presents 
called  strena.  These  new  year's  presents  be- 
came under  the  C^sars  such  a  source  of  per- 
sonal profit  to  the  /sovereign,  and  so  onerous 
to  his  subjects,  that  Claudius  limited  them  by  a 
decree,  the  first  Christian  emperors  kept  up 
the  custom,  though  still  accompanied  by  many 
idolatrous  rites.  The  church  condemned  it, 
prohibited  Christians  from  joining  in  the  social 
celebration,  and  ended  by  making  it  a  religious 
festival  in  memory  of  the  circumcision  of  Christ. 


352 


NEW  YORK  (STATE) 


The  bestowal  of  gifts  upon  new  year's  day  was 
not  peculiar  to  the  Romans.  The  druids  dis- 
tributed branches  of  the  sacred  mistletoe,  cut 
with  peculiar  ceremonies,  as  new  year's  gifts 
among  the  people ;  and  the  Saxons  of  the  north, 
according  to  Bishop  Stillingfleet,  observed  the 
festival  with  f eastings  and  sending  gifts.  Hen- 
ry III.  of  England  is  said  to  have  extorted  new 
year's  gifts,  and  Queen  Elizabeth's  wardrobe 
and  jewelry  were  probably  almost  wholly  sup- 
plied from  these  contributions.  Dr.  Drake 
says  that,  although  the  queen  made  returns  to 
the  new  year's  gifts  in  plate  and  other  articles, 
she  took  care  that  the  balance  should  be  in  her 
own  favor.  As  late  as  1692,  as  appears  from 
the  "Monthly  Miscellany"  for  December  of 
that  year,  the  English  nobility  were  accustomed, 
"  every  new  year's  tide,"  to  "  send  to  the  king 
a  purse  with  gold  in  it."  In  England  the  ring- 
ing in  the  new  year  from  the  belfries  of  church- 
es is  now  the  only  open  demonstration  of  joy 
at  the  recurrence  of  the  anniversary.  In  the 
city  of  New  York  the  day  is  made  the  occasion 
of  social  visits  by  gentlemen,  a  custom  dating 
back  to  the  settlement  of  the  town  by  the 
Dutch ;  and  the  practice  has  become  prevalent 
in  many  parts  of  the  United  States.  —  The 
Jews  celebrate  their  new  year's  festival  (Bosh 
Jiashshanah)  at  the  beginning  of  the  month 
of  Tishri  (September-October),  the  first  of  the 
civil  year  corresponding  to  the  seventh  of  the 
Mosaic  or  ecclesiastical.  The  distinguishing 
feature  of  the  celebration  in  the  synagogues  is 
the  blowing  of  horns,  in  accordance  with  Le- 
viticus xxiii.  24.  Among  the  Chinese  the  new 
year's  celebration,  continued  for  three  days,  is 
the  greatest  festival  of  the  year.  Preparatory 
to  it,  all  accounts  are  settled  and  debts  paid 
so  far  as  possible ;  and  tradesmen  who  cannot 
pay  their  debts  are  generally  obliged  to  give  up 
all  their  property  to  their  creditors.  On  new 
year's  day  calls  are  made  upon  friends,  joyous 
greetings  are  exchanged  in  the  streets,  paper 
prayers  are  offered  in  the  temples,  fireworks 
are  burned,  gongs  are  beaten,  and  a  general 
hubbub  prevails.  At  night  gambling  is  prac- 
tised to  an  enormous  extent. 

NEW  YORK,  one  of  the  thirteen  original  states 
of  the  American  Union,  and  one  of  the  middle 
states,  situated  between  lat.  40°  29'  40"  and 
45°  0'  42"  N.,  and  Ion.  71°  51'  and  79°  45'  54" 
W. ;  extreme  length  E.  and  W.,  412  m. ;  breadth 
varying  from  8  or  10  m.  on  Long  island,  and 
18|  m.  at  the  W.  extremity  of  the  state,  to 
31  If  m.  from  the  Canada  boundary  to  the  S. 
point  of  Staten  island;  area,  47,000  sq.  m.  It 
is  bounded  N".  and  N.  W.  by  Lake  Ontario  and 
the  St.  Lawrence  river,  and  again  N.  by  Cana- 
da along  the  parallel  of  45°  from  the  St.  Law- 
rence to  the  head  of  Lake  Champlain ;  E.  by 
Vermont  (separated  in  part  by  Lake  Cham- 
plain),  Massachusetts,  Connecticut,  and  the  At- 
lantic ocean ;  S.  by  the  Atlantic,  New  Jersey, 
and  Pennsylvania;  and  W.  by  Pennsylvania, 
Lake  Erie,  and  the  Niagara  river.  It  is  divi- 
ded into  60  counties,  viz. :  Albany,  Allegany, 


Broome,  Cattaraugus,  Cayuga,  Chautauqua, 
Chemung,  Chenango,  Clinton,  Columbia,  Cort- 
land,  Delaware,  Dutchess,  Erie,  Essex,  Frank- 
lin, Fulton,  Genesee,  Greene,  Hamilton,  Her- 
kimer,  Jefferson,  Kings,  Lewis,  Livingston, 
Madison,  Monroe,  Montgomery,  New  York, 
Niagara,  Oneida,  Onondaga,  Ontario,  Orange, 
Orleans,  Oswego,  Otsego,  Putnam,  Queens, 
Rensselaer,  Richmond,  Rockland,  St.  Lawrence, 
Saratoga,  Schenectady,  Schoharie,  Schuyler, 
Seneca,  Steuben,  Suffolk,  Sullivan,Tioga,Tomp- 
kins,  Ulster,  Warren,  Washington,  Wayne, 
Westchester,  Wyoming,  and  Yates.  Albany, 
the  capital,  is  on  the  W.  bank  of  the  Hudson 
river,  about  140  m.  N.  of  New  York  city; 
pop.  in  1870,  within  its  present  limits,  76,216. 
The  population  of  New  York  city  in  1870 
was  942,292,  but  recent  annexations  have  in- 
creased it,  according  to  the  census  of  that 
year,  to  973,773;  its  total  population  in  1874 
was  about  1,050,000.  The  other  cities  of  the 
state,  with  the  number  of  inhabitants  as  re- 
ported by  the  federal  census  of  1870,  are :  Au- 
burn, 17,225  ;  Binghamton,  12,692;  Brooklyn, 
396,099;  Buffalo,  117,714;  Cohoes,  15,357; 
Elmira,  15,863  ;  Hudson,  8,615  ;  Kingston 
(1874),  about  22,000  ;  Lockport,  12,426  ;  Long 
Island  City  (1874),  about  16,000;  Newburgh, 
17,014 ;  Ogdensburg,  10,076  ;  Oswego,  20,910 ; 
Poughkeepsie,  20,080 ;  Rochester,  62,386 ; 
Rome,  11,000;  Schenectady,  11,026;  Syracuse, 
43,051;  Troy,  46,465;  Utica,  28,804;  Water- 
town,  9,336;  Yonkers  (1874),  about  16,000.— 
In  population  New  York  surpasses  every  other 
state  in  the  Union.  Under  the  colonial  gov- 
ernment, the  number  of  inhabitants  in  1698 
was  18,067;  1703,20,665;  1723,40,564;  1731, 
50,824;  1737,  60,437;  1746,  61,589;  1749, 
73,348;  1756,  96,790;  1771,  163,337.  The 
results  of  the  United  States  decennial  census- 
es have  been  as  follows : 


YEARS. 

White. 

Free 
colored. 

Slave. 

Total. 

Rank. 

1790.. 

814,142 

4,654 

21,824 

840,120 

5 

1800 

657731 

10417 

20908 

589  051 

3 

1810 

918  699 

25833 

15017 

959  049 

2 

1820  

1,832,744 

29,279 

10,088 

1,872,111 

1 

1830     

1  873  663 

44870 

75 

1,918  608 

1 

1840 

2  878  890 

50027 

4 

2  428  921 

1 

1850  

8.048,325 

49,069 

8,097,894 

1 

I860  

8  881  590 

49,005 

3,880  735 

1 

18TO... 

4,330,210 

52,081 

4,382,759 

1 

Included  in  the  total  of  1860  were  140  Indians, 
and  in  that  of  1870,  439  Indians  and  29  Chi- 
nese. Censuses  have  also  been  taken  by  the 
state  as  follows :  1814  (total  population),  1,035,- 
910;  1825,  1,614,456;  1835,  2,174,517;  1845, 
2,604,495;  1855,  3,466,212;  1865,  3,831,777. 
The  population  increased  from  1698  to  1771, 
or  during  a  colonial  period  of  73  years,  804-06 

?er  cent.,  or  at  the  rate  of  11  '014  per  annum, 
he  increase  from  1790  to  1850,  or  during  a 
period  of  60  years,  was  810-67  per  cent.,  or 
13-51  per  annum;  1840  to  1850,  27*52  per 
cent.,  or  2'75  per  annum;  1850  to  1855,  11-91 
per  cent.,  or  2-38  per  annum ;  1855  to  1860, 


NEW   YORK   (STATE) 


353 


11-12  per  cent.,  or  2-22  per  annum;  1860  to 
1865,  12-61  per  cent.,  or  2-52  per  annum ;  1865 
to  1870,  13  per  cent.,  or  2'6  per  annum. 
Of  the  total  population  in  1870,  2,163,229 
were  males  and  2,219,530  females ;  3,244,406 
were  native  and  1,138,353  foreign  born.  Of 
the  natives,  2,987,779  were  born  in  the  state, 
38,851  in  Connecticut,  5,985  in  Maine,  41,355 
in  Massachusetts,  4,850  in  Michigan,  9,211 
in  New  Hampshire,  32,408  in  New  Jersey, 
36,170  in  Pennsylvania,  6,993  in  Rhode  Island, 
36,307  in  Vermont,  and  7,070  in  Virginia  and 
West  Virginia.  Of  the  foreigners,  79,042  were 
born  in  British  America,  110,071  in  Eng- 
land, 528,806  in  Ireland,  27,282  in  Scotland, 
7,857  in  Wales,  22,302  in  France,  316,902  in 
Germany,  6,426  in  Holland,  5,522  in  Swe- 
den, 4,061  in  Poland,  3,592  in  Italy,  818  in 
Spain,  1,824  in  Cuba,  and  7,916  in  Switzer- 
land. The  density  of  population  was  93 '25 
persons  to  a  square  mile.  There  were  898,772 
families,  with  an  average  of  4-88  persons  to 


Seal  of  the  State  of  New  York 

each,  and  688,559  dwellings,  with  an  average 
of  6 '37  to  each,  the  latter  average  being  larger 
in  New  York  than  in  any  other  state.  The 
number  of  persons  from  5  to  18  years  of  age 
was  1,220,988;  from  18  to  45,  881,500;  male 
citizens  21  years  old  and  upward,  981,587. 
There  were  163,501  persons  10  years  old  and 
over  who  could  not  read,  and  239,271  unable 
to  write,  of  whom  70,702  were  native  and 
168,569  foreign  born.  Of  persons  21  years 
of  age  and  upward,  73,208  white  males  and 
116,744  white  females,  and  3,912  colored  males 
and  4,874  colored  females,  were  illiterate.  The 
number  of  paupers  supported  during  the  year 
ending  June  1,  1870,  was  26,152,  at  a  cost  of 
$2,661,385 ;  of  the  total  number  receiving  sup- 
port at  that  date  (14,100),  5,953  were  native 
and  8,147  foreign  born.  During  the  year  5,473 
persons  were  convicted  of  crime  ;  of  the  total 
number  (4,704)  in  prison  June  1,  1870,  2,658 
were  natives  and  2,046  foreigners.  The  state 
contained  2,213  blind,  1,783  deaf  and  dumb, 
6,353  insane,  and  2,486  idiotic.  Of  the  total 
population  10  years  old  and  over  (3,378,959), 


there  were  engaged  in  all  occupations  1,491,- 
018,  of  whom  1,233,979  were  males  and  257,- 
039  females ;  in  agriculture,  374,323,  of  whom 
134,562  were  laborers  arid  232,649  farmers  and 
planters ;  in  professional  and  personal  services, 
405,339,  including  5,678  clergymen,  155,150 
domestic  servants,  931  journalists,  139,309  la- 
borers not  specified,  5,913  lawyers,  6,810  phy- 
sicians and  surgeons,  and  18,557  teachers  not 
specified ;  in  trade  and  transportation,  234,581 ; 
and  in  manufactures  and  mechanical  and  mi- 
ning industries,  476,775,  of  whom  19,291  were 
blacksmiths,  24,309  boot  and  shoe  makers, 
53,046  carpenters  and  joiners,  11,413  machin- 
ists, 16,594  masons,  26,540  milliners  and  dress 
and  mantua  makers,  18,082  painters  and  var- 
nishers,  10,193  printers,  3,431  ship  carpenters, 
41,627  tailors,  tailoresses,  and  seamstresses, 
11,368  curriers,  tanners,  and  finishers  of  leath- 
er, and  6,869  woollen  mill  operatives.  The  total 
number  of  deaths  during  the  year  was  69,095, 
being  1*58  per  cent,  of  the  entire  population. 
Chief  among  the  causes  of  mortality  were  con- 
sumption, from  which  11,578  persons  died, 
pneumonia,  5,262,  and  cholera  infantum,  3,577; 
there  were  6  deaths  from  all  causes  to  1  from 
consumption,  and  13-1  to  1  from  pneumonia. 
There  were  1,134  deaths  from  croup,  1,073 
from  measles,  582  from  smallpox,  864  from 
diphtheria,  3,403  from  scarlet  fever,  2,029 
from  enteric  fever,  2,243  from  diarrhoea,  1,068 
from  dysentery,  and  1,330  from  enteritis.  Not 
included  in  the  census  are  5,140  Indians  of 
the  Six  Nations  in  New  York,  on  eight  res- 
ervations, mainly  in  the  extreme  S.  W.  part 
of  the  state,  of  whom  3,060  were  Senecas,  and 
the  others  Saint  Regis,  Onondagas,  Tuscaro- 
ras,  Oneidas,  and  Cayugas.  They  have  adopt- 
ed a  civilized  life,  are  intelligent  and  indus- 
trious, and  are  chiefly  engaged  in  agricul- 
ture; 30  schools  and  an  orphan  asylum  are 
maintained  by  the  state  for  their  benefit. — • 
The  outlines  of  the  state  are  very  irregular, 
only  about  one  third  of  the  entire  boundaries 
consisting  of  straight  lines.  The  river,  lake, 
and  ocean  boundaries  are  all  navigable  waters, 
except  17J  m.  on  Poultney  river,  and  consist 
of  352  m.  on  Lakes  Erie,  Ontario,  and  Cham- 
plain,  281  m.  on  the  St.  Lawrence,  Poultney, 
Hudson,  Kill  van  Kull,  Delaware,  and  Niagara 
rivers,  and  246  m.  on  Long  Island  sound  and 
the  Atlantic  ocean ;  total,  879.  The  land  boun- 
daries along  Canada,  Vermont,  Massachusetts, 
Connecticut,  New  Jersey,  and  Pennsylvania, 
all  made  up  of  straight  lines,  form  a  total  of 
541-28  m.  The  principal  islands  belonging  to 
the  state  are  the  following :  in  Niagara  river, 
Grand,  Squaw,  Strawberry,  Rattlesnake,  Tona- 
wanda,  Beaver,  Buckhorn,  Cayuga,  and  Goat ; 
in  the  St.  Lawrence,  Carlton,  Grenadier,  Fox, 
Wells,  Grindstone,  a  large  number  of  the  Thou- 
sand islands,  and  Gallup;  in  Lake  Chainplain, 
Valcour,  Crab,  and  Schuyler;  in  New  York 
bay,  the  Atlantic  ocean,  and  Long  Island  sound, 
Manhattan,  Staten,  Long,  Gardiner's,  Shelter, 
Plum,  Fisher's,  all  the  islands  between  Long 


354 


NEW  YOEK  (STATE) 


island  and  Connecticut  to  within  a  few  rods 
of  the  Connecticut  shore,  Hart's,  Randall's, 
Ward's,  BlackwelTs,  Governor's,  Bedloe's,  and 
Ellis.  The  last  three  are  owned  by  the  general 
government,  and  occupied  as  military  posts. 
New  York  bay  and  harbor  is  deep  and  capa- 
cious enough  to  accommodate  all  the  ship- 
ping belonging  to  and  trading  with  the  port  of 
New  York.  The  other  principal  harbors  are 
Dunkirk  and  Buffalo,  on  Lake  Erie ;  Tonawan- 
da  and  Lewiston,  on  Niagara  river ;  Genesee, 
Sodus,  Oswego,  Sackett's  Harbor,  and  Cape 
Vincent,  on  Lake  Ontario ;  Ogdensburg,  on  the 
St.  Lawrence ;  Rouse's  Point,  Plattsburgh,  Port 
Henry,  and  Whitehall,  on  Lake  Champlain ; 
and  Sag  Harbor,  at  the  E.  end  of  Long  island. 
The  principal  river  of  the  state  is  the  Hudson, 
which  is  navigable  to  Troy,  151  m.  from  its 
mouth.  The  Mohawk,  the  principal  affluent 
of  the  Hudson,  rising  in  the  interior,  enters 
the  Hudson  at  Waterford,  descending  about 
500  ft.  in  its  entire  length  of  135  m. ;  it  affords 
extensive  water  power  at  Little  Falls  and  Co- 
hoes.  Its  principal  branches  are  West  and  East 
Canada  creeks  from  the  north,  and  Schoharie 
creek  from  the  south.  Oswego  river,  which 
receives  the  waters  of  all  the  interior  lakes, 
from  Oneida  and  Cazenovia  on  the  east  to 
Keuka  (formerly  Crooked)  and  Canandaigua 
on  the  west,  furnishes  with  its  branches  and 
tributaries  good  water  power  at  Penn  Yan,  on 
Keuka  lake  outlet ;  at  Waterloo,  Seneca  Falls, 
and  Baldwinsville,  on  Seneca  river ;  at  Phelps, 
on  Flint  creek  and  Canandaigua  outlet;  at 
Auburn,  on  Owasco  outlet;  almost  the  entire 
length  of  Skaneateles  outlet  (the  fall  being 
453  ft.  in  9  m.) ;  at  Cazenovia  and  Chittenan- 
go,  on  Chittenango  creek ;  and  at  Fulton  and 
Oswego,  on  Oswego  river.  The  Alleghany, 
Susquehanna,  and  Delaware,  with  numerous 
branches,  drain  the  western,  central,  and  east- 
ern portions  respectively  of  the  S.  part  of  the 
state,  and  furnish  valuable  water  power  at 
numerous  points.  Cattaraugus  and  Tonawan- 
da  creeks  are  also  considerable  streams  in  the 
west,  the  former  furnishing  important  water 
power,  and  the  latter  affording  slack- water 
navigation  for  the  Erie  canal  for  about  10  m. 
from  its  mouth.  The  other  principal  streams 
are  Buffalo  river  (formerly  creek),  flowing 
into  Lake  Erie;  Oak  Orchard  creek,  Gene- 
see,  Salmon,  and  Black  rivers,  flowing  into 
Lake  Ontario;  Oswegatchie,  Grasse,  and  Ra- 
quette  rivers,  tributaries  of  the  St.  Lawrence; 
Chazy,  Saranac,  and  Au  Sable  rivers,  and 
Wood  creek,  rapid  streams  or  mountain  tor- 
rents flowing  into  Lake  Champlain,  and  fur- 
nishing almost  unlimited  water  power ;  Sus- 
quehanna river,  which  rises  in  Otsego  lake, 
and  in  its  course  in  the  state  receives  the  waters 
of  Charlotte,  Unadilla,  and  Chenango  rivers ; 
and  Chemung  river,  which  drains  a  portion  of 
the  state  between  the  Alleghany  and  Susque- 
hanna, and  receives  the  waters  of  Canisteo, 
Conhocton,  and  Tioga  rivers.  The  principal 
branches  of  the  Delaware  are  Popacton  and 


Nevisink  rivers. — The  state  is  noted  for  the 
great  number  of  beautiful  lakes  in  the  interior 
and  N.  E.  parts.  The  principal  of  these  are 
Chautauqua  and  Cattaraugus,  in  the  west; 
Hemlock,  Honeoye,  Canadice,  and  Conesus,  in 
the  Genesee  basin,  which  discharge  their  wa- 
ters into  Genesee  river ;  Canandaigua,  Keuka, 
Seneca,  Cayuga,  Owasco,  Skaneateles,  Cross, 
Onondaga,  Otisco,  Cazenovia,  and  Oneida,  in 
the  central  part  of  the  state,  all  of  which  find 
#n  outlet  for  their  waters  through  Oswego 
river ;  Otsego  and  Schuyler,  which  empty  into 
the  Susquehanna;  and  George,  Schroon,  Au 
Sable,  Placid,  Avalanche,  Golden,  Henderson, 
Sandford,  Blue  Mountain,  the  Fulton  lakes 
(eight  in  number),  Raquette,  Beach's,  Forked, 
Newcomb,  Long,  Cranberry,  Upper  Saranac, 
Lower  Saranac,  Tupper's,  Chateaugay,  Chazy, 
Rich,  Pleasant,  Peseco,  Smith's,  Moose,  and 
numerous  smaller  lakes,  in  the  N.  E.  part. 
Canandaigua,  Keuka,  Seneca,  Cayuga,  Owasco, 
Onondoga,  Skaneateles,  Chautauqua,  Otsego, 
and  Oneida  lakes,  and  Lake  George,  are  all 
navigable  for  boats  and  steamers,  and  on  many 
of  them  considerable  trade  is  carried  on.  Lakes 
Erie,  Ontario,  and  Champlain  are  navigable 
for  vessels  of  all  sizes.  Seneca  lake  never 
freezes,  and  steamers  ply  upon  it  throughout 
the  year.  The  scenery  of  these  lakes  attracts 
thousands  of  pleasure  seekers  during  the  sum- 
mer months. — The  surface  of  the  state  is  great- 
ly diversified.  The  topographical  features  are 
clearly  marked  in  the  mountain  ranges  and 
great  extent  of  certain  outcrops  forming  es- 
carpments which  extend  across  the  state  E. 
and  W.  The  range  constituting  the  High- 
lands on  the  Hudson,  entering  the  state  from 
New  Jersey,  extends  N.  E.  through  Rockland, 
Orange,  Putnam,  and  Dutchess  cos.  It  is  com- 
posed of  compact  gneissoid  and  granitic  rocks. 
The  highest  points,  varying  from  1,100  to  1,700 
ft.,  are  Butter  hill,  Crow's  Nest,  and  Bear 
mountain  in  Orange  co. ;  Bull  hill,  Anthony's 
Nose,  and  Breakneck  mountain  in  Putnam  co. ; 
and  Beacon  hill  in  Dutchess  co.  This  range  in 
its  proper  limitation  gradually  declines  north- 
eastward to  Dover  Plains,  and  passes  in  low 
hills  into  Litchfield  co.,  Conn.  It  has  been 
sometimes  regarded  as  a  continuation  of  the 
Blue  Ridge  of  Virginia,  but  the  connection 
is  not  proved,  and  its  geological  relation  is 
distinct  from  the  metamorphic  formations  on 
either  side.  The  Adirondack  range  is  of  the 
same  age  as  the  Highlands,  and  of  the  same 
geological  structure.  This  range  begins  in 
the  Mohawk  valley,  and  is  seen  on  both  sides 
of  it  at  the  Noses,  rising  on  the  south  100  ft. 
above  the  level  of  the  river,  and  again  at  Lit- 
tle Falls,  forming  the  rapids.  It  extends  over 
the  N.  part  of  Montgomery  and  Herkimer  cos., 
the  N.  E.  part  of  Oneida,  all  of  Lewis  co. 
E.  of  the  Black  river,  a  considerable  part  of 
Saratoga,  the  most  of  Warren,  Hamilton  co. 
entire,  nearly  all  of  Essex,  Clinton,  and  Frank- 
lin, the  greater  part  of  St.  Lawrence,  and  much 
of  Jefferson.  The  whole  constitutes  "that 


NEW  YORK  (STATE) 


355 


comparatively  immense  and  beautifully  circum- 
scribed nucleus,  which  from  a  height  [in  Essex 
co.]  of  nearly  6,000  ft.  descends  with  great 
irregularity,  and  disappears  under  the  transi- 
tion rocks  which  encircle  it,  and  which  border 
the  St.  Lawrence,  the  Ohamplain,  the  Mohawk, 
and  the  Black  river."  Under  the  patronage 
of  the  state,  Mr.  Yerplanck  Colvin  has  been 
for  several  years  engaged  in  a  topographical 
and  trigonometrical  survey  of  some  portions  of 
this  region,  and  his  reports  for  1873  and  1874 
present  many  new  facts.  The  position  and 
altitude  of  many  mountains  and  lakes  have 
been  determined  by  him,  and  the  heights  of 
well  known  peaks  more  accurately  measured, 
giving  to  Mt.  Marcy  and  Mt.  Mclntyre  5,402 
and  5,201  ft.  respectively.  Gothic  mountain 
and  Basin  mountain,  nearly  5,000  ft.  in  height, 
are  among  those  now  for  the  first  time  deter- 
mined. Mts.  Dix,  Seward,  and  Santanoni  are 
reduced  by  Mr.  Oolvin's  measurements  to  4,916, 
4,384,  and  4,644  ft.  respectively.  He  reports 
the  existence  in  this  region  of  the  moose  and 
beaver,  though  rare  and  nearly  extinct.  The 
bear,  panther,  and  wolf  are  still  common,  and 
are  trapped  for  their  fur  or  for  state  bounty. 
The  common  deer  are  plentiful  in  some  sections. 
A  commission  of  state  parks  appointed  by  the 
legislature  have  reported  in  favor  of  setting 
apart  as  a  state  park  from  600  to  3,000  sq.  m. 
of  the  high  mountain  region  of  the  Adiron- 
dacks,  embracing  Mt.  Marcy  and  all  the  great 
peaks ;  the  chief  objects  being  to  preserve  the 
forests  for  their  beneficial  climatic  effects,  mod- 
erating the  spring  freshets  in  the  Hudson  by 
sheltering  the  snow  from  the  heat  of  the 
sun,  shielding  the  sources  of  this  river  from 
evaporation,  and  affording  a  healthful  pleasure 
ground.  The  continuation  of  the  Appalachian 
range  proper  in  New  York  is  seen  in  the  Sha- 
wangunk  and  Catskill  mountains;  the  former 
a  continuation  of  the  Kittatinny  and  Blue 
mountains  of  Pennsylvania,  the  latter  of  the 
Alleghany,  Broad  Top,  Laurel  Hill,  and  others. 
This  range,  entering  the  state  from  the  south- 
west, extends  northeasterly  through  Sullivan, 
Ulster,  Delaware,  and  Greene  cos.,  culmina- 
ting in  the  Catskills  about  8  m.  from  the  Hud- 
son river.  Several  minor  ridges  pass  through 
the  W.  part  of  Delaware,  Broome,  Otsego,  and 
Chenango  cos.,  extending  into  the  S.  part  of 
Schoharie,  and  forming  a  part  of  the  Catskill 
mountain  range.  Along  the  eastern  boundary 
of  the  state  is  a  less  defined  but  continuous  low 
mountain  range  belonging  to  the  same  system, 
entering  the  state  from  New  Jersey  W.  of  the 
Highlands,  there  forming  Skunemunk  moun- 
tain, and  extending  thence  through  Dutchess, 
Columbia,  Rensselaer,  and  Washington  cos., 
known  as  the  Taghkanic  range.  It  is  usually 
regarded  as  subordinate  to  the  Green  mountain 
range.  Its  highest  points  are  Beacon  hill  and 
Mt.  Washington  in  Dutchess  co.  The  Helder- 
berg  mountains  are  a  northern  extension  of  the 
formations  constituting  the  base  of  the  Catskill 
mountains.  These  present  a  steep  escarpment 


on  the  north  and  northeast,  over  the  Helder- 
berg  limestones  and  Hudson  river  formation, 
while  the  higher  rounded  summits  are  of  the 
Hamilton  group.  This  escarpment  continues 
more  or  less  distinctly  to  the  Niagara  river. 
Spurs  of  the  Alleghanies  occupy  the  S.  part  of 
the  western  half  of  the  state.  The  watershed 
separating  the  northern  and  southern  drainage 
of  western  New  York  extends  in  an  irregular 
line  through  the  southerly  counties.  That  por- 
tion of  the  state  S.  of  this  watershed,  and  em- 
bracing the  greater  part  of  the  two  southerly 
tiers  of  counties,  is  almost  entirely  hilly.  The 
highest  summits  W.  of  the  Susquehanna  are  in 
Allegany  and  Cattaraugus  cos.,  and  are  2,000 
to  2,500  ft.  above  tide.  N.  of  the  watershed 
the  face  of  the  country  descends  in  a  series  of 
rolling  and  smooth  terraces  toward  Lake  On- 
tario, the  region  between  the  hills  of  the  south 
and  the  level  lands  of  the  north  being  a  beau- 
tiful rolling  country.  S.  of  the  Highlands  the 
surface  is  generally  level  or  broken  by  low 
hills.  The  river  system  consists  of  two  gen- 
eral divisions,  viz. :  that  part  drained  by  the 
great  lakes  and  the  St.  Lawrence,  northerly; 
and  that  part  drained  by  the  Hudson  and  other 
rivers,  southerly.  The  watershed  between  these 
two  divisions  extends  in  an  irregular  line  from 
Lake  Erie  eastward  through  the  southern  tier 
of  counties  to  near  the  N.  E.  corner  of  Che- 
mung  co.,  thence  N.  E.  to  the  Adirondack 
mountains  in  Essex  co.,  thence  S.  E.  to  the  E. 
extremity  of  Lake  George,  and  thence  nearly 
due  E.  to  the  E.  line  of  the  state.  The  north- 
ern of  these  divisions  consists  of  five  subdivi- 
sions or  basins,  viz. :  the  basin  drained  by  Lake 
Erie,  Niagara  river,  and  Lake  Ontario  W.  of 
Genesee  river;  that  of  Genesee  river  and  its 
tributaries;  of  Oswego  river  and  its  tributa- 
ries, and  the  small  streams  flowing  into  Lake 
Ontario  between  Genesee  and  Oswego  rivers ; 
of  the  St.  Lawrence  and  the  streams  flowing 
into  Lake  Ontario  E.  of  Oswego  river;  and  that 
drained  by  Lakes  George  and  Champlain.  The 
southern  division  consists  of  four  subdivisions, 
viz. :  the  Alleghany,  the  Susquehanna,  the  Del- 
aware, and  the  Hudson  river  basins. — The  geo- 
logical series  within  the  state  of  New  York  is 
very  complete,  from  the  oldest  palaeozoic  rocks 
to  the  lower  members  of  the  carboniferous  sys- 
tem inclusive.  This  series  was  described  by 
the  New  York  geologists  as  the  New  York  sys- 
tem. The  Adirondack  region,  N.  of  the  Mo- 
hawk and  E.  of  the  Black  river,  comprises  the 
most  ancient  highly  crystalline  rocks,  known 
as  the  Laurentian  system ;  the  lower  portions 
are  gneissoid  and  granitic,  and  the  higher  con- 
sist of  labradorite  and  hypersthene,  forming  a 
coarse  granitic  mass.  Extensive  beds  of  mag- 
netite traverse  the  strata  parallel  to  the  bed- 
ding, yielding  immense  quantities  of  the  ore. 
The  hypersthene  rock  forms  the  great  moun- 
tain centre  of  which  Mts.  Marcy  and  Mclntyre 
are  the  culminations.  In  St.  Lawrence  and 
Jefferson  cos.  the  prevailing  rocks  are  coarse 
granite,  crystalline  limestone,  and  serpentine, 


356 


NEW  YORK   (STATE) 


containing  vast  beds  of  specular  iron  ore. 
These  rocks  are  doubtfully  of  Laurentian  age, 
but  their  relations  to  other  formations  have 
not  been  determined.  The  crystalline  rocks 
of  this  entire  area  are  regularly  stratified,  and 
were  formed  anterior  to  the  Potsdam  sand- 
stone, which  lies  against  and  upon  their  up- 
turned and  eroded  edges.  The  Highlands  on 
the  Hudson  are  of  the  same  age  as  the  Adiron- 
dacks,  and  also  contain  heavy  beds  of  magne- 
tite. The  gneissoid  and  mica  slate  formation, 
which  comes  into  the  state  from  the  south  and 
passes  eastward  of  the  Highlands,  is  of  more 
recent  age,  and  contains  no  magnetite.  In 
New  York  the  Potsdam  sandstone  succeeds 
the  Laurentian,  and  appears  in  a  broad,  con- 
tinuous belt  along  the  N.  and  N.  W.  slopes  of 
the  Adirondacks,  and  in  interrupted  outliers 
on  the  east,  from  Clinton  to  Saratoga  co. 
Overlying  the  Potsdam,  the  calciferous  sand- 
stone is  coextensive  with  it  in  the  north,  and 
extends  further  S.  The  Taghkanic  range, 
including  shales,  sandstones,  and  limestones, 
often  more  or  less  metamorphic,  with  beds  of 
hematite,  white  and  variegated  marbles,  roof- 
ing slate,  &c.,  must  be  considered  of  the  same 
age  as  the  Potsdam  and  calciferous  sandstones 
and  Chazy  limestone  of  Lake  Champlain.  The 
Trenton  group,  including  Birdseye,  Black  riv- 
er, and  Trenton  limestones,  occupies  much  of 
Jefferson  co.,  and,  continuing  S.  E.  through 
Lewis  and  Oneida  cos.,  is  seen  at  Trenton  falls 
and  in  the  Mohawk  valley ;  thence  eastward 
and  northward  it  encircles  at  least  two  thirds 
of  the  great  Laurentian  district.  The  Utica 
slate  and  Hudson  river  group,  extending  from 
near  Rondout,  form  a  belt  on  both  sides  of 
the  Hudson  to  the  bend  at  Sandy  Hill ;  follow- 
ing the  course  of  the  Mohawk  valley  as  far  as 
Rome,  it  diverges  N.  W.  through  Lewis  and 
Oswego  cos.  to  Lake  Ontario.  The  Shawan- 
gunk  grit  or  conglomerate,  containing  lead  and 
copper  ores,  extends  from  the  Delaware  river 
to  Rondout,  where  it  suddenly  terminates,  and 
is  not  again  seen  in  situ,  except  in  Oneida  co., 
where  it  is  known  as  the  Oneida  conglomerate. 
The  gray  sandstone  of  Oswego  holds  essentially 
the  same  position,  and  bowlders  and  pebbles 
of  similar  conglomerate  have  been  there  found 
upon  the  surface.  Southward  from  the  out- 
crop of  the  Hudson  river  group,  the  Medina 
sandstone  and  Clinton  group  come  in;  the  thin 
edge  of  the  latter,  beginning  in  Schoharie  co., 
trends  westward,  and  extends  on  both  sides  of 
Oneida  lake,  and  thence  with  the  sandstone 
forms  a  broad  belt  along  the  S.  shore  of  Lake 
Ontario.  The  beds  of  fossiliferous  iron  ore  of 
the  Clinton  group  are  extensively  worked  in 
Oneida  and  Wayne  cos.,  and  extend  as  far  W.  as 
Monroe.  The  limestone  of  the  Niagara  group 
produces  the  falls  of  the  Niagara  and  the  great 
escarpment  of  Lewiston  and  Queenston,  which, 
beginning  as  a  terrace  in  Schoharie  co.,  extends 
through  the  state  and  western  Canada.  Co- 
extensive with  this  formation  are  the  water- 
lime  and  salt  groups ;  of  small  force  in  eastern 


New  York,  they  expand  in  the  central  part  of 
the  state.  The  salt  group  is  the  source  of  all 
the  productive  brine  springs  and  wells,  and  also 
of  the  gypsum.  The  waterlime  group  furnishes 
nearly  all  the  hydraulic  cement.  Entering  the 
state  from  the  N.  W.  corner  of  New  Jersey,  and 
occupying  the  valley  W.  of  the  Shawangunk 
mountain,  a  series  of  strata  of  no  great  promi- 
nence reach  the  Hudson  at  Rondout,  trend 
northward  in  a  low  terrace  everywhere  marked 
by  a  limestone  crest,  and  extend  into  Albany 
co.  Here  thickening  and  expanding,  they  con- 
stitute the  Helderberg  formations,  separated 
into  upper  and  lower  by  the  Oriskany  sand- 
stone ;  these,  surmounted  by  the  Hamilton 
rocks,  form  the  Helderberg  mountains.  The 
Hamilton  group  enters  the  state  from  the  south 
at  Deer  Park,  approaches  the  Hudson  at  Kings- 
ton, and  thence  following  the  base  of  the  Cats- 
kills  turns  westward,  expanding  to  a  width  of 
several  miles,  and  becoming  a  highly  fossilifer- 
ous group.  The  higher  beds  furnish  the  flag- 
stones which  are  extensively  quarried  and  sup- 
plied to  all  the  seaboard  cities  and  towns  of 
the  north.  The  thicker  beds  are  known  as  the 
Hudson  river  blue  stone.  The  Portage  and 
Chemung  groups,  the  former  marked  by  dark 
shales  and  flaggy  sandstones,  the  latter  by  olive 
shales  and  heavy-bedded  sandstones,  form  a 
broad  belt,  entering  the  state  from  Pennsyl- 
vania on  the  Delaware  river ;  thence,  skirting 
the  base  and  forming  a  considerable  portion  of 
the  lower  part  of  the  Catskill  mountains,  they 
sweep  around  them  to  the  north  and  occupy 
the  valleys  between  them.  From  the  Chenango 
river  west  these  formations  cover  almost  the 
entire  width  of  the  two  southern  ranges  of 
counties,  and  outcrop  on  Lake  Erie  from  Eight- 
een-mile creek  to  the  Pennsylvania  line.  The 
Catskill  or  old  red  sandstone  formation  enters 
the  state  on  the  south  in  several  belts,  trending 
N.  E.  The  more  westerly  of  these  soon  die 
out,  but  the  three  easterly  ones  continue  into 
Greene  co.,  and  uniting  form  the  Catskill  moun- 
tains. These  belts,  which  are  synclinals,  carry 
also  outliers  of  the  succeeding  formation,  the 
lowest  sandstones  of  the  carboniferous  system, 
forming  considerable  areas  on  the  higher  sum- 
mits of  the  Catskills  and  further  south.  Be- 
yond these  lower  carboniferous  beds  the  geolo- 
gical series  in  direct  succession  is  not  continued 
within  the  state  of  New  York.  The  red  sand- 
stone of  the  middle  secondary,  or  trias,  extends 
from  N.  E.  New  Jersey  over  a  part  of  Rock- 
land  co.,  terminating  at  the  Palisades  on  the 
Hudson  and  at  Haverstraw  bay.  The  cretace- 
ous formation  is  known  on  Long  Island.  The 
more  recent  formations  are  the  post-pliocene 
of  the  Champlain  valley,  and  the  glacial  or 
water-worn  drift  which  to  a  great  extent  over- 
spreads the  older  formations.  The  mineral 
springs  of  Saratoga  and  Ballston  rise  from  a 
line  of  fault  which  brings  the  Hudson  river 
slates  against  the  calciferous  sandstone  and 
limestones  above.  The  sulphur  springs  of 
Sharon,  &c.,  rise  from  the  upper  part  of  the 


NEW  YORK  (STATE) 


357 


Onondaga  salt  group.  In  western  New  York 
the  sandstones  are  bituminous,  and  in  several 
of  the  counties  petroleum  issues  with  the  wa- 
ter of  springs ;  and  carburetted  hydrogen  rises 
from  fissures  in  the  rocks,  or  through  standing 
or  running  water.  The  rock  formations  from 
the  Potsdam  sandstone  up,  which  have  been 
named,  with  their  various  subdivisions,  con- 
stitute what  is  called  the  New  York  system, 
and  with  the  carboniferous  group  complete 
the  Appalachian  system.  Though  the  whole 
series  is  found  in  Pennsylvania,  the  formations 
below  the  carboniferous  are  more  fully  devel- 
oped in  New  York,  and  are  especially  richer  in 
fossils.  In  this  state  therefore  they  have  been 
studied  to  the  best  advantage,  and  when  recog- 
nized in  other  parts  of  the  country  are  gen- 
erally known  by  the  names  given  to  them  by 
the  New  York  geologists.  (See  GEOLOGY,  and 
PALEONTOLOGY.)  Many  of  the  groups  are  in 
great  part  made  up  of  limestones,  and  even 
among  the  shales  and  slates  of  the  others 
calcareous  strata  are  of  frequent  occurrence. 
The  effect  of  this  wide  distribution  of  calca- 
reous matter  has  been  to  insure  a  general  fer- 
tility of  soil,  and  to  give  to  New  York  a  high 
position  among  the  agricultural  states  of  the 
Union. — Somewhat  more  than  half  of  the  total 
area  of  the  state  is  under  cultivation.  In  the 
northern  counties  and  the  highland  regions 
along  the  S.  border  and  on  the  Hudson,  stock 
and  sheep  raising  and  dairy  farming  are  the 
almost  exclusive  agricultural  pursuits;  while 
the  low  lands  that  form  the  greater  part  of  the 
surface  of  the  W.  portion  of  the  state  are  best 
adapted  to  grain  growing.  Broom  corn  has 
long  been  the  staple  crop  of  the  Mohawk  val- 
ley intervales ;  tobacco  is  extensively  raised  in 
the  Ohemung  valley,  and  parts  of  Onondaga 
and  Wayne  cos. ;  hops  are  a  leading  product  of 
Madison,  Oneida,  Otsego,  and  Schoharie  cos. ; 
grapes  are  successfully  cultivated  in  the  valley 
of  the  Hudson  below  the  Highlands,  on  the  N. 
shore  of  Long  island,  and  in  all  the  lake  val- 
leys in  the  central  part  of  the  state.  Maple 
sugar  is  an  important  product  of  the  northern 
and  central  portions;  and  fruits,  particularly 
apples,  peaches,  pears,  and  strawberries,  are 
grown  in  the  western  counties  N.  of  the 
watershed.  Large  tracts  in  the  vicinity  of 
New  York  city  are  devoted  to  market  gardens 
and  to  furnishing  the  city  with  milk. — The 
climate  possesses  a  wider  range  than  that  of 
any  other  state  in  the  Union.  Those  portions 
affected  by  the  winds  from  the  ocean,  sound, 
and  lakes  are  more  even  in  temperature  and 
suffer  less  severely  from  late  and  early  frosts 
than  more  inland  districts  in  the  same  latitude. 
The  mean  temperature  of  the  state,  as  deter- 
mined from  observations  made  at  58  meteoro- 
logical stations,  for  periods  ranging  from  1  to 
25  years,  is  46'49°.  The  mean  length  of  the 
season  of  vegetation,  from  the  first  blooming 
of  apples  to  the  first  killing  frost,  is  174  days  ; 
while  on  Long  island  it  is  12£  days  longer, 
and  in  St.  Lawrence  co.  22  days  shorter.  The 


mean  annual  fall  of  rain  and  snow  is  about 
40-93  inches.— The  most  noted  waterfalls  in 
the  state  are  Niagara  falls  in  Niagara  river, 
2,900  ft.  wide  and  164  ft.  high;  the  falls  of 
Genesee  river  (see  GENESEE  RIVEE)  ;  Trenton 
falls,  in  West  Canada  creek,  Herkimer  co.,  con- 
sisting of  five  cascades  with  a  total  fall  of  200 
ft.  in  f  m. ;  Taghanic  falls,  Tompkins  co.,  230 
ft. ;  Chittenango  falls  in  Ohittenango  creek, 
Madison  co.,  136  ft.;  Lyon's falls,  in  Black  river, 
Lewis  co.,  flowing  down  an  inclined  plane  63 
ft.  at  an  angle  of  60° ;  Kaaterskill  falls,  Greene 
co.,  consisting  of  two  falls,  180  and  80  ft. ; 
Bash-bish  falls,  Columbia  co.  (partly  in  Mas- 
sachusetts), a  succession  of  falls  in  a  deep  ra- 
vine, the  total  fall  in  1  m.  being  about  TOO 
ft.;  Baker's  falls,  Washington  co.,  a  succes- 
sion of  falls  and  rapids,  having  a  total  de- 
scent of  76  ft.  in  60  rods ;  Cohoes  fall  in  the 
Mohawk,  near  its  mouth,  with  a  total  fall  in- 
cluding rapids  of  103  ft. ;  Glen's  falls,  Warren 
co.,  50  ft. ;  High  falls,  in  the  Hudson,  Warren 
co.,  60  ft. ;  High  falls,  Ulster  co.,  50  ft. ;  the 
Au  Sable  falls,  in  Wilmington,  Essex  co.,  100 
ft. ;  Enfield  falls,  Tompkins  co.,  consisting  of 
a  series  of  cascades  with  a  total  fall  of  230  ft. ; 
Buttermilk  falls,  Genesee  co.,  90  ft. ;  and  the 
falls  in  Fall  creek,  Tompkins  co.,  consisting  of 
five  cascades  with  a  total  descent  of  over  500  ft. 
in  1  m.  Watkins  glen,  near  the  head  of  Seneca 
lake,  is  a  deep  and  narrow  ravine  about  3  m. 
long,  having  perpendicular  walls  in  some  places 
200  ft.  high.  Its  annual  visitors  number  more 
than  50,000.  Havana  glen,  3|  m.  distant,  is 
similar  to  it.  Within  a  radius  of  10  m.  from 
Ithaca  are  numerous  picturesque  ravines  and 
waterfalls.  Upon  Stone  Bridge  creek,  Warren 
co.,  is  a  natural  bridge  40  ft.  high,  80  ft.  broad, 
and  247  ft.  long.  The  principal  mineral  and 
medicinal  springs  are  the  salt  springs  of  Onon- 
daga co. ;  Saratoga  Springs;  New  Lebanon  and 
Stockport,  Columbia  co. ;  Massena,  St.  Law- 
rence co. ;  Richfield,  Otsego  co. ;  Avon,  Living- 
ston co. ;  Clifton,  Ontario  co. ;  Sharon,  Scho- 
harie co. ;  Chittenango,  Madison  co. ;  and  Ala- 
bama, Genesee  co.  The  "Lake  ridge,"  the 
shore  line  of  the  ancient  lake,  is  a  beach-like 
ridge  from  4  to  8  m.  S.  of  Lake  Ontario  and 
rising  from  5  to  20  ft.  above  the  general  sur- 
face, extending  from  near  the  Niagara  river  to 
Sodus,  Wayne  co. ;  thence  with  many  interrup- 
tions its  line  may  be  traced  to  the  St.  Lawrence 
near  its  point  of  egress  from  the  lake. — In 
many  respects  New  York  is  the  leading  agri- 
cultural state  of  the  Union.  According  to 
the  census  of  1870,  the  area  of  farm  lands  was 
greater  than  in  any  other  state  except  Illinois ; 
they  were  valued  at  upward  of  $118,000,000 
more  than  those  of  any  other  state,  and  yielded 
during  the  year  nearly  $43,000,000  more.  In 
several  of  the  western  and  southern  states  the 
yield  of  wheat  and  Indian  corn  was  greater, 
but  New  York  produced  more  than  a  fifth  of 
all  the  hay  raised  in  the  United  States,  more 
than  a  third  of  the  buckwheat,  and  17,558,681 
Ibs.  of  the  entire  growth  (25,456,669  Ibs.)  of 


358 


NEW  YOKE  (STATE) 


hops.  The  state  ranked  first  in  the  produc- 
tion of  peas,  beans,  and  potatoes,  as  well  as  in 
the  value  of  the  produce  of  market  gardens, 
orchards,  and  forests;  next  to  Ohio  in  flax, 
Pennsylvania  in  rye,  California  in  barley,  Ver- 
mont in  maple  sugar,  Illinois  and  Pennsylvania 
in  oats,  and  Ohio  and  California  in  the  amount 
of  wool  and  the  number  of  sheep.  In  dairy 
products  the  prominence  of  New  York  is  spe- 
cially marked.  In  1870  there  were  on  farms 
8,935,332  milch  cows  in  the  United  States, 
of  which  1,350,661  were  in  New  York.  The 
dairy  products  of  the  whole  country  were  514,- 
092,683  Ibs.  of  butter,  53,492,153  of  cheese, 
and  235,500,599  gallons  of  milk  sold;  of  New 
York,  107,147,526  Ibs.  of  butter,  22,769,964  of 
cheese,  and  135,775,919  gallons  of  milk  sold. 
The  factories  of  the  United  States  produced 
109,435,229  Ibs.  of  cheese,  valued  with  other 
products  at  $16,771,665,  of  which  78,006,048 
Ibs.,  valued  at  $12,164,065,  were  the  product 
of  New  York.  The  great  dairy  counties  of  the 
state  are  St.  Lawrence,  Delaware,  Chenango, 
Chautauqua,  Jefferson,  and  Orange.  In  1870 
there  were  on  farms  15,627,206  acres  of  im- 
proved land,  5,679,870  of  woodland,  and  883,- 
734  of  other  unimproved  land.  The  number 
of  farms  was  216,253,  averaging  103  acres; 
13,006  contained  from  3  to  10  acres  each, 
18,145  from  10  to  20,  54,881  from  20  to  50, 
73,956  from  50  to  100,  55,948  from  100  to  500, 
209  from  500  to  1,000,  and  36  over  1,000.  The 
cash  value  of  farms  was  $1,272,857,776 ;  farm- 
ing implements  and  machinery,  $45,997,712 ; 
total  amount  of  wages  paid  during  the  year, 
including  value  of  board,  $34,451,362.  The 
agricultural  productions  of  New  York  in  1873, 
and  the  number  and  value  of  live  stock  on 
farms  Jan.  1,  1874,  as  reported  by  the  U.  S. 
department  of  agriculture,  were  as  follows : 


PRODUCTIONS 
AND 
LIVE  STOCK. 

Quantity 
and  number. 

Average 
yield 
per  acre. 

Number 
of  acres 
in  crop. 

Total 
valuation. 

Indian  corn,  bushels 
Wheat  " 
Eye                    " 

17,692,000 
7,047,000 
1,853,000 
27,548,000 
5,876,000 
2,947,000 
24,925,000 
2,950,000 
4,199,800 
659,800 
18,900 

683,600 
1,410,600 
2,037,200 
651,500 

81 
13-5 
14 
81 
21-2 
19-7 
103 
1,000 
1-02 

570,710 
522,000 
132,357 
888,645 
277,170 
149,594 
241,990 
2,950 
4,117,451 

112,384,400 
11,275,200 
1,593,58.0 
V,845,640 
6,463,600 
2,269,190 
13,459,500 
824,500 
75,596,400 
62,732,395 
2,328,102 

19,742,368 
48,023,300 
6,844,992 
5,086,095 

Oats  
Barley  
Buckwheat.       " 
Potatoes  ...       " 
Tobacco,  pounds.  .  . 
Hay,  tons  
Horses  number 
Mules  « 
Oxen  and  other 
cattle  " 
Milch  cows...    " 
Sheep  " 
Hogs  ...            " 

In  1870  the  total  estimated  value  of  all  farm  pro- 
ductions, including  betterments  and  additions  to 
stock,  was  $253,526,153;  products  of  orchards, 
$8,347,417;  of  market  gardens,  $3,432,354; 
of  forests,  $6,689,179;  of  home  manufactures, 
$1,621,621 ;  of  animals  slaughtered  or  sold  for 
slaughter,  $28,225,720.  The  productions  were 
1,834,330  bushels  of  spring  and  10,344,132  of 
winter  wheat,  2,478,125  of  rye,  16,462,825  of 


Indian  corn,  35,293,625  of  oats,  7,434,621  of 
barley,  3,904,030  of  buckwheat,  1,152,541  of 
peas  and  beans,  28,547,593  of  Irish  and  10,656 
of  sweet  potatoes,  98,837  of  clover  and  57,225 
of  grass  seed,  92,519  of  flax  seed,  5,614,205 
tons  of  hay,  2,349,798  Ibs.  of  tobacco,  10,599,- 
225  of  wool,  3,670,818  of  flax,  6,692,040  of 
maple  sugar,  896,286  of  honey,  86,333  of  wax, 
82,607  gallons  of  wine,  and  7,832  of  sorghum 
and  46,048  of  maple  molasses.  There  were  on 
farms  536,861  horses,  4,407  mules  and  asses, 
1,350,661  milch  cows,  64,141  working  oxen, 
630,522  other  cattle,  2,181,578  sheep,  and 
518,251  swine.  The  value  of  live  stock  was 
$175,882,712.  There  were  319,380  horses  and 
40,906  neat  cattle  not  on  farms. — According 
to  the  census  of  1870,  more  than  a  sixth  of  all 
the  capital  invested  in  manufactures  in  the 
United  States  was  employed  in  New  York, 
and  more  than  a  sixth  of  the  value  of  the 
entire  products  of  the  country  was  the  result 
of  New  York  industry.  In  the  state  ranking 
next,  Pennsylvania,  nearly  $40,000,000  more 
capital  was  invested  than  in  New  York,  but 
the  products  of  the  latter  state  were  valued  at 
upward  of  $72,000,000  more  than  those  of 
the  former.  The  capital  has  increased  from 
$99,904,405  in  1850  to  $172,8^5,652  in  1860 
and  $366,994,320  in  1870;  and  the  total  value 
of  products  from  $237,597,249  in  1850  to 
$378,870,939  in  1860  and  $785,194,651  in  1870. 
In  the  last  named  year,  the  total  number  of 
establishments  was  36,206,  using  4,664  steam 
engines  of  126,107  horse  power,  and  9,011 
water  wheels  of  208,256  horse  power,  and  em- 
ploying 351,800  hands,  of  whom  267,378  were 
males  above  16,  63,795  females  above  15,  and 
20,627  youth.  The  materials  used  amounted 
to  $452,065,452;  wages  paid,  $142,466,758. 
Not  included  in  the  above  results  for  1870  are 
the  statistics  of  mining  and  quarrying,  in 
which  industries  5,177  hands  were  employed, 
$4,696,091  capital  invested,  and  $4,324,651 
worth  of  products  obtained,  including  525,493 
tons  of  iron  ore  valued  at  $2,095,315,  and 
$1,832,976  worth  of  stone;  and  those  of  fish- 
eries, in  which  the  products  amounted  to  $235,- 
750.  The  most  extensive  iron  mines  are  in 
Essex,  Dutchess,  Clinton,  and  Orange  cos.  The 
greater  portion  of  the  stone  was  quarried  in 
Ulster  co.,  though  a  large  amount  of  marble 
was  produced  in  Westchester  co.  In  the  fol- 
lowing table  of  the  leading  industries  a  com- 
parison is  afforded  between  the  values  in 
New  York  and  in  the  United  States  of  those 
products  in  which  the  former  ranks  above  all 
other  states.  In  several  other  important  in- 
dustries, New  York  holds  a  very  high  but  not 
the  first  rank.  Thus,  taking  the  value  of  pro- 
ducts as  a  standard,  the  state  ranks  next  to 
Massachusetts  in  the  production  of  boots  and 
shoes  and  paper,  to  Connecticut  in  hardware, 
to  Illinois  in  planed  lumber,  to  Ohio  in  agri- 
cultural implements,  and  to  Pennsylvania  in 
brick,  carpets  other  than  rag,  drugs  and  chem- 
cials,  iron  manufactures,  and  machinery. 


NEW  YOKE  (STATE) 


359 


INDUSTRIES. 

No.  of 

establish- 
ments. 

No.  of 

hands 
employed. 

Capital. 

Wages. 

Value  of 
materials. 

Value  of 
products. 

Product* 
of  the 
United  States. 

A°Ticultural  implements  

837 
8 
3,146 
29 
94 
8,024 
107 
78 
710 
820 
133 
1,868 
13 
1,797 
1,546 
446 
19 
29 
157 
870 
67 
57 
1,610 
804 
106 
72 
71 
144 
16 
113 
135 
46 
60 
10 
48 
22 
47 
89 
422 

63 

215 
12 
624 
325 
22 
2 
29 
50 
281 
175 
3,510 
326 
103 
91 
172 

161 

222 
18 
122 
9 
12 
68 
'     78 
60 
41 
803 
18 
18 
159 
1,010 
815 
12 

200 

97 

72 
952 
24 
27 
1,072 
116 
188 

4,953 

408 
6,643 
898 
2,261 
17,501 
1,121 
1,691 
3,457 
6,728 
8,026 
8,806 
8,425 
8,784 
28,793 
4,700 
183 
309 
1,398 
4,332 
8,909 
1,046 
5,193 
7,970 
1,583 
2,029 
2,240 
8,112 
110 
1,811 
5,267 
2,480 
8,741 
1,008 
480 
1,020 
5,503 
2,121 
8,769 

3,753 

3,618 
103 
6,064 
1,011 
552 
40 
442 
833 
2,942 
1,961 
15,409 
5.985 
4,478 
824 
8,188 

967 

2,097 
864 
2,860 
225 
842 
2,810 
963 
646 
590 
6,431 
1,861 
755 
2,557 
8,239 
8,632 
8,131 

2,448 

1,019 
1,348 
5,013 
710 
8,823 
5,710 
1.600 
8,679 

$7,824,656 
858,000 
2,378,458 
482,050 
1,685,078 
6,855,657 
764,950 
437,950 
2,673,142 
3,416,280 
1,084,845 
3,765,690 
4,251,750 
6,287,140 
14,782,043 
1,526,434 
699,500 
1,513,600 
1,377,700 
2,223,366 
8,209,236 
2,299,700 
20,956,820 
7,523,825 
1,284,838 
2,183,917 
18,951,750 
2,071,350 
201,800 
1,980,385 
2,363,083 
1,079,000 
8,318,700 
1,777,000 
480,528 
1,614,883 
6,143,700 
5,732,116 
9,372,118 

5,749,383 

5,124,250 
1,073,000 
13,286,940 
1,669,888 
605,900 
81,000 
584,150 
1,377,640 
12,425,322 
2,955,586 
15,110,981 
7,884,866 
4,390,645 
3,647,066 
2,831,750 

1,125,910 

1,247,689 
6,375,000 
3,344,150 
576,600 
1,057,500 
4,421,800 
1,841,800 
1,552,250 
280,000 
7,728,017 
1,612,500 
1,495,257 
8,020,350 
1,743,080 
8,637,966 
2,727,576 

2,449,850 

2,360,575 
1,895.375 
4,372,821 
844,600 
2,677,311 
2,704.135 
1.941,700 
9,972,857 

$2,513,317 
149,766 
1,331,846 
195,002 
968,648 
6,215,068 
530,312 
532,222 
1,448,312 
1,886,424 
670,238 
4,441,118 
1,423,784 
3,667,747 
8,826,008 
1,078,893 
109,607 
211,095 
489,514 
1,359,083 
2,560,731 
510,285 
1,687,234 
4,002,548 
737,849 
823,714 
1,785,911 
848,484 
47,320 
815,871 
2,188,110 
615,334 
1,122,890 
489,500 
268,779 
858,135 
2,841,147 
1,095,450 
5,024,413 

2,400,716 

826,481 
83,178 
2,609,052 
439,253 
293,865 
8,000 
210,685 
125,772 
2,067,908 
886,167 
8,488,601 
8,595,771 
2,492,453 
323,698 
2,272,403 

449,467 

1,014,561 
1,229,956 
1,997,134 
142,980 
202,342 
1,026,352 
382,856 
263.714 
297,500 
8,980,549 
1,257,550 
400,294 
1,700,970 
929,092 
1,783.954 
2,189,640 

1,427,709 

506,982 
776,855 
1,977,487 
272,154 
984,406 
2,494.310 
478,500 
2,824,344 

$4,594,816 
1,482,303 
1,575,728 
2,550,250 
2,961,396 
10,692,075 
978,778 
671,463 
5,616,322 
1,265,299 
1,651,991 
8,026,184 
3,046,863 
8,831,757 
27,982,394 
2,310,674 
2,236,149 
8,105,260 
1,820,988 
2,558,920 
6,711,378 
2,227,248 
50,606,404 
5,206,179 
824,478 
8,828,297 
8,498,750 
1,668,993 
2,863,055 
983,435 
4,218,853 
1,849,867 
3,891,840 
1,816,803 
149,539 
1,626,264 
11,489,147 
5,548,925 
8,205,735 

2,244,394 

8,927,612 
8,938.740 
19,118;i86 
5,188,494 
792,724 
22,050 
1,454,347 
1,829,574 
9,194,243 
4,574,619 
11,228,613 
4,454,321 
3,766,318 
4,338,458 
2,333,177 

684,882 

1,797,982 
87,247,730 
1,998,838 
2,141,860 
1,685,280 
4,666,660 
1,053,194 
1,631,639 
2,784,600 
6,785,518 
2.584,300 
'859,008 
2,679,488 
1,597,540 
2,886,073 
888,066 

2,437,459 

8,913,419 

2,929,018 
8,848,557 
854,289 
5,406,151 
3,503,186 
1,600,374 
8,348,698 

$11,847,037 
2,002,288 
5,373,671 
2,938,345 
4,557,119 
22,679,874 
2,127,953 
1,709,907 
9,560,153 
4,483,202 
8,135,723 
17,306,232 
4,976,835 
11,049,345 
46,375,369 
4,830,425 
2,702,680 
4,706,200 
8,942,891 
4,945,434 
10,740,961 
4,578,857 
60,237,220 
18,715,137 
2,360,181 
7,028,488 
6,512,706 
8,507,795 
3.316.207 
2,484,787 
8.708,723 
2,866,619 
5,528,742 
3,076,720 
617,888 
2,171,166 
16,834,480 
7.922,463 
17,252,226 

6,741.210 

9,757,856 
12,189,300 
26,988,320 
6,310,222 
1,371,419 
62,000 
1,837,889 
3,181,743 
15,818,863 
6,332,341 
21,238,228 
11,282,937 
8,025,023 
6,052,182 
6,200,209 

1,625,154 

8,577,287 
42,887,184 
5,452,915 
2,763,455 
2812,500 
7,294,891 
1,964,386 
8,322,467 
8,317,100 
15,179,073 
5,402,480 
1,662,502 
5,969,734 
8,660,929 
6,188,771 
6,920,140 

4,973,805 

6,125,018 
4,678,418 
8,180,944 
1,543,862 
8,671,475 
8,725,821 
2,928,251 
14,152,645 

Bags  other  than  paper 

B  lac  k  smithing 

$14,077,369 

Bleaching  and  dyeing  

Bookbinding          •    

Boots  and  shoes                .        .... 

8,222,433 
8,917,159 
36,907,704 

"6,622,285 

"       paper  

Bakery  products  . 

Brick 

Carpentering  and  building  
Carpets  other  than  rag  .           

65,362,837 
147,650,378 
12,900,585 

'ii,266,423 
15,922,643 

Clothing,  men's  ....         

"       women's..  .  . 

Coal  oil,  rectified 

Coffee  and  spices,  roasted  and  ground.  . 
Confectionery.                           .  . 

Cotton  goods,  not  specified  

Dru^s  and  chemicals          .... 

444,985,143 
57,926,547 

Furniture,  not  specified  

"          chairs 

Furs,  dressed  

8,903,052 
32,048,851 
3,998,521 

'24,S48,i67 
4,758,290 
18,411,564 

Gas        

Gloves  and  mittens. 

Grease  and  tallow  

Hardware  

Hats  and  caps 

Hoop  skirts  and  corsets  .... 

Hosiery  

India-rubber  and  elastic  goods  

Instruments,  professional  and  scientific 
Iron,  blooms. 



"     forged  and  rolled  

"     pigs  

'76,453,553 
23,889,667 

22,104,082 
18,327,196 

1-157,237,597 

"     castings,  not  specified. 

"          "        stoves,   heaters,   and  ( 
hollow  ware  ) 

Jewelry  not  specified 

Lead  (bar  and  sheet,  pig,  pipe,  and  shot) 
Leather,  tanned  . 

"       curried 

"       morocco,  tanned  and  curried.  . 
u       patent  and  enamelled 

"       dressed  skins  

Liquors,  distilled  

"       malt 

55,706,643 

Lumber  planed 

u        sawed  

Machinery,  not  specified. 

"         steam  engines  and  boilers  .  . 
Malt  

Marble  and  stone  work,  not  specified.  . 
"     monuments      and  > 

Masonry  brick  and  stone 

14,587,185 
108,941.911 
13,905,908 
8,881,962 

Molasses  and  sugar,  refined  

Musical  instruments 

Oil,  linseed. 

Paints,  lead  and  zinc  

Paper,  printing  

25,200,417 

"     wrapping 

Patent  medicines  and  compounds  
Printing  of  cotton  and  woollen  goods.. 
Printing  and  publishing,  total  

66,862,447 

"           "          not  specified.  . 
"          "         books  

8.568.828 
25,898,029 

'86,625,866 
14,097,446 

17,910,828 

22,535,887 
5,994,422 
40,686,811 

i  71,762,044 
9,879,310 

"          "          newspapers..  . 
Saddlery  and  harness  

Sash,  doors,  and  blinds.  . 

Sewing  machines  

Ship   building,  repairing,  and    ship  j 
materials  ( 

Soap  and  candles  

Starch  •  

Tin,  copper,  and  sheet-iron  ware  

Tobacco  and  cigars.    .  . 

chewing,  smoking,  and  snuffing 
cigars  

Upholstery  

Woollen  goods  

In  Onondaga  co.  are  the  most  extensive  salt    and  managed  by  the  state,  which  derived  from 
works  in  the  United  States.     They  are  owned    this  source  in  1873  a  net  revenue  of  $15,130. 

360 


NEW  YORK  (STATE) 


The  works  in  operation  have  an  annual  pro- 
ductive capacity  of  10,700,000  bushels;  7,450,- 
257  bushels  were  inspected  in  1873,  and  6,594,- 
191  in  1874.  (See  SALT.) — For  commercial 
purposes  the  state  is  divided  into  the  following 
ten  United  States  customs  districts,  of  which 
the  ports  of  entry  bear  the  same  name  unless 
otherwise  specified :  Buffalo  Creek,  Cape  Vin- 
cent, Cham  plain  (port  of  entry  Plattsburgh), 
Dunkirk,  Genesee  (Rochester),  New  York,  Ni- 
agara (Suspension  Bridge),  Oswegatchie  (Og- 
densburg),  Oswego,  and  Sag  Harbor.  In  the 
district  of  New  York,  Albany,  Esopus,  Hudson, 
Kinderhook,  Newburgh,  New  "Windsor,  Port 
Jefferson,  Poughkeepsie,  Rhinebeck  Landing, 
and  Troy  are  ports  of  delivery.  The  imports 
and  exports  for  the  year  ending  June  30,  1874, 
were  as  follows : 


DISTRICTS. 

Imports. 

Domestic 
exports. 

Foreign 
exports. 

Buffalo  Creek  
Cape  Vincent  

.  $2,916,406 
524,480 

$460,473 
113110 

$53,949 

Champlain  ... 

2  176  784 

1  041  154 

34957 

Dunkirk 

8623 

Genesee 

429  472 

367  527 

38 

New  York  

395  133  622 

840  360  269 

14,633463 

Niagara  

4  579  846 

351  078 

65731 

Oswegatchie  
Oswego  

1,977,751 
7,200,952 

605,233 
1,724,651 

136,264 

187 

Sag  Harbor.  .  .  . 

The  movement  of  foreign  shipping  in  the  vari- 
ous districts,  and  the  number  of  vessels  regis- 
tered, enrolled,  and  licensed,  were  as  follows: 


1   sals. 

Tons. 

Ves- 
tels. 

Tons. 

Ves- 
sels. 

Tom. 

Buffalo  Cr'k 

780 

241,456 

704 

224,130 

805 

168,829-08 

Cape  VincH. 

75* 

106,217 

736 

102,886 

34 

3,996-28 

Champlain  . 
Dunkirk  .  .  . 

1,707 
18 

136,870 
1,258 

1,798 
15 

145,612 
957 

849 
3 

53,268-09 
896-55 

Genesee  .  .  . 
New  York  . 
Niagara  

614 

6,723 
219 

67,945 

5,049,618 
45,220 

580|      91,577 
6,103  4,837,218 
2151     44,827 

240 
6,630 
39 

30,429-51 
1,818,523-34 
6,527-01 

Osweg'tchie 

434 

88,330 

434      88,856 

85 

3,635-65 

Oswego  
Sag  Harbor. 

2,613 

433,855 

2,463    373,015 

952 
231 

112,159-38 
13,236-22 

The  entrances  and  clearances  in  the  coastwise 
trade,  and  the  vessels  built  in  the  various  dis-. 
tricts,  were  as  follows : 


DISTRICTS. 

COASTWISE  TKADE. 

Vessels  built. 

ENTERED. 

CLEARED. 

Vessel*. 

Tons. 

Vessels. 

Tom. 

No. 

58 
4 
47 

41 

396 
14 
8 
57 
T 

Tons. 

Buffalo  Creek... 
Cape  Vincent.  .  . 
Champlain  
Dunkirk 

4,011 
180 
2 
71 
197 
2,742 
188 
620 
744 
24 

2,068,486 
23,263 
140 
13,306 
20,984 
1,774,181 
42,750 
176,957 
132,049 
5,834 

4,155 

207 
993 
76 
202 
4,081 
189 
620 
1,279 
25 

2,082,163 
28,070 
68,089 
18,581 
22,504 
2,175,412 
42,991 
177,897 
228,168 
5,452 

6,374 
1,129 
4,704 

49ST 
64,001 
1,900 

876 
8,217 
385 

Genesee  
New  York.  .  . 
Niagara 

Oswegatchie  .  . 
Osw«go  
Sag  Harbor.  .  . 

Details  of  the  commerce  of  the  port  of  New 
York  are  given  in  the  article  on  that  city.  The 
only  district  in  which  vessels  were  reported  to 
be  engaged  in  the  fisheries  was  that  of  Sag 


Harbor,  where  in  1873  128  were  employed  in 
the  cod  and  mackerel  fisheries  and  1  in  the 
whale  fishery ;  7  vessels  entered  and  9  cleared 
in  the  general  fisheries.  Within  the  past  few 
years  the  state  commissioners  of  fisheries  have 
taken  measures  to  stock  the  internal  waters  of 
the  state  with  varieties  of  edible  fish.  A  state 
hatching  house  is  maintained  at  Caledonia, 
Livingston  co.,  and  there  is  an  extensive  shad 
nursery  in  the  Hudson,  about  10  m.  below 
Albany.— The  first  railroad  in  New  York,  the 
Mohawk  and  Hudson  (from  Albany  to  Sche- 
nectady),  17  m.  long,  was  opened  in  1831.  In 
the  following  year  the  Saratoga  and  Schenec- 
tady,  21  m.,  and  one  mile  of  the  New  York 
and  Harlem,  were  opened.  The  mileage  of  the 
state  had  increased  to  719  m.  in  1845,  2,444 
in  1855,  2,769  in  1865,  3,829  in  1870,  4,927 
in  1873,  and  5,178  in  1874.  There  are  strin- 
gent laws  concerning  the  formation  and  con- 
tinuance of  railroad  corporations,  and  strict 
regulations  as'  to  the  protection  of  passengers. 
Each  corporation  is  required  to  make  an  annu- 
al report  under  oath  to  the  state  engineer  and 
surveyor,  giving  details  as  to  the  condition  and 
transactions  of  the  company ;  and  this  officer 
reports  annually  to  the  legislature.  The  chief 
items  relating  to  all  the  corporations  in  the 
state  in  1874  are  shown  in  the  following  state- 
ment, in  which  the  figures,  except  the  mileage 
specified  for  New  York,  are  not  limited  to  the 
state,  but  apply  to  the  entire  corporations : 

Miles  of  entire  main  line  and  branches 8,552 

"     of  double  track  and  sidings 3,956 

Total  track  mileage 12,508 

Miles  main  line  and  branches  exclusive  of  second 

tracks  and  sidings  completed  in  New  York.  5,178 

Capital  stock  authorized $611,298,870 

"          "     paid  in $202,865,070 

Funded  debt $291,681,017 

Floating    "    $30,801,657 

Total  stock  and  debt $724,847,745 

Cost  of  construction  and  equipment $598,543,980 

Total  annual  expenses $66,087,974 

Total  annual  earnings $97,951,073 

Net  annual  earnings $81,868,099 

The  two  most  extensive  railroad  corporations 
of  the  state  are  the  Erie  and  the  New  York 
Central  and  Hudson  River.  The  former,  char- 
tered in  1832,  was  opened  from  Piermont  to 
Goshen  in  1841,  to  Binghamton  in  1848,  to 
Elmira  in  1849,  to  Corning  in  1850,  and  to 
Dunkirk  in  1861.  The  eastern  terminus  was 
subsequently  extended  to  Jersey  City.  More 
than  1,000  m.  of  railroad  are  operated  by  this 
company,  whose  earnings  in  1873  exceeded 
$20,000,000.  The  New  York  Central  and  Hud- 
son River  railroad  is  a  consolidation  of  numer- 
ous lines.  It  was  completed  from  Albany  to 
Buffalo  in  1841,  and  from  New  York  to  Al- 
bany in  1851.  About  860  m.  of  road  are 
owned  and  leased  by  the  company ;  the  total 
earnings  in  1873  were  about  $29,000,000.  The 
following  table  exhibits  the  names  of  the  lines 
lying  wholly  or  partly  within  the  state,  togeth- 
er with  the  termini,  the  number  of  miles  in 
operation  within  the  state  Jan.  1,  1875,  and 
the  paid-in  capital  stock  and  cost  of  construc- 
tion and  equipment  for  the  entire  lines : 


NEW  YORK   (STATE) 


361 


NAMES  OF  CORPORATIONS. 

TEEl 

ton, 

$i 

"cL  G 

is 

gth  between 
when  differ- 
preceding. 

c 

1 

| 

c  "3 

From 

,       To 

§  3 

|i 

Sis 

3 

'ff 
o 

*f 

33 

Saratoga  Springs.  .  . 

Ogdensburg  

60 

185 

$2  728  692 

Albany  

Binghamton  

142 

$5  000  000 

10  635  221 

Branches  : 
Cherry  Valley  Sharon  and  Albany 

Cobleskill  

Cherry  Valley  

21 

281  850 

600  000 

Nineveh  

Jefferson  Junction 

21 

1  012  799 

Schenectady  . 

Quaker  Street  Junc- 

tion. 

15 

91  800 

Atlantic  and  Great  Western 

Salamanca  

Dayton,  O  

48 

887 

84  671  548 

81  245  071 

Carthage 

Edwards  

12 

38 

144  988 

1  44  422 

Boston  and  Albany 

Boston,  Mass  

Albany  

89 

201 

19  864  100 

27  788  686 

Branch  :  Hudson  and  Boston  

Chatham.  .  .  •.  

Hudson  

17 

245  048 

Brooklyn  Bath,  and  Coney  Island.  .  .  . 

Brooklyn  

Coney  Island  

7 

Buffalo  Corry  and  Pittsburgh. 

Brocton  

Corry,  Pa  

8T 

48 

1  546  930 

Buffalo  . 

Jamestown 

80 

87 

555880 

253  886 

Buffalo  New  York,  and  Philadelphia.. 

Buffalo  

Emporium,  Pa  

78 

121 

1  691  150 

5  690  747 

Cayuga 

Ithaca  

Cayuga  

88 

3UO  000 

•  1*442  '495 

Owe0"© 

Cayuga  Lake. 

85 

589  110 

1  188  012 

Cazenovia,  Canastota,  and  De  Ruy- 
ter 

Canastota    

De  Euyter.  .  . 

15 

29 

614  033 

743884 

Chemung  and  Elmira,  Jefferson,  and 
Canandaigua              .        

Elmira  

Canandaigua      .   .  . 

69 

880  000 

2  177  384 

Cooperstown 

Cooperstown  Junc- 

tion   

16 

308  405 

459  2C3 

Corning  Cowanesque  and  Antrim 

Corning 

Antrim,  Pa 

16 

53 

1  900  000 

1  9tO  000 

Elmira  and  Williamsport  

Erie  Junction  .  . 

Williamsport,  Pa.. 

6 

76 

Jersey  City,  N.  J... 

Dunkirk  

886 

459 

86,536  910 

115075900 

Branches  and  lines  leased  : 
Avon,  Genesee,  and  Mount  Morris. 

Avon              

Mount  Morris  

15 

194,250 

217  812 

Buffalo  Bradford  and  Pittsburgh 

Carrollton 

Gilesville,  Pa  

g 

26 

Buffalo  New  York  and  Erie 

Buffalo 

141 

050  000 

8  380  000 

Buffalo  Branch 

Hornellsvilie 

Attica  

60 

Erie  and  Genesee  Valley  . 

Mount  Morris  

Dansville  

14 

^1 

144,'JOO 

191,302 

Goshen  and  Deckertown 

Goshen     

Pine  Island  

12 

105,800 

291,700 

Middleburg  and  Schoharie. 

Middleburg  

Schoharie  

6 

85.800 

105,000 

Montgomery  and  Erie 

Goshen  

10 

1-50,0(55 

288.980 

Monticello  and  Port  Jervis 

Monticello         .   . 

Port  Jervis  

24 

420,207 

1,080,853 

Newburgh 

19 

Newburgh  Junction 

Vail'sGate  

18 

Bergen  N.  J 

Nyack  

6 

26 

1,000,000 

527,451 

Piermont 

Sufferns  . 

18 

Rochester  

Avon  

18 

557,560 

671,303 

Suspension  Bridge  and  Erie  June- 

East  Buffalo 

Suspension  Bridge.  . 

23 

500,000 

Flushing  North  Side  and  Central 

Long  Island  City 

Northport          .... 

55 

76 

898,000 

Fonda 

Gloversville 

10 

800  000 

511.988 

Pa.  state  line  

75 

980,600 

2,465,814 

Glen's  Falls 

Fort  Edward  

Glen's  Falls  

6 

96,689 

Chenango  Forks..  .  . 

Greene  

8 

200,000 

394,918 

Johnsonville  

14 

180,845 

310,792 

Lake  Champlain  and  Moriah 

Port  Henry.. 

Mineville  

7 

200,000 

442,637 

Lake  Ontario  Shore 

Oswego 

Lewiston  

51 

148 

1,878,502 

4,002,917 

Buffalo 

Chicago,  111  

69 

540 

50,000,000 

79,682,758 

Long*  Island 

Hunter's  Point...   . 

Greenport  

94 

8,800,000 

5,281,902 

10 

350,000 

Northport 

Port  Jefferson  . 

19 

96,227 

565,456 

(' 

East  New  York 

5 

Mineola  

Eoslyn  

9 

Hicfcsville  

Northport  
Sag  Harbor 

15 
35 

Whitehall 

Canada  line  

114 

2,011,201 

New  York  and  Osvvego  Midland 

Middletown 

149 

6,800,522 

26,043,892 

Norwich 

Buffalo 

288 

185 

f 

Guilford 

New  Berlin 

22 

Delhi 

17 

Fllenville 

7 

Leased  '  Middletown  and  Crawford 

Middletown 

Crawford  

10 

124,187 

192,000 

Middletown,  Unionville,  and  Wa- 
t^r  Gap 

Middletown 

N.  J.  state  line  

18 

128,200 

850,476 

Clinton  

13 

273,700 

860,000 

Smith's  Valley 

81 

New  York 

Rutland  Vt 

146 

244 

8.800,000 

17,286,474 

New  York 

Albany 

144 

89,428,300 

92,506,503 

Albany 

298 

f 

Schenectady    June- 

40 

21 

104 

Owned  - 

Batavia  

Attica  

11 

Kochester  

Niagara  Falls  

75 

7 

28 

Tnnjvwanda.  .  . 

12 

362 


NEW  YORK  (STATE) 


NAMES  OF  CORPORATIONS. 

TEEMINI. 

Miiei  completed  In 
the  state  in  1874. 
. 

Total  length  between 
termini  when  differ- 
ent from  preceding. 

Capital  Block  paid  in. 

Cost  of  construction 
and  equipment. 

From 

To 

Leased:  Spuyten  Duyvil  and  Port 
Morris                          

Mott   Haven  Junc- 
tion             .     ... 

Spuyten  Duyvil.  .  .  . 
Lake  Mahopac  
Greenbush. 

6 

7 
6 
98 

8 

42 

181 
75 
15 

11 
118 
85 
47 
79 
44 
21 
6 
12 
23 
20 
6 
24 
141 
24 
24 
29 
5 
5 
88 
116 
54 
6 
9 
13 
7 
81 
48 

45 
85 
5 

87 

80 
15 
86 

76 
22 
60 
11 
83 
10 

106 
123 

'95 
61 

$989,000 
265,000 
274,400 
1,000,000 
214,600 

1,800,000 
9,000,000 

'i5,'5oo,666 

41,860 
5,077,000 
1,820,400 
524,463 
6,000,000 

$980,549 
265,448 
294,900 
3,495,832 
214,600 

4,782,848 

20,451,999 
3,245;921 
15,498,184 

2,512,087 
5,796,920 
1,574,784 
1,475,480 
8,749,755 

Golden1  s  Bridge  
Troy  
Canandaigua  

Troy  and  Greenbush  
Niagara  Bridge  and  Canandaigua.. 

Suspension  Bridge. 
International  Bridge 

OilCitv,  Pa  
Chatham  Four  Cor- 
ners .... 

East  Buffalo  

Dunkirk,  Allegheny  Valley,  and 

Dunkirk  

New  York  

New  York,  Kingston,  and  Syracuse.  . 
New  York,  New  Haven,  and  Hartford. 
Leased  :    Harlem  Eiver  and  Port- 

Stamford  . 

Harlem  Junction  .  .  . 
Harlem  River  

Springfield,  Mass.  .  . 

NewRochelle  
Ogdensburg  

Ogdensburg  and  Lake  Champlain  
Oswego  and  Syracuse  

Rouse's  Point  

Oswego  
Poughkeepsie  

Syracuse. 

Conn,  state  line  
Rutland,  Vt  
Castleton,  Vt.  .  . 

Eensselaer  and  Saratoga  
Branches  K 

Troy  
Eagle  Bridge  
Ballston 

Schenectady 

Fort  Edward 

Glen's  Falls 

Waterford  Junction. 
Rhinebeck  

Albany 

Boston  Corners  
Bishop  Summit,  Pa. 
Caledonia  
Salamanca  
Ogdensburg  

83 
150 
26 
107 

118,795 
625,000 
120,127 
27,084 
8,147,500 

610,585 
868,900 
186,477 
1,248,896 
4,810,648 

.Rochester,  Nunda,  and  Pennsylvania.. 
Rochester  and  Pine  Creek     

Rochester  

Gainesville  

Rochester  
Rome  

Rome,  Watertown,  and  Ogdensburg.. 

Watertown  

Cape  Vincent  

De  Kalb  Junction.. 
Richland  
Schoharie  C.H  
Skaneateles  
Sodus  Point  
Fair  Haven 

Potsdam  Junction.  . 
Oswego.  

;;; 

800,000 
800,000 
100,000 
715,966 
1,784,771 
1,000,000 

950,952 
950,952 
125,611 
1,588,799 
4,211,770 
4,581,783 

Schoharie  Valley.     .                    

Central  Bridge  
Junction  
Stanley  

Pa.  state  line  
Patchogue  

South  Side 

Williamsburgh  
Valley  Stream  
Valley  Stream  
Vanderbilt  Landing. 
Sterling  Junction  .  .  . 
Geddes  .             

Rockaway  Beach  .  .  . 

Staten  Island 

Hempstead  
Tottenville  

iia 

'85 

210,000 
80,000 
2,004.000 
699,700 

1,005,043 
1,609,010 
75,400 
1,769,620 

480,054 
202,730 
277,462 

3,793,700 

925,866 
750,000 

754,747 
225,000 

400,000 
500,190 
4,044,029 
1,247,035 

1,985,658 
2,447,048 
236,952 
2,662,838 

770,888 
290,125 
486,180 

4,047,438 

"1,440,128 

818.796 
1,900,281 
199,161 

Sterling  Mountain  

Lakeville  
Binghamton  . 

Syracuse,  Binghamton,  and  New  York 
Syracuse  and  Chenango 

Syracuse  

Earlville  

Syracuse  

Sandy  Creek  Junc- 
tion 

Troy  and  Boston 

Troy  

Vt.  state  line  
Vt.  state  line  
Philadelphia  

Sacketfs  Harbor.... 
Theresa  Junction.  .  . 
Morristown  

Leased  :  Troy  and  Bennington  
Utica  and  Black  River  
Leased:  Carthage,  Watertown,  and 
Sacketfs  Harbor 

Hoosack  Junction.. 
Utica  

Watertown  

Clayton  and  Theresa  
Black  River  and  Morristown  
Utica,   Chenango,   and    Susquehanna 
Valley 

Clayton 

Philadelphia  
Utica 

Branch.        

Richfield  Junction.. 
Utica  

Richfield  Springs... 
Corning  . 

Utica,  Ithaca  and  Elmira 

Valley 

Binghamton  
Montgomery  
Warwick  

Pa.  state  line  
Albany  

Wallkill  Valley 

Warwick  Valley  

Greycourt  

The  canals  6f  New  York  are  a  highly  impor- 
tant feature  in  its  commercial  facilities.  (See 
CANAL,  vol.  iii.,  p.  685.)  The  Erie  canal,  con- 
necting Lake  Erie  with  the  Hudson  river,  af- 
fords a  continuous  water  channel  through 
which  the  produce  of  the  western  states  and 
Canada  may  reach  the  port  of  ISTew  York ; 
while  the  several  canals  traversing  the  state 
from  north  to  south  supply  transportation  facil- 
ities to  the  interior  of  New  York  and  Penn- 
sylvania. The  canals  and  navigable  feeders 
owned  hy  the  state  aggregate  857"  m.  in  length, 
and  the  river  and  other  improvements  exclu- 
sive of  lakes  which  have  been  completed  in- 
crease the  length  of  the  artificial  system  of 
navigable  waters  to  907  m.  The  general  su- 


perintendence of  the  canals  is  vested  in  three 
commissioners  elected  for  three  years,  who  have 
charge  of  the  construction  of  new  and  the  re- 
pairs of  old  canals.  The  state  engineer  and  sur- 
veyor inspects  the  canals  and  performs  other 
duties,  while  the  canal  board,  composed  of  the 
lieutenant  governor,  comptroller,  secretary  of 
state,  treasurer,  attorney  general,  state  engi- 
neer and  surveyor,  and  the  canal  commission- 
ers, fix  the  rates  of  toll  with  the  concurrence 
of  the  legislature,  appoint  officers,  &c.  The 
amount  of  freight  transported  on  all  the  state 
canals  during  1874  was  5,804,588  tons,  valued 
at  $196,674,322,  including  products  of  the  for- 
est valued  at  $17,840,356 ;  agricultural  pro- 
ducts, $64,344,898;  manufactures,  $7,094,531 ; 


NEW  YORK  (STATE) 


363 


merchandise,  $64,477,540;  and  other  articles, 
$42,916,997.  The  total  quantity  of  freight  car- 
ried by  the  canals  was  nearly  half  as  great  as 
that  transported  by  the  Erie  and  New  York 
Central  railroads.  The  amount  of  freight 
brought  to  the  Hudson  river  by  the  Erie  and 
Ohamplain  canals  was  3,223,112  tons,  valued  at 
$107,976,476 ;  1,709,816  tons  of  freight,  worth 
$71,294,867,  were  brought  by  canal  boats  di- 
rectly to  New  York.  The  number  of  boats 
arrived  at  and  cleared  from  New  York,  Albany, 
and  Troy  was  30,806.  Until  1874  the  legisla- 
ture was  prohibited  by  the  constitution  from 


selling  or  leasing  any  of  the  state  canals ;  but 
in  that  year  an  amendment  was  adopted  re- 
moving the  restriction  except  in  the  case  of 
the  Erie,  Oswego,  Champlain,  and  Oayuga  and 
Seneca  canals.  Besides  the  state  canals  there 
are  belonging  to  corporations  the  Delaware  and 
Hudson  canal,  extending  from  Honesdale,  Pa., 
to  Eddyville  near  Rondout,  108  m.,  of  which 
83  are  in  New  York,  and  affording  communica- 
tion between  the  Delaware  and  Hudson  rivers ; 
and  the  Junction  canal,  which  extends  from 
Elmira  to  the  Pennsylvania  state  line,  18  m. 
The  details  of  the  state  canals  are  as  follows : 


NAME   OF  CANAL. 

TERMINI. 

Length  La 
miles. 

Total  cost  of 
construction 
to  Sept.  30, 
1872. 

Financial  result  of  opera- 
ting (including  ordinary 
repairs)from  1846  to  1872. 

Income  from  tolls  and  total 
expense  for  three  years 
ending  Sept  30,  1874. 

From 

To 

Profit, 

Loss. 

Income. 

Exp'ditures. 

Black  Eiver.  .  .  . 
Feeder 

Borne  
Boonville  .... 
Montezuma  .  . 
Cayuga  lake.  . 
West  Troy... 

Lyon's  Falls 

85 

12 
21 
2 
fifi 

$3,417,880 

$850,148 

$32,418 

$294,716 

Head  of  reservoir. 
Geneva  

1,702,675 
2,968 

$49,690 
2,375 



59,675 
1,192 
427,765 

156,102 
418 
1,730,898 

Ithaca 

Champlain 

Whitehall  

Glen's  Falls  feeder 

12 
8 

Pond  above  Troy  dam  . 

Chenango  

Utica  
Watkins  
Horseheads    . 
Dresden  ...     . 

Buffalo  

97 
23 
Ifi 

4,542,107 
1,648,141 



1,182,292 
1,200,795 

14,416 
10,699 

588,911 
212,908 

Elmira.           .  .   . 

Feeder        

Knoxville  

Crooked  Lake           j 

Penn  Yan  

8 
355 

113 
11 

403,698 
t50,412,710 
6,433,842 

297,091 

747 
8,143,536 
61,583 

36,858 
5,079,063 
464,315 

Erie,  including  4J  m.  navi-  \ 

Albany  

t65,118,933 

gable  feeders  f 
Genesee  Valley 

Eochester.     . 
Shakers...     . 
Higgins...     . 
Syracuse  ...   . 

Mill  Grove  
Dansville  

1,566,016 

Dansville  branch  

Oneida  Lake  ' 

Oneida  lake  

7 
88 

12 

20 
6 

441,239 
4,172,503 

29,489 

237,151 

1,488 

692,994 

167,338 
6,469 

43,581 

'  249,844 

1,756 
445 

34,425 
669,787 

214 

Oswego 

Baldwinsville   canal  and  [ 

Jack's  reefs  
Oneida  lake 

17,248 

improvement  ) 
Oneida  river  improvement. 
Seneca  river  towing  path  .  . 

Total.... 

Oswego  canal  . 
Baldwinsville. 

Mud  Lock 

857 

173.440.894  J66.037.801 

$5.157.168 

$9,003.578 

$9,268,610 

The  above  statement  shows  that  the  profits  of 
operating  the  canals  from  1846  to  1872  ex- 
ceeded $60,000,000,  after  crediting  each  canal 
with  the  tolls  properly  belonging  to  it  and  de- 
ducting the  cost  of  collection,  superintendence, 
and  ordinary  repairs,  but  not  the  taxes  levied 
for  enlargement,  extraordinary  repairs,  pay- 
ment of  damages,  &c.,  amounting  to  about 
$25,000,000  which  is  placed  with  the  construc- 
tion and  enlargement  account.  The  total  tolls 
and  miscellaneous  receipts  of  all  the  canals 
from  1836  to  the  close  of  1874  amounted  to 
$115,318,504,  and  the  expenses  of  collection 
and  repairs  to  $38,791,685,  leaving  a  surplus 
revenue  for  that  period  of  $76,526,819.  In 
1874  the  tolls  amounted  to  $2,921,721,  and  the 
disbursements  to  $2,696,357,  including  $1,297,- 
716  for  ordinary  repairs  and  $1,398,640  for 
extraordinary  repairs  and  new  work.  The 
total  canal  revenue  from  all  sources  other 
than  taxation  was  $2,947,972.— For  30  years 
following  1818  the  laws  of  New  York  re- 
stricted the  banking  business  to  companies  or 
institutions  chartered  by  special  law.  This 
was  followed  by  the  "free  banking"  system, 
which  was  based  on  the  deposit  of  securities 
with  redemption  at  a  fixed  rate  of  discount. 

*  Included  in  Erie.        t  Including  Champlain. 


State  and  savings  banks  are  required  to  re- 
port to  the  superintendent  of  the  banking  de- 
partment, the  former  quarterly  and  the  lat- 
ter semi-annually.  Three  examiners  are  con- 
stantly passing  through  the  state  inspecting 
banks.  The  superintendent  reports  annually 
to  the  legislature.  In  October,  1874,  81  banks 
were  doing  business  under  the  laws  of  ^the 
state.  The  amount  of  circulation  outstanding, 
including  that  of  the  41  incorporated  banks 
and  of  banking  associations  and  individual 
bankers,  was  $1,105,189,  of  which  $367,438 
was  secured.  The  number  of  national  banks 
on  Nov.  1,  1874,  was  276,  with  a  paid-in  capi- 
tal of  $108,339,691 ;  bonds  on  deposit,  $64,- 
963,050 ;  outstanding  circulation,  $59,299,049. 
The  circulation  per  capita  was  $13  53 ;  ratio 
of  circulation  to  the  wealth  of  the  state,  9  per 
cent. ;  to  bank  capital,  54-7.  The  total  num- 
ber of  savings  banks  on  Jan.  1,  1874,  was  155, 
with  822,642  depositors  and  deposits  aggrega- 
ting $285,520,085 ;  average  to  each  depositor, 
§340  12;  resources,  $307,589,730;  liabilities, 
$285,140,778;  surplus  assets,  $21,448,952.  In- 
surance companies  are  subject  to  rigid  inspec- 
tion by  the  superintendent  of  the  insurance 
department,  who  reports  annually  to  the  legisla- 
ture. At  the  beginning  of  1875  the  insurance 
corporations  of  New  York  held  more  than 


364: 


NEW  YORK  (STATE) 


$500,000,000  assets,  while  their  risks  exceed- 
ed $8,000,000,000.  The  assets  of  the  fire  and 
marine  and  of  the  marine  companies  doing  busi- 
ness in  the  state  were  returned  at  $160,133,455, 
and  of  life  and  casualty  companies  at  $327,- 
281,896 ;  the  amount  insured  by  the  former  was 
$6,313,967,008,  and  by  the  latter  $1,997,236,- 
230.  There  were  218  fire  and  marine  and  50 
life  and  casualty  insurance  companies  doing 
business  in  the  state;  119  of  the  former  and 
23  of  the  latter  were  New  York  companies. — 
The  constitution  of  New  York  gives  the  right 
of  suffrage  to  every  male  citizen  of  the  age 
of  21  years  who  shall  have  been  a  citizen  10 
days  and  an  inhabitant  of  the  state  one  year 
next  preceding  the  election,  a  resident  of  the 
county  four  months,  and  of  the  election  dis- 
trict 30  days.  The  general  state  election  is 
held  annually  on  the  first  Tuesday  after  the 
first  Monday  in  November.  The  legislature 
consists  of  a  senate  of  32  members  elected  for 
two  years,  and  an  assembly  of  128  members 
chosen  for  one  year.  An  apportionment  of  as- 
sembly and  senate  districts  is  made  decennially 
immediately  after  the  state  census,  the  latest  be- 
ing in  1865.  Under  the  constitutional  amend- 
ments of  1874  each  member  of  the  legislature 
receives  $1,500  a  year  (previously  $3  a  day  for 
a  session  limited  to  100  days)  and  10  cents  a 
mile  for  travel  once  to  and  from  the  capital. 
No  one  is  eligible  as  a  member  who  at  the  time 
of  his  election,  or  within  100  days  next  pre- 
ceding it,  was  a  member  of  congress,  a  civil  or 
military  officer  under  the  United  States,  or  an 
officer  under  any  city  government.  The  legis- 
lature meets  annually  on  the  first  Tuesday  in 
January.  Special  legislation  is  restricted  by 
the  constitution.  The  governor  (annual  salary, 
$10,000  and  residence)  and  lieutenant  governor 
($5,000)  are  to  be  elected  from  1876  for  three 
years  (the  term  having  been  previously,  since 
1821,  two  years).  The  secretary  of  state,  comp- 
troller, treasurer,  attorney  general,  and  state 
engineer  and  surveyor  are  chosen  (in  even 
years)  for  two  years.  The  treasurer  may  be 
suspended  from  office  by  the  governor  during 
the  recess  of  the  legislature.  Members  of  the 
legislature  and  all  elected  officers,  executive 
and  judicial,  except  specified  inferior  officers, 
are  required  before  entering  upon  their  official 
duties  to  make  oath  or  affirmation  that  they 
have  not  been  guilty  of  bribery  at  the  election 
at  which  they  were  chosen.  A  majority  of 
the  assembly  may  impeach.  The  court  of  im- 
peachment is  composed  of  the  senate  and  the 
judges  of  the  court  of  appeals.  The  highest 
judicial  tribunal  of  the  state  is  the  court  of 
appeals,  which  has  only  appellate  jurisdiction 
in  the  case  of  judgments  and  certain  orders 
from  the  general  term  of  the  supreme  court, 
the  superior  courts  of  the  cities  of  New  York 
and  Buffalo,  the  New  York  court  of  common 
pleas,  and  the  city  court  of  Brooklyn.  It  con- 
sists of  a  chief  (salary  $7,500  and  $2,000  ex- 
penses) and  six  associate  judges  ($7,000  each 
and  $2,000  expenses),  and  is  in  session  in  Al- 


bany the  greater  portion  of  the  year.  The  com- 
mission of  appeals,  composed  of  five  judges,  was 
organized  under  a  constitutional  amendment  of 
1869  for  the  hearing  of  cases  that  had  accumu- 
lated in  the  court  of  appeals ;  the  former  is  sub- 
sidiary to  the  latter,  and  temporary.  There  are 
33  justices  of  the  supreme  court,  four  in  each 
of  the  eight  judicial  districts,  except  the  first, 
comprising  the  city  and  county  of  New  York, 
in  which  the  number  is  five.  The  supreme 
court  has  general  original  jurisdiction.  Special 
terms  and  circuits  are  held  by  one  justice,  the 
former  without  and  the  latter  with  a  jury. 
General  terms  are  held  in  each  of  the  four  de- 
partments into  which  the  state  is  divided  for 
this  purpose,  by  a  presiding  and  two  associate 
justices  designated  by  the  governor,  the  con- 
currence of  two  being  necessary  to  a  decision. 
Its  jurisdiction  is  appellate,  appeals  being  made 
from  the  special  term  and  circuits,  from  judg- 
ments entered  by  the  court  on  referees'  reports, 
from  judgments  of  county  courts  and  mayors' 
and  recorders'  courts,  and  from  certain  orders. 
A  county  court  is  held  in  each  county,  except 
that  of  New  York.  In  some  counties  the  people 
elect  a  surrogate,  who  has  jurisdiction  of  pro- 
bate matters ;  where  such  special  courts  have 
not  been  provided,  the  county  judge  performs 
surrogate  duties.  Criminal  jurisdiction  is  ex- 
ercised by  courts  of  oyer  and  terminer,  com- 
posed, except  in  the  city  of  New  York,  of  a 
justice  of  the  supreme  court,  a  county  judge, 
and  two  justices  of  the  peace ;  courts  of  ses- 
sions, comprising  a  county  judge  and  two  jus- 
tices of  the  peace ;  courts  of  special  sessions ; 
and  police  courts  held  by  a  single  justice. 
Besides  the  above  there  are  mayors'  and  re- 
corders' courts  of  cities  and  justices'  courts,  a 
city  court  in  Brooklyn,  and  a  superior  court 
in  Buffalo.  The  several  courts  peculiar  to  the 
city  and  county  of  New  York  are  described  in 
the  article  on  that  city.  The  judges  of  the 
various  courts  are  elected  by  the  people,  those 
of  the  court  of  appeals  and  supreme  court  for 
fourteen,  of  county  courts  for  six,  and  jus- 
tices of  the  peace  for  four  years.  Sheriffs, 
county  clerks,  coroners,  and  district  attorneys 
are  chosen  by  the  people.  There  are  three 
districts,  northern,  eastern,  and  southern,  for 
holding  United  States  courts ;  sessions  are  held 
in  New  York  city  for  the  southern,  in  Brook- 
lyn for  the  eastern,  and  in  Albany,  Utica, 
Canandaigua,  Rochester,  and  Buffalo  for  the 
northern  district.  The  organized  state  mili- 
tia, called  the  national  guard,  comprises  23,360 
men,  classified  into  8  divisions  and  20  brigades, 
viz. :  1  regiment,  1  battalion,  and  9  troops  of 
cavalry,  12  batteries  of  artillery,  and  31  regi- 
ments, 12  battalions,  and  3  detached  companies 
of  infantry.  The  state  exercises  a  strict  super- 
vision over  corporations,  especially  those  which 
are  fiduciary  or  involve  extensive  financial  in- 
terests. Corporations,  except  municipal,  must 
be  formed  under  general  laws.  Railroad,  bank- 
ing, and  insurance  corporations  are  subject  to 
the  inspection  of  special  departments,  to  which 


NEW   YORK  (STATE) 


365 


sworn  reports  must  be  made,  and  by  which 
reports  are  annually  made  to  the  legislature 
and  published.  A  married  woman  may  hold 
to  her  separate  use  real  and  personal  property, 
if  acquired  from  any  other  person  than  her 
husband,  and  may  convey  and  devise  it ;  she 
may  also  carry  on  business  on  her  own  account, 
and  sue  and  be  sued.  Neither  license,  magis- 
trate, nor  minister  is  necessary  to  a  valid  mar- 
riage contract ;  it  has  even  been  held  that  the 
agreement  of  the  parties  constitutes  legal  mar- 
riage. The  sole  ground  of  divorce  occurring 
after  marriage  is  adultery ;  at  the  time  of  mar- 
riage, impotence,  idiocy,  or  lunacy,  and  consent 
obtained  by  force  or  fraud.  The  legal  rate  of 
interest  is  7  per  cent. ;  usurious  contracts  are 
void ;  taking  of  usury  is  a  misdemeanor ;  and 
corporations  cannot  interpose  the  defence  of 
usury.  New  York  is  represented  in  congress 
by  two  senators  and  33  representatives,  and  has 


therefore  35  votes  in  the  electoral  college.— 
The  state  debt,  with  the  unapplied  balances 
of  the  sinking  funds,  Sept.  30,  1874,  was  as 
follows : 


CHARACTER  OF 
DEBT. 

Debt. 

Balance  of 
sinking  I'uuds. 

Balance  of  debt 
after  applying 
sinking  funds. 

General  fund  

$3  988  526 

$4  142  694 

Contingent... 

68  000 

82  828 

«OR  -)7fi 

Canal  

10  28o'480 

1  561  019 

o  ccq  4.1-1 

Bounty  .  . 

15  912  500 

7  125  288 

Total  .... 

$80  199  456 

$12  861  814 

$1  7  491  809 

The  only  contingent  debt  of  the  state  is  $68,000 
incurred  for  the  Long  Island  railroad,  the  in- 
terest of  which  is  paid  and  the  payment  of  the 
principal  provided  for  by  that  company.  The 
condition  of  the  several  trust  funds  on  Sept.  30, 
1874,  is  shown  in  the  following  statement: 


FUNDS. 

Capital 

Sept.  30,  1874. 

REVENUE  AND  EXPENDITURE. 

Receipts  during 
the  year,  includ- 
ing balances  Oct. 
1,  1873. 

Payments  during 
the  year. 

Balance 
Sept.  30,  1874. 

School  fund  

$8,054,772  10 
271,980  76 
4,014,520  71 
473,402  87 
128,596  61 
50,000  00 
82,823  49 
20,880  00 

$892,372  45 
50,157  13 
276,310  96 
24,284  54 
12,508  91 
8,500  00 
17,786  30 

$891,903  96 
45,834  20 
238,862  24 
22,342  47 
11,135  00 
8,500  00 
14,250  68 

$463  49 
4,322  93 
37,448  72 
1,942  07 
1,373  91 

Literature  fund.                        .  . 

United  States  deposit  fund 

College  land  scrip  fund  

Cornell  endowment  fund  ....               

Elmira  female  college  educational  fund 

Long  Island  railroad  company  sinking  fund  

8,585  67 

Trust  fund  for  payment  of  bounties  

The  total  receipts  into  the  treasury  on  account 
of  all  the  funds  except  the  canal  and  the  free 
school  funds  (the  latter  arising  from  the  state 
tax),  for  the  year  ending  Sept.  30,  1874,  were 
$26,465,370,  and  the  payments  $19,636,308. 
Among  the  ordinary  public  expenditures  were : 
executive  department,  $31,255;  legislative, 
$289,991;  judiciary,  $400,578;  public  offices, 
salaries,  clerk  hire,  and  expenses,  $301,734; 
printing  for  the  state,  $181,131;  military, 
$356,159 ;  educational,  including  common,  nor- 
mal, and  Indian  schools,  academies,  &c.,  $3,278,- 
858 ;  state  prisons,  including  transportation  of 
convicts,  $967,930 ;  support  of  deaf  and  dumb, 
blind,  insane,  and  idiotic,  $338,852;  quaran- 
tine, $215,483.  The  statute  requires  real  and 
personal  estate  to  be  assessed  for  taxation  "  at 
the  full  and  true  value  thereof,"  but  it  is 


maintained  by  high  authority  that  not  more 
than  one  third  in  value  of  the  property  liable 
to  taxation  is  placed  upon  the  assessment  rolls. 
The  aggregate  taxation  of  1874  included  state 
tax  $13,015,847,  school  $2,711,634,  county 
$32,119,578,  and  town  $9,964,321.  The  rate 
of  the  state  tax  was  7|-  mills,  viz. :  schools, 
1£;  general  purposes,  1£;  general  purposes 
(deficiency),  -^;  bounty  debt,  2;  new  cap- 
itol,  $ ;  asylums  and  reformatories,  T\ ;  canal 
floating  debt,  TV;  new  work  on  canals  and 
extra  repairs,  £ ;  for  payment  of  awards  by 
canal  appraisers  and  commissioners,  and  cer- 
tain certificates  of  indebtedness,  •£•%.  The  total 
amount  produced  by  this  rate  (state  and  school 
taxes)  was  $15,727,481.  The  valuation  of 
property  and  taxation  for  a  series  of  years  are 
shown  in  the  following  exhibit : 


YEARS. 

Real  estate. 

Personal. 

Aggregate 
valuation. 

State  taxes,  ex- 
clusive of  school 
taxes. 

Rate  of  total 
state  tax, 
in  mills,  on 
each  dollar 
of  valuation. 

Town,  county, 
and  school 
taxes. 

Total  taxes. 

Rate  of  tax  on 
$1;  valuation 
in  cents. 

1845... 

$605  646  095 

$361  309 

6-10 

$3  809  218 

$4,170,527 

0-688 

1855  

1  402  849  304 

1  751  71  7 

1  1-4 

9  924  454 

11,676,172 

0-882 

1865  
1866 

$1,158,827,871 
1  196403416 

$392,552,314 
334  826  220 

li55o'879,'685 
1  531  229  636 

6,067,816 
7  369  042 

4  53-80 
5  9-16 

89,893,623 
83  199  202 

45,961,440 
40  568  244 

2-963 
2-649 

1867... 
1868  

l!237',703',092 
1  327403886 

426,404,683 
438  685  254 

1,664,107,725 
1  766  089  140 

10,567,084 
8  035  705 

7  3-5 
5  4-5 

85.951,837 
36  262  730 

46,518,921 
44,298,435 

2-795 
2-508 

1869  
1870... 

1,418,132,855 
1,532,720  907 

441,987.915 

434  280  278 

1'860|120'770 
1  967  001  185 

8,138,028 
11  827  225 

5  5-8 
7  41-156 

38,028,503 
88,501,459 

46.161,531 
50,828,684 

2-482 

2-558 

1871... 
1872... 
1873  

1,599,930,166 
1,644,379,410 
1  692  528  071 

452,607,732 
447,248,035 
437102315 

2,052,537,898 
2,088,627,445 
2  12Q  626  386 

9,048,271 
16,970,097 
12  138  870 

5  79-120 
9  8-8 
6  95-100 

86,626,215 
46,541,888 
39  305  665 

45,674,486 
63,511,936 
51444536 

2-225 
8-041 
2-416 

1874.  . 

1  750  698  918 

418  608  955 

2?169'307'873 

18'015'847 

7  1-4 

44,795  534 

57  811  381 

2'664 

NEW  YORK  (STATE) 


— All  the  charitable,  eleemosynary,  correction-  ! 
al,  and  reformatory  institutions  of  the  state, 
except  prisons,  whether  receiving  state  aid  or 
maintained  by  municipalities  or  otherwise,  are 
subject  to  the  inspection  of  the  state  board 
of  charities,  composed  of  11  members  appoint- 
ed by  the  governor  with  the  consent  of  the 
senate,  besides  the  lieutenant  governor,  secre- 
tary of  state,  comptroller,  attorney  general,  and 
state  commissioners  in  lunacy,  all  of  whom 
serve  without  pay.  The  board  reports  annual- 
ly to  the  legislature  concerning  the  various  in- 
stitutions visited  by  them,  which  embrace  the 
state,  local,  incorporated,  and  private  charities 
for  the  insane,  blind,  deaf  and  dumb,  idiots, 
inebriates,  juvenile  delinquents,  orphans,  pau- 
pers, &c.  The  number  of  insane  in  New  York 
on  Jan.  1,  1872,  was  reported  at  6,775,  of 
whom  1,093  were  in  state  and  312  in  private 
institutions,  2,233  in  city  asylums  and  alms- 
houses,  1,319  in  county  asylums  and  poor- 
houses,  75  in  the  Auburn  asylum  for  insane 
criminals,  161  in  the  institutions  of  other 
states,  and  1,582  in  the  custody  of  friends.  In 
1874  $102,234  was  paid  by  the  state  for  the 
maintenance  of  insane  persons,  besides  large 
appropriations  for  buildings,  &c.  There  are 
five  state  institutions  for  the  treatment  of  this 
class,  of  which  the  oldest  is  the  lunatic  asylum 
in  Utica,  opened  in  1843  and  having  accommo- 
dations for  about  600.  Acute  cases  are  chiefly 
treated  here,  while  the  chronic  insane  are  re- 
ceived in  the  Willard  asylum,  opened  at  Ovid, 
Seneca  co.,  in  1869,  which,  with  projected  im- 

g-ovements,  will  accommodate  1,000.  The 
udson  river  hospital  for  the  insane  in  Pough- 
keepsie,  the  state  asylum  in  Buffalo,  and  the 
homoeopathic  asylum  in  Middletown  are  state 
institutions  not  yet  (1875)  completed.  The 
estimated  cost  of  each  of  the  two  former 
is  $3,000,000;  when  completed  each  will  ac- 
commodate about  600  patients.  The  institu- 
tion at  Middletown  is  smaller.  On  Sept.  30, 
1874,  there  were  1,719  inmates,  590  being  in 
the  Utica  asylum,  879  in  the  Willard,  212  in 
that  at  Poughkeepsie,  and  38  in  that  at  Middle- 
town.  There  is  also  a  state  institution  on 
Ward's  island,  New  York  city,  for  insane  im- 
migrants. In  addition  to  these  there  are  two 
city  institutions  in  New  York  city,  Brigham 
hall  at  Canandaigua,  Marshall  infirmary  in 
Troy,  the  Providence  lunatic  asylum  (Roman 
Catholic)  in  Buffalo,  and  the  asylum  at  Bloom- 
ingdale,  all  of  which  are  incorporated;  and 
Sanford  hall,  Flushing,  the  home  for  nervous 
diseases  at  Fishkill,  and  the  home  for  insane 
and  nervous  invalids  at  Pleasantville,  which 
are  private.  The  ^loomingdale  asylum  is  one 
of  the  oldest  institutions  of  the  kind  in  the 
United  States,  having  been  opened  in  1821,  and 
has  a  wide  reputation  for  the  excellence  of  its 
management.  Any  person  or  association  is 
prohibited  by  law  from  establishing  or  keeping 
an  institution  of  any  kind  for  the  reception 
of  persons  of  unsound  mind,  without  license 
from  the  board  of  state  charities.  The  whole 


number  treated  in  the  incorporated  and  private 
asylums  of  the  state  in  1873,  not  including 
the  two  New  York  city  institutions,  was  732, 
of  whom  449  remained  on  Jan.  1,  1874.  The 
state  asylum  for  idiots  in  Syracuse  was  estab- 
lished in  1851  as  an  educational  and  not  a 
custodial  institution.  It  has  accommodations 
for  225  pupils  ;  the  indigent  are  received  free 
of  charge.  The  daily  average  number  of  pupils 
in  1873  was  178,  of  whom  154  were  supported 
by  the  state  at  a  cost  of  $43,000.  The  blind 
are  instructed  at  the  state  asylum  in  Batavia, 
opened  in  1867,  and  the  New  York  institution 
for  the  blind  (incorporated)  in  New  York  city, 
founded  in  1831;  the  former  has  accommoda- 
tions for  150,  and  the  latter  for  225  pupils. 
The  New  York  institution  for  the  instruction 
of  the  deaf  and  dumb,  in  New  York  city,  is 
maintained  chiefly  by  the  state.  It  is  the 
largest  of  the  kind  in  the  world,  having  a 
capacity  for  550  pupils,  and,  excepting  the 
American  asylum  in  Hartford,  the  oldest  in  the 
United  States,  having  been  opened  in  1818. 
Its  plan  comprises  an  educational  and  an  in- 
dustrial department.  All  indigent  deaf  mutes 
between  the  ages  of  6  and  25  years  are  re- 
ceived free  of  charge.  At  the  close  of  1874 
there  were  30  instructors  and  584  pupils,  of 
whom  355  were  beneficiaries  of  the  state,  162 
of  counties,  and  47  of  New  Jersey,  the  re- 
mainder being  maintained  by  friends.  Articu- 
lation and  lip  reading  were  taught  to  about 
100.  Pupils  are  also  maintained  by  the  state 
at  the  institution  for  the  improved  instruction 
of  deaf  mutes  in  New  York  city,  and  at  the 
Le  Oouteulx  St.  Mary's  institution  in  Buffalo. 
The  state  asylum  for  inebriates  at  Bingham- 
ton  was  opened  in  1864.  The  buildings  cost 
$500,000,  and  will  accommodate  200  patients. 
The  state  institutions  for  the  reformation  of 
juvenile  delinquents  are  the  house  of  refuge 
on  Randall's  island,  New  York  city,  opened  in 
1825,  and  having  a  capacity  for  1,000,  and  the 
western  house  of  refuge  in  Rochester,  with 
accommodations  for  600,  opened  in  1849.  An 
industrial  reformatory,  with  a  capacity  for  500, 
is  in  process  of  construction  at  Elmira.  Be- 
sides these  there  are  11  incorporated  and  muni- 
cipal reformatories  in  the  state,  which  from 
time  to  time  have  received  state  aid,  but  are 
mainly  supported  by  private  gifts  and  muni- 
cipal appropriations.  The  total  number  of  in- 
mates in  all  reformatories  on  Jan.  1,  1874,  was 
4,580.  There  are  also  many  organizations  in 
the  state  for  the  care  of  destitute  children,  such 
as  the  children's  aid  society  of  New  York  city 
and  the  various  missions  and  industrial  schools 
of  that  and  other  cities.  The  total  property 
valuation  of  the  state  charitable  institutions 
above  named  was  $6,184,302.  The  receipts 
for  the  year  were  $1,621,132,  of  which  $1,015,- 
251  was  from  the  state,  and  the  expenditures 
$1,589,183,  of  which  $711,805  was  for  build- 
ings and  improvements.  State  paupers  are 
received  at  almshonses  in  Albany,  Yaphank, 
Delhi,  Canton,  and  Buffalo.  The  private  and 


NEW  YOEK  (STATE) 


367 


incorporated  charities  of  the  state  comprise  128 
orphan  asylums  and  homes  for  the  friendless, 
46  hospitals,  and  57  dispensaries. — The  prison 
system  of  New  York  comprises  three  state 
prisons,  six  county  penitentiaries,  two  state 
and  eleven  local  reformatories,  besides  county 
jails,  city  prisons,  &c.  The  general  supervision 
of  the  prisons  is  vested  by  the  constitution  in 
three  inspectors  elected  for  three  years.  All 
prison  officers  are  appointed  by  the  inspectors. 
Cigars,  shoes,  harness  and  saddlery  hardware, 
tools,  machinery,  and  axles  are  made  at  Au- 
burn and  Sing  Sing,  while  in  the  latter  a  large 
number  of  convicts  are  employed  in  the  mar- 
ble and  lime  works.  In  the  Clinton  prison,  at 
Dannemora,  the  manufacture  of  iron,  nails, 
&c.,  from  ore  mined  on  the  premises,  is  the 
chief  employment  of  the  convicts.  All  the 
industries  are  managed  by  contract  in  Auburn, 
all  but  stone  cutting  in  Sing  Sing,  and  none  in 
Clinton  prison.  No  one  of  the  prisons  is  self- 
sustaining.  In  all  instruction  is  afforded  to 
convicts,  and  all  have  libraries.  The  condition 
of  these  institutions  for  the  year  ending  Sept. 
30,  1874,  was  as  follows: 


PARTICULARS. 

Auburn. 

Clinton. 

Sing  Sing. 

1292 

548 

1200 

Capacity  for  inmates  
Number     of     prisoners  \ 
Sept.  80,  1873  j 

1,300 
1,104 

540 

548 

2,508 
1,354 

Admitted  during  the  year.. 

664 

543 

183 
164 

928 
976 

In  prison  Sept.  80,  1874  
Advances     from      state  I 
treasury  j 

1,204 
$233,167 

552 
$337,678 

1,306 
$360,054 

Earnings  

$101,910 

$153  473 

$124,009 

Excess  of  expenditures  — 

$131,257 

$184,205 

$236,045 

Including  $26,231  miscellaneous  expenditures 
not  distributed,  the  entire  excess  of  expendi- 
tures was  reported  at  $588,537.  This,  how- 
ever, is  reduced  by  stock  on  hand,  permanent 
improvements,  and  unpaid  accounts  of  the  pre- 
vious year,  amounting  to  $68,358  in  favor  of 
Auburn,  $225,748  of  Clinton,  and  $163,370 
of  Sing  Sing.  With  these  deductions,  the  real 
excess  of  expenditures  over  earnings  becomes 
$131,060.  The  expense  of  maintaining  each 
convict  is  from  $3  to  $4  a  week  in  excess  of 
the  income.  The  prisons  are  full,  and  a  great- 
er capacity  is  needed.  The  six  penitentiaries 
are  situated  in  Buffalo,  Syracuse,  Brooklyn, 
Eochester,  Albany,  and  New  York  (Blackwell's 
island).  In  the  three  first  named,  trades  are 
taught  to  the  inmates  and  evening  schools  are 
held.  The  state  has  no  share  in  the  manage- 
ment of  these  institutions,  which  are  under  the 
control  of  the  counties  where  situated;  but 
state  prisoners  are  confined  in  them.  The  to- 
tal number  of  prisoners  in  the  penitentiaries  at 
the  beginning  of  1874  was  5,940.  The  prison 
association  of  New  York  is  an  organization 
for  the  repression  of  crime,  the  reformation 
of  the  criminal  classes,  the  aid  of  discharged 
convicts,  &c.  It  has  agents  in  all  parts  of  the 
state  and  at  all  the  prisons,  who  visit  persons 
detained  under  charge  of  crime,  with  a  view  of 
601  VOL.  XIL— 24 


aiding  them  to  obtain  justice,  and  who  look 
after  the  interests  of  discharged  convicts.  In 
1873,  1,257  discharged  prisoners  were  aided  by 
the  general  agency  in  New  York  city,  while 
4,735  in  prison  accused  of  crime  were  visited 
and  advised,  of  whom  204,  being  friendless, 
were  defended.  Annual  reports  are  made  to 
the  legislature. — The  common  school  system 
of  New  York  may  be  traced  to  a  law  passed  by 
the  legislature  in  1812,  which  provided  for  the 
division  of  the  state  into  school  districts,  the 
distribution  of  the  interest  of  the  school  fund 
in  the  ratio  of  the  number  of  children  from  5 
to  15  years  of  age,  and  the  annual  levy  by  each 
town  of  a  tax  for  school  purposes.  As  early 
as  1795,  however,  an  annual  appropriation  of 
$50,000  for  five  years  was  made  by  the  le- 
gislature for  public  instruction.  The  acts  re- 
lating to  public  instruction  were  revised  and 
consolidated  in  the  general  law  of  1864,  which 
was  several  times  amended  until  1867,  when 
the  free  school  system  of  the  state  was  fairly 
established.  For  school  purposes  the  state  ia 
divided  into  general  districts  and  city  districts 
created  by  special  acts.  There  is  no  state  board 
of  education.  The  general  supervision  of  the 
common  schools  is  vested  in  a  state  superin- 
tendent, who  is  elected  for  three  years  by  a 
joint  ballot  of  the  legislature,  receives  an  an- 
nual salary  of  $5,000,  besides  an  allowance  of 
$3,000  for  a  deputy  and  between  $8,000  and 
$9,000  for  clerk  hire,  and  makes  an  annual  re- 
port to  the  legislature.  By  virtue  of  his  office 
he  is  a  regent  of  the  university,  chairman  of  the 
executive  committee  of  the  state  normal  school 
at  Albany,  a  trustee  of  the  people's  college  and 
of  the  state  asylum  for  idiots,  and  is  required 
to  provide  for  the  education  of  all  Indian  chil- 
dren in  the  state.  The  office  of  county  super- 
intendent was  abolished  in  1847,  and  that  of 
town  superintendent  in  1857.  Their  duties  are 
performed  by  district  commissioners  elected  for 
three  years  by  the  people.  Each  school  district 
has  also  one  or  three  trustees,  who  exercise 
authority  in  relation  to  school  funds,  property, 
&c.,  and  report  annually  to  the  district  com- 
missioner. The  common  schools  are  free  to 
all  persons  between  5  and  21  years  of  ^age. 
Separate  schools  are  provided  for  the  Indians, 
and  any  city  or  incorporated  village  may  es- 
tablish schools  exclusively  for  colored  children. 
The  compulsory  educational  law  of  1874, 
which  went  into  effect  on  Jan.  1,  1875,  re- 
quires all  children  not  physically  or  mentally 
incapacitated,  between  the  ages  of  8  and  14 
years,  to  attend  some  public  or  private  day 
school  not  less  than  14  weeks  every  year,  8  of 
which  must  be  consecutive ;  or  they  must  be 
taught  at  home  for  the  same  time  in  spelling, 
reading,  writing,  English  grammar,  geography, 
and  arithmetic.  Manufacturers  and  others  are 
prohibited,  under  penalty  of  $50,  from  employ- 
ing during  school  hours  children  under  14 
years  of  age  who  have  not  received  the  instruc- 
tion required  by  the  act.  Boards  of  trustees 
are  directed  to  make  provision  for  the  instruo 


363 


NEW  YOKE  (STATE) 


tion  of  habitual  truants.  Free  district  libraries 
constitute  a  feature  of  the  educational  system, 
for  which  the  legislature  annually  appropriates 
$55,000,  and  for  which  each  district  is  author- 


ized to  levy  a  small  tax  yearly.  The  following 
statement  contains  the  comparative  statistics  of 
the  common  schools  for  the  years  ending  Sept. 
30,  1868  and  1874  : 


1868. 

1874. 

Total. 

Cities. 

Towns. 

State. 

11  736 

11  299 

11299 

"       of  teachers  employed  at  the  same  time  for  28  weeks  or  more  .  . 

16,596 
1  464  669 

5,235 
739  810 

13,370 
857036 

18,605 
1  596  846 

'5918 

622 

e'565 

'    7J8T 

21  865 

5567 

16868 

22436 

970  842 

438  049 

606815 

1  044,364 

445868 

215  907 

299318 

515226 

Number  of  times  schools  have  been  visited  by  commissioners  

18*963 

17*967 

17,967 

1  064  830 

140  785 

690  81  9 

S31554 

11  674 

'425 

11  856 

11  781 

Value  of  school  houses  and  sites  

$16  459  4S5 

$19  006  446 

$10  209,708 

$29,216,149 

Indian  schools  were  maintained  in  28  districts 
at  nine  reservations,  at  a  cost  of  $7,262,  and 
were  attended  by  1,018  children,  who  were 
taught  by  19  white  and  12  Indian  teachers. 
State  moneys  for  the  support  of  common 
schools  are  derived  chiefly  from  the  income 
of  the  common  school  fund,  the  principal  of 
which  in  1874  was  $3,054,772;  the  United 
States  deposit  fund  of  $4,014,520,  which  is  a 
nominal  loan  received  on  deposit  from  the 


surplus  funds  of  the  United  States  in  1836; 
and  the  state  school  tax  of  1J  mill.  The 
amount  derived  from  these  sources  in  1874 
was:  school  fund,  $178,813;  United  States 
deposit  fund,  $165,000;  state  tax,  $2,664,631; 
total,  $3,008,444.  The  total  expenditures  for 
the  support  of  public  schools  amounted  to 
$9,040,942  in  1868,  and  $11,088,981  in  1874. 
The  receipts  and  expenditures  for  these  two 
years  were  as  follows : 


1868. 

1874. 

Total. 

Cities. 

Towns. 

State. 

RECEIPTS. 

Amount  on  hand  at  the  be<Tinnin°'  of  the  year.        .... 

$1  199  547  58 

$814304  65 

$238388  60 

$1  052  693  25 

2  302  515  70 

1  070  643  86 

1  676  580  24 

2  747  224  10 

Proceeds  of  the  gospel  and  school  lands  

23,134  62 

44  59 

86  558  68 

36598  27 

Raised  by  tax                                            .   

6338861  77 

4  941  827  50 

2922876  01 

7  864  703  51 

Estimated  value  of  teachers'  board 

375455  27 

199  706  71 

199  706  71 

272  162  66 

112221  24 

285582  28 

897808  52 

Totals 

$10  511  677  60 

$6939041  84 

$5  359  6S7  52 

$12  298  729  36 

EXPEHDITTJBES. 

For  teachers'  wages.      .                    

$5  597,506  94 

$3  880  536  24 

$3720982  49 

$7,601,518  78 

For  libraries.                             

26632  84 

15070  94 

17942  32 

33  013  26 

234528  09 

188219  82 

36595  96 

224  815  28 

For  colored  schools        

64807  59 

58458  18 

7'668  87 

66,126  55 

For  school  houses  sites  &c  ... 

2184064  95 

1  146  008  79 

816189  21 

1,962,198  00 

For  all  other  incidental  expenses 

933  187  60 

705804  95 

495325  60 

1  201  130  55 

214  51 

'l79  33 

179  33 

Amount  on  hand  at  the  end  of  the  year  

1  470  735  58 

944943  42 

864  804  24 

1,209,747  66 

Totals.., 

$10.511.677  60 

$6.939.041  84 

$5.359.687  52 

$12.298.729  86 

Much  importance  is  attached  to  the  training 
of  teachers  for  the  public  schools.  Teachers 
are  required  to  have  received  a  diploma  from 
a  state  normal  school,  or  a  certificate  from  the 
superintendent  of  public  instruction,  the  dis- 
trict commissioner,  or  city  or  village  school 
officer.  The  state  maintains,  by  an  annual  ap- 
propriation of  about  $150,000,  eight  normal 
schools,  from  which  3,028  students  had  gradu- 
ated up  to  the  summer  of  1874,  besides  a  large 
number  who  had  received  instruction  without 
completing  the  course.  The  courses  of  instruc- 
tion comprise  an  elementary  English  and  an  ad- 
vanced English  course  of  two  years  each,  and 
a  classical  course  of  three  years.  The  course 
of  instruction  and  practice  at  the  Albany 
school  is  two  years.  Special  classes  are  also 


formed  for  the  benefit  of  those  desiring  a  few 
weeks'  instruction  each  year.  .Each  county  is 
entitled  to  send  to  a  state  normal  school,  free 
of  charge  for  tuition  and  text  books,  twice  as 
many  pupils  as  it  has  representatives  in  the  as- 
sembly; to  other  pupils  a  charge  is  made  for 
instruction.  Applicants  for  admission  must  be 
at  least  16  years  of  age  and  must  pass  exami- 
nation. State  pupils  are  appointed  by  the  state 
superintendent  of  public  instruction,  subject  to 
the  required  examination,  on  recommendation 
of  the  school  commissioners  -or  city  superin- 
tendents. Teachers'  institutes  have  been  main- 
tained by  the  state  since  1847.  These  are  held 
annually  in  the  several  counties,  for  a  period 
of  about  two  weeks,  with  special  reference  to 
the  wants  of  teachers  in  the  rural  districts. 


NEW  YORK  (STATE) 


369 


During  the  year  ending  Jan.  1,  1875,  institutes 
were  held  in  58  counties,  at  a  cost  to  the  state 
of  $16,319,  and  were  attended  by  11,478  teach- 
ers; The  most  important  facts  concerning  the 
state  normal  schools  for  1873-'4  are  as  follows : 


WHERE 
SITUATED. 

When 
opened. 

Received  from 
state  annual 
appropriation. 

NORMAL  DEPARTHf  T. 

Number  of 
instructors. 

Number  of 
pupils. 

Albany  
Brockport  
Buffalo  

1844 
1867 
1871 
1869 
1868 
1871 
1863 
1869 

$17,964  83 
17,999  36 
17,869  82 
17,952  94 
20,832  08 
18,270  10 
17,861  14 
17,881  90 

15 

19 
12 
14 
17 
16 
14 
14 

544 
291 
803 
899 
237 
807 
429 
365 

Cortland  
Fredonia  

Geneseo  

Oswego  

Potsdam  

Total 

$146,632  17 

121 

2,875 

Teachers'  classes,  attended  hy  2,044  pupils  rang- 
ing from  10  to  20  weeks,  were  also  maintained 
in  92  academies  designated  by  the  board  of  re- 
gents. —The  university  of  the  state  of  New  York 
is  a  corporate  body  created  in  1784,  with  func- 
tions mainly  of  supervision  and  visitation,  and 
not  of  instruction.  The  board  of  regents  of 
the  university,  reorganized  in  1787,  comprises 
19  members  elected  by  joint  ballot  of  the  legis- 
lature, besides  the  governor,  lieutenant  gover- 
nor, secretary  of  state,  and  superintendent  of 
public  instruction.  The  officers  are  a  chancel- 
lor, vice  chancellor,  treasurer,  secretary,  and 
assistant  secretary.  The  regents  are  empow- 
ered to  incorporate  and  visit  literary  and  medi- 
cal colleges  and  academies,  and  to  require  from 
them  annual  reports  as  to  their  system  of  in- 
struction, discipline,  finances,  pupils,  &c.  These 
reports  or  abstracts  of  them  are  embodied  by 
the  regents  in  their  annual  report  to  the  legis- 
lature. They  are  also  empowered  to  confer 
degrees  above  that  of  master  of  arts.  They 
are  ex  officiis  trustees  of  the  state  library  and 
of  the  state  museum  of  natural  history;  and 
many  valuable  papers  showing  the  progress 
of  science  and  the  useful  arts  are  contained 
in  their  reports  on  the  museum.  The  colleges 
and  academies  are  mainly  dependent  on  private 
bounty  and  tuition  fees.  The  state,  however, 


has  often  made  large  contributions  to  their  en- 
dowments, besides  establishing  the  "  literature 
fund,"  the  annual  income  of  which  is  appro- 
priated toward  the  salaries  of  teachers  in  the 
academies.  Since  1853  an  endowment  fund  of 
at  least  $100,000  paid  in  or  secured  has  been  a 
condition  of  the  incorporation  of  a  college  by 
the  regents.  Most  of  the  colleges  incorporated 
since  that  date  have  received  their  charters  di- 
rectly from  the  legislature.  The  property  and 
funds  of  these  institutions  are  vested  in  trus- 
tees, and  must  be  used  only  for  public  instruc- 
tion. These  trustees  are  amenable  to  the  legis- 
lature and  the  courts.  Since  1838  $40,000  de- 
rived from  the  literature  and  United  States 
deposit  funds  has  been  annually  distributed 
among  the  academies,  according  to  the  number 
of  pupils  holding  the  regents'  certificate  of  aca- 
demic scholarship.  Besides  this,  about  $18,- 
000  is  annually  distributed  to  the  academies  for 
instruction  of  teachers,  and  $3,000  for  the  pur- 
chase of  books  and  apparatus.  Academic  de- 
partments of  union  schools  are  admitted  to  the 
benefits  of  these  appropriations  on  the  same 
terms  as  academies.  There  are  subject  to  the 
visitation  of  the  regents  23  literary  and  14 
medical  colleges,  and  about  250  academies  and 
academical  departments  of  union  schools.  This 
enumeration  embraces  only  incorporated  in- 
stitutions. In  order  to  raise  the  standard  of 
education  and  to  secure  greater  fidelity  on  the 
part  of  teachers  in  the  academies,  examinations 
in  writing  are  held  by  the  regents.  Each  pu- 
pil who  satisfactorily  answers  the  questions  re- 
ceives a  certificate  which  entitles  him  to  certain 
educational  facilities.  Since  1863  the  univer- 
sity convocation,  comprising  the  officers  of  col- 
leges and  academies,  has  been  held  annually 
under  the  direction  of  the  board  of  regents, 
for  the  consideration  of  the  interests  of  higher 
education.  Besides  the  1,044,364  pupils  in  the 
common  and  6,515  in  the  normal  schools  in 
1873-'4,  there  were  31,421  in  academies,  2,675 
in  colleges,  137,840  in  private,  582  in  law,  and 
924  in  medical  schools;  total,  1,224,321.  The 
incorporated  colleges  and  the  professional  in- 
stitutions in  the  state  in  1874-'5,  excepting 
those  in  the  city  of  New  York,  were  as  follows : 


NAME  OF  INSTITUTION. 

Where  situated. 

Date  of 
charter. 

Denomination. 

Number 
of  in- 
structor*. 

Number 
of 
student*. 

Alfred  university 

Alfred  Centre 

1857 
1865 
1855 
1812 
1824 
1857 
1846 
1856 
'I860 
1870 
1795 
1846 
1861 
1870 

1851 

Seventh-Day  Baptist  

20 
50 
13 
13 
7 
17 
11 
& 
8 
19 
17 
9 
84 
13 

5 

1 

455 
521 
167 
145 
52 
150 
101 
54 
42 
147 
160 
156 
225 
89 

106 
22 

Cornell  university  

Ithaca 

Not  denominational  
Presbyterian  

Elmira  female  college 

Elmira 

Hamilton  college 

Clinton 

Presbyterian  

Hobart  college 

Protestant  Episcopal  

Ingham  university  (for  women)  
Madison  university 

Le  Roy  

Baptist  

St.  Lawrence  university  

Universalist  

Protestant  Episcopal  

Syracuse  university 

Methodist  Episcopal  

Union  college 

Union  

University  of  Rochester 

Baptist  

Not  denominational  

Not  denominational  

SCHOOLS  OF  LAW. 

Albany  law  school 

Law  school,  Hamilton  college  .  .  . 

Clinton  .  .  , 

370 


NEW  YORK  (STATE) 


NAME  OF  INSTITUTION. 

Where  situated. 

Date  of 
charter. 

Denomination. 

Number  of 
instructors. 

Numberof 
students. 

118 

66 
125 
101 

66 

iio 

4T 
4 
42 
87 
9 
17 
80 
126 
23 
218 

SCHOOLS  OF  MEDICINE. 

Albany  
Syracuse.        

1839 

1872 
1868 

Regular  

8 

16 
80 

10 

College  of  physicians°and  surgeons,  Syracuse  universi- 
ty (formerly  Geneva  medical  college,  founded  in  1834) 

Brooklyn. 

H 

Buffalo 

H 

SCHOOLS  OF  SCIENCE. 

College  of  agriculture  and  mechanic  arts,  Cornell 

Ithaca  

1865 

Engineering  school,  Union  college  
Eensselaer  polytechnic  institute.               .... 

Schenectady  .  . 

Troy 

1826 

18 

6 
2 
4 
6 
4 
3 
1 
6 
3 
22 

SCHOOLS  OF  THEOLOGY. 

Auburn  theological  seminary  

Auburn  

1820 
1860 
1819 
1816 
1853 
1835 
1850 

Presbyterian  
Episcopalian  
Baptist 

De  Lancey  divinity  school 

Geneva 

Hartwick  theological  seminary  

Hartwick  Seminary 
Buffalo 

Lutheran  .     . 

Martin  Luther  college  

Lutheran  
United  Presbyterian 
Baptist  

Newburgh  theolo°ical  seminary. 

Newburgh 

Rochester  theological  seminary  

Rochester  

St.  Joseph's  provincial  seminary  

Troy         

Roman  Catholic  
Universalist  
Roman  Catholic  

St.  Lawrence  theological  school    .... 

Canton 

1856 
1863 

Seminary  of  Our  Lady  of  Angels 

Niagara  City 

Union  university,  comprising  Union  college  in 
Schenectady,  the  Albany  medical  college,  and 
Dudley  observatory,  was  incorporated  in  1873. 
For  the  United  States  military  academy,  see 
MILITARY  SCHOOLS.  The  state  agricultural  col- 
lege is  connected  with  Cornell  university,  and 
is  described  in  the  article  on  that  institution. 
Full  details  of  other  colleges  mentioned  above 
are  also  given  in  special  articles  on  the  re- 
spective institutions. — The  whole  number  of 
newspapers  and  periodicals  reported  by  the 
census  of  1870  was  835,  having  an  aggregate 
circulation  of  7,561,497,  and  issuing  annually 
471,741,744  copies.  There  were  87  daily, 
with  a  circulation  of  780,470;  5  tri-weekly, 
5,800;  22  semi-weekly,  114,500;  518  weekly, 
3,388.497;  21  semi-monthly,  216,300;  163 
monthly,  2,920,810;  and  19  quarterly,  135,120. 


CHARACTER. 

Number. 

Volumes. 

State 

2 

66019 

Town,  city,  &c  

130 

173  236 

Court  and  law  ...        

26 

77535 

School   college  &c               

9875 

1  165158 

Sabbath  school 

3105 

994  627 

Church  .  .         

486 

253'  163 

Charitable  and  penal  institutions  
Circulating 

1 
144 

5,000 
790  181 

The  largest  public  libraries  of  the  state,  with 
the  number  of  volumes  in  1874,  are  given  in  LI- 
BRARY, vol.  x.,  p.  405. — The  whole  number  of 
religious  organizations  in  1870  was  5,627,  hav- 
ing 5,474  edifices  with  2,282,876  sittings,  and 
property  valued  at  $66,073,755.  The  leading 
denominations  were  represented  as  follows : 


These  were  further  classified  as  follows  : 

PUBLICATIONS. 

Num- 
ber. 

Copies  annu- 
ally issued. 

Circulation. 

Advertising 

17 
10 

12 
50 

103 
6 

487 
90 
4 
56 

1,378,800 
7,621,800 

1,161,200 
13,778,600 

72,448,180 
1,606,800 
823,171,724 
40,798,240 
2,780,000 
6,996,400 

89,900 
307,150 

47,600 
326,950 

2,047,865 
23,800 
2,268,532 
2,095,120 
65,000 
289,580 

Agricultural  and  horticultural. 
Benevolent  and  secret  socie- 
ties 

Commercial  and  financial  
Illustrated,  literary,  and  mis- 
cellaneous   
Devoted  to  nationality  
Political 

Religious  

Sporting 

Technical  and  professional.  .  . 

In  1874  there  were  reported  98  daily,  5  tri- 
weekly, 20  semi-weekly,  681   weekly,    2  bi- 
weekly, 26  semi-monthly,  201  monthly,  4  bi- 
monthly, and  18  quarterly;  total,  1,055.     The 
total  number  of  libraries  of  all  classes  reported 
by  the  federal  census  of  1870  was  20,929,  con- 
taining 6,310,352  volumes;  7,158  with  2,785,- 
483  volumes  were  private,  and  13,771  with 
3,524,869  were  other  than  private.     The  latter 
were  distributed  as  follows  : 

DENOMINATIONS. 

Organi- 
zations. 

Edi- 
fices. 

Sittings. 

Property. 

Baptist,  regular 

817 

795 

809  811 

$7  439  850 

"       other  

85 

84 

23,775 

162,925 

Christian  
Congregational     

95 

268 

95 
256 

28,175 
111  785 

224,850 
2  732  500 

Episcopal,  Protestant  
Evangelical  Association.  .  . 
Friends                  

475 
25 

89 

465 
25 

87 

204,920 
7,800 
24,910 

7,211,lS 
228,850 
596800 

47 

83 

21400 

1  831  950 

Lutheran  

190 

182 

70,133 

1,560.500 

Methodist    

1,745 

1,702 

606,098 

11,768,290 

Miscellaneous  .        

2 

1,000 

30600 

Moravian(Unitas  Fratrum) 
New  Jerusalem  (Sweden- 
borcrian)                

6 
4 

6 
3 

3,000 
1,950 

134,600 
175.000 

Presbyterian,  regular  
"           other  
Reformed  church  in  Ameri- 
ca (late  Reformed  Dutch) 
Reformed   church   in    the 
United  States  (late  Ger- 
man Reformed)  
Roman  Catholic  
Second  Advent 

672 
54 

304 

9 
455 

17 

656 
49 

800 

8 
453 
11 

325,780 
24,090 

147,033 

3,450 
271,285 
3120 

12,786,900 
644,140 

7,076,250 

184,000 
8,558.150 
45650 

Shaker 

3 

3 

2300 

23000 

3 

2 

580 

31000 

Unitarian  
United  Brethren  in  Christ. 
Universalist 

22 
7 
124 

19 
6 
120 

8,850 
1,850 
41  610 

715>00 
10,200 
1  155,950 

Union  (local  missions)  
Unknown  .  .  . 

14 
93 

14 
98 

7,000 
82.801 

580,900 
216,050 

NEW  YOKE  (STATE) 


371 


—At  the  arrival  of  the  whites  the  S.  E.  part 
of  New  York  was  inhabited  by  several  subor- 
dinate tribes  of  Indians  belonging  to  the  Al- 
gonquin race,  and  the  remaining  part  of  the 
state  by  the  celebrated  Five  Nations  of  Iro- 
quois  stock.  The  names  of  places  bequeathed 
by  the  various  tribes  indicate  to  what  race 
they  belonged  ;  the  Algonquin  words  being 
harsh  and  full  of  gutturals,  while  the  Iroquois 
names  are  usually  smooth,  soft,  and  musical. 
In  July,  1609,  Samuel  Champlain,  having  as- 
cended the  St.  Lawrence  river,  discovered  the 
lake  which  bears  his  name.  On  Sept.  9, 1609, 
Henry  Hudson,  in  the  employ  of  the  Dutch 
East  India  company,  discovered  the  bay  of 
New  York,  and  three  days  later  entered  the 
river  which  bears  his  name.  The  land  dis- 
covered by  Hudson  was  claimed  by  Holland 
and  named  New  Netherland.  In  1614  the 
states  general  granted  special  privileges  to  any 
company  which  should  open  a  trade  with  the 
natives  of  this  region.  In  this  year  the  first 
Dutch  settlements  were  made  on  Manhattan 
island,  and  the  name  New  Netherland  was 
applied  to  the  unoccupied  regions  of  America 
lying  between  Virginia  and  Canada.  In  1621 
the  Dutch  West  India  company  was  incorpo- 
rated, and  in  the  following  year  by  virtue  of 
their  charter  took  possession  of  New  Nether- 
land. The  first  permanent  agricultural  coloni- 
zation of  this  country  was  made  in  1623,  when 
18  families  settled  at  Fort  Orange  (now  Al- 
bany), and  a  company  of  Walloons  on  the  W. 
shore  of  Long  Island.  In  1626  Peter  Minuit, 
the  director  general,  purchased  Manhattan  isl- 
and of  the  natives  for  the  value  of  .$24.  In 
1629  the  company  passed  an  act  enabling  all 
who  wished  to  obtain  manorial  possessions  in 
the  country,  under  which  the  most  valuable 
part  of  the  company's  land  soon  passed  into 
the  hands  of  individuals,  and  an  aristocratic 
element  was  introduced.  The  effort  to  estab- 
lish feudal  privileges  failed ;  but  the  land  mo- 
nopolies granted  at  this  time  led,  more  than 
two  centuries  afterward,  to  serious  disturb- 
ances known  as  the  "anti-rent  difficulties." 
Wouter  van  Twiller,  the  successor  of  Minuit, 
appointed  in  1633,  was  succeeded  in  1638  by 
William  Kieft.  During  the  administration  of 
the  latter,  some  troubles  having  arisen  with 
the  natives,  an  attack  was  suddenly  made  by 
the  whites  upon  the  nearest  Indian  villages, 
and  more  than  100  unoffending  men,  women, 
and  children  were  massacred.  A  bloody  war 
ensued,  which  seriously  endangered  the  exis- 
tence of  the  colony.  In  1647  Kieft  was  suc- 
ceeded by  Peter  Stuyvesant,  by  whom  the  In- 
dians were  conciliated  and  the  general  affairs 
of  the  colony  more  systematically  adminis- 
tered. The  Dutch  settlements,  spreading  to 
the  east  and  west,  came  in  collision  with  the 
English  upon  the  Connecticut,  and  with  the 
Swedes  upon  the  Delaware.  In  1655  Stuyve- 
sant took  forcible  possession  of  the  Swedish 
territory  and  annexed  it  to  New  Netherland. 
The  border  contests  with  the  English  contin- 


ued as  long  as  the  Dutch  held  possession  of 
the  country.  The  English  claimed  New  Neth- 
erland as  part  of  Virginia,  a  claim  founded 
upon  the  prior  discovery  of  Cabot.  In  1622 
the  English  minister  at  the  Hague  demanded 
that  the  enterprise  of  planting  a  Dutch  colony 
upon  the  Hudson  should  be  abandoned.  In 
1627  Gov.  Bradford  of  Plymouth  gave  notice 
to  Peter  Minuit  that  the  patent  of  New  Eng- 
land extended  to  lat.  40°,  and  that  the  Dutch 
had  no  right  "  to  plant  and  trade  "  north  of 
that  line.  In  March,  1664,  Charles  II.  granted 
a  charter  of  all  the  lands  lying  between  the 
Connecticut  and  the  Delaware  to  his  brother 
the  duke  of  York.  This  included  New  Nether- 
land and  a  portion  of  the  territory  which  had 
been  previously  granted  to  Connecticut,  Mas- 
sachusetts, and  New  Hampshire.  In  August  of 
the  same  year,  without  any  declaration  of  war, 
Col.  Nicolls  at  the  head  of  an  English  force 
appeared  before  New  Amsterdam,  and  de- 
manded its  surrender.  Being  in  no  condition 
to  resist,  Gov.  Stuyvesant  complied,  and  the 
whole  country  quietly  passed  into  the  hands 
of  the  English.  New  Amsterdam  was  named 
New  York,  and  the  name  of  New  York  was 
also  applied  to  the  whole  province.  New 
York  was  subsequently  recaptured  by  the 
Dutch,  but  was  soon  after  restored  to  the  Eng- 
lish. The  Dutch  engaged  in  the  slave  trade  as 
early  as  1627,  and  at  the  surrender  in  1664 
the  colony  contained  more  slaves  in  propor- 
tion to  its  inhabitants  than  Virginia.  In  Au- 
gust, 1688,  New  York  was  placed  with  New 
England  under  the  administration  of  Andros, 
Francis  Nicholson  being  appointed  lieutenant 
governor  of  New  York.  In  1689  the  peo- 
ple revolted  from  the  tyranny  of  Nicholson, 
and,  under  the  lead  of  Jacob  Leisler,  a  mer- 
chant of  New  York,  seized  the  government  and 
administered  it  in  the  name  of  William  and 
Mary.  Although  never  officially  recognized  as 
governor,  Leisler  continued  at  the  head  of  af- 
fairs for  about  two  years,  when  he  was  super- 
seded by  Gov.  Sloughter,  bearing  a  commission 
direct  from  the  English  sovereigns.  Offering 
some  slight  resistance  to  Sloughter  upon  his 
arrival,  Leisler  and  his  son-in-law  Milborne 
were  arrested,  tried  for  treason,  and  executed. 
In  1684  Gov.  Dongan  concluded  an  offensive 
and  defensive  treaty  with  the  Indians,  and 
from  that  time  the  English  became  the  recipi- 
ents of  that  friendship  which  had  been  before 
bestowed  upon  the  Dutch.  In  1687  the  Seneca 
country  in  western  New  York  was  invaded  by 
a  French  army  under  De  Nonville,  governor 
of  Canada;  and  in  1689  the  Five  Nations  re- 
taliated by  invading  Canada.  In  this  last  ex- 
pedition more  than  1,000  French  settlers  were 
slain,  and  the  whole  French  province  was 
threatened  with  destruction.  On  the  night  of 
Feb.  9,  1690,  a  party  of  French  and  Canadian 
Indians  burned  Schenectady,  and  massacred 
nearly  all  the  inhabitants.  In  1693  a  French 
expedition  against  the  Mohawks  took  one  of 
the  Indian  forts  and  captured  300  prisoners, 


372 


NEW  YORK  (STATE) 


but  the  greater  part  of  the  invaders  perished 
with  cold  before  reaching  Canada.  The  peace 
of  Ryswick  in  1697  concluded  the  hostilities 
between  England  and  France,  and  Count  Fron- 
tenac,  then  governor  of  Canada,  turned  his 
whole  force  against  the  Five  Nations.  His 
plans  were  frustrated  by  the  earl  of  Bellamont, 
then  royal  governor  of  New  York,  who  de- 
clared he  would  make  common  cause  with  the 
Indians  in  case  any  attack  was  made  upon  them. 
During  the  continuance  of  Queen  Anne's  war, 
from  1702  to  1713,  hostilities  in  New  York 
were  confined  to  skirmishes  upon  the  frontiers, 
and  to  the  preparation  for  expeditions  which 
failed  for  want  of  promised  aid  from  England, 
but  which  involved  the  colony  largely  in  debt. 
In  1731  the  French  built  Fort  Frederick  at 
Crown  Point  on  Lake  Champlain,  commanding 
the  natural  pass  between  the  Hudson  and  the 
St.  Lawrence.  The  final  conflict  between  Eng- 
land and  France  to  determine  the  sovereignty 
of  North  America  began  in  1754.  Along  the 
frontiers  of  New  York  the  French  had  erect- 
ed fortresses  on  Lake  Champlain,  at  Frontenac 
(now  Kingston)  on  the  St.  Lawrence,  and  at 
Niagara.  The  English  advanced  posts  were 
at  Fort  Edward  on  the  Hudson,  and  at  Oswego 
on  Lake  Ontario.  In  1755  a  large  force  under 
Sir  William  Johnson  marched  against  Crown 
Point.  At  the  head  of  Lake  George  he  was 
attacked  by  the  French  under  Dieskau,  but  the 
victory  was  finally  obtained  by  the  English, 
and  the  French  force  was  nearly  annihilated. 
In  1756  Oswego  was  taken  by  the  French  and 
destroyed.  In  1757  Fort  William  Henry,  at 
the  head  of  Lake  George,  was  taken  by  the 
French,  and  the  garrison,  after  capitulation, 
were  nearly  all  massacred  by  the  Indians.  In 
1758  Abercrombie  at  the  head  of  15,000  men, 
the  largest  and  best  appointed  army  ever  raised 
in  America,  was  defeated  in  an  attack  upon 
Ticonderoga;  and  during  the  same  year  Col. 
Bradstreet  marched  through  the  wilderness 
and  took  Fort  Frontenac.  In  1759  Niagara 
was  taken  by  Gen.  Prideaux  and  Sir  William 
Johnson,  and  Ticonderoga  and  Crown  Point 
were  abandoned  on  the  approach  of  an  English 
army  under  Gen.  Amherst,  leaving  no  French 
force  within  the  limits  of  the  colony.  During 
the  last  years  of  the  war,  under  the  adminis- 
tration of  Pitt,  the  English  pursued  a  liberal 
policy  toward  the  colonies ;  but  in  1760  they 
recommenced  aggressions,  which  provoked  op- 
position. New  York  entered  zealously  into  the 
measures  for  common  defence.  In  October, 
1775,  Tryon,  the  last  royal  governor,  took  refuge 
on  board  a  British  man-of-war.  In  May  of  that 
year  Ticonderoga  and  Crown  Point  had  been 
surprised  and  taken  by  a  party  of  "Green 
Mountain  Boys"  under  Ethan  Allen.  In  Feb- 
ruary, 1776,  an  American  force  took  possession 
of  New  York  city;  after  the  battle  of  Long 
Island  (Aug.  27),  the  city  and  its  environs 
fell  into  the  hands  of  the  British.  In  the  sum- 
mer of  1777  Burgoyne  invaded  the  province 
from  Canada,  and  a  British  force  from  New 


York  passed  up  the  Hudson  to  cooperate  with 
him.  Several  fortresses  on  Lake  Champlain 
and  the  Hudson  were  taken  by  the  enemy,  but, 
after  a  series  of  reverses,  Burgoyne's  army  on 
Oct.  17  was  obliged  to  surrender  at  Saratoga. 
In  the  winter  of  1777-'8  West  Point  was  for- 
tified, and  soon  became  the  most  important 
fortress  in  America.  Under  the  lead  of  Sir 
John  Johnson,  the  Six  Nations  espoused  the 
English  cause,  and  continually  harassed  the 
defenceless  frontier  settlements.  In  1779  Gen. 
Sullivan  marched  through  the  Indian  country 
in  western  New  York,  and  destroyed  their 
villages.  During  the  next  two  years  the  In- 
dians made  frequent  attacks  upon  the  Scho- 
harie  and  Mohawk  settlements,  until  the  whole 
of  that  flourishing  region  was  laid  waste.  On 
Nov.  25,  1783,  New  York  was  evacuated  by 
the  British.  The  original  grant  of  New  York 
included  all  lands  between  the  Delaware  and 
Hudson  rivers,  conflicting  with  patents  pre- 
viously granted  to  Connecticut,  Massachusetts, 
and  New  Hampshire.  In  1664,  soon  after  the 
date  of  the  first  patent,  the  proprietor  sold  the 
territory  included  in  the  present  state  of  New 
Jersey.  The  Connecticut  boundary  was  estab- 
lished in  1731.  The  claims  of  Massachusetts 
were  finally  settled  in  1786,  by  a  compromise 
which  gave  New  York  the  sovereignty  of  the 
whole  territory,  but  yielded  to  Massachusetts 
the  right  of  soil  to  that  portion  of  the  state 
which  lies  west  of  a  meridian  line  passing 
through  the  82d  milestone  of  the  Pennsylvania 
boundary.  This  line,  known  as  the  "preemp- 
tion line,"  begins  at  the  S.  E.  corner  of  Steuben 
co.,  extends  along  the  W.  shore  of  Seneca  lake, 
and  terminates  in  Sodus  bay  on  Lake  Ontario. 
The  conflicting  claims  of  New  York  and  New 
Hampshire  led  to  violent  collisions  and  almost 
.to  civil  war.  The  threatened  hostilities  were 
averted  in  1790  by  the  erection  of  the  disputed 
territory  into  the  state  of  Vermont,  and  the 
payment  to  New  York  of  $30,000.  The  seat 
of  government  was  originally  in  New  York 
city.  The  first  constitution,  adopted  in  March, 
1777,  was  published  at  Kingston.  In  October 
of  that  year  the  public  records  were  removed 
to  Rochester,  Ulster  co.,  soon  after  to  Pough- 
keepsie,  and  in  1784  to  New  York  city.  In 
1797  Albany  was  made  the  capital.  The  con- 
stitution was  revised  in  1801,  1821,  and  1846. 
Slavery,  which  had  been  much  restricted  since 
the  formation  of  the  first  constitution,  was 
abolished  in  1817,  though  under  the  provisions 
of  the  act  a  few  aged  persons  continued  in 
nominal  slavery  many  years  later.  At  the 
close  of  the  revolution  a  treaty  was  concluded 
with  the  Six  Nations,  by  which  a  large  amount 
of  the  Indian  lands  was  ceded  to  the  state. 
Settlements  rapidly  spread  in  the  fertile  re- 
gions of  central  New  York,  and  by  subsequent 
treaties  all  the  lands  of  the  Indians  except  a 
few  "reservations"  passed  into  the  hands  of 
the  whites.  During  the  war  of  1812  the  fron- 
tier settlements  were  constantly  exposed  to 
attacks  of  the  British,  and  several  serious  en- 


NEW  YORK   CITY  AND   VICINITY. 


NEW  YORK  (STATE) 


NEW  YORK  (OUT) 


373 


gagements  took  place  along  the  borders.  In 
1796  the  "  Western  Navigation  Company"  was 
incorporated,  which  built  locks  around  the 
rapids  on  the  Mohawk,  and  dug  a  canal  across 
the  portage  at  Rome,  so  that  laden  boats  could 
pass  from  the  ocean  to  Oneida  lake,  and  thence 
by  the  outlet  to  Lake  Ontario.  In  1800  Gou- 
verneur  Morris  conceived  the  plan  of  a  canal 
directly  through  the  state  from  east  to  west. 
In  1808  James  Geddes  made  a  partial  survey 
of  the  proposed  route,  and  reported  favorably. 
De  Witt  Clinton  investigated  the  matter,  and 
from  that  time  gave  to  the  project  the  whole 
weight  of  his  influence.  The  war  of  1812 
caused  a  suspension  of  the  project,  but  in  1816 
a  law  was  passed  authorizing  the  construction 
of  the  canal.  Work  was  begun  in  1817,  and 
the  canal  was  finished  in  1825.  It  speedily  be- 
came the  great  channel  of  trade  and  emigration. 
In  1853-'4  the  constitution  was  amended  in 
order  to  enable  the  state  to  borrow  $9,000,000 
to  facilitate  the  completion  of  the  canals.  In 
1865  an  amendment  providing  for  the  appoint- 
ment of  five  commissioners  of  appeals  was  re- 
jected. In  1866  a  convention  was  called  by 
popular  vote  for  the  revision  of  the  constitution, 
in  pursuance  of  its  provision  for  the  submission 
of  that  question  every  20  years.  The  members 
were  elected  in  April,  1867,  met  on  June  4,  and 
continued  their  sessions  till  Feb.  28, 1868 ;  but 
at  the  election  of  Nov.  2, 1869,  the  new  consti- 
tution was  rejected,  as  well  as  several  amend- 
ments which  were  submitted  separately,  except- 
ing one  reorganizing  the  judiciary.  An  amend- 
ment providing  for  the  appointment  instead  of 
the  election  of  the  principal  judges  was  re- 
jected at  the  election  of  1873.  In  November, 
1874,  several  amendments  which  had  been  pro- 
posed by  the  legislature  were  ratified  by  the 
people.  These  removed  the  property  qualifi- 
cation of  colored  voters,  restricted  the  power 
of  the  legislature  to  pass  private  .or  local  bills, 
made  changes  in  the  executive  department, 
prescribed  an  oath  of  office  in  relation  to  bri- 
bery, established  safeguards  against  official  cor- 
ruption, and  removed  the  restrictions  imposed 
upon  the  legislature  in  regard  to  selling  or 
leasing  certain  of  the  state  canals.  During  the 
civil  war  New  York  furnished  to  the  federal 
army  455,568  troops,  or  380,980  reduced  to  a 
three  years'  standard.  In  1869  the  legislature 
ratified  the  15th  amendment  to  the  federal  con- 
stitution; in  1870  this  action  was  annulled  by 
a  resolution,  which  was  rescinded  in  1872. — 
The  history  of  New  York  from  1609  to  1691 
is  given  in  Brodhead's  "History  of  the  State 
of  New  York"  (2  vols.  8vo,  1853 -'71).  See 
also  "History  of  New  Netherland,"  by  E.  B. 
O'Callaghan  (2  vols.,  New  York,  1845-'8),  and 
"  Documentary  History  of  New  York  (4  vols. 
4to,  Albany,  1849-'51),  and  "  Documents  rela- 
tive to  the  Colony  of  New  York"  (11  vols., 
1855-'61),  both  edited  by  him.  The  geological 
and  natural  history  survey  of  the  state  was 
made  in  1836-'42,  the  results  of  which  have 
been  published  in  elaborate  reports,  viz.  : 


zoology,  by  De  Kay,  5  vols. ;  botany,  by  J. 
Torrey,  2  vols. ;  mineralogy,  by  L.  C.  Beck,  1 
vol. ;  geology,  by  W.  W.  Mather,  E.  Emmons, 
L.  Vanuxem,  and  J.  Hall,  4  vols. ;  agriculture, 
by  E.  Emmons,  5  vols. ;  palaeontology,  by  J. 
Hall,  4  vols.  (vol.  v.  in  progress,  1875). 

NEW  YORK,  a  city  of  the  state  of  New  York, 
coextensive  with  the  county  of  the  same  name, 
the  commercial  metropolis  of  the  United  States, 
and  the  most  populous  city  in  the  western 
hemisphere,  situated  at  the  mouth  of  the  Hud- 
son river,  about  145  m.  below  Albany,  18  m. 
from  the  Atlantic  ocean,  190  m.  in  a  direct  line 
S.  W.  of  Boston,  205  m.  N.  E.  of  Washington, 
and  715  m.  E.  of  Chicago ;  lat.  of  the  city  hall, 
40°  42'  43"  N.,  Ion.  74°  0'  3"  W.  The  main  body 
of  the  city  is  situated  on  Manhattan  island; 
besides  which  it  includes  Randall's,  Ward's,  and 
Blackwell's  islands  in  the  East  river ;  Gover- 
nor's, Bedloe's,  and  Ellis  islands  in  the  bay,  oc- 
cupied by  the  United  States  government ;  and 
a  portion  of  the  mainland  N.  of  Manhattan  isl- 
and, and  separated  from  it  by  SpuytenDuyvel 
creek  and  Harlem  river.  It  is  bounded  N.  by 
the  city  of  Yonkers;  E.  by  the  Bronx  river, 
which  separates  it  from  the  towns  of  East 
Chester  and  West  Chester,  Westchester  co., 
and  by  the  East  river,  separating  it  from  Long 
island;  S.  by  the  bay;  and  W.  by  the  Hudson 
or  North  river,  which  separates  it  from  New 
Jersey.  Its  extreme  length  N.  from  the  Bat- 
tery is  16m.;  greatest  width,  from  the  mouth 
of  Bronx  river  W.  to  the  Hudson,  4J  m. ;  area, 
nearly  41£  sq.  m.  or  26,500  acres,  of  which 
19  sq.  m.  or  12,300  acres  are  on  the  mainland. 
Manhattan  island  is  13-&  m.  long,  and  varies  in 
breadth  from  a  few  hundred  yards  at  the  Bat- 
tery to  2J  m.  at  14th  street,  diminishing  again 
to  less  than  1  m.  above  130th  street,  and  having 
an  area  of  nearly  22  sq.  m.  or  14,000  acres.  The 
East  river  islands  comprise  about  300  acres,  and 
those  in  the  bay  100  more.  Manhattan  island 
is  bounded  N.  by  Spuyten  Duyvel  creek  and 
Harlem  river,  which  separate  it  from  the  main- 
land of  the  state,  E.  by  the  East  river,  S.  by 
the  bay,  and  W.  by  the  Hudson  river.  The 
island  was  originally  very  rough,  a  rocky  ridge 
running  from  the  S.  point  northward,  and 
branching  into  several  spurs,  which  united  after 
4  or  5  m.,  culminating  in  Washington  heights, 
238  ft.  above  tide  water,  and  a  bold  promon- 
tory of  130  ft.  at  the  extreme  N.  point.  The 
S.  portion  of  the  island  and  the  shores  in  some 
places  were  alluvial  sand  beds,  while  marshes 
and  ponds  also  occurred.  But  the  original 
character  of  the  surface  has  disappeared  in  the 
lower  portion,  and  is  disappearing  in  the  up- 
per, before  the  constant  grading  and  filling  for 
the  construction  of  new  or  the  improvement  of 
old  streets.  One  of  the  largest  bodies  of  water 
was  the  "  Collect  pond,"  nearly  2  m.  in  circum- 
ference and  50  ft.  deep,  which  covered  the  site 
of  the  "Tombs"  and  adjacent  territory,  and 
was  connected  with  marshes  on  the  Hudson 
by  a  rivulet  on  the  line  of  Canal  street,  which 
takes  its  name  from  this  circumstance.  The 


374 


NEW  YORK  (CITY) 


lower  part  of  the  island  has  been  considerably 
widened  by  filling  in  the  rivers  on  either  side. 
Several  localities  in  the  upper  portion  are  pop- 
ularly known  by  different  names.  Yorkville 
and  Harlem  are  on  the  E.  side,  the  former  in 
the  vicinity  of  86th  street,  and  the  latter  of 
125th  street.  On  the  W.  side  are  Blooming- 
dale  and  Manhattanville,  opposite  Yorkville 
and  Harlem  respectively.  Above  Manhattan- 
ville and  in  the  vicinity  of  150th  street  is  Car- 
mansville,  about  1£  m.  further  up  Fort  Wash- 
ington or  Washington  Heights,  and  at  the  N. 
W.  extremity  of  the  island  Inwood.  The 
mainland  portion  of  the  city,  formerly  consti- 
tuting the  towns  of  Morrisania,  West  Farms, 
and  Kingsbridge,  Westchester  co.,  was  annexed 
by  the  act  of  May  23,  1873,  which  went  into 
effect  on  Jan.  1,  1874.  The  S.  portion,  com- 
prising Morrisania  and  a  part  of  West  Farms, 
forms  the  23d  ward  of  the  city,  the  rest  of 
West  Farms  with  Kingsbridge  constituting  the 
24th  ward.  The  23d  ward  contains  several  vil- 
lages, with  various  popular  designations,  among 
which  are  Mott  Haven  and  North  New  York, 
immediately  across  Harlem  bridge ;  Port  Mor- 
ris, on  the  East  river ;  and  Melrose,  Woodstock, 
Morrisania,  Highbridgeville,  and  Claremont, 
further  N.  In  the  24th  ward  are  Tremont, 
Mount  Hope,  Mount  Eden,  Fairmount,  West 
Farms,  Belmont,  Fordham,  and  Williamsbridge, 
between  the  Harlem  and  Bronx  rivers ;  Kings- 
bridgeville  and  Spuyten  Duyvel,  separated  from 
the  N.  extremity  of  Manhattan  island  by  Spuy- 
ten Duyvel  creek ;  Mosholu,  N.  of  these ;  and 
Riverdale  and  Mount  St.  Vincent,  on  the  Hud- 
son. The  surface  of  the  new  wards  is  diversi- 
fied, the  greater  portion  of  the  land  being  high 
and  rolling,  except  in  the  south,  where  it  is 
low,  and  along  the  shores  marshy.  The  district 
is  traversed  by  several  small  sluggish  streams, 
having  a  S.  course,  the  principal  of  which  are 
Tibbett's  brook,  emptying  into  Spuyten  Duyvel 
creek ;  Cromwell's  creek,  discharging  into  Har- 
lem river  at  Macomb's  Dam  bridge ;  and  Mill 
brook  and  Leggett's  creek,  in  the  southeast. 
Between  the  streams  the  land  rises  for  the 
most  part  to  from  100  to  280  ft.  above  tide 
water,  the  highest  point  being  on  the  Riverdale 
ridge  between  Tibbett's  brook  and  the  Hudson. 
These  ridges  are  well  improved  and  occupied 
by  country  residences.  The  former  town  of 
Morrisania  is  thickly  settled,  and  is  regularly 
laid  out  with  avenues  running  N.  and  S.,  and 
streets  crossing  them  at  right  angles  numbered 
in  continuation  of  those  on  Manhattan  island. 
It  is  divided  into  two  nearly  equal  parts  by  3d 
avenue,  continued  across  Harlem  bridge.  The 
rest  of  the  new  district  is  not  regularly  laid 
out,  though  the  S.  and  W.  portions  of  the  24th 
ward  are  well  provided  with  streets  and  ave- 
nues, each  village  having  its  own  system.  This 
new  part  of  the  city  is  to  be  regulated  under  the 
direction  of  the  park  commissioners,  and  the 
work  is  now  in  progress  (1875).  The  two  por- 
tions of  the  city  are  connected  by  four  wagon 
and  two  railroad  bridges  across  Harlem  river 


and  Spuyten  Duyvel  creek.  Harlem  bridge,  at 
3d  avenue  and  130th  street,  is  of  iron;  Ma- 
comb's  Dam  bridge,  near  7th  avenue  and  154th 
street,  and  Farmer's  and  King's  bridges,  near 
the  N.  extremity  of  the  island,  are  of  wood. 
One  of  the  railroad  bridges  crosses  Spuyten 
Duyvel  creek  at  its  entrance  into  the  Hudson, 
and  is  used  by  one  branch  of  the  Hudson  River 
railroad ;  the  other  crosses  Harlem  river  a  lit- 
tle N.  of  Harlem  bridge,  and  is  used  by  the 
other  railroad  lines  that  enter  the  city.  A  sus- 
pension bridge  across  the  upper  part  of  the  Har- 
lem, and  a  tunnel  under  it,  at  7th  avenue,  are 
proposed. — On  Manhattan  island,  the  older  por- 
tion of  the  city  below  14th  street  (2£  m.  from 
the  Battery)  is  for  the  most  part  somewhat  ir- 
regularly laid  out.  The  plan  of  the  upper  portion 
embraces  avenues  running  N.  to  the  boundary 
of  the  island,  and  streets  crossing  them  at  right 
angles  from  river  to  river.  The  avenues  are 
numbered  from  the  east  to  12th  avenue;  E.  of 
1st  avenue  in  the  widest  part  of  the  city  are 
avenues  A,  B,  C,  and  D.  Above  21st  street, 
between  3d  and  4th  avenues,  is  Lexington  ave- 
nue, and  above  23d  street,  between  4th  and  5th 
avenues,  Madison  avenue ;  6th  and  7th  avenues 
are  intercepted  by  Central  park.  The  avenues 
are  100  ft.  wide,  except  A  and  C,  which  are 
80  ft. ;  Lexington  and  Madison,  75  ft. ;  and  B 
and  D,  60  ft.  Fourth  avenue  above  34th  street 
is  140  ft.  wide,  and  between  34th  and  40th 
streets  (here  called  Park  avenue)  it  is  divided 
in  the  centre  by  a  row  of  beautiful  little  parks, 
surrounding  the  openings  of  the  railroad  tunnel. 
The  streets  are  60  ft.  wide,  except  15  of  them, 
which  are  100  ft.,  and  are  numbered  consecu- 
tively N.  to  225th  street  at  Spuyten  Duyvel 
creek  (1st  street  being  If  m.  from  the  Bat- 
tery) ;  20  blocks,  including  the  streets,  average 
a  mile.  The  numbers  on  the  avenues  run  N. ; 
the  street  numbers  run  E.  and  W.  from  5th 
avenue.  Between  5th  and  6th  avenues  they 
range  from  1  toward  100  W.  (14th  street  for  in- 
stance), and  between  5th  and  4th  avenues  from 
1  toward  100  E.  (14th  street) ;  crossing  6th  or 
4th  avenue,  the  numbers  commence  at  100, 
and  as  each  avenue  is  crossed  toward  the  east 
or  west  a  new  hundred  is  commenced,  the 
number  of  a  building  thus  indicating  the  block 
in  which  it  is  situated.  The  city  is  compactly 
built  to  Central  park,  about  5  m.  from  the  Bat- 
tery, and  on  the  E.  side  for  the  most  part  to 
Harlem,  3£  m.  further.  The  W.  side  is  sparsely 
occupied  by  cottages  and  shanties,  with  many 
market  gardens,  to  Manhattanville,  where  and 
at  Carmansville  are  compact  villages.  At  Fort 
Washington  and  above  it  are  many  country 
residences.  Broadway,  the  great  central  thor- 
oughfare, is  80  ft.  wide,  and  upon  it  are  most 
of  the  principal  hotels,  banks,  insurance  offices, 
and  great  retail  stores.  It  runs  N.  from  the 
Battery,  bending  toward  the  west  above  10th 
street,  and,  after  crossing  5th,  6th,  and  7th 
avenues,  terminates  at  59th  street  and  8th  ave- 
nue. On  the  E.  side  the  principal  thorough- 
fare is  the  Bowery,  a  wide  street,  with  its  con- 


NEW  YORK  (CITY) 


375 


timiation  3d  avenue ;  and  on  the  W.  side,  Hud- 
son street  and  8th  avenue.  Fifth  avenue  con- 
tains many  handsome  churches,  but  is  chiefly 
noted  for  the  magnificence  of  its  residences, 
to  which  it  is  almost  exclusively  devoted.  The 
most  favorite  drives  outside  of  Central  park  are 
the  Boulevard,  St.  Nicholas  avenue,  and  6th  and 
7th  avenues  above  the  park.  The  Boulevard 
commences  at  59th  street  and  8th  avenue,  and 
terminates  at  155th  street,  following  for  the 
most  part  the  line  of  the  old  Bloomingdale  road, 
the  continuation  of  Broadway,  and  coinciding 
above  107th  street  with  llth  avenue ;  it  is 
150  ft.  wide,  and  below  128th  street  is  divided 
in  the  centre  by  a  series  of  little  parks.  St. 
Nicholas  avenue,  100  ft.  wide,  runs  diagonally 
along  the  former  Harlem  lane  from  the  upper 
side  of  Central  park  at  6th  avenue  and  110th 
street  to  155th  street,  whence  its  continuation 
is  the  Kingsbridge  road.  Wall  street,  less  than 
half  a  mile  long,  running  from  the  lower  part 
of  Broadway  to  the  East  river,  is  the  money 
centre  of  the  country.  It  contains  the  custom 
house,  United  States  sub-treasury  and  assay 
office,  and  many  of  the  principal  banks  and 
banking  houses.  In  Broad  street  near  Wall 
are  the  stock  exchange  and  gold  room. — Many 
of  the  buildings  in  the  lower  portion  of  the 
city  and  along  Broadway  below  34th  street 
extend  from  street  to  street,  or  to  the  centre 
of  the  block,  covering  the  entire  ground  space, 
from  five  to  seven  stories  high,  besides  two  sto- 
ries below  the  surface,  with  well  lighted  vaults 
reaching  nearly  to  the  middle  of  the  street. 
The  most  common  materials  here  are  granite, 
marble,  and  other  varieties  of  stone,  with  iron 
in  many  recent  structures.  Brick  is  still  much 
used  in  the  cheaper  class  of  dwellings  and 
workshops.  The  finest  residences  are  of  brown 
stone,  four  stories  high,  5th  and  Madison  ave- 
nues and  the  adjacent  streets  being  lined  with 
stately  edifices  of  this  class.  The  mansion  of 
A.  T.  Stewart,  at  the  corner  of  5th  avenue  and 
34th  street,  of  white  marble,  three  stories  high 
besides  basement  and  Mansard  roof,  and  con- 
taining a  fine  gallery  of  paintings,  is  the  most 
splendid  residence  in  the  city.  Many  of  the 
banks,  insurance  buildings,  and  other  business 
structures  are  of  palatial  size  and  magnificence. 
The  Drexel  building,  on  the  corner  of  Wall  and 
Broad  streets,  is  seven  stories  high,  built  of 
white  marble  in  the  renaissance  style.  The 
Bennett  building,  in  Nassau  street  between 
Fulton  and  Ann,  is  of  iron  and  seven  stories 
high.  The  publishing  house  of  Harper  and 
brothers  is  a  prominent  structure  with  an  iron 
front  in  Pearl  street.  In  Broadway,  on  the 
corner  of  Cedar  street,  is  the  building  of  the 
Equitable  life  insurance  company,  having  a 
frontage  of  87  ft.,  a  depth  of  200,  and  a  height 
of  137.  f  Above  this,  on  the  corner  of  Liberty 
street,  is  the  six-story  building  of  the  mutual 
life  insurance  company,  surmounted  by  a  tower 
containing  a  clock ;  and  on  the  corner  of  Ful- 
ton street,  the  new  "Evening  Post"  building. 
Further  up  and  adjoining  each  other,  between 


Fulton  and  Ann  streets,  are  the  Park  bank  and 
the  "  Herald  "  building,  both  of  marble.  On 
the  other  side  of  Broadway,  at  the  corner  of 
Dey  street,  is  the  new  building  of  the  Western 
Union  telegraph  company,  ten  stories  high  (in- 
cluding three  in  the  roof),  with  a  clock  tower ; 
the  two  lower  stories  are  of  granite,  the  others 
of  brick  trimmed  with  granite.  The  height  of 
the  main  wall  is  140  ft.  from  the  ground,  and 
of  the  platform  at  the  top  of  the  tower  230  ft. 
In  Printing  House  square,  E.  of  the  City  Hall 
park,  the  "Times"  and  "World"  buildings 
(occupying  the  former  site  of  the  Brick  church), 
the,  new  granite  building  of  the  Staats-Zei- 
tung,  with  statues  of  Gutenberg  and  Frank- 
lin above  the  portal,  and  the  new  "  Tribune  " 
building  (corner  of  Spruce  street),  of  brick  and 
granite,  nine  stories  high  with  a  lofty  tower, 
are  particularly  noticeable.  The  New  York 
life  insurance  company's  building,  on  the  cor- 
ner of  Broadway  and  Leonard  street,  is  of 
white  marble  in  the  Ionic  style  ;  and  opposite 
is  the  magnificent  building  of  the  Globe  mutual 
life  insurance  company.  A  little  above  this  is 
the  Ninth  national  bank,  also  a  superb  struc- 
ture. The  retail  store  of  A.  T.  Stewart  and  co. 
is  of  iron,  five  stories  high,  and  occupies  the 
entire  block  between  9tb  and  10th  streets  and 
Broadway  and  4th  avenue.  The  Methodist  pub- 
lishing and  mission  building,  on  the  corner  of 
Broadway  and  llth  street,  is  also  of  iron,  five 
stories  high  with  a  spacious  basement.  On  the 
corner  of  Broadway  and  14th  street  is  the  six- 
story  iron  building  of  the  Domestic  sewing  ma- 
chine company,  and  on  the  corner  of  Broadway 
and  20th  street  Lord  and  Taylor's  store,  which 
has  a  frontage  of  110  ft,  a  depth  of  128,  and 
a  height  of  122.  There  are  many  other  busi- 
ness structures  scarcely  less  worthy  of  mention. 
— Among  the  public  buildings  is  the  city  hall, 
in  the  park,  216  by  105  ft.,  and  three  stories 
high;  it  is  a  handsome  edifice  of  the  Italian 
style.  The  front  and  ends  are  of  white  marble, 
and  the  rear  of  brown  stone.  It  was  erected 
from  1803  to  1812,  at  a  cost  of  more  than 
$500,000,  and  is  occupied  by  the  mayor,  com- 
mon council,  and  other  public  officers.  The 
"governor's  room"  in  the  second  story  con- 
tains the  writing  desk  on  which  Washington 
penned  his  first  message  to  congress,  the  chairs 
used  by  the  first  congress,  the  chair  in  which 
Washington  was  inaugurated  first  president, 
and  a  gallery  of  paintings  embracing  portraits 
of  the  mayors  of  the  city,  state  governors, 
and  leading  federal  officers  and  revolutionary 
chieftains,  mostly  by  eminent  artists.  It  has 
also  a  very  fine  portrait  of  Columbus.  The 
building  is  surmounted  by  a  cupola  contain- 
ing a  four-dial  clock,  which  is  illuminated 
at  night  by  gas.  In  the  rear  of  the  city  hall 
and  fronting  on  Chambers  street  is  the  new 
court  house,  which  was  commenced  in  1861, 
and  has  been  occupied  since  1867,  but  is  not 
completed.  It  is  of  Corinthian  architecture, 
three  stories  high,  250  ft.  long  by  150  ft.  wide, 
and  the  crown  of  the  dome  is  to  be  210  ft. 


3T6 


NEW  YORK  (CITY) 


above  the  sidewalk.  The  walls  are  of  Massa- 
chusetts white  marble;  the  beams,  staircases, 
&c.,  are  of  iron ;  while  black  walnut  and  choice 


•shf 


New  Post  Office. 


Georgia  pine  are  employed  in  finishing  the 
interior.  The  halls  are  covered  with  marble 
tiling.  The  main  entrance  on  Chambers  street 
is  reached  by  a  flight  of  30 
broad  steps,  which  are  orna- 
mented with  marble  col- 
umns. E.  of  the  court  house, 
in  the  N.  E.  corner  of  the 
park,  are  two  substantial 
brown-stone  buildings,  the 
larger  occupied  by  courts 
and  offices,  and  the  smaller 
as  an  engine  and  court  house. 
S.  of  these,  E.  of  the  city 
hall,  is  the  hall  of  records,  a 
massive  stone  edifice,  once  a 
prison,  but  now  occupied  by 
the  registry  of  deeds.  The 
old  post  office  building  (for- 
merly the  Middle  Dutch 
church)  is  in  Nassau  street. 
The  new  building  for  the  post 
office  and  United  States  courts 
occupies  the  S.  extremity  of 
the  City  Hall  park.  It  is  of 
Doric  and  renaissance  archi- 
tecture, with  several  Louvre 
domes,  and  has  a  front  of  279  ft.  toward  the 
park  and  of  144  ft.  toward  the  south,  with 
two  equal  facades  of  262£  ft.  on  Broadway 


and  Park  row.  The  walls  are  of  Dix  island 
granite,  four  stories  high,  besides  the  Man- 
sard roof.  Its  cost  is  between  $6,000,000  and 
$7,000,000.  The  sub-trea- 
sury, formerly  the  custom 
house,  occupies  the  site 
of  the  old  Federal  hall  on 
the  corner  of  Wall  and 
Nassau  streets,  and  ex- 
tends through  to  Pine 
street.  It  is  of  white 
marble,  entirely  fire-pro  of, 
200  ft.  by  90,  and  80  ft. 
high,  with  Doric  porticoes 
of  eight  columns  on  Wall 
and  Pine  streets,  and  a 
granite  roof.  The  rotun- 
da is  60  ft.  in  diameter, 
and  the  dome  is  support- 
ed by  16  Corinthian  col- 
umns. Its  cost  was 
$1,175,000.  The  custom 
house,  formerly  the  mer- 
chants' exchange,  also  in 
Wall  street,  on  the  cor- 
ner of  William  street,  is 
200  by  about  160  ft.,  and 
77  ft.  high.  It  is  of  Quin- 
cy  granite,  with  a  portico 
having  12  front,  4  mid- 
dle, and  2  rear  columns, 
each  of  granite,  38  ft.  high 
and  4^  ft.  in  diameter. 
The  rotunda  is  80  ft.  high, 
and  the  dome  is  supported 
on  eight  pilasters  of  fine 
Italian  variegated  marble.  The  cost  of  the 
building  and  ground  was  $1,800,000.  It  is  in- 
adequate and  inconvenient  for  its  present  use, 


Custom  House. 

and  the  erection  of  a  new  custom  house  has 
been  strongly  urged.  The  police  headquarters 
is  in  Mulberry  street,  between  Bleecker  and 


NEW  YORK  (CITY) 


377 


Houston,  running  through  to  Mott  street.  It 
is  built  of  white  marble,  and  is  70  ft.  wide 
by  187  deep,  and  five  stories  high.  The 
"  Tombs  "  or  city  prison,  constructed  of  gran- 


ite in  the  Egyptian  style,  occupies  the  block 
bounded  by  Centre,  Elm,  Franklin,  and  Leon- 
ard streets,  and  is  200  by  253  ft.  In  front 
are  police  court  rooms.  In  the  area  within 


Interior  of  Grand  Central  Depot. 


executions  take  place.     The  Grand  Central 
depot,  in  42d  street,  between  4th  and  Madison 
avenues,  is  built  of  brick,  stone,  and  iron,  and 
cost  nearly  $2,250,000.     It  is  240  ft.  on  42d 
street  by  692  ft.  toward  Madison  ave- 
nue,  and  is  surmounted    by    several 
Louvre  domes.     It  covers  66£  city  lots, 
and,   besides  containing  waiting  and 
baggage  rooms  and  offices,  admits  150 
cars.     It  is  the  largest  and  finest  de- 
pot in  the  country,  and  is  used  by  most 
passenger  trains  of  the  New  York  Cen- 
tral and  Hudson  Eiver  railroad,  and  by 
the  New  York  and  Harlem  and  tbe 
New  York  and  New  Haven  railroads. 
The  freight  depot  of  the  Hudson  Kiver 
railroad,  constructed  of  brick,  granite, 
and  iron,  and  three  stories  high,  occu- 
pies the  entire  square  (formerly  St. 
John's    park)    bounded    by    Hudson, 
Beach,  Varick,  and  Laight  streets.     On 
the  Hudson  street  front  is  a  bronze 
statue  of  Cornelius  Vanderbilt,   sur- 
rounded by  emblematic  designs,  also 
in  bronze.     Odd  Fellows'  hall,  on  the 
corner  of  Grand  and  Centre  streets,  is 
a  large,  substantially  built,  brown-stone 
building,  surmounted  by  a  dome.     It 
contains  a  series  of  highly  ornamented 
lodge  rooms,  richly  furnished,  and  in 
different  styles  of  architecture,  Egyptian,  Gre- 
cian, Elizabethan,  &c.     The  masonic  temple, 
of  granite,  five  stories  high,  on  the  corner  of 
23d  street  and  6th  avenue,  is  100  by  140  ft., 


with  a  dome  50  ft.  square  rising  155  ft.  above 
the  pavement.  The  grand  lodge  hall,  84  by 
90  ft.  and  30  ft.  high,  will  seat  1,200  per- 
sons.— The  oldest  church  edifice,  until  it  was 


Masonic  Temple. 


torn  down  in  1875,  was  the  North  Dutch, 
in  "William  street,  between  Fulton  and  Ann, 
erected  in  1769.  Trinity,  in  Broadway  oppo- 
site Wall  street,  is  in  the  Gothic  style,  built 


3T8 


NEW  YORK  (OiTT) 


of  brown  stone,  192  ft.  long,  80  broad,  and  60 
high,  with  a  spire  284  ft.  high.  It  has  rich 
stained  windows  and  a  good  chime  of  bells. 


Trinity  Church. 

The  first  edifice  was  destroyed  by  fire  in  1776, 
and  a  new  one  was  erected  in  1788 ;  the  pres- 
ent edifice  was  commenced  in  1839  and  conse- 
crated in  1846.  It  is  open  every  day.  The 
spire  commands  a  magnificent  view.  St.  Paul's, 
also  in  Broadway,  is  151  by  73  ft.,  and  has 
a  spire  203  ft.  high ;  the  front  and  rear  are 
of  brown  stone,  and  the  sides  of  gray  stone 
colored  to  match;  the  pediment  contains  a 
white  marble  statue  of  St.  Paul,  and  below  is 
the  monument  of  Gen.  Richard  Montgomery. 
St.  Mark's,  in  Stuyvesant  street,  contains  in  a 
vault  the  remains  of  Gov.  Stuyvesant.  St. 
George's,  in  Stuyvesant  square,  is  170  by  94  ft., 
with  double  spires ;  it  is  in  the  Byzantine  style, 
and  is  one  of  the  most  capacious  churches  in 
the  city.  Grace  church,  in  Broadway  near 
10th  street,  is  of  white  freestone,  and  the 
interior  is  exceedingly  elaborate  with  carved 
work  and  stained  glass.  Trinity  chapel,  in 
25th  street,  180  by  54  ft.,  has  an  interior  of 
Caen  stone,  with  a  blue  ceiling,  rich  stained 


windows,  tiled  floor,  and  movable  seats.  All 
the  above  named  churches  are  Episcopal.  St. 
Peter's  Catholic  church,  in  Barclay  street,  is  a 
massive  granite  build- 
ing, with  an  Ionic  por- 
tico and  six  granite 
columns,  with  a  stat- 
ue of  St.  Peter.  St. 
Matthew's  Lutheran 
church  (originally  the 
first  Baptist  church), 
in  Broome  street, 
corner  of  Elizabeth, 
is  of  blue  stone  with 
battlements  of  brown 
stone  in  the  Gothic 
style,  99  by  75  ft.  The 
Reformed  (Dutch) 
church  in  Lafayette 
place,  corner  of  4th 
street,  is  a  massive 
plain  building,  110  by 
75  ft.,  with  a  conical 
spire.  The  Washing- 
ton square  Reformed 
(Dutch)  church  is  a 
Gothic  building  of 
rough  granite,  with 
square  towers.  The 
Roman  Catholic 

church  of  the  Holy 
Redeemer,  in  3d 
street,  is  very  large 
and  costly,  and  richly 
decorated  inside  with 
marble  columns  and 
a  magnificent  altar. 
The  first  Presbyteri- 
an church,  in  5th  ave- 
nue corner  of  llth 
street,  is  119  by  80  ft., 
and  has  a  spire  160  ft. 
high.  The  Presbyte- 
rian church  in  10th 
street  and  University  place,  of  reddish  stone, 
is  a  Gothic  building,  116  by  65  ft.,  with  a  spire 
of  184  ft.  The  Madison  square  Presbyterian 
church  is  another  elegant  building.  St.  Paul's 
M.  E.  church,  in  4th  avenue,  is  Romanesque, 
of  white  marble,  146  by  77  ft.;  the  spire  is 
210  ft.  high.  Calvary  Episcopal  church,  in  4th 
avenue  and  21st  street,  is  a  large  and  hand- 
some edifice  of  brown  stone,  with  double  tow- 
ers. On  the  corner  below  is  the  Unitarian 
church  of  All  Souls,  of  red  brick  and  cream- 
colored  stone  in  alternate  layers,  with  varie- 
gated marble  door  columns.  The  free  Epis- 
copal church  of  the  Holy  Communion,  in 
6th  avenue  and  20th  street,  is  of  sandstone, 
cruciform  in  plan,  104  by  66  ft.,  with  a  tur- 
ret 70  ft.  high.  The  Congregational  church 
(Broadway  Tabernacle)  in  34th  street  and  6th 
avenue  is  a  fine  Gothic  edifice,  with  elaborate 
ornamentation.  The  Reformed  (Dutch)  church 
in  5th  avenue,  on  the  corner  of  29th  street, 
is  an  elegant  white  marble  building,  with  a 


NEW  YORK  (CITY) 


379 


tall  spire  of  the  same  material.  The  fourth 
Universalist  church,  in  5th  avenue  on  the  cor- 
ner of  45th  street,  is  in  the  Gothic  style. 
The  main  building  is  100  by  80  ft.,  and  90  ft. 
high.  The  front  is  95  ft.,  and  the  towers  are 
185ft.  The  " Brick"  church  (Presbyterian), 
in  5th  avenue  on  the  corner  of  37th  street,  is 
a  spacious  brick  edifice,  with  a  lofty  spire. 
The  first  Baptist  church,  in  Park  avenue  on 
the  corner  of  39th  street,  is  a  capacious  and 
handsome  edifice.  Other  noteworthy  church 
edifices  are  the  Reformed  (Dutch)  church  on 
the  corner  of  5th  avenue  and  48th  street ;  St. 
Thomas's  (Episcopal),  on  the  corner  of  5th 
avenue  and  53d  street ;  the  Fifth  avenue 
Presbyterian  church,  on  the  corner  of  55th 
street ;  the  Madison  avenue  Reformed  (Dutch) 
church,  on  the  corner  of  57th  street,  with  a 
spire  188  ft.  high  ;  the  Presbyterian  memorial 
church,  in  Madison  avenue,  corner""  of  53d 
street;  St.  Bartholomew's  (Episcopal),  in 
Madison  avenue,  corner  of  44th  street;  the 
church  of  the  Holy  Trinity  (Episcopal),  in 
Madison  avenue,  corner  of  42d  street ;  the 
church  of  the  Covenant  (Presbyterian),  on  the 
corner  of  Park  avenue  and  35th  street;  and 
the  Unitarian  church  of  the  Messiah,  in  34th 
street,  on  the  corner  of  Park  avenue.  The 
Jewish  temple  Emanuel,  in  5th  avenue  on 
the  corner  of  43d  street,  is  the  finest  speci- 


Eeformed  (Dutch)  Church,  5th  avenue  and  48th  street. 

men  of  Saracenic  architecture  in  America; 
the  interior  is  magnificently  decorated  in  the 
oriental  style.  The  largest  church  edifice  in 


the  city,  and  one  of  the  largest  and  finest  on 
the  continent,  is  St.  Patrick's  cathedral  (Cath- 
olic), in  5th  avenue  between  50th  and  51st 


Temple  Emanuel. 

streets,  commenced  in  1858  and  still  in  pro- 
gress. It  is  constructed  of  white  marble  in 
the  decorated  Gothic  style,  and  is  332  ft.  long, 
with 'a  general  breadth  of  132,  and  at  the  tran- 
sept of  174  ft.  At  the  front  are  to  be  two 
spires,  each  328  ft.  high,  flanking  a  central 
gable  156  ft.  high.— There  are  30  public  parks 
and  triangular  spaces,  with  few  exceptions 
adorned  with  trees,  flowers,  and  grass  plots, 
and  mostly  enclosed  with  substantial  iron 
fences.  The  Battery,  at  the  S.  extremity  of 
the  city,  looking  out  upon  the  bay,  so  called 
from  having  been  the  site  of  an  early  fortifi- 
cation, was  at  one  time  the  fashionable  resort 
of  the  citizens,  and  was  surrounded  by  the  resi- 
dences of  the  wealthy.  It  subsequently  fell 
into  neglect,  but  within  a  few  years  it  has  been 
enlarged,  protected  by  a  substantial  sea  wall, 
and  beautifully  laid  out.  It  embraces  21  acres. 
The  Bowling  Green,  so  called  from  its  use  prior 
to  the  revolution,  is  just  above  the  Battery  at 


380 


NEW  YORK  (CITY) 


the  foot  of  Broadway,  and  comprises  half  an 
acre.  The  City  Hall  park,  fronting  on  Broad- 
way, half  a  mile  above  the  Battery,  has  an  area 
of  8 J  acres,  of  which  more  than  2  acres  are  cov- 


Boman  Catholic  Cathedral. 

ered  by  buildings.  In  Printing  House  square,  E. 
of  the  park,  is  a  statue  of  Franklin.  The  prin- 
cipal other  parks,  besides  Central  and  Mount 
Morris  square,  are  Washington  square  (8  acres), 
between  W.  4th  street  and  Waverley  place  and 
Wooster  and  Macdougal  streets,  used  as  the 
city  cemetery  until  1832 ;  Tompkins  square 
(10£  acres),  between  avenue  A  and  avenue  B 
and  7th  and  10th  streets,  used  as  a  parade 
ground  ;  Union  square  (3£  acres),  between  14th 
and  17th  streets  and  4th  avenue  and  Broadway ; 
Stuyvesant  park  (4J-  acres),  between  15th  and 
17th  streets,  and  divided  by  2d  avenue  into  two 
distinct  parks ;  Madison  square  (6£  acres),  be- 
tween 23d  and  26th  streets  and  Madison  and 
5th  avenues  ;  and  Reservoir  square  (4£  acres), 
E.  of  6th  avenue,  between  40th  and  42d  streets, 
and  separated  from  5th  avenue  by  the  distrib- 
uting reservoir.  In  Union  square  are  a  statue 
of  Lincoln  and  an  equestrian  statue  of  Wash- 
ington ;  and  near  Madison  square,  at  the  inter- 


section of  Broadway  and  5th  avenue,  is  a  mon- 
ument commemorating  the  achievements  of 
Gen.  Worth  in  the  Mexican  war.  Gramercy 
park  (1£  acre),  between  20th  and  21st  streets 
and  3d  and  4th  avenues,  is  a  pri- 
vate ground,  belonging  to  the  sur- 
rounding property  owners.  Cen- 
tral park,  the  great  park  of  the  city 
and  one  of  the  largest  and  finest 
in  the  world,  was  laid  out  in  1858. 
It  is  situated  between  59th  and 
110th  streets  and  5th  and  8th  ave- 
nues, and  is  2£  m.  long  by  £  m. 
wide,  embracing  843  acres,  to 
which  has  recently  been  added 
Manhattan  square  (24  acres),  which 
joins  it  on  the  west,  lying  between 
8th  and  9th  avenues  and  77th  and 
81st  streets.  Between  79th  and 
96th  streets  a  large  portion  of  the 
park  is  occupied  by  the  two  Cro- 
ton  reservoirs,  the  smaller  one 
comprising  35  and  the  larger  107 
acres.  It  has  18  entrances,  4  at 
each  end  and  5  on  each  side,  and 
four  streets  (65th,  79th,  85th,  and 
97th)  cross  it,  to  afford  opportuni- 
ty for  traffic,  passing  under  the 
park  walks  and  drives.  The  origi- 
nal surface  was  exceedingly  rough 
and  unattractive,  consisting  chiefly 
of  rock  and  marsh.  Art  has  over- 
come the  natural  defects,  and  the 
park  now,  with  its  fine  trees,  its 
beautiful  flowers  and  shrubbery, 
its  walks  and  drives,  and  numer- 
ous other  attractions,  is  a  delight- 
ful resort.  It  contains  three  arti- 
ficial lakes,  bridges,  arches,  and 
other  architectural  ornaments, 
buildings  for  various  purposes, 
statuary,  fountains,  &c.  The  old 
arsenal,  a  three-story  stone  build- 
ing, near  the  S.  E.  corner  of  the 
park,  contains  the  collections  of 
the  "  American  Museum  of  Natural  History  " 
and  the  meteorological  observatory.  In  the 
same  building  and  the  surrounding  cages  is 
the  menagerie  of  living  animals,  reptiles,  and 
birds,  presented  or  loaned  to  the  city,  compri- 
sing many  rare  specimens.  A  new  building 
for  the  museum  of  natural  history  is  (1875) 
nearly  completed  in  Manhattan  square;  and 
another  is  in  progress  in  the  E.  part  of  the 
park,  near  82d  street  and  5th  avenue,  for  the 
metropolitan  museum  of  art,  now  in  14th  street. 
These  are  to  be  erected  by  the  park  commis- 
sioners at  the  public  cost.  (See  PAEK.)  Mount 
Morris  square  is  situated  on  the  line  of  5th 
avenue  between  120th  and  124th  streets,  and 
embraces  20  acres.  In  the  centre  rises  a  rocky 
eminence  to  the  height  of  101  ft.  above  the  sea 
and  80  ft.  above  the  surrounding  plain,  com- 
manding magnificent  views.  The  level  portion 
has  been  handsomely  laid  out,  and  walks  have 
been  made  to  the  summit  of  the  hill.  Morn- 


NEW  YOEK  (CITY) 


381 


ingside  park,  embracing  an  irregular  area  of 
47££  acres  E.  of  10th  avenue,  between  110th 
and  123d  streets ;  High  Bridge  park  (23£  acres), 
at  the  approach  to  High  bridge ;  and  Eiverside 
park  (177*86  acres),  along  the  bank  of  the  Hud- 
son between  72d  and  129th  streets,  are  not  yet 
laid  out.  Fleetwood  park  in  the  23d  ward, 
and  Jerome  park  in  the  24th,  are  favorite 
race  courses.  The  Bowling  Green,  City  Hall 
park,  Washington  square,  Union  square,  Stuy- 
vesant  park,  Gramercy  park,  Madison  square, 
and  some  others  contain  fountains.  The 
public  parks  are  under  the  control  of  four 
commissioners,  of  whom  all  except  the  presi- 
dent serve  without  pay. — The  only  cemetery 
now  in  use  on  Manhattan  island  is  that  of 
Trinity  church,  between  153d  and  155th  streets 
and  10th  avenue  and  Hudson  river.  It  com- 
prises 25  acres  tastefully  laid  out  and  well  kept, 
and  contains  many  fine  tombs  and  monuments. 
Woodlawn  cemetery  is  in  the  24th  ward,  on 
the  bank  of  the  Bronx  river  near  the  N.  boun- 
dary of  the  city.  It  is  situated  on  a  wooded 
ridge,  comprises  more  than  300  acres,  and  was 
laid  out  in  1865.  The  grounds  have  been  finely 
improved.  The  principal  other  cemeteries  in 
use  are  the  New  York  Bay  cemetery,  on  the  W. 
shore  of  the  bay,  2£  m.  below  Jersey  City,  and 
Greenwood,  Cypress  Hills,  Evergreens,  and 
Calvary,  on  Long  island.  (See  BROOKLYN,  vol. 
iii.,  p.  319.)  Trinity  churchyard  contains  a 
monument  to  the  patriots  who  died  in  prison 
during  the  revolution,  and  St.  Paul's  one  in 
memory  of  Thomas  Addis  Emmet.  The  ceme- 
tery in  2d  street  between  1st  and  2d  avenues 
also  contains  a  number  of  monuments. — The  cli- 
mate of  New  York,  tempered  by  its  proximity 
to  the  ocean,  is  generally  mild,  though  change- 
able ;  there  is  considerable  hot  weather  in  sum- 
mer, and  the  cold  in  winter  is  occasionally  severe. 
The  meteorological  observatory  in  Central  park, 
organized  in  1869,  is  provided  with  self-record- 
ing instruments  invented  by  Daniel  Draper, 


the  director,  which  register  continuously  the 
movements  of  the  thermometer  and  barometer, 
the  direction,  force,  and  velocity  of  the  wind, 
and  the  rainfall.  The  average  monthly  tem- 
perature and  fall  of  rain  and  snow  for  the  six 
years  ending  with  1874  have  been  as  follows : 


MONTHS. 

Mean 
temperature. 

Rainfall, 
Inches. 

Snowfall, 
inches. 

January  

32-06° 

2'91 

8*50 

February  .  . 

81  '09 

1*76 

11  *Qfi 

March..   . 

36*06 

o.oo 

9'fifi 

April  

48-18 

4*10 

'75 

May  

59-67 

8'12 

June  

70-33 

8-54 

•• 

July  

74-75 

5*00 

August  

September.  .  .   . 

73-07 
67*15 

4-90 
8-67 

.. 

October  . 

54-55 

A.AR 

November  

41-00 

g.Q2 

•96 

December 

32-51 

l-7fi 

9-72 

Year  

51-58 

41*56 

84-55 

The  maximum  temperature  during  the  period 
was  98°  above  zero,  and  the  minimum  2°  be- 
low zero.  The  average  number  of  rainy  days 
per  year  was  112£;  of  snowy  days,  19.  The 
average  duration  of  rain  storms  per  year  was 
29d.  6h.  32m. ;  of  snow  storms,  5d.  23h.  20m. 
— The  growth  of  the  city  has  been  extremely 
rapid,  the  population  according  to  different 
colonial,  state,  and  federal  censuses  having 
been  as  follows : 


YEARS. 

Population. 

YEARS. 

Population. 

YEARS. 

Population. 

1656... 
1604.. 
1C98.. 
1731  .  . 
1756.  . 
1771  .  . 
1786.. 
1790.. 

1,000 
1,500 
4.937 
8.622 
13,046 
21,862 
23,614 
83,181 

1800.  . 
1805.  . 
1810.  . 
1816.  . 
1820.  . 
1825.  . 
1830.  . 
1885.  . 

60,489 
75,770 
96.373 
S3.e34 
123,706 
166,086 
202,589 
268,089 

1840... 
1845.  .  . 
1850... 
1855... 
I860... 
1805... 
1870... 

812,710 
871,228 
515,547 
629,810 
805,658 
726,386 
942,292 

The  figures  for  1870  include  13,072  colored  per- 
sons, 12  Chinese,  and  9  Indians.  The  follow- 
ing facts  are  taken  from  the  census  of  1870 : 


WARDS. 

Total 
population. 

Native  born. 

Foreign  born. 

Number 
attending 
school  during 
the  year. 

Persons  10 

years  old  and 
upward  unable 
to  read. 

Number 
of 
families. 

Persons 
to  a 
family. 

Number 
dwellings. 

Persons 
to  a 

dwelling. 

1st... 

14.468 
1.312 
3,715 
23,748 
17,150 
21,153 
44,818 
84,913 
47,609 
41,431 
64,230 
47,497 
38,364 
26.436 
27,587 
48,359 
95.365 
59,593 
86,090 
75,407 
56,703 
71,349 

6,441 
651 
1,752 
10,456 
9.245 
9,444 
24,130 
20,285 
83,020 
18,851 
84,805 
80,888 
19,288 
13.379 
16,821 
29,510 
46,083 
82.318 
48,125 
42,660 
83,402 
46,694 

8,022 
661 
1,963 
13,292 
7,905 
11,709 
20,688 
14,628 
14,589 
22,580 
29,425 
16,609 
14,076 
13,057 
10,766 
18,849 
49.332 
27.275 
37,965 
32,747 
23,301 
29,655 

2,833 
123 
521 
4.216 
2,527 
4,099 
7,820 
5,204 
7,451 
6,364 
13,129 
11.578 
5,579 
4,964 
8,104 
6,911 
16,664 
7,186 
12,650 
12,468 
7,879 
12,333 

1,748 
85 
75 
1,906 
1.144 
4,229 
2,999 
1,473 
1,175 
848 
1,713 
2.093 
1,244 
8,601 
1.293 
1,456 
2,105 
2.158 
2,140 
4,092 
2,454 
8,075 

2,876 
136 
609 
4,991 
3,571 
4,487 
8,974 
7,401 
9,366 
9,291 
14.478 
7,936 
7,061 
5,740 
4,686 
8,955 
21,320 
11,156 
13,873 
15,846 
9,482 
13,604 

5-03 
9-65 
6-10 
4-76 
4-80 
4-71 
4'99 
4-72 
6-08 
4-46 
4-44 
6-99 
4*73 
4*61 
5-88 
5*40 
4*47 
5-84 
6-21 
4-76 
6*01 
5-24 

687 
733 
428 
965 
1,289 
983 
2,883 
2,560 
8,917 
1,892 
8,086 
P,796 
1,677 
1,471 
2.866 
8,808 
8.966 
8,919 
6,695 
5,048 
4,252 
6,123 

21*05 
1-79 
8-68 
24*61 
13-30 
21*52 
18*81 
18-64 
12-15 
21-90 
20-81 
8-19 
19-90 
17-97 
11-66 
12-70 
24-05 
15-21 
12-86 
14-94 
13-84 
11-65 

2d  

8d..,, 

4th  .. 

5th 

6th  , 

7th 

8th  .. 

9th  .. 

10th  . 

Hth  .. 

12th  ...      , 

18th 

14th 

15th  .  . 

16th  

17th  .  .  . 

18th  . 

19th 

20th... 

21st.... 

22d  

City  

.  942,292 

523,198 

419,094 

155,603 

48,056 

185,789 

5-07 

64,044 

14*72 

382 


NEW  YORK  (CITY) 


Of  the  natives,  484,109  were  born  in  New 
York,  8,061  in  New  Jersey,  5,995  in  Massa- 
chusetts, 5,140  in  Connecticut,  5,099  in  Penn- 
sylvania, 2,073  in  Virginia  and  West  Virginia, 
2,028  in  Maryland,  1,235  in  Ohio,  and  1,224  in 
Maine ;  and  there  were  living  in  the  city  per- 
sons born  in  every  other  state  and  in  several 
of  the  territories.  The  foreigners  embrace 
234,594  natives  of  the  British  isles  (including 
201,999  Irish,  24,442  English,  7,562  Scotch, 
and  584  Welsh),  151,216  of  Germany,  8,265 
of  France,  4,419  of  British  America,  2,794  of 
Italy,  2,737  of  Austria  (exclusive  of  Hungary 
and  Bohemia),  2,612  of  Scandinavia  (inclu- 
ding 1,558  Swedes,  682  Danes,  and  372  Norwe- 
gians), 2,393  of  Poland,  2,178  of  Switzerland, 
1,487  of  Bohemia,  1,294  of  Cuba,  1,237  of  Hol- 
land, 1,151  of  Russia,  521  of  Hungary,  489  of 
the  West  Indies  (exclusive  of  Cuba),  453  of 
Spain,  325  of  Belgium,  211  of  South  America, 
and  717  of  about  20  other  countries.  There 
were  457,117  male  and  485,175  female  inhab- 
itants; 250,353  (122,626  males  and  127,727 
females)  between  the  ages  of  5  and  18 ;  213,937 
males  between  18  and  45 ;  249,990  males  21 
years  old  and  upward,  of  whom  188,276  were 
citizens  of  the  United  States  and  61,714  unnat- 
uralized  foreigners.  Of  those  attending  school, 
141,677  were  native  and  13,926  foreign  born, 
77,867  males  and  77,736  females.  There  were 
62,238  persons  10  years  old  and  upward  una- 
ble to  write,  of  whom  8,447  were  native  and 
53,791  foreign  born,  18,905  males,  and  43,333 
females;  3,894  between  10  and  15  years  of 
age,  4,423  between  15  and  21,  and  53,921  (15,- 
711  males  and  38,210  females)  21  and  upward. 
Of  the  350,556  persons  10  years  old  and  up- 
ward returned  as  engaged  in  all  occupations, 
264,385  were  males  and  86,171  females,  and 
8,456  were  between  10  and  15  years  of  age. 
There  were  employed  in  agriculture,  1,401 ;  in 
professional  and  personal  services,  115,259,  in- 
cluding 2,549  barbers  and  hairdressers,  1,535 
boarding  and  lodging  house  keepers,  715  clergy- 
men, 49,440  domestic  servants,  4,832  hotel  and 
restaurant  keepers  and  employees,  316  jour- 
nalists, 28,451  laborers,  5,604  launderers  and 
laundresses,  1,283  lawyers,  1,278  livery  stable 
keepers  and  hostlers,  4,222  government  officials 
and  employees,  1,741  physicians  and  surgeons, 
and_  3,511  teachers ;  in  trade  and  transporta- 
tion, 88,611,  including  23,872  traders  and  deal- 
ers, 4,744  hucksters,  peddlers,  and  commercial 
travellers,  27,590  clerks,  salesmen,  and  accoun- 
tants, 2,625  engaged  in  banking  and  brokerage 
of  money  and  stocks,  730  in  insurance,  924 
officials  and  employees  of  express  companies, 
2,003  of  railroad  companies,  917  of  street  rail- 
road companies,  298  of  telegraph  companies, 
9,813  carmen,  draymen,  teamsters,  &c.,  and 
4,463  sailors,  steamboatmen,  &c. ;  in  manufac- 
tures, 145,285  including  3,855  bakers,  3,533 
blacksmiths,  2,276  bookbinders  and  finishers, 
6,960  boot  and  shoe  makers,  6,586  masons  and 
stone  cutters,  4,870  butchers,  5,071  cabinet 
makers  and  upholsterers,  10,427  carpenters  and 


NEW  YOB 

K. 

LONDON 

Wards. 

Number  of 
inhabitants 
to  the  acre. 

Districts. 

Number  of 
inhabitants 
to  the  acre. 

Tenth. 

87T 

Strand 

SOT 

Eleventh 

828 

East  London 

266 

Thirteenth  
Seventeenth. 

812 

288 

St.  Luke's  
Holborn  

259 
229 

joiners,  5,550  cigar  makers,  &c.,  1,101  confec- 
tioners, 1,606  coopers,  1,477  cotton  and  wool- 
len mill  operatives,  1,744  hat  and  cap  makers, 
2,296  iron  and  steel  workers,  3,787  machinists, 
9,747  milliners,  dress  and  mantua  makers,  5,824 
painters  and  varnishers,  1,432  plasterers,  2,584 
plumbers  and  gas  fitters,  5,134  printers,  1,353 
ship  riggers,  carpenters,  &c.,  18,564  tailors, 
tailoresses,  and  seamstresses,  and  1,562  tinners. 
New  York  averages  more  than  twice  as  many 
persons  as  Philadelphia  to  a  dwelling,  and  4*76 
more  than  Fall  River,  Mass.,  which  comes  next 
to  it  in  this  respect  among  the  cities  of  the 
Union.  The  peculiar  shape  of  Manhattan  isl- 
and and  the  difficulty  of  transit  between  its 
extremities  have  tended  to  crowd  the  popula- 
tion into  tenement  houses  in  the  lower  por- 
tion, some  parts  of  which  rival  the  most 
crowded  quarters  of  any  other  civilized  city. 
The  four  most  thickly  inhabited  districts  of 
New  York  and  London  compare  as  follows : 


There  are  about  24,000  tenement  houses  (con- 
taining three  or  more  families  living  indepen- 
dently). The  average  transient  population  has 
been  estimated  at  30,000.  Since  the  census 
the  annexation  of  Morrisania  (pop.  in  1870, 
19,609),  West  Farms  (9,372),  and  Kingsbridge 
(about  2,500)  has  added  31,481  inhabitants, 
making  the  population  in  1870  within  the 
present  limits  of  the  city  973,773.  If  we  ap- 
ply the  ratio  of  increase  that  prevailed  between 
1860  and  1870,  the  present  population  (1875) 
will  be  about  1,050,000.  These  figures,  con- 
fined to  the  corporate  limits  of  the  city,  do  not 
give  an  adequate  idea  of  New  York  as  a  busi- 
ness centre.  Thousands  of  people  doing  busi- 
ness here  reside  beyond  the  city  limits,  coming 
and  going  every  morning  and  evening,  while 
Brooklyn,  Jersey  City,  and  other  neighboring 
communities  are  directly  dependent  upon  and 
practically  parts  of  New  York.  The  country 
within  a  radius  of  20  m.  from  the  city  hall 
(embracing  the  S.  portion  of  Westchester  co., 
Kings  and  the  greater  part  of  Queens  co.,  on 
Long  island,  Staten  island,  and  Union,  Hudson, 
Essex,  and  a  portion  of  Passaic  and  Bergen 
cos.,  N.  J.)  would  add,  according  to  the  census 
of  1870,  about  925,000  inhabitants  (375,000 
from  New  Jersey  and  550,000  from  New 
York),  and  would  raise  the  present  population 
of  the  metropolis  to  more  than  2,000,000,  of 
whom  1,800,000  reside  within  10m.  of  the  city 
hall.  The  circle  thus  described  would  include 
some  not  properly  in  the  category,  but  would 
exclude  probably  an  equal  number  that  should 
be  included. — The  hotels  of  New  York  are 


NEW  YORK  (CITY) 


383 


among  the  largest  and  finest  in  the  world. 
Chief  among  them  are  the  Brevoort,  Everett, 
Gilsey,  and  Hoffman  houses,  and  the  Bruns- 
wick, Clarendon,  Fifth  Avenue,  Grand,  Grand 
Central,  Metropolitan,  New  York,  St.  Cloud, 
St.  Denis,  St.  James,  St.  Nicholas,  Union  Square, 
Westminster,  Westmoreland,  and  Windsor  ho- 
tels ;  and  of  more  than  75  other  large  hotels, 
several  are  not  much  inferior  to  those  named. 
The  Astor  house,  a  massive  five-story  granite 
building  in  Broadway  opposite  the  new  post 
office,  the  front  occupying  an  entire  block,  was 
long  a  leading  hotel,  accommodating  about  600 
guests.  It  was  built  by  John  Jacob  Astor,  and 
was  opened  in  1836.  It  is  now  (1875)  under- 
going alterations  for  the  purpose  of  adapting 
the  two  lower  stories  to  business  purposes. 
The  first  story  was  always  occupied  by  stores. 
The  St.  Nicholas,  opened  in  1854,  is  six  stories 
high,  fronting  about  275  ft.  on  Broadway  and 
200  on  Spring  street,  built  of  white  marble 
and  brown  freestone,  and  has  600  rooms  with 
accommodations  for  1,000  guests.  It  is  luxu- 
riously furnished  throughout.  The  Metropoli- 
tan fronts  278  ft.  on  Broadway,  with  a  wing 
on  Prince  street  200  by  25  ft.  The  main  build- 
ing is  about  60  ft.  deep,  six  stories  high,  all  of 
brown  freestone.  This  also  is  elegantly  fur- 
nished. The  Grand  Central  hotel  is  in  Broad- 
way between  Amity  and  Bleecker  streets,  ex- 
tending through  to  Mercer  street.  It  is  con- 
structed of  brick  and  marble,  is  eight  stories 
high,  and  covers  14  full  lots.  It  is  magnifi- 
cently furnished.  The  building  has  a  frontage 
of  175  ft.,  a  depth  of  200  ft.,  and  is  127  ft. 
high  to  the  cornice,  which  is  surmounted  by  a 
Mansard  roof.  One  of  the  most  expensive 
and  luxurious  is  the  Fifth  Avenue  hotel,  at  the 
junction  of  Broadway,  5th  avenue,  and  23d 
street,  opposite  Madison  square.  It  is  of  white 
marble,  six  stories  high,  fronting  on  three 
streets,  and  having  room  for  nearly  1,000 
guests.  The  Windsor  hotel,  the  most  recent, 
is  a  large  and  elegant  brick  structure,  seven 
stories  high,  the  front  occupying  the  entire 
block  on  5th  avenue  between  46th  and  47th 
streets.  In  the  magnificence  of  its  appoint- 
ments it  is  unsurpassed.  The  Buckingham 
hotel,  in  50th  street  at  the  corner  of  5th  ave- 
nue, of  brick  trimmed  with  brown  stone  and 
seven  stories  high,  is  to  be  opened  in  the 
summer  of  1875.  Some  of  the  hotels  are  con- 
Ducted  on  the  European  plan,  guests  hiring 
rooms,  and  procuring  meals  at  the  restaurant 
of  the  hotel  or  elsewhere ;  others  are  kept  on 
the  American  or  full-board  plan.  Nowhere  is 
the  habit  of  eating  away  from  home  so  general 
as  in  New  York,  owing  to  the  great  distance 
between  residences  and  places  of  business ;  and 
this  habit  has  made  eating  houses,  lunch  rooms, 
oyster  saloons,  bar  rooms,  &c.,  a  prominent  fea- 
ture of  the  town.  They  are  everywhere,  open 
day  and  night,  and  thronged  by  all  classes,  ac- 
cording to  their  quality.  The  most  fashionable 
restaurant  is  that  of  Delmonico  in  5th  avenue 
and  14th  street. — Horse  cars  traverse  the  prin- 
602  VOL.  xii. — 25 


cipal  avenues,  and  there  are  several  lines  run- 
ning across  town  from  river  to  river.  Lines  of 
omnibuses  also  run  to  and  from  the  principal 
Brooklyn  ferries  along  Broadway  and  5th  ave- 
nue and  some  other  streets.  These  means  of 
conveyance,  however,  but  inadequately  accom- 
modate citizens  residing  in  the  upper  part  of 
the  city.  Various  projects  of  more  rapid  tran- 
sit, both  by  underground  and  elevated  rail- 
ways, have  been  discussed,  but  the  problem 
is  still  unsolved.  At  the  close  of  1874  there 
were  16  horse  railroad  companies  in  opera- 
tion, and  one  line  (the  New  York  Elevated 
railroad)  run  by  steam,  having  an  aggregate 
paid-in  capital  of  $15,107,670  ;  funded  and 
floating  debt,  $11,093,057  55 ;  cost  of  road 
and  equipments,  $24,816,820  97;  length  of 
road  laid,  132-93  m. ;  number  of  cars,  1,403; 
number  of  horses,  10,688;  number  of  passen- 
gers carried  during  the  year,  151,925,632 ;  cost 
of  operating  road  and  for  repairs,  $6,683,139 
42;  earnings,  $8,449,825  64;  number  of  per- 
sons killed,  26 ;  number  injured,  68.  The  eight 
principal  lines,  with  the  number  of  passengers 
carried  by  each,  are:  Third  Avenue,  26,588,- 
000 ;  Broadway  and  Seventh  Avenue  (Univer- 
sity Place),  19,065,584;  Eighth  Avenue,  16,- 
100,354;  Dry  Dock,  East  Broadway,  and  Bat- 
tery, 15,850,345;  Sixth  Avenue,  15,050,426; 
Central  Park,  North  and  East  River,  14,276,- 
767;  Second  Avenue,  14,032,275 ;  Fourth  Ave- 
nue, 9,720,697.  The  last  named  line,  opened  in 
1832,  is  a  branch  of  the  New  York  and  Harlem 
railroad.  It  was  the  first  street  horse  railroad 
ever  constructed,  and  was  not  imitated  till  1852, 
when  the  Sixth  Avenue  railroad  was  opened. 
One  of  the  17  lines  runs  from  Harlem  bridge 
to  Fordham  and  West  Farms;  the  others  are 
on  Manhattan  island.  The  Elevated  railroad 
runs  along  Greenwich  street  and  9th  avenue 
from  near  the  Battery  to  34th  street.  The 
track  is  supported  by  iron  posts  about  16  ft. 
high,  and  the  cars  are  drawn  by  dummy  en- 
gines. The  fare  on  the  horse  cars  is  common- 
ly five  cents  and  on  the  omnibuses  ten  cents. 
There  are  15  steam  ferries  across  East  river,  viz. : 
12  to  Brooklyn,  2  to  Hunter's  Point,  and  1  to 
Astoria ;  3  across  the  bay  to  Staten  island ;  and 
8  across  North  river,  viz. :  5  to  Jersey  City,  2 
to  Hoboken,  and  1  to  Weehawken.  These  run 
every  few  minutes  during  the  day,  and  some  of 
them  all  night.  Boats  also  ply  to  other  neigh- 
boring points  for  the  accommodation  of  pas- 
sengers. An  immense  suspension  bridge  is  in 
course  of  construction  across  the  East  river  to 
Brooklyn.  (See  BRIDGE,  and  BROOKLYN.)  New 
York  has  railroad  communication  with  the  east 
by  means  of  the  New  York,  New  Haven,  and 
Hartford  line,  and  with  the  north  and  west  by 
the  New  York  and  Harlem  and  the  New  York 
Central  and  Hudson  River  lines.  The  freight 
trains  and  some  local  passenger  trains  of  the 
last  named  come  in  at  the  depot  in  30th  street 
and  9th  avenue,  whence  the  cars  are  drawn 
by  dummy  engines  to  the  freight  depot  in  St. 
John's  park.  Convenient  and  well  arranged 


384: 


NEW  YOEK  (CITY) 


cattle  yards  have  been  opened  by  this  line, 
extending  from  60th  to  63d  street,  and  from 
llth  avenue  to  the  Hudson  river.  Other  trains 
on  the  lines  named  arrive  at  the  Grand  Central 
depot,  whence  the  freight  cars  of  all  except 
the  Hudson  Eiver  line  are  drawn  by  horses 
to  the  freight  depot  in  Centre  street,  passing 
through  the  tunnel  under  4th  avenue  from 
40th  to  33d  street.  Above  the  Grand  Central 
depot  the  work  of  sinking  the  tracks  is  now 
(1875)  in  progress,  so  that  the  cars  for  the 
most  part  to  Harlem  river  will  pass  through  a 
tunnel  under  4th  avenue.  Half  the  cost  of 
this  work  is  borne  by  the  city,  and  half  by 
the  New  York  and  Harlem  railroad  company. 
By  ferry  to  Jersey  City  and  Hoboken  New 
York  communicates  with  the  Pennsylvania, 
Central  of  New  Jersey,  New  Jersey  Midland, 
Northern  New  Jersey,  Erie,  and  Delaware, 
Lackawanna,  and  Western  railroads  for  the 
south  and  west.  The  Morris  canal  terminates 
at  Jersey  City.  The  ferries  to  Hunter's  Point 
and  Brooklyn  connect  with  the  various  rail- 
roads of  Long  island. — The  harbor  of  New 
York  is  one  of  the  finest  in  the  world.  The 
bar  is  at  Sandy  Hook,  18m.  from  the  city,  and 
has  two  ship  channels,  from  21  to  32  ft.  at  low, 
and  27  to  39  ft.  at  high  tide,  admitting  ves- 
sels of  the  heaviest  draught,  the  Great  East- 
ern having  passed  without  danger  or  difficulty. 
The  lower  bay  is  a  safe  anchorage,  of  triangu- 
lar form,  from  9  to  12  m.  on  each  side,  the  N. 
U.  angle  opening  into  the  upper  or  New  York 
bay,  through  the  Narrows,  a  deep  channel  be- 
tween Long  and  Staten  islands,  about  1£  m- 
long  by  1  m.  wide.  The  upper  bay  is  an  irregu- 
lar oval,  about  8  by  5  m.,  opening  northward 
into  the  Hudson  river,  eastward  through  the 
East  river  into  Long  Island  sound,  and  west- 
ward into  Newark  bay.  The  rivers  immediate- 
ly around  the  city  are  deep,  so  that  the  heavi- 
est ships  can  approach  any  of  the  wharves, 
while  the  bottom  affords  good  anchorage,  and 
the  tidal  currents  keep  the  channels  usually  free 
from  ice.  The  average  rise  and  fall  of  the  tide 
is  4-3  ft.  The  lower  bay  contains  88  sq.  m. 
available  for  anchorage ;  the  upper  bay,  14  sq. 
m. ;  and  the  Hudson  and  East  rivers,  13£  sq.  m. 
Vessels  and  steamers  of  light  draught  now  pass 
to  and  from  Long  Island  sound  through  the 
East  river,  but  the  obstructions  at  Hell  Gate 
render  navigation  by  large  vessels  dangerous. 
The  operations  in  progress  for  the  removal  of 
these  obstructions,  under  the  auspices  of  the 
United  States  government,  are  expected  to  ren- 
der the  city  accessible  from  the  sound  by  sea- 
going vessels  of  the  largest  size.  (See  BLAST- 
ING.) The  Harlem  river,  it  is  believed,  may  be 
improved  at  a  reasonable  cost,  so  as  to  admit 
small  vessels.  The  fortifications  consist  of  an 
unfinished  fort  at  Sandy  Hook  and  several 
works  at  the  Narrows,  in  the  bay,  and  at  the 
entrance  of  East  river  into  the  sound.  Fort 
Tompkins  on  the  hill  and  Fort  Wadsworth  at 
the  water's  edge,  with  several  batteries,  are  on 
.the  W.  or  Staten  island  side  of  the  Narrows, 


while  on  the  E.  or  Long  island  side  are  Fort 
Hamilton  and  an  exterior  battery.  Fort  La- 
fayette, on  a  reef  near  the  E.  shore,  noted  as 
a  place  of  detention  for  political  prisoners  du- 
ring the  civil  war,  is  now  useless.  In  the  bay 
there  are  Fort  Columbus,  Castle  Williams,  and 
barbette  batteries  on  Governor's  island,  Fort 
Wood  on  Bedloe's  island,  and  Fort  Gibson  on 
Ellis  island.  Fort  Schuyler  is  on  Throgg's 
neck,  on  the  N.  side  of  the  entrance  to  the 
sound;  and  on.Willet's  point,  on  the  S.  side, 
there  is  another  fortification.  The  headquar- 
ters of  the  military  division  of  the  Atlantic 
are  in  W.  Houston  street  on  the  corner  of 
Greene.  There  is  a  navy  yard  at  Brooklyn. 
The  harbor  is  well  provided  with  lights  and 
beacons.  A  light  ship  is  stationed  off  Sandy 
Hook,  and  on  that  point  itself  are  several  light- 
houses. A  prominent  light  is  that  on  the 
Nevisink  Highlands,  S.  of  Sandy  Hook.  There 
are  also  lights  on  the  E.  shore  of  Staten  island 
and  on  either  side  of  the  Narrows.  At  the 
entrance  of  the  sound  there  is  a  lighthouse  on 
Throgg's  neck  and  two  in  the  East  river,  one 
on  North  Brother  island  and  the  other  on  the 
N.  point  of  Blackwell's  island. — The  shape  and 
situation  of  Manhattan  island  are  peculiarly 
favorable  to  the  accommodation  of  shipping. 
It  has  24f  m.  of  available  water  front,  viz. : 
13  m.  on  Hudson  river,  9J  m.  on  East  river, 
and  2£  m.  on  Harlem  river.  Commerce  is  now 
mostly  carried  on  below  Grand  street  on  East 
river  and  llth  street  on  Hudson  river.  There 
are  about  70  piers  on  the  former  river,  and 
about  80  on  the  latter.  A  plan  for  the  im- 
provement of  the  water  front,  below  61st  street 
on  Hudson  river  and  below  Grand  street  on  the 
East  river,  has  been  adopted.  A  wall  of  be"ton 
and  masonry  or  masonry  alone  is  to  be  built  so 
far  outside  of  the  present  bulkhead  as  to  afford 
room  for  a  river  street  250  ft.  wide  along  the 
Hudson,  and  for  the  most  part  200  ft.  wide 
along  East  river  below  31st  street,  above  which 
the  contemplated  width  is  175  ft.  From  this 
wall  piers  500  or  600  ft.  long  are  td  be  pro- 
jected into  the  rivers.  This  plan  will  give  on 
Hudson  river,  between  the  Battery  and  61st 
street,  a  river- wall  line  of  25,743  ft.  and  a 
pier  length  of  37,529  ft.,  with  a  pier  area  of 
3,325,600  sq.  ft. ;  and  on  East  river,  between 
the  Battery  and  51st  street,  a  river- wall  line 
of  27,995  ft.  and  a  pier  length  of  28,000  ft., 
with  a  pier  area  of  1,780,000  sq.  ft.  The  total 
wharf  line  (piers  and  river  walls)  between' 
W.  61st  and  E.  51st  street  would  therefore 
be  about  37  m.,  and  between  W.  llth  street 
and  Grand  street  on  East  river,  21 '43  m.  The 
piers  are  to  be  built  mostly  of  preserved  wood. 
The  plan  is  being  carried  out  as  rapidly  as 
practicable.  The  control  of  the  water  front 
is  vested  in  three  commissioners  of  docks.  On 
the  East  river  front  facilities  are  afforded 
by  dry  docks  and  otherwise  for  repairing  ves- 
sels of  the  largest  class.  New  York  has 
communication  with  the  principal  coastwise 
and  transatlantic  ports  by  numerous  lines  of 


NEW  YOKE   (Our) 


385 


steamers.  Besides  the  Hudson  river  and  other 
local  boats,  there  are  more  than  20  lines  to 
various  ports  on  the  Atlantic  and  gulf  coasts, 
owning  75  steamers,  with  an  aggregate  of 
75,000  tons.  To  the  West  Indies  and  South 
America  six  lines  despatch  25  steamers  with  an 
aggregate  tonnage  of  75, 600.  These  include  the 
Pacific  Mail  line,  running  via  the  isthmus  of 
Panama  to  San  Francisco,  and  a  line  to  Rio  de 
Janeiro.  There  are  12  lines  of  ocean  steam- 
ers to  British  ports,  with  105  ships  of  310,460 
tons,  and  7  lines  to  continental  ports,  with  69 
ships  of  205,614  tons ;  total  transatlantic 
lines,  18,  with  174  ships  of  516,074  tons.  Eu- 
ropean steamers  leave  regularly  on  four  days 
in  the  week:  Tuesdays,  Wednesdays,  Thurs- 
days, and  Saturdays.  The  principal  lines  run 
to  Antwerp,  Bremen,  Bristol,  Cardiff,  Glasgow, 
Hamburg,  Havre,  Liverpool  (several),  London, 
Newcastle-upon-Tyne,  Rotterdam,  and  Stettin, 


one  or  more  of  them  touching  at  Bergen  (Nor- 
way), Brest,  Cherbourg,  Copenhagen,  Cork, 
Plymouth,  Queenstown,  and  Southampton. — 
New  York  is  preeminently  a  commercial  city, 
ranking  among  the  first  in  the  world.  More 
than  half  the  foreign  commerce  of  the  United 
States  is  carried  on  through  the  customs  district 
of  which  it  is  the  port,  and  about  two  thirds 
of  the  duties  are  here  collected,  the  whole 
amount  for  the  year  ending  June  30,  1874,  be- 
ing $160,522,284  63,  of  which  $109,549,797  79 
was  collected  in  the  New  York  district.  This 
district,  besides  the  city,  embraces  the  greater 
part  of  Long  island,  including  Brooklyn ;  Sta- 
ten  island ;  the  New  Jersey  shore  N.  of  Staten 
island,  including  Jersey  City;  and  the  shores 
of  Hudson  river.  The  following  table  exhibits 
the  growth  of  the  foreign  commerce  of  the 
district,  and  its  percentage  of  that  of  the  whole 
United  States:  • 


FISCAL  YEARS. 

Import*. 

Percent- 
age. 

Exports  of 
foreign  products. 

Percent- 
age. 

Domestic  exports. 

Percent- 
age. 

Total  foreign 
commerce. 

Percent- 
age. 

1821-'30  (average)  
1881  -'40  (average)  

$86,337,956* 
75,892,170* 

45# 

58 

$8,797,218* 
9,952,966* 

89 
50 

$12,786,118* 
18,005,852* 

24 

20 

$57,921,292* 
103,850,988* 

87 
48 

1841-'50  (average)  
1851-'5  (average)  

75,757,184* 
162,470,257* 

59K 
64V 

8,850,715* 
15,568,924* 

s* 

80,181,578* 

82,028,805* 

&1 

114,289,477* 
260,062,986* 

45 
62V 

1856-'60  (average)  

208,080,148 

62?| 

12,657,925 

53 

102,257,675 

81 

822,995,748 

47 

1861 

222  966,274 

66V 

18,311,495 

64V 

187,879,956 

60 

373,657,725 

64 

1862  

142,215,636 

69 

10,402,084 

61V 

152,877,961 

71V 

804,995,681 

70 

1868          ...     . 

177,254,415 

70 

17,869,358 

86* 

221,917,978 

72^ 

416,541,748 

71 

1864 

229  506  499 

69V 

12,785,640 

63 

211,237,222 

66 

453,479,861 

67% 

1865  

154,160,819 

62^ 

22,627,018 

70# 

219,369,873 

675£ 

896,157,710 

65V 

1866  

802,505,719 

68 

7,458,845 

50V 

264,510,247 

48 

574,469,811 

57 

1867 

277  469  510 

66V 

11,285,211 

54}£ 

207,882,457 

47V, 

496,087,178 

56V 

1868 

242  580  659 

65V 

15  016,273 

66V, 

236,031,239 

52 

493,627,171 

58 

1869  

295,117,682 

67V 

17,741,836 

70V 

185,884,264 

44% 

498,243,782 

57 

1870 

293,990  006 

63V 

20,889,410 

66V 

209,972,491 

42 

524,801,907 

58 

1871 

857  909  770 

66 

20  087,211 

70V 

285,580,775 

50 

678,527,756 

59V 

1872  

418,515,829 

'  65^ 

15,161,218 

66V 

270,418,674 

49M 

704,090,721 

58* 

1873 

426,321,427 

64V 

18,972,099 

67 

313,129,963 

48 

758,428,489 

56V 

1874 

395  133  622 

66V 

14,688,463 

61V. 

840,860,269 

49 

750,127,854 

57 

The  fiscal  years  end  on  Sept.  30  prior  to  1843, 
after  which  they  end  on  June  30.  The  values 
given  in  the  table  are  in  gold,  with  the  excep- 
tion of  the  domestic  exports,  which  from  1862 
are  mostly  in  currency.  The  imports  for  the 


nine  months  ending  March  31,  1875,  were 
$275,154,929 ;  exports,  $246,399,551.  The  fol- 
lowing tables  of  imports  and  domestic  exports 
for  the  year  ending  June  30,  1874,  embrace 
the  principal  countries  and  articles : 


COUNTRIES. 

Imports  from. 

Exports  to. 

COUNTRIES. 

Imports  from. 

Exports  to. 

Argentine  Republic 

$2,056,155 
434.931 
8,865,028 
25,979.546 
194,580 
287,284 
11,013,846 
159,811 
291,885 
47,307,803 
1,220,959 
41.098,655 
126,764,649 
11,208,304 
788,128 
7,952 
718,195 
109,901 
2,956,959 
547,678 
9,652,133 
400,491 
404,170 
800,326 

$1,809,841 
966214 
10,796,248 
3,258,312 
281,921 
1,324,784 
632,881 
882,086 
956,397 
18,376,080 
752,488 
36,287,769 
156,639,737 
19,959,113 
23,823,105 
1,952,778 
1,784,828 
1,432.461 
5,475,289 
929,698 
234,338 
24,513 
281,405 
2,501,526 

$428,805 
1,848,880 
5,421,740 
2,048,885 
83,644 
5,508,043 
2,032,789 
1,290,588 
3,255,284 
692,640 
451,959 
890,183 
177,871 
8,782,364 
57,029,687 
2,427,498 
8,870,410 
201,944 
861,545 
150,861 
7,676,026 
2.404,662 
4,838,241 
678,641 

$82,668 
8,297,466 
3,985,373 
856,122 
101,464 
1,489,253 
7,605,641 
657,780 
484,245 
1,095,838 
1,369,705 
1,212,405 
414,895 
2,471,299 
12,529,576 
1,094,289 
100,318 
907,824 
1,777,205 
832,421 

'647',112 
1,921,854 
463,892 

Austria 

Hayti 

Belgium  . 

Italv 

Brazil. 

Japan                          

Central  American  states 

Liberia                                    

Chili. 

Mexico  

China 

Netherlands               

Denmark  .  .     .  .             

Dutch  West  Indies  

Danish  West  Indies 

Dutch  East  Indies            

France 

Peru         

French  West  Indies 

Portugal                            

T>  .,  .     -<  Scotland 

Spain                  

Cuba                  

Gibraltar 

Dominion  of  Canada 

.    Other  Spanish  possessions  

Newfoundland  and  Labrador  
British  West  Indies             

Turkey  (Europe  and  Asia)  
Turkey  (Africa)  

British  Guiana 

British  East  Indies  

United  States  of  Colombia  

Hong  Kong  
British  possessions  in  Africa  
British  possessions  in  Australia.  .  . 

*  These  figures  relate  to  the  entire  state,  but  not  far  from  95  per  cent,  of  the  values  represented  belong  to  this  port. 


386 


NEW  YOKE  (CITY) 


IMPOETS. 
ARTICLES.  VALTTE. 

Sugar  (1,000,252,669  Ibs.)  .......................    $49,298,625 

Woollen  manufactures  : 
Dress  goods  (58,390,219  sq.  yds.)..  $16,868,983 
Cloths  and  cassimeres  ............      9,853,558 

Carpets  (2,510,091  sq.  yds.)  ........      2,886,983 

Shawls.  ......  .....  .......  .......      1,841,140 

Other  manufactures  ..............      5,891,486—  37,842,155 

Coffee  (172,595,005  Ibs.)  ........................      83,485,559 

Silk: 
Dress  and  piece  goods  ............     14,935,958 

Other  manufactures  ..............      7,391,860 

Eaw  (343,670  Ibs.)  ................      1,827,893—  24,155,711 

Cotton  manufactures  : 
Hosiery,  shirts,  and  drawers  ......      4,042,770 

Bleached  and  unbleached  (19,592,- 
634  sq.  yds.)  ...................      2,405,676 

Printed,  painted,  or  colored  (14,- 
500,060  sq.  yds.)  ................      2,046,650 

Other  manufactures  ..............    15,214,084—  28,709,180 

Gold  and  silver  bullion  and  coin  ................      18,401,242 

Iron  and  steel  manufactures  : 
Steel  railroad  bars  (224,237,614  Ibs.)      7,349,671 
Pig  iron  (106,756,827  Ibs.)  .........      1,542,238 

Cutlery  ..........................      1,314,789 

Other  manufactures  ..............      7,577,226—  17,783,924 

Tea  (39,931,658  Ibs.)  ...........................      15,024,794 

Tlax  manufactures  ............................      14,876,173 

Hides  and  skins,  not  furs  ......................      10,879,623 

Tin: 
In  plates  (988,210  cwt.)  ..........        8,551,631 

In  bars,  blocks,  or  pigs  (85,859  cwt.)      2,310,643—  10,862,274 
Fruits  and  nuts  ...............................        9,241,888 

Tobacco  and  manufactures  of: 
Leaf  tobacco  (8,559,065  Ibs.)  .......      4,785,663 

Cigars  (746,379  Ibs.)  ..............      2,637,904—    7,423,567 

Chemicals,  drugs,  dyes,  and  medicines  .  .  .  ......        6,522,132 

India  rubber  and  gutta  percha  (13,166,507  Ibs.)  .  .        5,880,165 
Leather  (8,546,529  Ibs.)  ...................  .....        5,682,506 

Wines,  spirits,  and  cordials  ....................        5,617,999 

Glass  and  glassware  ...........................        4,971,948 

Soda  and  salts  of  (183,795,145  Ibs.)  ..............        4,464,238 

Wool  (21,691,625  Ibs.)  ..........................        3,965,458 

Fancy  goods  ..................................        8,806,044 

Melado  and  sirup  of  sugar  cane  (86,806,943  Ibs.)  .        3,543,714 
Flax  seed  (2,084,475  bushels)  .................  .  .        3,358  369 

Molasses  (13,729,643  galls.)  .....................        8,066,551 

Gloves  of  kid,  &c.  (448,719  doz.  pairs)  ...........        2,961,211 

Earthen,  stone,  and  china  ware  .................        2  906  063 

Bags  of  cotton  or  linen  (65,042,194  Ibs.)  .........        2,843,971 

Furs  and  fur  skins  ............................        2,719,615 

Hemp  (16,640  tons)  ............................        2,494,708 

Books,  pamphlets,  engravings,  &c  .............        2,389,140 

Watches  and  watch  movements  and  materials.  .        2,134,456 
Straw  and  palm-leaf  manufactures  .............        2,046,853 

Precious  stones  ...............................        1,985,032 

Buttons  and  button  materials  partly  fitted  ......        1,953,432 

Wood  and  manufactures  of  ....................        1,838,070 

Hair: 
Human  and  manufactures  of  ......        716,872 

Other  and  manufactures  of  ........        933  ,448—    1,650  320 

Gums  (9,895,429  Ibs.)  ..........................        1,069,578 

Clothing  ......................................        1,592,547 

Spices,  including  ginger,  pepper,  and  mustard 
(9,081,108  Ibs.).  .  .  .  .  .  .:........'..  ............        1,529,002 

Opium  and  extracts  of  (250,604  Ibs.)  ...........        1,470,099 

Jute: 
Eaw  (8,008  tons)  .................        899,647 

Manufactures  of  ..................        536.764—    1,436,411 


Hops  .........................................  1,133,005 

Paintings,  chromo-lithographs,  photographs,  and 

statuary  ....................................  1  ,068,623 

Barks,  medicinal  (4,730,540  Ibs.)  ................  1  ,057,227 

Paper  and  manufactures  of  ....................  1,056,394 

Paints  ........................................  981,793 

Eice(29,864,744  Ibs.)  ...........................  897,886 

Beer  and  other  malt  liquors  (995,033  galls.)  .....  836,984 

Jewelry  and  manufactures  of  gold  and  silver  ____  728,387 


EXPOETS. 

Bread  and  breadstuff's: 
Wheat  (41,482,167  bush.).. . . 

Wheat  flour  (2,098,036  bbls.) 

Indian  corn  (18,696,175  bush.) 

Eye  (1,344,589  bush.) 

Indian  corn  meal  (201,991  bbls.) 
Bread  and  biscuit  (8,186,486  Ibs.). 


$62,223,391 

15,049,823 

14,059,455 

1,354,165 

817,148 

510,096—  94,014,078 


ARTICLES.  VALTTB. 

Provisions : 
Bacon  and  hams  (238,602,635  Ibs.).  $23,202,938 

Lard  (160,870,982  Ibs.) 14,946.337 

Cheese  (88.815,565  Ibs.) 11 ,624,406 

Pork  (42,482, 749  Ibs.) 3,583, 640 

Beef  (22,448,121  Ibs.) 1,782,963 

Butter  (8,620,653  Ibs.) 899,041— $56,039,325 

Gold  and  silver  bullion  and  coin 46,433,564 

Cotton: 

Eaw  (237,855,558  Ibs.) 41.489,597 

Manufactures 1,556,316—  43,045,913 

Oils: 
Mineral,  illuminating  (129,213,255 

galls.) 23,121.059 

Mineral,  crude  (13,367,003  galls.) . .      1,624,697 

Naphthas  (7,898,742  galls  ) 859,104 

Sperm  and  whale  (834,496  galls.) . .         883,851—  26,488,211 
Tobacco: 

Leaf  (160,258,360  Ibs.) 16,117,749 

Manufactures  of. 2,252,882—  18,370,631 

Iron  and  steel  manufactures : 

Machinery 2,893,916 

Muskets,  pistols,  &c 2,213,888 

Edgetools 818,270 

Locomotives  (42) 607,091 

Other  manufactures 2,148,494—    8,181,109 

Wood: 

Lumber,  &c 3,776,321 

Other  manufactures  of 1,825,906—    5,602,227 

Tallow  (67,207,231  Ibs.) >. . .        5.373,177 

Leather  (11,960,991  Ibs.) 2,992,480 

Furs  and  fur  skins 2,977,619 

Oil  cake  (122,878,065  Ibs.) 2,634,947 

Agricultural  implements 2,568,765 

Hides  and  skins,  not  furs 1,717,419 

Drugs,  chemicals,  and  medicines 1,508,100 

Sewing  machines  and  parts  of 1,817,486 

Eosin  and  turpentine  (822,042  bbls.) 1,258,917 

Hemp  and  manufactures  of. 959,111 

Clocks  and  parts  of. 893,898 

Eailroad  cars  (831) 745,016 

The  quantity  and  value  of  tea  imported  since 
1857  are  given  below : 


1857.. 
1858.. 
1859.. 
I860.. 
1861.. 
1862. . 
1863.. 
1864.. 
1865.. 


Quantity, 
Ibs. 


16,158,926 
81,166,475 
27,561,415 
28,711,402 
19,613,855 
23,787,513 
27,418,315 
34,348,765 
17,720,508 


Value. 


$5,014,726 
6,857,610 
7,066,939 
8,315,874 


9,805,027 


yean. 


1866. 
1867. 
1868. 
1869. 
1870. 
1871. 
1872. 
1873. 
1874. 


Quantity, 
Ibs. 


86,514,725 
34,480,261 
38,967,743 
41,697,021 
46,646,013 


50,780,011 


Value. 


$9,934,397 
11,872,116 
10,122,074 
12,119,588 
12.206,109 
15,743,815 
15,547,681 
18,586,946 
15,024,794 


Previous  to  1855  about  one  half  the  imports 
consisted  of  dry  goods,  but  since  that  time  the 
proportion  of  general  merchandise  has  steadily 
increased,  and  dry  goods  now  form  less  than 
one  third  of  the  total.  The  value  of  foreign 
dry  goods  imported  into  New  York  since  1849 
has  been  as  follows : 


Calen- 
dar 
yearg. 

Value. 

Calen- 
dar 
years. 

Value. 

Calen- 
dar 

years. 

Value, 

1849. 
1850. 
1851. 
1852. 
1853. 
1854. 
1855. 
1856. 
1857. 

$44,435,571 
60,106,375 
62,846,731 
61,654,144 
98,704,211 
80,842,936 
64,974,062 
93,362,893 
90,534,129 

1858. 
1859. 
1860. 
1861. 
1862. 
1863. 
1864. 
1865. 
1866. 

$60,154,509 
113,152,624 
103,927,100 
43,636,689 
56,121,227 
67,274.547 
71,619,752 
91,965,138 
126,222,825 

1867. 
1868. 
1869. 
1870. 
1871. 
1872. 
1873. 
1874. 

$86.263,643 
80,905,884 
94,726,417 
109,498,523 
132,480,777 
136,831,612 
114,160,465 
106,520,453 

The  relative  proportion  of  the  different  classes 
of  dry  goods  for  the  last  three  years  are  shown 
in  the  following  table : 


NEW  YORK  (CITY) 


387 


CLASS. 

VALUE  OF  IMPORTS. 

1872. 

1873. 

1874. 

Woollen  . 

$42,794,336 
28,345,694 
85,094,096 
19,085,811 
11,511,675 

$37,999,047 
25,143,673 
26,132,541 
16,191,011 
8.694,193 

$34,278,882 
22,139,783 
26,358,883 
15,065,926 
8,676,879 

Cotton 

Silk  

Flax  

Miscellaneous  

The  movements  of  shipping  in  the  foreign 
trade  of  the  district  for  the  year  ending  June 
30,  1874,  were  as  follows  : 

ENTEANCES. 

FLAG. 

SAILING 

VESSELS. 

STEAMERS. 

TOTAL. 

No. 

Tons. 

No. 

Tom. 

No.         Tons. 

American... 
Foreign  

Total.  .  .  . 

2,202 
8,413 

785,874 
1,471,377 

231 

877 

838,181 
2,454,186 

2,433    1,124,055 
4,290    3,925,563 

5,615 

2,257,251 

1,108 

2,792,367 

6,723    5,049,618 

CLEABANCES. 

FLAG. 

SAILING 
VESSELS. 

STEAMERS. 

TOTAL. 

No. 

Tons. 

No. 

Tons. 

No.         Tons. 

American..  . 
Foreign  

Total.... 

1,650 
3,343 

603,111 
1,481,318 

224 

886 

880,420 
2,472,369 

1,874      938,531 
4,229    8,903,687 

4,998 

2,034,429 

1,110 

2,802,789 

6,108   4,837,218 

The  following  were  the  entrances  and  clear- 
ances in  the  coastwise  trade  for  the  same  year  : 

•  SAILING 

VESSELS. 

STEAMERS. 

TOTAL. 

No. 

Tons. 

No. 

Tons. 

No.         Ton*. 

Entrances.. 
Clearances  . 

1,159 
2,235 

256,700 
462,137 

1,583 
1,846 

1,517,481 
1,718,275 

2,742   1,774,181 
4,081    2,175,412 

The  number  and  tonnage  of  each  class  of  ves- 
sels belonging  in  the  district  on  June  30,  1874, 
and  the  same  particulars  for  those  built  during 
the  year  ending  on  that  date,  are  shown  in  the 
following  table : 


CLASS. 

BELONGING. 

BUXLT. 

No. 

Tonnage. 

No. 

Tonnage. 

Sailing  vessels  

2,810 
788 
2,486 
546 

600,020 
351,686 
243,281 
123,536 

89 
60 
196 
51 

7,532 
25,712 
18,929 
11,829 

Steamers. 

Canal  boats  

Barges  

Total. 

6,630 

1,818,523 

396 

64,002 

Of  the  first  total  847,  tonnage  580,424,  were 
registered;  5,225,  tonnage  731,643,  enrolled; 
and  558  (under  20  tons),  tonnage  6,456,  licen- 
sed. The  number  of  vessels  registered,  en- 
rolled, and  licensed  in  the  district  on  June  30, 
1873,  was  7,071,  with  an  aggregate  tonnage  of 
1,353,147,  viz. :  sailing  vessels,  2,793,  tonnage 
596,789;  steamers,  771,  tonnage  349,313;  bar- 
ges, 525,  tonnage  106,407;  canal  boats,  2,982, 
tonnage  300,638.  The  number  of  vessels  built 
in  the  district  during  the  year  ending  on  that 


date  was  601,  with  an  aggregate  tonnage  of 
71,545. — About  two  thirds  of  the  immigrants 
to  the  United  States  land  at  New  York.  The 
number  landing  at  this  port  during  the  last  ten 
years,  compared  with  the  entire  immigration, 
has  been  as  follows : 


Calendar 
years. 

New  York. 

United 
States. 

Calendar 
years. 

New  York. 

United 

States. 

1865 
1866 
1867 
1868 
1869 

196,847 
238,418 
242,781 
213,686 

258,989 

249,061 
818,494 

298,858 
297,215 
395,922 

1870... 
1871... 
1872... 
1873... 
1874... 

212,170 
229,639 
294,581 
266,818 
140,041 

378,796 
867,789 
449,488 
487,004 
260,814 

The  whole  number  of  aliens  landing  at  New 
York  since  1847  is  5,438,544.  In  that  year 
a  state  board  of  emigration  was  constituted, 
which  has  in  charge  the  interests  of  immi- 
grants. The  general  landing  depot  is  in  Castle 
Garden  at  the  Battery.  This  structure  was 
originally  a  detached  fort  surrounded  by  wa- 
ter, erected  by  the  federal  government  in  1807 
and  called  Castle  Clinton.  It  was  ceded  to 
the  city  in  1822,  and  was  subsequently  used  as 
a  place  of  amusement  until  leased  by  the  com- 
missioners of  emigration  in  1855.  It  was  in 
this  building  that  Jenny  Lind  made  her  first 
appearance  in  America.  The  commissioners 
have  several  institutions  on  Ward's  island  for 
the  accommodation  of  sick  and  needy  immi- 
grants, viz. :  the  Verplanck  state  hospital,  a 
lunatic  asylum,  houses  of  refuge,  a  nursery  or 
home  for  children,  &c.  They  generally  con- 
tain about  1,000  inmates.  (See  EMIGEATION, 
vol.  vi.,  p.  573.)  The  quarantine  establishment 
is  situated  on  artificial  islands  constructed  for 
the  purpose  on  the  West  bank,  a  shoal  off  the 
E.  shore  of  Staten  island.  The  health  officer 
of  the  port  resides  at  the  "  boarding  station," 
on  Staten  island.  The  West  Bank  hospital, 
completed  in  1869  at  a  cost  of  more  ^han  $500,- 
000,  is  a  one-story  edifice,  divided  into  eight 
wards,  each  89  ft.  long  and  24  wide,  and  each 
capable  of  accommodating  50  patients.  It  is 
lighted  with  gas  and  connected  with  the  city  by 
telegraph.  There  is  also  a  building  for  the  de- 
tention of  persons  exposed  to  disease  while  on 
passage  in  infected  vessels,  and  a  warehouse  for 
the  storage  of  infected  goods.  These  institu- 
tions are  under  the  control  of  a  state  board  of 
quarantine  commissioners. — Only  partial  sta- 
tistics of  the  internal  and  coasting  trade  are  ob- 
tainable. The  former  is  carried  on  by  means 
of  the  Hudson  river  and  the  Erie  and  other 
canals,  as  well  as  by  rail.  The  completion  of 
the  Erie  canal  in  1825  made  New  York  the 
maritime  outlet  for  the  surplus  produce  of  the 
great  west.  Previous  to  that  time  western 
produce  went  down  the  Susquehanna  to  Balti- 
more or  the  Schuylkill  to  Philadelphia;  and 
except  in  the  region  tributary  to  the  Hudson 
river  and  Long  Island  sound,  New  York  had 
no  domestic  commerce.  The  five  following 
tables  relating  to  the  principal  articles  of  do- 
mestic produce  are  from  the  annual  report  of 
the  produce  exchange  for  1873-'4 : 


388 


NEW  YORK  (CITY) 

RECEIPTS  FOB  NINE  CALENDAR  YEARS. 


ARTICLES. 

1866. 

1867. 

1868. 

1869. 

1870. 

1871. 

1872. 

1873. 

1874. 

BRBADSTTTFF8. 

Flour  bbls              .... 

2,721,651 
5,766,664 
22,218,519 
8,703,220 
5,076,203 
1,277,701 

2,605,849 
9,706,804 
15,024,221 
8,054,164 
2,228,769 
748,984 

2,855,986 
12,950,068 
18,995,072 
10,278,781 
2,274,255 
775,612 

8,537,539 
23,952,250 
10,691,749 
8,721,608 
2,524,663 
865,468 

4,120,941 
23,913,748 
9,230,840 
9,621,936 
8,907,822 
563,184 
198,514 
1,053,597 
5^987 
262,547 

8,576,068 
26,763,967 
26,849,916 
12,436,260 
2,926,223 
1,063,033 
114,781 
793,046 
90,675 
177,633 

8,088,364 
16,221,907 
40,757,115 
12,264,226 
8,973,303 
491,851 
192,560 
1,124,953 
160,587 
92,336 

8,513,887 
34,624,931 
24,680,831 
11,012,924 
1,820,576 
849,873 
172,345 
671,494 
155,744 
151,652 

4,017,207 
41,817,215 
29,329,000 
10,792,919 
*2,776,025 
592,114 
583,069 

Wheat  bush 

Barley  bush    

Malt  hush 

594,814 
120,562 
298,510 

443,105 
66,073 
829,079 

514,620 
125,802 
815,505 

473,988 
90,676 
220,782 

178,775 

Total  grain    (reducing 
floor  and  meal),  bush. 

PEO  VISIONS. 

Pork,  bbls  

106,870,252 

152,216 
64,944 
835,798 
386,978 
88,088 

58,352,367 

180,865 
65,574 
98,078 
205,077 

50,256,208 

159,468 
105,784 
118,988 
433,092 

61,234,620 

108,828 
91,769 
82,415 
285,659 

65,241,404 

95,725 
80,196 
79,552 
205,959 

69,921,175 

124,554 
121,877 
146,540 
171,745 
45,071 
70,411 
13,605 

101,549 
6,868 
875,467 
102,162 
177,571 

6,661 
70,280 
496,293 
46,973 
2,342 

547,308 
1,549,507 

89,543,673 

169,726 
155,800 
180,919 
275,444 
23,617 
112,299 
42,666 

886,700 
6,424 
782,814 
78,277 
166,825 

8,986 
67,937 
508,983 
19,876 
1,111 

998,807 
1,459,623 

90,930,886 

146,629 
47,178 
832,469 
858,754 
28,852 
88,103 
39,622 

280,632 
6,712 
755,054 
148,926 
177,096 

9,686 
76,056 
582,063 
29,382 

1,827 

695,827 
1,718,732 

92,137,971 

181,241 
88,202 
563,903 
409,208 
28,977 
107,191 
58,193 

212,916 
7,412 
955,150 
185,101 
195,805 

11,158 
67,805 
470,218 
88,275 
2,109 

948,520 
2,007,663 

Beef,  bbls.  and  tcs  — 
Cut  meats,  bbls.  and  tcs. 
Lard,  bbls.  and  tcs  — 
Lard  kegs  

Dressed  hogs,  No  
Tallow  pkgs 

91,591 

78,379 

101,060 
25,736 

72,098 
6,109 
567,965 
85,692 
47,694 

11,119 
64,078 
448,694 
87,008 

87,214 
18,419 

21,258 
8,092 
662,622 
106,485 
183,482 

14,079 
65,632 
557,150 
76,255 
7,710 

686,879 
1,838,305 

STTNDBIES. 

Seeds  bush 

139,943 
5,964 
667,669 
114,010 
101,875 

82,248 
63,022 
879,541 
45,412 

66,722 
4,806 
657,871 

92,898 
147,210 

11,428 
62,644 
895,505 
24,238 

Ashes,  casks  

8,824 
991,272 

Cotton,  bales   

Oil  cake,  pkgs  
Whiskey,  bbls.  

NAVAL  STORES. 

Crude  turpentine,  bbls. 
Spirits  turpentine,  bbls. 
Eosin,bbls  

185,410 

12,606 
76,509 
535,166 
46,511 
8,780 

980,858 
2,038,240 

Tar  bbls  

Pitch,  bbls  

DAIET  PBODTJCTS. 

Butter  pkgs 

458,952 
781,740 

557,397 
1,804,904 

508,516 
1,108,627 

Cheese,  boxes  

EXPORTS   TO   FOREIGN  PORTS    FOR   THE   SAME   PERIOD. 


ARTICLES. 

1866. 

1867. 

1868. 

1869. 

1870. 

1871. 

1872. 

1873. 

1874. 

BEBADSTTJTFS. 

Flour,  bbls  

910,508 
626,713 
11,625,826 
1,190,588 
1,329,842 
248,646 
282.992 
149,773 

949,818 
4,665,315 
8,455,920 
144,665 
886,893 
473,260 
680,763 
151,669 

1,195,819 
5,969,878 
6,812,287 
94,707 
90 
152,993 
189,226 
191,011 

1,584,735 
17,526,900 
1,800,122 
49,893 

1,937,798 

18,444,608 
469,543 
28,986 

1,618,814 
22,027,448 
12,818,637 
47,757 
98,504 
525,511 
101,956 
127,208 

1,182,240 
13,263,604 
25,332,416 
82,243 
17,402 
607,165 
155,848 
194,040 

1,661,606 
27,753,714 
16,168,152 
49,535 
40,120 
1,018,038 
138,182 
181,445 

2,177,608 
84,791,249 
19,000,995 
122,528 
8,560 
641,661 
468,193 
168,608 

Wheat,  bush  .  .  . 

Corn  bush. 

Oats  bush 

Barley,  bush  

Eye,  bush  
Peas,  bush  

142,642 
123,156 
187,627 

225,050 
290,758 
102,668 

Corn  meal,  bbls  

Total  grain  (reducing 
flour  and  meal),  bush. 

PROVISIONS. 

Pork,  bbls  

20,306,461 

95,905 
89,942 
26,256,700 
80,993,800 

20,508,413 

93,494 
24,325 
52,726,900 
88,820,000 
18,498,600 
1,534,000 
57,105,633 

33,834,133 
494,411 
8,330 

827 
81,125 
812,441 
4,633 

19,771,289 

89,887 
82,483 
49,895,500 
44,993,600 
13,248,300 
80,624 
89,006,569 

52,803,202 
376,475 
8,064 

704 
17,635 
867,421 
9,977 

27,978,669 

68,641 
62,300 
86,915,400 
41,424,400 
23,394,000 
87,858 
50,938,590 

65,993,690 
290,229 
8,186 

812 
17,810 
458,857 
85,555 
5,080 

29,455,914 

92,808 
73,828 
81,519,100 
81,507,800 
18,245,500 
753,902 
58,724,491 

87,667,397 
483,810 
2,825 

403 

17,342 
895,038 
15,502 
8,720 

43,595,502 

168,494 
137,568 
121.914,203 
92,144,591 
41,742,583 
7,173,252 
81,540,662 

94,916,584 
608,027 
1,905 

288 
15,272 
879,051 
9,594 
2,779 

45,901,493 

159,296 
90,018 
173,616,695 
208,878,891 
54,907,403 
4,817,937 
67,004,553 

93,306,213 
854,135 

1,832 

529 
21,246 
486,819 
15,940 
8,503 

54,020,056 

199,558 
102,416 
188,633,441 
807,044,288 
61,801,282 
8,587,876 
89,477,488 

146,801,172 
600,279 
1,194 

865 

20,108 
395,886 
22,167 
8,499 

66,754,241 

178,070 
94,028 
139,982,979 
222,430,848 
56,640,728 
4,611,896 
94,102,050 

138,420,880 
571,658 
2,222 

822 
10,941 
883,543 
26,520 
5,596 

Beef,  bbls.  and  tcs  
Lard,  Ibs  * 

Bacon,  Ibs 

Tallow,  Ibs  

tButter.  Ibs  

1,552,021 
48,459,443 

34,501,885 
476,088 
8,052 

13,596 
22,113 
234,867 
20,461 

tCheese,  Ibs  

SITNDBIBS. 

Petroleum,  galls  .  .  . 
Cotton  bales 

Ashes,  casks  

KAVAL  STOEES. 

Crude  turpentine,  bbls. 
Spirits  turpentine,  bbls. 
Kosin,bbls  

Tar,  bbls.... 

Pitch,  bbls  

*  Including  malt. 

t  From  1866  to  1870,  inclusive,  the  exports  are  from  May  1  to  April  80. 


NEW  YORK  (CITY) 


389 


RECEIPTS   OF   LIVE   STOCK   SINCE   1860. 


CALENDAR 

YEARS. 


1860 

1861 

1862 

1863 

1S64 

1866 

1866 

1867 

1868 

1869 , 

1870 , 

1871 , 

1872  

1873 

1874. . . 


Cattle. 


284,077 


270,561 
275,212 
279,485 
303,767 


296,419 


861,016 
379,372 


447,445 
457,709 


Sheep. 


518,750 
512,336 


519,316 


1,139,596 
1,415,811 

1,470,828 
1,468,878 
1,316,408 
1,179,518 
1,206,715 
1,165,653 


Live  hogs. 


559,421 

1,148,209 

1,101,699 

517,673 

582,194 


1,000,113 

887,351 
901,725 


1,310,280 
1,923,727 
2,019,904 
1,774,221 


Calves. 


30,465 
85,709 
75,621 
77,991 
62,114 


72,604 
91,529 
116,457 
121,171 
115,130 
116,015 
104,719 


ESTIMATED   VALUE 

Of  the  principal  Articles  of  Domestic  Produce  received 
at  New  York  during  the  Year  1873. 


ARTICLES. 

Quantity. 

Value. 

Breadstuffs: 
Flour,  bbls  

8,518,887 

$22  840  266 

Wheat,  bush  

84  624,931 

gl'qQT'oQfl 

Corn  bush. 

24  680  831 

1  7  27fi  *&9 

Oats,  bush  

11,012,924 

5  506  462 

Barley,  bush  

1  820  576 

o'-icc'nrio 

Bye  bush.  .             .... 

849873 

Peas  bush. 

172  845 

Malt,  bush  

571  '494 

Beans,  bush  

213520 

Com  meal,  bbls 

155744 

Corn  meal,  sacks  

15l'652 

Seeds,  bush.      

212  916 

.' 

$105,592,400 

Pork,  bbls  

181,241 

•  $2,718,615 

Beef,  bbls  and  tea  

88,202 

687,636 

Lard,  bbls.  and  tcs  
Lard,  kegs  

409,203 
28,977 

13,094,206 

208,839 

Cut  meats,  pkgs  

563,903 

28,195,150 

Tallow,  pkgs  .       : 

58,193 

4645440 

Grease  pkgs 

22,987 

484,727 

Stearine,  pkgs  

22,836 

856,850 

Dressed  hogs,  No  
Cheese,  boxes  -.. 
Butter,  pkgs  

107,191 
2,007,663 
948,520 

1,500,674 
16,864,369 
19,918,920 

*Eggs,bbls  

471,893 

8,258,127 

$97,483,053 

Live  hogs  No 

2  019  904 

$15  149  280 

Naval  stores: 
Tar,  bbls 

88275 

$114,825 

Pitch,  bbls  

2,109 

5,272 

Eosin,  bbls.  .  . 

473,213 

1,419,639 

Spirits  turpentine,  bbls  
Crude  turpentine,  bbls  

67,805 
11,158 

1,195,848 
111,583 

$2,847,167 

"Wool,  Ibs 

16  650  933 

$6  660,373 

Ashes,  casks  

7412 

855,796 

Petroleum,  bbls.  .  .  . 

8,640,000 

21,000,000 

"Whiskey,  bbls.  . 

195  805 

9,790,000 

Oil  cake,  pkgs  

185,101 

740,400 

$88,546,569 

Total  estimated  value  ... 

$259,568,469 

There  are  other  articles  which  would  swell 
the  aggregate  value  to  more  than  $300,000,000. 
These  include  buckwheat  flour,  fish,  apples  and 
other  fruits,  vegetables,  cattle,  sheep,  horses, 
hay,  hops,  cotton,  tobacco,  oils,  coal,  wood, 
and  numerous  articles  of  minor  importance. 
Cotton  is  brought  here  from  all  parts  of  the 
south  for  shipment.  Immense  quantities  of 
coal  are  required  to  supply  the  European  steam- 
ers as  well  as  for  domestic  use. 

*  About  70  dozen  to  a  barrel. 


ESTIMATED   VALUE 

Of  the  principal  Articles  of  Domestic  Produce  exported 
from  New  York  during  the  Year  1873.     ' 


ARTICLES. 


Breadstuffs : 

Flour,  bbls >.. 

Corn  meal,  bbls. . . . 

Wheat,  lush 

Corn,  bush 

Oats,  bush 

Barley,  bush 

Eye,  bush 

Peas,  bush 

Barley  malt,  bush. . 

Beans,  bush 

Oatmeal,  bbls 

Clover  seed,  bags . . 

Provisions : 

Pork,  bbls 

Beef,  bbls.  and  tcs.. 

Lard,  Ibs 

Bacon,  Ibs 

Tallow,  Ibs 

Butter,  Ibs 

Cheese,  Ibs 

Stearine,  Ibs 

Grease,  Ibs 


Oils,  gallons: 

Cotton  seed 

"Whale 

Sperm 

Lard 

Linseed 

Fish  oil 

Naphtha 

Petroleum,  refined , 

Benzine 

Oil  cake,  Ibs 


Naval  stores : 
Crude  turpentine,  bbls. 
Spirits          "  " 

Eosin,  bbls 

Pitch,  bbls 

Tar,  bbls 


Sundries : 
Hops,  bales  . . . 
Wool,  bales  . . . 
Whiskey,  bbls. 
Ashes,  casks  . . 
Hay,  bales  .... 
Alcohol,  bbls... 


Total  estimated  value. 


Quantity. 


1,661,606 

181,445 

27,753,714 

16,168,152 

49,535 

40,120 

1,018,038 


815 
75,756 

970 
66,594 


199,558 

102,416 

188,683,441 

807,044,283 

61,801,282 

8,587,876 

89,477,888 

2,426,688 

6,845,884 


64,698 
419,779 


10,970 

319,682 

8,327,822 

138,276,472 

196,878 

123,208,797 


865 
20,108 


3,499 
22,167 


8,290 
10,110 
1,205 
1,194 
28,854 
31,990 


Value. 


$10,800,439 


41,630,571 

10,347,617 

24,767 

50,150 

956,955 

172,665 

1,141 

189,890 

67,900 

998,910 

$65,875^562 


$3,043,259 


15,914,898 
26,148,764 


1,147,960 
11,682,072 


479,177 


$65,383,710 

"$199,229 
25,879 
734,613 


8,776 
207,798 


25,180,145 

19,688 

2,464,160 

$30,088,481 


$1.095 

10,054 

1,227,246 

8,747 

83,127 


808,800 
46,176 
47,880 
70,065 


$4,092,958 


$166,720,925 


There  are  in  New  York  and  Brooklyn  63 
stationary  grain  warehouses,  including  stores, 
with  a  storage  capacity  of  11,450,000  bushels, 
and  33  floating  elevators,  with  a  transfer  capa- 
city of  both  in  the  aggregate  of  195,000  bushels 
per  hour.  The  operations  in  Spanish  and  leaf 
tobacco  for  tne  last  five  years  were  : 


CALENDAR 

YEARS. 

SPANISH,    BALES. 

LEAF,  HHDS. 

1 

Taken  for 
consumption. 

in  * 

| 

H 

69,354 
97,886 
67,485 
115,224 
124,544 

! 

l 

1870. 

59,215 
75,982 
144,531 
82,610 
103,466 

56,360 
82,044 
127,827 
95,456 
111,685 

15,999 
18,854 
12,792 
29,496 
16,650 

48,555 
82,818 
58,119 
94,865 
73,994 

16,488 
12,659 
6.569 

li;885 
46,445 

1871 

1872  

1873  

1874  

The  receipts  of  wool  and  the  deliveries  of  naval 
stores  for  consumption  since  1867  have  been: 


390 


NEW  YORK  (CITY) 


CALENDAR 

WOOL,  LBS. 

NAVAL  8T 

ORES,  BBLS. 

YEARS. 

From  domestic 
ports  and  interior. 

From  foreign  ports. 

Total. 

Turpentine. 

Spirits  turpen- 
tine. 

Rosin. 

Tar. 

1867  

21,716,200 

17,904,779 

89,620,979 

10,790 

86,184 

98,378 

23,465 

1868  
1869  

84,768,200 
27,041,200 

12,319,861 
21,490,480 

47,087,561 
48,581,630 

10,901 
10,378 

46,180 
45,193 

69,141 
186,137 

23,606 

on  OYQ 

1870 

80,869,200 

12,470,351 

48,839,551 

5,952 

53,341 

103,653 

30471 

1871 

24  980,200 

89,411,118 

64,891,818 

8,266 

51,849 

120,736 

18188 

1872 

20  294,000 

48,883  668 

69,177,668 

10,583 

66,259 

113530 

17493 

1873  
1874  

21,895,800 
24,273,600 

20,763,807 
25,310,281 

42,659,607 

49,583,881 

10,197 
11,157 

66,668 
62,676 

181,687 
149,824 

15,598 
18,071 

The  following  table  exhibits  the  quantity  of 
coffee  and  of  domestic  and  foreign  sugar  and 
molasses  taken  from  the  port  for  consumption 
for  20  years : 


CALENDAR  YEARS. 

Coffee,  Ibs. 

Sugar,  tone. 

Molasses, 
gallons. 

1855  

74,919,075 

159,826 

12,876,434 

1856  

82  674  590 

171,616 

9  818,923 

1857    .  . 

60  892  824 

147  810 

9  164  787 

1858 

98  156  662 

185801 

11  239  685 

1859 

83  700  472 

190  135 

12  010  290 

I860  

66,885,297 

213,325 

10  836,519 

1861 

103,800  586 

188855 

8  406  269 

1862 

67  564  315 

219  830 

12  026  808 

1863  

64,607,080 

195,164 

18,162,293 

1864  

85,896,097 

142,047 

16  843  785 

1865  

109  209  790 

213568 

16  752  180 

1866 

114  514  295 

227  134 

18  878  052 

1867 

182  335  511 

220437 

20  639  904 

1868  
1869  

150,316,962 
150,727  756 

240,555 
254579 

21,950,924 
20  810  750 

1870    .  . 

153968572 

267265 

18  464,451 

1871 

157  992  642 

823785 

19  248  616 

1872  

156,157,854 

831  025 

17'454'058 

1873  

154,253,  838 

856110 

14  885  675 

1874  .  .  . 

180,965,844 

435.265 

14.147.344 

The  value  of  foreign  dry  goods  thrown  upon 
the  market  in  1872  was  $132,330,866 ;  in  1873, 
$115,488,346 ;  in  1874,  $108,898,694.  The 
importers  and  jobbers  of  New  York  supply 
directly  or  indirectly  a  large  portion  of  the 
demand  of  the  country  for  foreign  goods  and 
many  articles  of  domestic  manufacture,  and 
their  agents  are  found  in  every  section  of  the 
Union.  Its  retail  stores  are  unsurpassed  for 
size  and  magnificence  by  those  of  any  other 
city.  The  chamber  of  commerce,  an  influential 
body  of  leading  merchants  and  business  men, 
organized  in  1768  and  incorporated  by  royal 
charter  in  1770,  holds  monthly  meetings  to 
consider  questions  affecting  the  interests  of 
trade  and  commerce  generally.  It  publishes 
annual  reports,  from  which  a  part  of  the  com- 
mercial statistics  of  this  article  are  derived. 
The  legislative  act  of  April  24,  1874,  created  a 
tribunal  of  arbitration  for  the  settlement  of 
mercantile  or  commercial  disputes  between 
members  of  the  chamber,  or  other  persons 
who  may  voluntarily  submit  to  its  jurisdiction. 
The  arbitrator  is  appointed  by  the  governor 
with  the  consent  of  the  senate  during  good 
behavior ;  his  decisions  are  final,  and  a  judg- 
ment may  be  entered  thereon  with  the  same 
force  and  effect  as  a  judgment  of  the  supreme 
court.  The  produce  exchange,  cotton  exchange, 
and  other  similar  organizations  are  important 


bodies. — On  Oct.  2,  1874,  there  were  48  na- 
tional banks  in  the  city,  and  their  condition 
was  as  follows : 

RESOURCES. 

Loans  and  discounts $201,777,054 

Overdrafts 426,116 

Bonds  for  circulation 80,899,100 

Bonds  for  deposits 650,000 

U.  8.  bonds  on  hand 7,635,750 

Other  stocks  and  bonds 7,089,934 

Due  from  other  national  banks 11,951,908 

Due.from  other  banks  and  bankers 2,006,414 

Real  estate,  furniture,  and  fixtures 8,734,92T 

Current  expenses 1,988,801 

Premiums 1,437,170 

Checks  and  other  cash  items 2,230,570 

Exchanges  for  clearing  house 76,860,065 

Bills  of  other  national  banks 2,191,418 

Bills  of  state  banks 1,94T 

Fractional  currency 268,42:5 

Specie 14,406,267 

Legal-tender  notes 20,874,595 

U.  8.  certificates  of  deposit 81,555,000 

5  per  cent,  redemption  fund  with  U.  8.  treasurer.  1,464,616 

Additional  amount  with  U.  8.  treasurer 293,845 

Total $424,733,914 

LIABILITIES. 

Capitalstock $68,500,000 

Surplus  fund 22,653,881 

Undivided  profits 12,042,089 

National  bank  notes  outstanding 25,291,781 

State  bank  notes  outstanding 115,501 

Dividends  unpaid 246,682 

Individual  deposits 201,323,282 

U.S.deposits 422,809 

Deposits  of  TJ.  8.  disbursing  oflicers 25,788 

Due  to  national  banks 68,189.355 

Due  to  other  banks  and  bankers 25,280,753 

Notes  and  bills  rediscounted 

Bills  payable 


Total $424,733,914 

The  number  of  state  banks  of  deposit  and  dis- 
count on  Jan.  1,  1875,  was  26,  and  their  con- 
dition was  as  follows : 

RESOURCES. 

Loans  and  discounts,  less  due  from  directors  and 

brokers $43,305.720 

Overdrafts 22,689 

Due  from  banks 3.617,953 

Due  from  directors 1.392,694 

Due  from  brokers 1,792,303 

Real  estate 1,602.211 

Specie 2.145>29 

Cash  items 10,885,805 

Stocks,  promissory  notes,  and  TJ.  S.  certificates  of 

indebtedness 1,270,901 

Bonds  and  mortgages 146,815 

Bills  of  solvent  banks  and  IL  8.  demand  and 

legal-tender  notes 5,242.778 

Loss  and  expense  account 599,467 

Assets,  not  included  under  either  of  the  above 

heads 93,456 


Total $72,118,148 


NEW  YORK  (CITY) 


391 


LIABILITIES. 

Capital $16,685,200 

Notes  in  circulation. 87,921 

Profits 6,870,701 

Due  banks 5,052,742 

Due  individuals  and  corporations  other  than  banks 

and  depositors 844,955 

Due  treasurer  of  the  state  of  New  York 95,925 

Due  depositors  on  demand 42,897,908 

Amount  due,  not  included  under  either  of  the 

above  heads 182,769 


Total $72,118,148 

The  clearing  house,  organized  in  1853  to  facili- 
tate the  transaction  of  business  and  the  set- 
tlement of  accounts  between  its  members, 
comprised  59  banks  at  the  close  of  1874.  Its 
transactions  during  the  year  were  as  follows  : 
exchanges,  $22,223,212,644;  balances,  $1,024,- 
709,941.  A  gold  exchange  was  introduced  into 
the  clearing-house  transactions  in  1872,  the 
business  of  which  in  1874  was  as  follows: 
exchanges,  $2,226,832,248;  balances,  $332,- 
395,085.  There  were  44  savings  banks  on 
Jan.  1,  1875:  aggregate  resources,  $195,335,- 
164 ;  number  of  accounts  open,  494,086 ; 
amount  due  depositors,  $180,010,703.  The 
three  having  the  largest  amounts  of  deposits 
are:  Bowery  savings  bank,  $27,169,481 ;  bank 
for  savings,  $20,582,990;  seamen's  bank  for 
savings,  $13,822,402.  There  are  10  trust  com- 
panies :  aggregate  resources  July  1,  1874,  $55,- 
489,822;  paid-in  capital,  $11,318,000;  deposits 
in  trust,  $22,050,068 ;  general  deposits,  $14,- 
801,720.  The  number  of  fire  insurance  com- 
panies on  Jan.  1,  1875,  was  54,  and  of  fire  and 
marine  companies,  17:  aggregate  assets,  $41,- 
961,107;  liabilities,  except  scrip,  and  capital, 
$10,487,652  ;  scrip,  $694,621  ;  capital  stock 
paid  in,  $20,104,020 ;  fire  risks  outstanding, 
$1,906,696,231 ;  marine  and  inland  risks  out- 
standing, $2,074,314.  There  were  9  marine 
insurance  companies:  aggregate  assets,  $25,- 


035,786 ;  liabilities,  except  scrip  and  capital, 
$7,444,444;  scrip,  $11,974,655;  joint  stock 
capital,  $1,662,080;  marine  and  inland  risks 
outstanding,  $166,835,990  ;  fire  risks  outstand- 
ing, $8,725,514.  The  condition  of  the  life  in- 
surance companies,  20  in  number,  was  as  fol- 
lows: aggregate  assets,  $189,813,950;  liabili- 
ties, except  capital,  $163,249,701 ;  capital  stock, 
$3,555,500;  number  of  policies  outstanding, 
356,944;  amount  of  same,  $973,115,417.  The 
United  States  assay  office  was  established  in 
1854.  Its  operations  to  the  close  of  1874 
were  as  follows  :  gold  deposits,  $286,113,919; 
silver  deposits,  $32,320,330 ;  silver  parted  from 
gold,  $2,094,265;  fine  silver  bars  manufac- 
tured, $18,349,245;  fine  gold  bars  manufac- 
tured, $222,302,258  ;  gold  transmitted  to  Phila- 
delphia mint  for  coinage,  $145,700,196  ;  silver 
transmitted,  $19,271,990.  The  deposits  of  bul- 
lion in  1874  were  $12,415,944;  gold  and 
silver  bars  manufactured,  $9,802,326 ;  bullion 
transmitted  to  mint,  $5,083,148. — The  manu- 
factures of  New  York,  though  secondary  in 
importance  to  its  commercial  and  mercantile 
interests,  are  varied  and  extensive.  In  the 
value  of  products,  according  to  the  census  of 
1870,  it  is  the  first  city  in  the  Union,  though 
surpassed  by  Philadelphia  in  the  value  of  ma- 
terials used,  amount  of  capital  invested,  and 
number  of  establishments  and  hands  employed. 
The  whole  number  of  manufacturing  establish- 
ments in  1870  was  7,624,  employing  1,261 
steam  engines  of  28,716  horse  power,  and  16 
water  wheels  of  863  horse  power ;  number  of 
hands  employed,  129,577,  of  whom  91,305  were 
males  above  16,  32,281  females  above  15,  and 
5,991  youth  ;  amount  of  capital  invested,  $129,- 
952,262;  wages  paid  during  the  year,  $63,824,- 
040;  value  of  materials  used,  $178,696,939; 
of  products,  $332,951,520.  The  statistics  of 
the  principal  branches  are  as  follows : 


INDUSTRIES. 

No.  of  estab- 
lishments. 

No.  of  hands 
employed. 

Value  of  materials. 

Value  of  products. 

Artificial  flowers  

85 

1,109 

$303,226 

$767,475 

Bags,  other  than  paper.     .                        

6 

839 

1,116,950 

1,625,000 

Belting  and  hose  (leather)  

13 

171 

693,500 

1,093,000 

Billiard  and  bagatelle  tables  

10 

159 

229,618 

606,250 

Bookbinding             

65 

2,044 

2,712,723 

4.187,315 

Boots  and  shoes 

162 

4,287 

8,140,279 

6.935,365 

Boxes,  packing  

105 

1,947 

1,163,919 

2,872,759 

Brass  founding  and  finishing        

49 

555 

487,967 

1,091,117 

Brass,  rolled  and  sheet 

2 

817 

850,000 

635,000 

Bread  and  other  bakery  products  

455 

2,344 

8,848,097 

6,728,587 

Brooms  and  wisp  brushes  

27 

581 

484,808 

1,063,400 

Cards,  playing 

4 

215 

870,000 

655,000 

Carpets  other  than  rag 

5 

2438 

2,275,000 

8,702.600 

Carriages  and  wagons  

95 

1,768 

1,855,889 

8,684,578 

Chromos  and  lithographs 

22 

351 

196,095 

594,050 

Clothing,  children's  

4 

1,194 

335,045 

550,000 

"        men's  

789 

17.084 

21,384,214 

34,456,884 

14        women's        

209 

8,663 

1,728,916 

8,824,882 

Coffee  and  spices  ground 

14 

174 

2,426,884 

8,748,480 

Collars  and  cuffs  paper 

•8 

742 

892,000 

994,000 

Confectionery  

108 

1,120 

1,442,912 

3,809,623 

Cooperage  

67 

929 

558,277 

1,163,123 

Drugs  and  chemicals 

29 

486 

1,204,000 

2,252,950 

Engraving 

80 

769 

800,801 

1,808,308 

Envelopes  

7 

830 

523,800 

1,067,500 

Feathers,  cleaned,  dressed,  &c  

16 

479 

865,800 

698,525 

Flouring  mill  products  

7 

275 

5,005,130 

5,999,600 

Frames,  mirror  and  picture                . 

58 

857 

626,761 

1,492,329 

Fruits,  canned  and  preserved  .  .  . 

7 

158 

773,000 

981,500 

392 


NEW  YORK  (CITY) 


INDUSTRIES. 


Furniture,  not  specified 295 

«          chairs. 43 

Gas 

Gas  and  lamp  fixtures 16 

Gold  leaf  and  foil 13 

Grease  and  tallow 

Hair  work 69 

Hardware 58 

Hat  materials 

Hats  and  caps 92 

Heating  apparatus 

Hoop  skirts  and  corsets  26 

India-rubber  and  elastic  goods 

Iron,  forged  and  rolled 6 

"    bolts,  nuts,  &c 

"    nails  and  spikes,  cut,  &c 8 

"    railing,  wrought 19 

"    pigs 1 

"    castings 54 

Jewelry 198 

Lead,  pig 

"      pipe 6 

"      shot 2 

Leather,  tanned 19 

"        curried 

"        morocco,  tanned,  &c 12 

Liquors,  malt 60 

Lumber,  planed 

Machinery,  not  specified. 88 

"          engines  and  boilers 81 

Malt 13 

Marble  and  stone  work 

Masonry,  brick  and  stone 19 

Millinery 89 

Mineral  and  soda  waters 84 

Molasses  and  sugar,  refined 10 

Musical  instruments,  not  specified 11 

"                           organs 11 

"              "           pianos 69 

Oil,  animal 5 

Paints 14 

Paper,  printing 14 

"      other  than  printing 6 

Patent  medicines •..  84 

Photographic  material 2 

Printing  of  cloths 8 

Printing,  not  specified 14 

"       book.  15 

"       newspaper 28 

"       job 69 

Saddlery  and  harness 98 

Sash,  doors,  and  blinds 35 

Sewing  machines 10 

Ship  building  and  repairing 46 

Silk  goods 6 

Silver  ware 12 

Soap  and  candles 28 

Starch 8 

Straw  goods 15 

Tin,  copper,  and  sheet-iron  ware 186 

Tobaccoand  cigars 8 

"       other  than  cigars,  and  snuff •. .       .    18 

"       cigars 640 

Type  founding 11 

Umbrellas  and  canes 28 

Upholstery 45 

Varnish 6 

"Watch  cases 88 

Wire 1 

"     work 29 

Wood  work 79 


No.  of  estab- 
lishments. 


No.  of  hands 
employed. 


4,887 
470 

1,162 

773 

229 

79 


541 

2,793 

281 

2,281 

418 

204 

76 

84 

188 

50 

8,865 

8,508 

80 

48 

18 

520 

49 

173 

1,089 

273 

2,489 

1,848 

237 

1,772 

1,238 

1,106 

881 

121 

100 

240 


267 
793 
126 
369 
102 


1,005 
857 
608 
560 

2,961 
589 
311 
244 
679 
621 

1,390 

1,080 

84 

472 

8,525 
588 

1,121 
710 
115 
511 
202 

1,232 
585 


Value  of  materials. 


408,515 
1,666,915 

441,642 

117,100 
2,638,710 

294,044 

455,070 
1,058,758 
2,435,951 

510,412 
1,265,784 

937,105 


47,194 
82,231 


258,000 
8,062,091 
3,851,297 

916,350 
7,520,990 


1,125,965 
676,122 
451,152 

4,908,279 
998,500 

1,778,200 


1,839,750 
1,613,277 
1,800,860 

440,888 


21,814,337 
74,020 

146,190 
1,499,876 

868,555 
1,253,250 
1,804,300 

142,600 
1,807,100 

120,500 

749,600 
2,610,250 


1,909,766 
499,567 
870,999 
629,450 
850,650 
454,480 


351,950 


1,500,000 
857,890 

1,017,824 
171,200 

1,913,785 


568,218 
772,160 
716,263 
1,287,400 
796,000 
402,000 
710,789 
584,099 


Value  of  product*. 


$10,256,045 
1,079,411 
8,854,432 
1,322,000 

601,680 
3,037,000 

698,060 
1,159,825 
1,777,972 
4,665,957 

997,995 
2,709,566 
1,606,000 

672,125 

151,000 
53,800 

431,100 

400,000 
7,248,027 
9,595,700 

970,500 
10,607,800 

486,000 
1,771,704 

900,000 

634,366 
7,770,680 
1,359,300 
4,639,410 
2,687,961 
2,898,973 
4,132.880 
2,494,534 

898,719 

701,001 
25,794,388 

193,654 

581,300 
8,868,225 
1,049,468 
2,008,250 
2,737,000 

327,000 
2,645,000 

695.200 

817,100 
5,811,260 

766,720 
8,987,566 
1,509,385 

990,433 
1,365,700 
6,660,140 
1,397,061 

568,573 

761,000 
4,522,710 
2,700,000 

950,000 
2,177,680 

244,900 
8,904,881 
5,956,970 
1,278,252 
1,812,889 
1,082,672 
1,774,700 
1,754,500 

750,000 
1,424,880 
1,247,818 


In  the  district  annexed  since  the  census  there 
are  some  important  establishments,  the  most 
noteworthy  of  which  are  the  extensive  brew- 
eries  in  Morrisania.  The  value  of  manufac- 
tures in  1860  was  $159,107,369.— Under  the 
charter  of  1873,  the  city  is  governed  by  a 
mayor  and  a  board  of  22  aldermen,  with 
various  boards  of  commissioners.  It  is  di- 
vided into  24  wards  and  557  election  dis- 
tricts, forms  the  first  judicial  district  of  the 
state,  and,  with  the  exception  of  the  23d  and 


24th  wards  (which  elect  with  Westchester  co. 
until  a  new  apportionment  is  made),  sends 
5  senators  and  21  assemblymen  to  the  state 
legislature,  and  7  members  to  congress.  The 
mayor  is  elected  by  the  qualified  voters  for  a 
term  of  two  years,  and  receives  an  annual 
salary  of  $12,000.  The  aldermen  are  chosen 
annually,  and  receive  a  salary  of  $4,000  each, 
except  the  president  of  the  board,  who  re- 
ceives $5,000.  Six  are  elected  by  the  voters 
of  the  city  at  large  (no  one  being  permitted  to 


NEW  YORK  (CITY) 


393 


vote  for  more  than  four  candidates),  and  three 
from  each  of  the  four  lower  senate  districts 
(no  one  being  permitted  to  vote  for  more  than 
two).  The  upper  senate  district  with  the  23d 
and  24th  wards  elects  four  aldermen  (no  one 
being  permitted  to  vote  for  more  than  three). 
The  commissioners  and  heads  of  departments 
are  appointed  by  the  mayor  with  the  consent 
of  the  board  of  aldermen.  They  receive  sal- 
aries varying  from  $3,000  to  $15,000  a  year, 
and  their  terms  of  office  vary  from  three  to 
six  years.  The  principal  officers  of  the  finance 
department  are  the  comptroller  and  chamber- 
lain or  treasurer ;  the  latter  receives  a  salary 
of  $30,000,  out  of  which  he  pays  clerk  hire 
and  office  expenses.  The  department  of  taxes 
and  assessments  is  under  the  direction  of  three 
commissioners.  The  mayor,  comptroller,  presi- 
dent of  the  board  of  aldermen,  and  presi- 
dent of  the  department  of  taxes  and  assess- 
ments constitute  the  board  of  apportionment, 
which  fixes  the  amount  to  be  raised  by  tax- 
ation. The  president  of  the  department  of 
taxes  and  assessments  and  two  others,  ap- 
pointed by  the  mayor  and  removable  at  plea- 
sure, are  commissioners  of  accounts,  whose 
duty  it  is  to  examine  the  accounts  and  ex- 
penditures of  the  various  departments.  The 
commissioner  of  public  works  has  charge  of 
the  public  buildings,  streets,  sewers,  water, 
gas,  &c.  The  superintendent  of  buildings  is 
charged  with  the  duty  of  seeing  that  the  laws 
and  ordinances  respecting  the  construction  of 
buildings  are  complied  with.  The  principal 
officers  of  the  law  department  are  the  corpora- 
tion counsel,  corporation  attorney,  and  public 
administrator.  The  board  of  health  consists 
of  the  president  of  the  board  of  police,  the 
health  officer  of  the  port  (a  state  official),  and 
two  commissioners.  Three  commissioners  of 
excise  grant  licenses  for  the  sale  of  intoxicating 
liquors.  The  courts  of  general  jurisdiction  in 
civil  matters  are  the  supreme  court  for  the  first 
district,  with  five  justices  (salary  $17,500), 
and  the  superior  court  and  court  of  common 
pleas  with  six  judges  each  (salary  $15,000). 
The  justices  and  judges  are  elected  for  a  term 
of  14  years.  The  surrogate,  recorder,  and  city 
judge  (salary  $15,000  each)  are  elected  for  six 
years.  The  superior  criminal  courts  are  the 
oyer  and  terminer,  held  by  a  justice  of  the 
supreme  court,  and  the  general  sessions,  held 
by  the  recorder  or  city  judge  (after  Jan.  1, 1876, 
to  consist  of  three  judges,  term  14  years).  The 
marine  court  has  civil  jurisdiction  to  the  amount 
of  $1,000,  and  consists  of  six  judges  (salary 
$10,000)  elected  for  six  years.  For  the  pur- 
poses of  district  courts,  which  have  civil  juris- 
diction to  the  amount  of  $250,  the  city  is  divi- 
ded into  10  judicial  districts,  in  each  of  which  a 
justice  (salary  $8,000)  is  elected  for  a  term  of 
six  years.  There  are  11  police  justices  (salary 
$8,000),  appointed  by  the  mayor  with  the  con- 
sent of  the  board  of  aldermen  for  a  term  of  10 
years,  each  of  whom  has  power  to  hold  a  police 
court  in  either  of  the  six  police  court  districts. 


Two  police  justices  hold  the  court  of  special 
sessions,  with  power  to  try  cases  of  misde- 
meanor. The  sheriff,  county  clerk,  district 
attorney,  and  register  are  the  principal  other 
officers.  The  county  government  in  most  re- 
spects is  identical  with  that  of  the  city,  the 
aldermen  acting  as  supervisors.  The  United 
States  courts  for  the  southern  district  of  New 
York  are  held  in  the  city.  For  police  pur- 
poses it  is  divided  into  32  precincts,  with  one 
sub-precinct.  The  river  and  harbor  police 
constitute  one  of  these  precincts,  employing  a 
steamer  and  several  small  boats  in  patrolling 
the  waters  adjacent  to  the  city.  The  force 
consists  of  a  superintendent,  4  inspectors,  35 
captains,  140  sergeants,  78  doormen  (attached 
to  the  station  houses),  and  2,260  patrolmen. 
Included  in  these  numbers  are  the  sanitary 
squad,  64  men;  court  squad,  42;  mounted 
squad,  13;  and  detective  force,  30.  There 
are  in  addition  20  surgeons,  a  superintendent 
of  telegraphs  and  four  telegraph  operators  at 
the  central  office,  and  a  chief  clerk  and  21 
clerks.  The  police  department  is  under  the 
control  of  four  commissioners.  Attached  to 
it  is  the  bureau  of  street  cleaning.  The 
central  office  is  connected  with  the  different 
stations  by  lines  of  telegraph.  The  value  of 
lost  property  restored  to  owners  by  the  de- 
partment in  1874  exceeded  $1,200,000 ;  num- 
ber of  lodgings  furnished  in  the  station 
houses,  about  230,000,  of  which  three  fourths 
were  to  persons  classed  as  "  habituals ;"  num- 
ber of  lost  children  restored  to  their  parents, 
more  than  4,000.  The  number  of  prisoners 
arraigned  before  the  police  courts  during  the 
year  ending  Oct.  31, 1874,  was  84,821  (60,213 
males  and  24,608  females),  of  whom  35,561 
were  discharged,  49,251  held  for  trial,  and  9 
cases  were  pending  at  the  date  of  the  report. 
Of  those  held,  32,906  were  males  and  16,345 
females ;  40,827  were  disposed  of  by  the  magis- 
trates, and  8,424  were  sent  to  the  general  and 
special  sessions  for  trial;  10,671  were  born  in 
the  United  States,  18,089  in  Ireland,  3,927  in 
Germany,  1,753  in  other  foreign  countries,  and 
the  nativity  of  14,811  was  not  given.  The  num- 
ber arraigned  for  different  classes  of  offences, 
with  the  disposition  of  cases,  was  as  follows : 


CLASSIFICATION. 

Male. 

Female. 

Total. 

Felonies        

4,181 

490 

4,621 

Held  for  trial  

2,718 

280 

2,998 

10,579 

1,847 

12,426 

Held  for  trial              

5,894 

918 

6,812 

27,208 

18,574 

40,777 

Convicted  

14,186 

8,927 

28,118 

11,959 

6,805 

16,264 

Fined  or  bailed  .           

5,962 

4,081 

10,043 

1,751 

1,888 

8.189 

Held  for  trial                        

2,865 

Children  sent  to  reformatories  — 

660 

214 

874 

The  fines  collected  through  the  police  courts 
and  court  of  special  sessions  amounted  to  $71,- 
287  25.  The  paid  fire  department,  organized 
in  1865,  is  one  of  the  best  equipped  and  most 
efficient  in  the  world.  The  city  is  divided  into 


394 


NEW   YORK  (CITY) 


ten  divisions,  in  each  of  which  a  battalion 
is  organized  consisting  of  several  companies. 
The  force  consists  of  a  chief  and  748  officers 
and  men,  organized  into  42  steam  engine  com- 
panies, 18  hook  and  ladder  companies,  and  4 
chemical  engine  companies.  The  chemical  en- 
gines carry  their  own  supply  of  extinguishing 
fluid.  Steam  engines  used  by  the  department 
are  drawn  by  horses,  except  five,  which  are 
propelled  by  the  steam  they  generate.  There 
are  four  boats  equipped  for  extinguishing  fires 
on  the  water  front,  of  which  two  belong  to 
the  department  of  charities  and  correction  and 
one  to  the  police  department.  The  central 
office  in  Mercer  street  is  connected  with  the 
different  engine  houses  by  telegraph  wires, 
and  there  are  548  street  boxes,  from  which 
an  alarm  of  fire  may  be  transmitted  instanta- 
neously. The  telegraph  force  consists  of  a 
superintendent,  a  chief  operator,  and  six  as- 
sistants. The  fire  department  is  under  the 
control  of  three  commissioners.  The  bureau 
of  combustibles  connected  with  it  is  charged 
with  the  duty  of  regulating  and  licensing  the 
storage  and  sale  of  dangerous  combustible  ma- 
terial. The  business  of  the  fire  marshal  is  to 
investigate  the  causes  of  fires  and  to  secure 
the  arrest  and  punishment  of  incendiaries. 
The  following  table  gives  the  number  of  fires 
and  the  loss  in  each  year  since  1866  : 


No   of 

YEARS. 

fires. 

Loss. 

YEARS. 

fires. 

LOBS. 

1866.. 

796 

$6,428,000 

1871... 

1,258 

$2,127,250 

1867.. 

873 

5,711,000 

1872  

1,681 

4,409,000 

1868.. 
1869.  . 

740 

850 

4,342,000 
2,626,893 

1873  
1874  

1,898 
1,411 

2,648,795 
1,328,844 

1870.. 

964 

2,120,212 

— New  York  is  supplied  with  pure  water  from 
Croton  river,  a  small  stream  in  Westchester 
co.,  by  an  aqueduct  completed  in  1842.  A 
dam  was  thrown  across  the  river,  raising  the 
water  40  ft.  and  forming  Croton  lake.  ^The 
aqueduct  proper  is  constructed  of  stone,  bVick, 
and  cement,  arched  above  and  below,  is  about  7£ 
ft.  wide  and  8£  high,  with  an  inclination  of  13 
in.  to  the  mile,  and  has  a  capacity  of  115,000,- 
000  gallons  daily.  The  water  is  carried  across 
the  Harlem  river  in  cast-iron  pipes  on  a  bridge 
of  granite  (known  as  the  High  bridge),  1,460 
ft.  long,  which  is  supported  by  14  piers,  the 
crown  of  the  highest  arch  being  116  ft.  above 
high- water  mark.  High  bridge  terminates  on 
Manhattan  island  at  174th  street,  forms  a  wide 
footway,  and  affords  magnificent  views.  The 
receiving  reservoir  in  Central  park  contains 
150,000,000  gallons,  and  the  retaining  reservoir 
just  above  it  1,030,000,000  gallons.  The  dis- 
tributing reservoir  covers  more  than  four  acres 
on  Murray  hill,  between  40th  and  42d  streets, 
fronting  on  5th  avenue,  and  holds  20,000,000 
gallons.  It  is  divided  into  two  parts,  is  45  ft. 
above  the  pavements  and  115  ft.  above  tide 
water,  and  affords  a  fine  view  from  the  walks 
that  surround  it.  The  length  of  the  aqueduct 


from  Croton  lake  to  the  distributing  reservoir 
is  40£  m.  A  "  high  service  "  reservoir  holding 
11,000,000  gallons, 'and  a  tower  to  support  a 
tank  holding  55,000  gallons,  have  been  con- 
structed in  Highbridge  park,  for  supplying  the 
more  elevated  portions  of  the  city.  The  water 
to  fill  the  reservoir  and  tank  is  pumped  from 
the  aqueduct  by  powerful  engines.  The  sto- 
rage reservoir  at  Boyd's  Corners,  Putnam  co., 
completed  in  1873,  will  hold  3,000,000,000 
gallons.  The  cost  of  the  works  for  supply- 
ing the  city  with  water  to  the  close  of  1874 
was  $25,000,000.  A  water  tax  is  imposed 
upon  the  buildings  supplied,  which  in  1874 
amounted  to  $1,361,857  43,  and  from  1842  to 
the  close  of  1874  to  $24,717,017  50.  Measures 
are  in  progress  for  supplying  the  new  wards 
with  Croton  water.  The  number  of  miles  of 
water  pipes  laid  on  Manhattan  island  in  May, 
1873,  was  370-6 ;  the  number  of  fire  hydrants 
was  3,136.  There  were  laid  out  on  the  map 
of  the  island  448  m.  of  streets,  roads,  and  ave- 
nues, of  which  378  m.  were  legally  opened, 
303  m.  regulated  and  graded,  and  253  m. 
paved.  For  drainage  purposes  there  were 
288-54  m.  of  sewers,  6'02  m.  of  underground 
drains,  14'72  m.  of  culverts,  and  3,854  receiv- 
ing basins.  The  number  of  public  gas  lamps 
was  18,910;  miles  of  gas  mains,  543f.  The 
island  is  supplied  with  gas  by  six  companies, 
and  the  new  wards  by  two  companies.  Sev- 
eral free  floating  baths  are  maintained  in  sum- 
mer by  the  city  for  the  accommodation  of  the 
poorer  citizens.  The  number  of  plans  and 
specifications  for  new  buildings  filed  in  1874 
was  nearly  1,300,  estimated  to  cost  about 
$15,800,000;  number  of  plans  submitted  for 
alteration  of  old  buildings,  about  1,400 ;  esti- 
mated cost,  more  than  $3,000,000.— The  death 
rate  in  1872  was  32-6  per  1,000 ;  in  1873,  29'08 ; 
in  1874,  27-59.  The  number  of  deaths  in  the 
last  year  was  28,597,  of  which  9,700  occurred 
from  zymotic,  6,000  from  constitutional,  9,900 
from  local,  and  1,766  from  developmental  dis- 
eases, and  1,231  from  violence.  The  chief 
causes  were:  smallpox,  466;  measles,  317; 
scarlatina,  895 ;  diphtheria,  1,672  ;  croup,  583; 
whooping  cough,  482;  dysentery  and  diar- 
rhoea, 3,591 ;  cerebro-spinal  fever,  151 ;  typhus 
and  typhoid  fever,  291 ;  inanition,  301 ;  intem- 
perance, 223 ;  hydrocephalus,  616  ;  consump- 
tion, 4,038 ;  tabes  mesenterica  and  marasmus, 
579  ;  convulsions,  675 ;  meningitis,  557 ;  bron- 
chitis, 1,039 ;  pneumonia,  2,386 ;  Bright's  dis- 
ease, 814;  premature  births,  544;  accidents 
and  negligence,  996 ;  homicides,  56 ;  suicides, 
174.  The  number  of  births  registered  war 
25,663 ;  of  marriages,  8,397.  The  actual  num- 
ber of  births  is  at  least  35,000  per  year,  and  of 
marriages  probably  about  10,500.  The  num- 
ber of  licenses  granted  by  the  board  of  excise 
from  May  1, 1874,  to  January,  1875,  was  3,827 ; 
license  fees  received,  $263,702  61.  The  whole 
number  of  liquor  and  lager-beer  saloons  is  esti- 
mated at  8,000. — There  are  12  public  markets 
now  in  use,  most  of  which  are  insignificant  in 


NEW  YORK  (CITY) 


395 


appearance.  They  are  under  the  administra- 
tion of  the  finance  department,  and  are  placed 
in  charge  of  a  superintendent  of  markets. 
Stalls  are  assigned  to  marketmen  upon  the  pay- 
ment of  fees.  Washington  market,  occupying 
the  block  bounded  by  Greenwich,  West,  Ful- 
ton, and  Vesey  streets,  is  the  largest,  inclu- 
ding West  Washington  market,  which  is  sepa- 
rated from  it  by  West  street.  On  the  E.  side 
of  South  street,  opposite  Fulton  market,  which 
occupies  the  block  bounded  by  South,  Front, 
Beekman,  and  Fulton  streets,  is  the  great  fish 
depot  of  the  city.  Manhattan  market,  erect- 
.ed  by  a  company  in  1871,  occupies  the  block 
bounded  by  34th  and  35th  streets  and  llth 
and  12th  avenues.  It  is  of  iron,  stone,  and 
Philadelphia  brick,  and  is  800  ft.  long,  200  ft. 
deep,  and  80  ft.  high  in  the  interior.  Only  a 


small  portion  of  it  is  in  use. — The  assessed 
value  of  property  in  1805  was  $25,645,867". 
The  subsequent  valuation  and  taxation  at  in- 
tervals of  five  years  to  1865  were  as  follows : 


YEARS. 

Valuation. 

Total  tax. 

P 

Valuation. 

Total  tax. 

- 

AnbTk   rtrtrt    K-t  tf 

1815 
1820 
1825 
1830 

81,636,042 
69,530,753 
101,160,046 

125,288,518 

$361,285 
339.892 
387,449 
509,178 

11845 

11850 
1855 
1860 

239,995,517 
286,061,816 
486,998,278 
577,230,956 

$1,354,835 
2,096,191 
8,280,085 
5,843,823 

9,758,508 

1835 

218,723,703 

965,608 

1865 

608,784,855 

18,202,858 

The  valuation  of  real  and  personal  estate,  the 
rate  of  taxation,  and  the  amount  of  taxation 
for  state  and  city  purposes,  for  the  last  six 
years,  are  as  follows : 


YEARS. 

Valuation  of 
real  estate. 

Valuation  of 

personal  estate. 

Total 

valuations. 

Rate  of 
tax  on 

$100. 

Total 
taxation. 

Tax  paid  to 
state  for  common 
schools. 

Total  taxation  for 
state  purposes. 

Tax  for  purposes 
of  the  city  and 
county. 

1870... 
1871... 
1872.  .  . 
1873... 
1874... 
1875... 

$742,103,075 
769,306,410 
797,148,665 
836,691,980 
881,547,995 
881,547,995 

$305,285,374 
306,947,223 
306,949,422 
292,447,643 
272,481,181 
272,481,181 

$1,047,388,449 
1,076,353,633 
1,104,098,087 
1,129,189,623 
1,154,029,176 
1,154,029,176 

$2  25 
2  17 
2  90 
2  50 
2  80 
3  00 

$23,566,240 
23,361,674 
82,085,480 
28,230,996 
32,812,817 
84,620,874 

$1,089,889  16 
1,160,354  38 
1,269,156  70 
1,801,567  04 
1,880,122  61 
1,881,445  86 

$2,884,501  22 
4,769,353  82 
5,745,049  82 
6,117,865  09 
7,673,481  70 
8,012,886  00 

$20,721,789 
18,592,320 
26,290,432 
22,113,631 
24,689,385 
26,608,488 

In  addition  to  the  amounts  paid  to  the  state 
from  taxation,  there  were  paid  also  in  the  years 
1870,  1871,  and  1874,  the  following  amounts 
derived  from  stocks,  viz. :  in  1870,  for  re- 
demption of  state  debt,  $2,070,000;  in  1871, 
for  the  same,  $1,972,602  36 ;  in  1874,  for  state 
canal  fund  deficiency,  $3,899,494  86.  The 
amounts  payable  to  the  state  for  taxes  in  1875 
are  fixed,  as  shown  above ;  but  the  valuations, 
rate  of  tax,  and  total  amount  of  taxes  to  be 
levied  in  that  year  are  only  approximate.  The 
real  value  of  property  in  the  city  is  estimated 
in  the  United  States  census  of  1870  at  $3,484,- 
268,700.  The  appropriations  for  the  expenses 
of  the  city  government  during  1875  amount 
to  $36,956,472  23.  The  principal  items  are  as 
follows:  state  taxes,  $6,630,940  14;  common 
schools  for  the  state,  $1,381,445  86;  interest 
on  city  debt,  $9,300,000;  payment  of  stocks 
and  bonds  falling  due,  &c.,  $1,454,763  33 ; 
Fourth  avenue  improvement,  $1,598,767  50 ; 
taxable  charities  (under  acts  of  legislature), 
$825,905;  police  department,  $3,387,325,  in- 
cluding $3,147,400  for  salaries  of  commis- 
sioners and  force;  fire  department,  $1,316,- 
000,  including  $897,600  for  salaries  of  com- 
missioner and  force;  public  schools  $3,480,- 
000,  including  $2,686,500  for  salaries;  sala- 
ries of  subordinates  of  departments,  &c.  (ex- 
cept police,  fire,  docks,  and  schools),  $1,462,- 
186 ;  salaries  of  mayor,  aldermen,  chamberlain,^ 
and  heads  of  departments  (excepting  commis- 
sioners of  police,  fire,  and  docks),  $229,500; 
salaries  of  judiciary,  $897,345;  supplies  for 
department  of  charities  and  correction,  in- 
cluding $90,000  for  outdoor  poor,  $841,000; 
cleaning  streets,  $800,000;  lamps  and  gas, 
$750,000 ;  maintenance  and  government  of 


parks  and  places  (exclusive  of  salaries),  about 
$284,000 ;  sheriffs',  coroners',  jurors',  and  wit- 
nesses' fees,  $162,000 ;  election  expenses,  $169,- 
000 ;  college  of  the  city  of  New  York,  $150,- 
000;  contingencies  of  departments,  $147,750; 
construction,  repairs,  supplies,  and  cleaning  pub- 
lic offices,  $142,500;  printing,  stationery,  and 
blank  books,  $137,500;  repairing  and  main- 
taining Croton  aqueduct,  $120,000 ;  school 
moneys  to  corporate  schools,  $103,000 ;  repa- 
ving  and  repairs  to  stone  pavements,  $100,000 ; 
judgments,  $100,000 ;  repairing  and  renewal 
of  pipes,  &c.,  $80,000 ;  rents,  $75,000 ;  repair-  * 
ing  and  cleaning  sewers,  $75,000 ;  assessments 
and  taxes  on  corporation  property,  $50,000; 
keeping  in  order  wooden  and  concrete  pave- 
ments, $50,000.  The  city  debt  on  Dec.  81, 
1874,  was  as  follows:  funded  debt,  $118,- 
241,557  24;  temporary  debt,  $23,562,200  76; 
total  debt,  $141,803,758 ;  net  debt  (less  sink- 
ing fund,  $26,615,778),  $115,187,980.  There 
were  also  $208,011  in  cash  and  $710,106  in 
bonds  and  mortgages  applicable  in  reduc- 
tion of  the  debt.  In  addition  to  the  above 
amounts,  there  is  a  floating  debt  which  hao 
been  variously  estimated  at  from  $10,000,000 
to  $20,000,000.  Many  of  the  claims  constitu- 
ting this  debt  are  in  litigation.  The  city  with 
Staten  island  forms  the  first  military  division 
of  the  state,  and  has  several  well  drilled  regi- 
m<5nts  of  militia. — The  New  York  post  office 
is  by  far  the  most  important  in  the  country. 
Besides  the  general  office,  there  are  on  Manhat- 
tan island  14  stations,  designated  by  the  letters 
of  the  alphabet,  and  895  street  letter  boxes. 
The  number  of  employees  is  1,044,  viz. :  officers 
in  charge  of  divisions  and  bureaus,  13;  super- 
intendents of  stations,  14;  clerks,  636;  carri- 


396 


NEW  YORK  (CITY) 


ers,  381.  The  following  are  the  average  quar- 
terly statistics :  receipts,  $693,759  45 ;  expen- 
ditures, $288,229  86 ;  city  letters  and  postal 
cards  delivered,  8,213,064;  mail  letters  and 
postal  cards  delivered,  19,846,734;  foreign  let- 
ters received,  1,927,586;  foreign  letters  sent, 
2,092,383;  domestic  mail  letters  despatched, 
25,300,000 ;  newspapers  received  for  delivery 
and  despatch,  27,453,800;  registered  letters 
received  for  delivery,  95,000 ;  registered  let- 
ters and  postage  stamp  packages  forwarded, 
125,000  ;  domestic  money  orders  issued,  8,559, 
amounting  to  $193,913  32;  domestic  money  or- 
ders paid,  174,291,  amounting  to  $1,768,668  26; 
amount  of  foreign  money  orders  issued,  $592,- 
502  30.  In  the  23d  and  24th  wards  there  are 
8  branch  offices,  under  the  jurisdiction  of  the 
general  city  post  office. — Three  commissioners 
of  public  charities  and  correction  have  charge 
of  paupers  and  criminals.  The  institutions 
under  their  care,  in  point  of  extent  and  excel- 
lence, compare  favorably  with  any  in  the  world. 
They  are  situated  partly  in  the  city  proper,  but 
chiefly  on  the  islands  in  the  East  river  and  on 
Hart's  island.  The  buildings  are  substantial 
and  spacious,  and  the  principal  ones  on  Black- 
well's  island  are  of  granite  quarried  there  by 
the  convicts.  In  the  city  are  Bellevue  hospital, 
the  reception  hospitals  in  the  City  Hall  park 
(closed)  and  in  99th  street  near  10th  avenue, 
the  city  prison,  four  district  prisons  connected 
with  the  police  courts,  the  free  labor  bureau 
and  intelligence  office  in  Clinton  place,  and  the 
outdoor  poor  department  in  the  central  office 
of  the  commissioners,  a  handsome  building  on 
the  corner  of  3d  avenue  and  llth  street.  Belle- 
vue hospital  is  at  the  foot  of  E.  26th  street, 
and  contains  35  wards,  with  accommodations 
for  about  1,200  patients.  The  buildings,  erected 
at  different  times,  with  various  changes  and  ad- 
Mitions,  now  form  a  continuous  line  of  350  ft., 
four  stories  high,  the  central  one  being  crowned 
with  a  lofty  observatory.  The  grounds,  several 
acres  in  extent,  are  finely  cultivated.  In  con- 
nection with  the  hospital  a  building  has  been 
erected  for  the  morgue,  in  which  the  bodies  of 
the  unknown  dead  are  exhibited  for  identifica- 
tion. The  bureau  of  medical  and  surgical  relief 
for  the  outdoor  poor  affords  aid  to  applicants 
who  do  not  require  continuous  treatment  in 
the  hospital.  Provision  is  also  made  for  at- 
tendance upon  the  sick  poor  at  their  homes  by 
dividing  the  city  into  11  medical  districts  and 
assigning  a  resident  physician  to  each.  The 
ambulance  corps  affords  prompt  relief  in  case 
of  casualties,  the  telegraph  speedily  summon- 
ing an  ambulance  with  a  competent  surgeon. 
The  outdoor  poor  department  affords  tem- 
porary aid  to  deserving  applicants.  The  city 
is  divided  into  11  districts,  for  each  of  which 
a  visitor  is  appointed,  whose  duty  it  is  to  in- 
vestigate the  circumstances  of  applicants  and 
report  to  the  superintendent  of  outdoor  poor. 
The  free  labor  bureau  has  proved  of  great 
value  in  procuring  situations  for  those  out  of 
work.  The  prisons  are  for  the  detention  of 


those  charged  with  crimes  and  offences  pend- 
ing the  disposition  of  their  cases  by  the  courts, 
and  in  the  city  prison  persons  under  sentence 
of  death  are  confined  until  execution.  The 
county  jail  in  Ludlow  street  is  used  for  the  de- 
tention and  incarceration  of  persons  arrested 
upon  civil  process,  and  also  for  the  detention 
of  persons  charged  with  crimes  and  offences 
under  United  States  law ;  it  is  under  the  con- 
trol of  the  sheriff.  The  institutions  on  Black- 
well's  island  (all  under  the  care  of  the  commis- 
sioners) are  the  almshouse,  epileptic  and  para- 
lytic hospital,  charity,  smallpox,  and  typhus 
fever  hospitals,  hospital  for  incurables,  con- 
valescent hospital,  penitentiary,  workhouse, 
lunatic  asylum  (for  females),  and  blind  asylunu 
Admission  to  the  almshouse  is  restricted  to  the 
old  and  infirm  destitute,  two  wards,  consti- 
tuting the  blind  asylum,  being  set  apart  for  the 
blind.  The  penitentiary  is  for  the  confinement 
of  prisoners  convicted  of  misdemeanors,  while 
the  workhouse  receives  those  committed  for 
vagrancy  and  for  drunkenness  and  disorderly 
conduct.  In  winter  also  able-bodied  persons 
who  solicit  charity  are  frequently  sent  to  the 
workhouse.  On  Ward's  island  are  the  ine- 
briate asylum,  the  soldiers'  retreat,  and  the  in- 
sane asylum  (for  males).  The  soldiers'  retreat 
is  a  home  for  invalid  soldiers  of  the  late  war 
who  served  in  regiments  raised  in  the  city. 
On  Randall's  island  are  the  nursery,  the  infant 
hospital,  and  the  idiot  asylum.  These  form 
the  juvenile  branch  of  the  almshouse.  The 
nursery  receives  children  over  four  years  old 
whom  their  parents  have  abandoned  or  whom 
they  are  unable  to  support.  The  children  are 
apprenticed  or  placed  in  families  for  adoption 
at  the  expiration  of  three  months,  if  not  re- 
claimed by  their  parents,  and  no  child  is  re- 
tained after  he  has  completed  his  16th  year. 
There  is  a  hospital  connected  with  the  institu- 
tion. Provision  is  made  for  the  instruction  of 
the  inmates  by  the  board  of  education.  In  the 
infant  hospital  provision  is  made  for  found- 
lings, orphans,  and  children  attended  by  indi- 
gent mothers;  here  they  are  cared  for  until 
old  enough  to  be  transferred  to  the  nursery, 
unless  adopted  or  reclaimed  by  their  parents. 
The  idiot  asylum  has  two  classes  of  inmates, 
the  hopelessly  imbecile,  and  those  capable  of 
improvement;  for  the  latter  a  special  school 
is  provided.  (See  IDIOCY,  vol.  ix.,  p.  175.) 
On  Hart's  island  are  the  industrial  school  and 
the  city  cemetery  for  the  interment  of  the 
pauper  and  unknown  dead ;  the  island  com- 
prises about  100  acras,  and  is  situated  in  Long 
Island  sound,  15m.  from  the  city  hall  and  1  m. 
from  the  mainland.  All  except  three  acres  was 
purchased  by  the  city  in  1868.  The  industrial 
school  is  designed  for  the  reformation  of  vicious 
boys,  who  receive  instruction  and  are  trained 
to  subordination  and  labor.  There  is  also  un- 
der the  control  of  the  commissioners  of  chari- 
ties and  correction  a  nautical  school,  conducted 
on  board  the  school  ship  Mercury,  to  which 
boys  are  transferred  from  the  industrial  school ; 


NEW  YOEK  (CITY) 


397 


they  receive  practice  and  instruction  to  fit  them 
for  service  in  the  merchant  marine  or  navy. 
The  following  table  is  taken  from  the  latest 
annual  report  of  the  department  (for  1871)  : 

houses,  and  institutions  of  various  kinds.    The 
organized  local  charitable  societies  and  institu- 
tions receive  and  disburse  about  $2,500,000  a 
year.     The  New  York  association  for  impro- 
ving the  condition  of  the  poor  was  organized 
in  1843.      Its  operations  embrace  the  entire 
island  of  Manhattan,  which  is  divided  into  371 
districts,  for  each  of  which  a  visitor  is  appointed, 
these  being  assisted  by  an  advisory  committee 
of  five  for  each  ward.     Belief  is  granted  only 
through  the  visitor  of  the  district.     Articles  of 
food  and  clothing  only  are  given,  and  efforts  are 
made  to  encourage  in  the  recipients  industry 
and  virtuous  habits.     In  1874  the  number  of 
families  relieved  was  24,091,  comprising  89,845 
persons,  at  a  cost  of  $96,431.     The  whole  num- 
ber of  families  relieved  from  the  organiza- 
tion of  the  association  was  226,446,  comprising 
952,868  persons,  at  a  cost  of  $1,468,071.     The 
children's  aid  society  (office  in  E.  4th  street) 
was  formed  in  1853,  to  "  improve  the  condition 

f\f  t.liA  nr»r»r  anrl  rJacfifiTra  ^Tiilrl-iwn  rvf  fl-m  ni-fir  " 

INSTITUTIONS. 

Number 
of  inmates 
during  the 
year. 

INSTITUTIONS. 

i 

Number 
of  inmates 
during;  the 
year. 

Bellevue  hospital  .  .  . 
Eeception     hospital 
(City  Hall  park)  .  . 
Charity  hospital  
Smallpox  hospital  .  . 
Typhus  fever  hospt'l 
Incurable  hospital  .  . 
Epileptic   and  para- 
lytic hospital  
Lunatic  asylum  
Nursery  hospital  .  .  . 
Patients    treated  at 
home  by  depart- 
ment physicians  .  . 
Patients   treated  at 
bureau    for    out- 
door sick  

7,514 

1.905 
5,999 
2,526 
252 
1T7 

297 
2,023 
617 

5,645 

17,717 
3,716 
149 

Nursery  
Infant  hospital  
Soldiers1  retreat  .  .  . 
Inebriate  asylum  .  . 
Idiot  asylum  

2,965 
2,213 
855 
1,718 
181 

19,157 
681 
942 
115 
61,466 
21,182 
2,868 

48,058 

Believed  by  super- 
intendent of  out- 
door poor  
Nautical  school  ...   . 
Industrial  school..  . 
Idiot  school  
City  prisons  .... 

Workhouse 

Penitentiary  
Free    labor    bureau 
(employment    ob- 
tained for)  

Total... 

Blind  asylum... 

195.488 

The  number  receiving  medical  treatment  in 
hospitals  or  otherwise  was  44,672 ;  number 
of  poor  relieved  in  almshouse,  asylums,  or 
otherwise,  30,954;  number  in  schools,  1,738; 
in  prisons  and  reformatories,  75,016.  The 
number  of  bodies  received  at  the  morgue  was 
214,  of  which  127  were  recognized ;  num- 
ber of  interments  in  the  city  cemetery,  3,502. 
The  current  expenses  of  the  various  institu- 
tions amounted  to  $1,063,990,  viz.:  charita- 
ble, $820,788;  correctional,  $243,202.  The 
amount  expended  in  relief  to  outdoor  poor 
was  $42,776  50  in  money  and  about  $22,500 
in  coal.  The  number  of  inmates  in  the  various 
institutions  on  Nov.  15,  1874,  was  as  follows : 


INSTITUTIONS. 

No.  of 
inmates 

INSTITUTIONS. 

No.  of 
inmates 

City  prison  

431 

Blind  asylum 

86 

Second  district  prison  . 
Third  district  prison.  . 
Fourth  district  prison. 
Fifth  district  prison... 
Bellevue  hospital  
Eeception        hospital 
(park) 

82 
81 
76 
14 
695 

81 

Workhouse  
Lunatic  asylum  
Epileptic  and  paralytic 

Inebriate  asylum  
Soldiers1  retreat  

1,954 
1,215 

114 
8 
246 
834 

Eeception         hospital 

Nursery  .  .  . 

629 

(99th  street)  

16 

Nursery  hospital* 

452 

Charity  hospital  

870 

Infant  hospital  

461 

Smallpox  hospital  
Typhus  fever  hospital  . 

93 
6 

i  Industrial  school  
Nautical  school  . 

271 
249 

Penitentiary  

'917 

Convalescent  hospital  . 

298 

Almshouse 

959 

Incurable  hospital 

115 

Total 

11198 

Besides  the  city  institutions,  there  are  numer- 
ous important  and  well  directed  charities  man- 
aged by  associations  or  corporations,  some  of 
which  receive  aid  from  the  city  or  state.  Among 
them  are  21  associations  for  the  relief  of  the 
poor ;  25  hospitals,  of  which  15  have  commo- 
dious buildings;  30  dispensaries,  furnishing 
medicine  and  medical  aid  ;  13  orphan  asylums ; 
more  than  50  daily  industrial  schools,  with  an 
average  attendance  of  from  7,000  to  10,000; 
and  more  than  100  asylums,  homes,  lodging 

*  Including  idiot  asylum. 


particularly  the  newsboys,  bootblacks,  and  othr 
er  street  children.  It  has  established  lodging 
houses,  furnished  with  reading  rooms,  music, 
and  meals,  and  industrial  schools,  in  which  the 
children  are  instructed  in  the  rudiments  of 
learning  and  in  useful  occupations.  The  home- 
less, after  some  instruction,  are  provided  with 
good  situations  in  the  west.  There  are  five 
lodging  houses,  of  which  the  most  noteworthy 
are  the  newsboys'  lodging  house  on  the  corner 
of  Duane  and  New  Chambers  streets,  and  the 
girls'  lodging  house  in  St.  Mark's  place.  The 
number  of  industrial  schools  supported  in  1874 
was  34  (21  day  and  13  night  schools) ;  number 
of  pupils  enrolled,  10,288  (5,335  boys  and  4,953 
girls);  average  attendance,  3,556.  The  number 
provided  with  homes  and  employment  in  that 
year  was  3,985 ;  entire  number  since  the  or- 
ganization of  the  society,  36,363.  The  Ameri- 
can female  guardian  society  and  home  for  the 
friendless  furnishes  a  temporary  asylum  for 
friendless  children  and  destitute  young  women. 
The  aim  of  the  society  is  to  procure  homes  for 
the  children,  who  seldom  remain  many  months 
in  the  institution.  It  supports  11  industrial 
schools  in  various  parts  of  the  city,  with  an 
average  attendance  of  about  1,200  children, 
and  expends  annuaUy  about  $70,000  in  carry- 
ing on  its  operations.  The  home  is  a  three- 
story  brick  building  on  E.  30th  street,  with 
accommodations  for  about  150  inmates,  erected 
in  1848.  In  29th  street,  immediately  opposite 
the  home  and  connected  with  it  by  a  bridge,  is 
a  four-story  brick  edifice  in  the  Romanesque 
style,  erected  in  1856,  containing  the  chapel, 
the  school  for  the  inmates  of  the  home,  an  in-r 
dustrial  school,  and  the  offices  of  the  society. 
The  society  itself  was  organized  more  than  40 
years  ago.  The  society  for  the  reformation  of 
juvenile  delinquents  was  incorporated  in  1824. 
The  house  of  refuge  under  its  control  is  situ- 
ated on  the  S.  portion  of  Randall's  island,  and 
has  30  acres  of  land  connected  with  it.  The 
buildings  are  of  brick  in  the  Italian  style,  the 


398 


NEW  YORK  (CITY) 


two  principal  structures  presenting  a  graceful 
facade  nearly  1,000  ft.  long.  They  contain 
886  dormitories,  school  rooms,  hospital  depart- 
ments, dining  halls,  &c.,  offices,  and  a  chapel 
capable  of  seating  1,000  persons.  In  the  rear 
are  the  workshops,  each  30  by  150  ft.  and 
three  stories  high.  The  society  receives  for 
instruction,  discipline,  and  reformation  youth 
who  are  brought  before  the  courts  for  petty 
offences.  The  boys  and  girls  are  kept  in  sepa- 
rate buildings,  and  the  older  of  the  latter  who 
have  been  guilty  of  social  crime  are  carefully 
separated  from  the  more  youthful.  They  are 
required  to  work  from  six  to  eight  hours  a 
day,  and  to  study  from  four  to  five  hours. 
The  period  of  detention  depends  upon  their 
conduct,  and  upon  their  discharge  situations 
are  procured  for  the  deserving.  The  number 
of  inmates  received  to  the  close  of  1872  was 
14,675.  The  number  in  the  institution  du- 
ring 1874  was  1,367;  remaining  at  the  close  of 
the  year,  789  (677  boys  and  112  girls).  The 
Bloomingdale  asylum  for  the  insane,  in  117th 
street,  between  10th  and  llth  avenues,  was 
opened  in  1821.  The  grounds  embrace  45 
acres,  partly  devoted  to  gardening  and  con- 
taining a  great  variety  of  trees  and  ornamental 
shrubbery.  The  asylum  buildings,  three  in 
number,  are  capable  of  accommodating  about 
170  patients,  and  are  always  full.  Patients  are 
received  from  any  part  of  the  state,  and  are 
required  to  pay  from  $8  to  $30  a  week  accord- 
ing to  their  circumstances.  About  300  acres 
of  land  have  recently  been  purchased  at  White 
Plains,  Westchester  co.,  with  a  view  of  re- 
moving the  institution  to  that  place  at  some 
future  day.  The  Bloomingdale  asylum  is  a 
branch  of  the  New  York  hospital,  and  is  chiefly 
managed  by  a  committee  of  its  board  of  gov- 
ernors. The  hospital  was  chartered  in  1771, 
and  for  many  years  the  buildings  in  Broadway, 
between  Duane  and  Worth  streets,  were  open 
for  the  care  of  the  sick  and  injured.  The  site 
was  leased  in  1869,  and  the  following  year  the 
institution  was  closed.  It  has  a  fine  libra- 
ry and  pathological  cabinet  at  No.  8  W.  16th 
street,  open  for  consultation  and  examination 
without  charge.  A  new  hospital  is  soon  to  be 
erected  in  15th  street,  in  the  rear  of  the  library. 
The  woman's  hospital  of  the  state  of  New  York 
was  opened  in  1855  for  the  purpose  of  putting 
ia  practice  the  discoveries  of  Dr.  J.  M.  Sims 
(made  public  in  1852)  in  the  treatment  of  the 
diseases  of  women.  The  building  now  occu- 
pied, on  4th  avenue  and  50th  street,  was  opened 
in  1867.  It'is  a  handsome  structure,  the  base- 
ment being  of  polished  stone  and  the  four 
additional  stories  of  brick,  with  angles  and 
pilasters  ornamented  with  finely  wrought  ver- 
miculated  blocks.  It  contains  75  beds,  and 
cost  with  furniture  $200,000.  The  upper  floor 
is  devoted  to  charity  patients,  the  others  to  pay 
patients.  The  New  York  asylum  for  lying-in 
women,  in  Marion  street,  was  erected  in  1830, 
though  the  society  which  established  it  was 
organized  in  1822.  It  is  entirely  free.  Only 


virtuous,  indigent  women  are  admitted,  but 
physicians  are  appointed  by  the  society  to  at- 
tend such  as  apply  and  are  not  admitted.  Since 
the  opening  of  the  asylum  about  4,000  inmates 
have  been  received,  and  more  than  13,000  out- 
door patients  have  been  treated.  The  New 
York  institution  for  the  instruction  of  the 
deaf  and  dumb  was  incorporated  in  1816.  It 
was  originally  situated  in  50th  street,  but  was 
removed  in  1856  to  Washington  Heights,  9  m. 
N.  of  the  city  hall,  where  it  has  28  acres  of 
land  overlooking  the  Hudson.  The  buildings, 
which  are  the  largest  and  finest  of  the  kind  in 
the  world,  cover  about  two  acres,  and  are  of 
brick,  with  basement,  copings,  and  trimmings 
of  granite.  The  front  walls,  which  are  pan- 
elled, are  faced  with  yellow  Milwaukee  brick. 
The  main  edifice,  which  contains  the  offices, 
library,  &c.,  is  flanked  by  two  wings,  one  de- 
voted to  the  male  and  the  other  to  the  female 
pupils.  Another  building  contains  the  chapel, 
dining  room,  &c.,  and  a  brick  structure  has 
recently  been  erected  for  the  accommodation 
of  the  mechanical  department.  More  than  500 
pupils  can  be  accommodated,  and  about  2,300 
have  been  educated  since  the  opening  of  the  in- 
stitution. The  library  contains  2,860  volumes, 
some  of  which  are  rare  books  on  deaf-mute 
instruction.  Deaf  mutes  are  received  at  the 
charge  of  the  state  or  counties,  and  also  as  pay 
pupils.  The  institution  for  the  improved  in- 
struction of  deaf  mutes,  in  7th  avenue  near 
44th  street,  was  organized  in  1867.  It  has  re- 
ceived some  aid  from  the  state,  and  in  1870  a 
grant  of  land  on  the  W.  side  of  Lexington  ave- 
nue, between  67th  and  68th  streets,  was  made 
to  it  by  the  city,  where  buildings  are  to  be 
erected.  Instruction  is  imparted  by  the  meth- 
od of  articulation.  The  New  York  institution 
for  the  blind  was  incorporated  in  1831,  and 
the  school  was  opened  at  No.  47  Mercer  street 
the  next  year.  The  present  site  was  purchased 
a  few  years  subsequently,  and  comprises  a  plot 
200  by  800  ft.  fronting  on  9th  avenue  between 
33d  and  34th  streets.  The  building  is  of  mar- 
ble, three  stories  high  with  Mansard  roof,  pre- 
senting a  facade  of  175  ft.  with  a  north  and 
a  south  wing  of  125  ft.  each.  Indigent  blind 
from  the  city  and  from  Long  and  Staten 
islands  are  educated  at  the  expense  of  the  state, 
and  pay  pupils  are  also  received  at  $300  a 
year.  About  94  per  cent,  of  those  instructed 
have  been  state  pupils.  The  number  under  in- 
struction in  1874  was  193 ;  remaining  at  the 
close  of  the  year,  173.  The  New  York  juve- 
nile asylum  was  incorporated  in  1851.  The 
buildings  now  occupied  are  on  a  plot  of  25 
acres,  in  176th  street,  near  the  High  bridge, 
and  consist  of  a  central  five-story  structure, 
skirted  by  two  wings  of  four  stories  each,  with 
rear  extensions  and  appropriate  outbuildings. 
They  are  of  stone  quarried  on  the  premises, 
and  were  opened  in  1856.  A  three-story 
brick  edifice,  42  by  108  ft.,  has  recently  been 
erected  to  accommodate  the  class  rooms,  gym- 
nasium, swimming  bath,  and  industrial  depart- 


NEW  YORK  (CITY) 


399 


ment.  The  grounds  occupy  a  lofty  eminence, 
and  are  laid  out  in  gardens  and  shaded  walks, 
drives,  and  play  grounds.  The  libraries  con- 
tain about  2,000  volumes.  The  inmates  are 
between  5  and  14  years  old,  and  consist  of 
truant  and  disobedient  children  placed  in  the 
institution  by  their  parents  for  discipline  or 
committed  by  the  magistrates  for  reformation, 
and  of  the  friendless  and  neglected  commit- 
ted as  vagrants.  They  are  required  to  work 
a  portion  of  the  day,  and  also  receive  literary 
instruction.  But  few  remain  more  than  six 
months,  the  plan  of  the  institution  contem- 
plating the  early  return  of  the  inmates  to  their 
parents,  or  their  indenture  to  families  in  the 
west.  The  number  of  children  received  to  the 
close  of  1874  was  17,772.  There  is  a  house 
of  reception  in  W.  13th  street,  with  accommo- 
dations for  130  children,  and  the  greater  part 
are  retained  here  a  few  weeks  before  being  ad- 
mitted to  the  asylum.  The  New  York  orphan 
asylum,  on  the  bank  of  the  Hudson  between 
73d  and  74th  streets,  is  a  fine  Gothic  building 
120  by  60  ft.,  with  two  spacious  wings  and 
about  nine  acres  of  land.  The  society  was  or- 
ganized in  1806  by  ladies,  and  is  supported  by 
private  donations.  It  has  purchased  37  acres 
of  land  at  Hastings  on  the  Hudson,  and  contem- 
plates moving  the  asylum  thither.  The  Leake 
and  Watts  orphan  house,  near  112th  street 
and  10th  avenue,  is  a  large  and  handsome  edi- 
fice, delightfully  situated  in  a  plot  of  120  acres. 
It  has  a  permanent  income,  and  supports  an 
average  of  about  120  orphans.  The  colored 
orphan  asylum  was  incorporated  in  1838.  The 
present  beautiful  building,  occupying  a  fine 
plot  of  ground  at  143d  street  and  10th  avenue, 
was  completed  in  1868.  It  is  of  brick,  three 
stories  high  with  basement,  with  a  frontage 
of  234  ft.  and  a  depth  of  125  ft.,  surmounted 
by  three  unique  octagonal  towers,  and  has  ac- 
commodations for  more  than  300  children. 
The  colored  home  was  organized  about  1840. 
The  grounds  on  1st  avenue,  between  64th  and 
65th  streets,  were  purchased  in  1848.  The 
buildings  form  a  hollow  square,  with  a  fine 
flower  garden  in  the  centre.  The  institution 
consists  of  four  departments,  the  home  for 
the  aged  and  indigent,  the  hospital,  the  nur- 
sery, and  the  lying-in  department,  and  annu- 
ally cares  for  about  1,000  persons.  The  union 
home  and  school  for  the  maintenance  and  in- 
struction of  the  children  of  volunteer  soldiers 
and  sailors,  incorporated  in  1862,  is  finely  situ- 
ated at  151st  street  and  the  Boulevard.  The 
Five  Points  mission  in  Park  street,  and  the 
Five  Points  house  of  industry  in  Worth  street, 
have  been  instrumental  in  reforming  that  lo- 
cality (so  called  from  the  converging  of  three 
streets),  which  25  years  ago  was  the  worst  in 
the  city,  crowded  with  the  degraded  and  crim- 
inal. The  mission  was  established  in  1850, 
and  the  building  was  opened  in  1853.  It  sup- 
ports a  day  school,  with  an  average  attendance 
of  from  400  to  500,  a  Sunday  school,  and  a 
free  library  and  reading  room_  The  scholars 
603  VOL.  xii.— 26 


are  clothed  by  the  society,  and  receive  a  daily 
lunch.  More  than  2,000  children  have  been 
placed  in  good  homes,  and  many  thousand 
adults  have  been  furnished  with  situations. 
The  house  of  industry  had  its  origin  soon  after 
the  establishment  of  the  mission,  and  was  de- 
signed to  furnish  employment  to  women  desi- 
rous of  escaping  from  an  abandoned  life.  It 
was  incorporated  in  1854.  The  buildings  now 
occupied  were  partly  erected  in  1856  and  partly 
in  1870.  The  school  rooms  have  accommoda- 
tions for  500  scholars,  and  the  dormitories  for 
more  than  300  beds.  Meals  are  furnished  to 
the  poor,  and  other  forms  of  charity  adminis- 
tered in  the  neighborhood.  The  New  York 
Catholic  protectory,  incorporated  in  1863,  re- 
ceives children  of  Roman  Catholic  parents 
committed  by  the  magistrates  for  reformation. 
It  is  situated  at  West  Chester  just  across  the 
city  line,  and  has  extensive  grounds  and  fine 
buildings.  The  number  of  inmates  on  Sept. 
30,  1874,  was  1,842 ;  whole  number  in  the  in- 
stitution during  the  year  ending  on  that  date, 
2,877;  entire  number  since  its  opening,  8,771. 
The  Howard  mission  and  home  for  little  wan- 
derers, in  New  Bowery,  in  the  midst  of  one  of 
the  most  wretched  quarters  of  the  city,  was  es- 
tablished in  1861.  It  supports  day  and  Sun- 
day schools,  and  a  home  for  needy  children, 
and  distributes  food,  clothing,  and  fuel  to  the 
deserving  poor.  The  prison  association  of 
New  York  was  organized  in  1844,  for  the  pur- 
pose of  aiding  discharged  convicts  to  reform 
and  obtain  employment,  of  befriending  per- 
sons charged  with  crime,  and  of  studying  the 
subject  of  prison  discipline.  The  women's 
prison  association  of  New  York,  an  outgrowth 
of  this,  maintains  a  home  at  No.  110  Second 
avenue.  Other  institutions,  most  of  which 
own  spacious  and  handsome  buildings,  are  the 
Chapin  home  for  the  aged  and  infirm,  in  E. 
66th  street ;  Baptist  home  for  the  aged  and  in- 
firm, in  E.  68th  street ;  home  for  aged  Hebrews, 
in  Lexington  avenue  and  63d  street;  young 
women's  home,  in  Washington  square ;  home 
for  women  and  mission,  in  Water  street ;  Wil- 
son industrial  school,  at  Avenue  A  and  8th 
street ;  Catholic  home  for  the  aged  poor,  in  W. 
32d  street ;  Sheltering  Arms,  for  destitute  and 
helpless  children,  in  129th  street  and  10th  ave- 
nue;  St.  Luke's  hospital  (Episcopal),  in  5th 
avenue  and  54th  street ;  German  hospital,  in 
4th  avenue  and  77th  street ;  Mt.  Sinai  hospi- 
tal (Jewish),  in  Lexington  avenue  and  66th 
street ;  nursery  and  child's  hospital,  with  lying- 
in  asylum,  in  Lexington  avenue  and  51st  street ; 
New  York  eye  and  ear  infirmary,  in  2d  avenue 
and  13th  street;  institution  for  the  relief  of 
the  ruptured  and  crippled,  in  Lexington  avenue 
and  42d  street ;  house  of  rest  for  consumptives, 
at  Tremont;  New  York  infirmary  for  women 
and  children,  in  2d  avenue  near  8th  street,  to 
be  removed  to  Livingston  place;  New  York 
ophthalmic  hospital,  in  23d  street  and  3d  ave- 
nue ;  New  York  ophthalmic  and  aural  hospi- 
tal, in  E.  12th  street ;  Manhattan  eye  and  ear 


400 


NEW  YOEK  (CITY) 


hospital,  in  E.  34th  street ;  old  ladies'  home  of 
the  Methodist  Episcopal  church,  in  W.  42d 
street  near  8th  avenue ;  home  for  incurables, 
at  West  Farms;  Presbyterian  home  for  aged 
women,  in  E.  73d  street;  St.  Francis's  hospi- 
tal (Roman  Catholic),  in  5th  street ;  Episcopal 
orphan  home  and  asylum,  in  E.  49th  street ; 
Roman  Catholic  orphan  asylums,  in  Prince 
street  and  5th  and  Madison  avenues ;  asylum 
of  the  New  York  Magdalen  benevolent  soci- 
ety, in  5th  avenue  and  88th  street;  half  or- 
phan asylum,  in  W.  10th  street ;  house  of 
mercy,  for  the  reformation  of  fallen  women, 
in  86th  street  near  the  Hudson;  Hebrew  or- 
phan asylum,  in  77th  street  and  3d  avenue; 
orphan  asylum  of  St.  Vincent  de  Paul  (Roman 
Catholic),  in  39th  street  near  7th  avenue; 
Catholic  foundling  asylum,  in  68th  street  near 
Lexington  avenue  ;  Roosevelt  hospital,  in  59th 
street  and  10th  avenue;  Presbyterian  hospital, 
in  70th  street  and  Madison  avenue ;  home  for 
aged  and  infirm  deaf  mutes,  in  E.  13th  street; 
home  for  the  blind,  in  W.  14th  street ;  asylum 
for  female  deaf  mutes  (Roman  Catholic),  at 
Fordham;  association  for  the  relief  of  re- 
spectable aged  indigent  females,  in  E.  20th 
street;  St.  Luke's  home  for  indigent  Chris- 
tian females,  in  Madison  avenue  and  89th 
street;  St.  Vincent's  hospital  (Roman  Catho- 
lic), in  llth  street  and  7th  avenue;  St.  John's 
guild,  in  Varick  street ;  seamen's  fund  and  re- 
treat, with  a  hospital  for  seamen  on  Staten 
island,  and  connected  with  it  an  asylum  for 
destitute,  sick,  and  infirm  families  of  seamen ; 
sailors'  snug  harbor,  a  retreat  for  superan- 
nuated seameb,  also  on  Staten  island ;  marine 
society ;  and  ladies'  home  missionary  society. 
There  are  about  25  Roman  Catholic  convents 
and  associations  of  a  similar  class.  The  most 
prominent  are  the  convent  of  the  Redempto- 
rists  or  congregation  of  the  Most  Holy  Re- 
deemer, in  3d  street ;  the  congregation  of  the 
missionary  priests  of  St.  Paul  the  Apostle 
(Paulists),  in  9th  avenue  and  59th  street ;  the 
mother  house  of  the  sisters  of  charity,  at  Mt. 
St.  Vincent,  on  the  Hudson,  near  the  border 
of  Yonkers ;  the  convent  and  academy  of  the 
ladies  of  the  Sacred  Heart,  at  Manhattan ville ; 
St.  Catharine's  convent  of  the  sisters  of  mercy, 
in  E.  Houston  street,  which  has  a  house  of 
mercy  (refuge  for  young  females)  connected 
with  it,  an  industrial  school  in  Madison  avenue 
and  81st  street,  and  three  academies  ;  and  the 
convent  of  the  sisters  of  the  Good  Shepherd, 
in  90th  street  near  the  East  river,  with  a  house 
for  the  reformation  of  fallen  women. — The 
New  York  city  mission  and  tract  society  was 
established  in  1827,  and  reorganized  and  in- 
corporated in  1866.  It  employs  30  mission- 
aries, has  six  mission  stations,  ten  mission 
chapels,  and  five  mission  Sabbath  schools,  and 
distributes  considerable  aid  to  the  poor.  Since 
1835  it  has  expended  $850,000  in  regular  mis- 
sionary work,  besides  more  than  $100,000  in 
building  mission  stations  and  chapels,  and  has 
distributed  41,295,893  tracts  in  English  and 


some  ten  other  languages.  The  total  expendi- 
tures in  1874  were  $49,452.  The  young  men's 
Christian  association  was  formed  in  1852.  The 
elegant  building  in  23d  street  and  4th  avenue 
was  erected  in  1868-'9,  at  a  cost  of  $345,000, 
the  cost  of  the  lots  having  been  $142,000.  It 
is  87  by  175  ft.,  and  five  stories  high,  with  a 
central  and  three  angular  towers,  and  is  con- 
structed chiefly  of  Ohio  freestone  and  New 
Jersey  brown  stone.  This  edifice  contains  a 
hall  capable  of  seating  1,500  persons,  a  lecture 
room  with  seats  for  400,  a  gymnasium,  a  bath 
room,  a  free  reading  room  supplied  with  the 
principal  American  and  foreign  newspapers 
and  periodicals,  a  library,  and  rooms  for  even- 
ing classes  in  modern  languages,  penmanship, 
bookkeeping,  &c.  The  association  has  sev- 
eral branches  in  different  parts  of  the  city. 
The  American  Bible  society,  next  to  the  Brit- 
ish and  foreign  the  largest  in  the  world,  was 
founded  in  1816.  It  has  printed  the  Bible 
in  29  languages  and  dialects,  besides  assisting 
in  publishing  and  circulating  many  of  the  185 
versions  of  the  British  and  foreign  Bible  so- 
ciety. It  employs  500  hands,  and  carries  on 
every  branch  of  its  business  in  the  Bible  house, 
erected  by  the  society  in  1853  at  a  cost  inclu- 
ding ground  of  more  than  $300,000.  This  edi- 
fice is  of  brick,  six  stories  high,  and  occupies 
the  entire  block  bounded  by  3d  and  4th  ave- 
nues and  Stuyvesant  and  9th  streets,  covering 
with  the  area  in  the  centre  three  fourths  of  an 
acre.  It  contains  the  offices  of  the  American 
board  of  commissioners  for  foreign  missions, 
the  New  York  association  for  improving  the 
condition  of  the  poor,  the  New  York  city  mis- 
sion and  tract  society,  and  many  other  benev- 
olent and  religious  organizations.  Reading 
rooms  for  seamen  and  working  men  have  been 
established  in  various  parts  of  the  city  by  the 
different  missionary  organizations.  There  are 
numerous  temperance  societies  and  lodges  of 
freemasons,  odd  fellows,  and  many  similar  or- 
ders.— The  public  schools  are  under  the  gen- 
eral management  of  the  board  of  education, 
consisting  of  21  commissioners  of  common 
schools  appointed  by  the  mayor  for  a  term  of 
three  years  (seven  retiring  annually).  There 
are  also  three  inspectors  of  common  schools 
for  each  of  the  eight  school  districts  into  which 
the  city  is  divided,  appointed  by  the  mayor  for 
three  years  (one  retiring  annually),  and  five 
trustees  for  each  ward  chosen  by  the  board  of 
education  for  five  years  (one  retiring  annually). 
These  officers  receive  no  salary.  The  board  of 
education  appoints  a  city  superintendent  of 
schools  and  several  assistants  for  a  term  of 
two  years,  a  superintendent  of  school  buildings, 
an  engineer,  and  other  officers.  The  schools 
are  free  to  all  between  the  ages  of  4  and  21 
years.  The  common  schools  are  divided  into 
primary  schools  with  six  grades,  and  grammar 
schools  with  eight  grades.  Besides  the  ordi- 
nary English  branches,  drawing  is  taught  in 
all  the  grades  of  the  grammar  schools,  and  in- 
struction in  French  may  be  given  in  the  two 


NEW  YOKK  (CITY) 


401 


higher  grades  upon  the  application  of  the  trus- 
tees of  the  ward.  German  is  taught  as  a  part 
of  the  regular  course  in  all  the  grades  of  the 
grammar  schools  in  any  ward,  when  in  the 
opinion  of  the  trustees  a  sufficient  number  of 
parents  or  guardians  desire  it.  Instruction  in 
vocal  music  is  given  in  the  primary  grades. 
Evening  schools  are  opened  during  the  autumn 
and  winter  for  those  whose  ages  or  avocations 
prevent  them  from  attending  the  day  schools. 
There  is  also  an  evening  high  school  for  males, 
in  which  Latin,  modern  languages,  and  the 
higher  English  branches  are  taught.  The  nor- 
mal college  is  intended  especially  for  the  train- 
ing of  teachers  for  the  common  schools,  and 
only  pupils  of  the  female  grammar  schools  who 
have  completed  the  studies  of  the  first  grade 
are  admitted.  The  faculty  consists  of  five  pro- 
fessors, viz. :  of  intellectual  philosophy,  Latin 
and  English,  physics  and  chemistry,  French  and 
German,  and  natural  science.  Each  professor 
has  the  requisite  number  of  assistants,  and  there 
are  also  a  lady  superintendent  and  teachers  of 
music,  drawing,  mathematics,  history,  methods 
of  teaching,  calisthenics,  and  penmanship.  The 
course  comprises  six  grades,  occupying  three 
years.  A  model  school  is  connected  with  the 
college.  Saturday  sessions  are  held  for  those 
employed  in  the  common  schools.  The  separate 
colored  normal  school  has  been  discontinued. 
At  the  close  of  1874  the  United  States  sloop  of 
war  St.  Mary's  was  placed  at  the  disposal  of 
the  board  of  education  by  the  government  for 
the  establishment  of  a  nautical  school.  Boys 
in  the  public  schools  who  manifest  a  desire  to 
follow  a  seafaring  life  are  to  be  admitted.  A 
number  of  corporate  schools  connected  with 
asylums  and  charitable  institutions  have,  under 
various  acts  of  the  legislature,  been  entitled  to 
a  share  of  the  school  moneys,  and  subject  to 
the  supervision  of  the  board  of  education.  The 
following  table  is  for  the  year  1873 : 


GRADE. 

Number 
of 
schools. 

Number 
of 
teachers. 

fl 

tli 

Normal  college       

1 

88 

1468 

816 

Model  primary  school  

1 

7 

412 

256 

Saturday  normal  school  
Colored  normal  school  
Grammar  schools  

1 
1 

95 

* 
1 
1,014 

483 
14 
61,681 

344 
9 
32822 

Primary  schools  and  depart- 
ments   

93 

1193 

129  569 

56395 

Colored  schools  (5  grammar 
and  4  primary)  

9 

43 

2,184 

813 

Total  day  schools  

201 

2,296 

195,711 

91,455 

Evening  schools  

27 

850 

17,728 

8128 

Evening  high  school  
Colored  evening  schools  .... 

1 
8 

25 

8 

1,406 
421 

'902 
130 

Total  evening  schools  — 

81 

383 

19,550 

9,160 

Total  public  schools  

223 

2,679 

215,261 

100,615 

Corporate  schools  

17 

21,192 

8,780 

Aggregate  .  .  . 

249 

2.679 

236,543 

109.395 

GRADE. 

•i 

1 

~224 
87 

£*  ts  I  No.  of  male 
So  gs  1  teachers. 

No.  of  female 
teachers. 

|| 

ll 

•<  | 

No.  of  school 
buildings.  | 

Accommoda- 
tion!. 

Day  schools 
Evening  " 

Total  pub- 
lic schools.. 
Corporate 
schools  .  .  . 

Aggregate 

2,574 

227 

208,313 
21,358 

97,625 
9,170 

124 

128,759 

261 
43 

426 
8 

2,801 
74 

229,671 
22,689 

106,795 
8,612 

124 
43 

128,759 
13,888 

804 

429 

2,875 

252,360 

115,407 

167 

142,642 

Included  with  those  of  the  normal  college. 


Besides  those  enumerated  there  were  192  teach- 
ers of  special  branches.  The  teachers  in  the 
evening  schools  are  nearly  all  taken  from  among 
those  of  the  day  schools.  The  total  expendi- 
tures during  the  year  named  amounted  to 
$3,479,011,  of  which  $2,392,829  35  was  for 
salaries  of  teachers  and  janitors,  $79,562  20  for 
salaries  of  employees  of  the  board  of  education, 
superintendents,  &c.,  $44,847  72  for  rent  of 
school  premises,  $181,645  96  for  supplies  for  the 
schools  (books,  stationery,  &c.),  $100,261  58 
for  fuel,  $26,558  65  for  gas,  $96,285  27  for 
apportionment  for  corporate  schools,  $271,589 
65  for  erecting  and  furnishing  new  buildings, 
and  the  rest  for  miscellaneous  purposes.  The 
value  of  school  buildings  belonging  to  the  city 
was  $5,647,000 ;  of  lots,  $3,045,000.  The  num- 
ber of  schools,  attendance,  &c.,  in  1874,  inclu- 
ding the  new  wards,  were  as  follows : 


Fifteen  of  the  public  school  buildings  were 
rented.  The  evening  schools  are  held  in  the 
day  school  buildings.  Many  of  the  buildings 
are  lofty  and  elegant  structures,  finely  arranged 
for  school  purposes.  The  normal  college,  at 
69th  street  and  4th  avenue,  completed  in  1873, 
is  unsurpassed  in -its  accommodations  and  ap- 

Sliances  by  any  similar  edifice  in  the  country. . 
b  is  in  the  secular  Gothic  style,  with  a  lofty 
and  massive  Victoria  tower;  is  300  ft.  long, 
125  ft.  wide  on  4th  avenue,  78  ft.  wide  in  the 
rear,  and  70  ft.  high.  It  contains  30  recitation 
rooms,  three  large  lecture  rooms,  a  calistheni- 
um,  a  library,  six  retiring  rooms  for  instruc- 
tors, president's  offices,  and  a  main  hall  capable 
of  seating  1,600.  Each  recitation  room  con- 
tains seats  for  48,  and  each  lecture  room  for 
144  persons.  The  entire  cost  of  the  building 
was  $350,000,  and  of  the  furniture  and  other 
appliances  about  $40,000.  The  model  school 
in  the  rear,  fronting  Lexington  avenue,  accom- 
modates 900  pupils.  The  college  of  the  city 
of  New  York  occupies  a  handsome  edifice  at 
23d  street  and  Lexington  avenue,  125  by  80  ft. 
and  four  stories  high.  It  was  organized  as  the 
free  academy  in  1848,  empowered  to  confer 
degrees  in  1854,  and  incorporated  as  a  college 
in  1866.  It  is  under  the  control  of  a  board 
of  trustees,  consisting  of  its  president  and  the 
members  of  the  board  of  education  ex  officiis, 
and  is  supported  by  the  city.  Students  are 
admitted  who  have  passed  the  highest  grade  of 
the  grammar  schools.  The  full  course  com- 


402 


NEW  YORK  (CITY) 


prises  five  years,  the  first  year  being  intro- 
ductory. Students  may  choose  between  the 
ancient  course,  with  Latin,  Greek,  and  a  mod- 


Normal  College. 

ern  language,  and  the  modern  course,  with 
French,  German,  and  Spanish,  or  Latin  instead 
of  German  or  Spanish.  The  other  studies  are 
the  same  in  both  courses  and  similar  to  those 
of  other  colleges.  In  the  introductory  class 
there  is  a  commercial  course  for  students  in- 
tending to  remain  but  one  year.  The  degree 
of  bachelor  of  arts  is  conferred  upon  those 
who  complete  the  ancient  course,  and  that  of 
bachelor  of  science  upon  those  who  complete 
the  modern  course.  There  are  professorships  of 
philosophy ;  of  English,  Latin,  Greek,  French, 
German,  and  Spanish  language  and  literature 
respectively;  of  history  and  belles-lettres;  of 
mathematics;  of  mechanics,  astronomy,  and 
engineering;  of  chemistry  and  physics;  of 
natural  history,  physiology,  and  hygiene ;  and 
of  descriptive  geometry  and  drawing.  The 
library  contains  22,000  volumes,  and  the  repos- 
itory 9,500  text  books.  In  1874-'5  there  were 
14  professors,  20  other  instructors,  and  824 
students,  viz. :  introductory  class,  479  (collegi- 
ate course  238,  commercial  course  241) ;  fresh- 
men, 145;  sophomores,  102;  juniors,  63;  se- 
niors, 35.  Of  the  345  students  in  the  collegiate 
classes,  197  were  pursuing  the  ancient  and  148 
the  modern  course.  The  expenditures  in  1874 
amounted  to  $162, 11 6  47,  of  which  $128,815  86 
was  for  salaries  of  instructors  and  janitors, 
and  $6,548  31  for  books  and  supplies  for  stu- 
dents.— Of  the  institutions  of  learning  not  con- 
nected with  the  city  government,  Columbia 
college  (Episcopal),  the  oldest  college  in  the 
state,  situated  on  Madison  avenue  and  50th 
street,  is  the  most  prominent.  (See  COLUMBIA 
COLLEGE.)  Connected  with  it  are  a  school  of 
mines,  a  law  school,  and  th^college  of  physicians 


and  surgeons.  The  law  school  is  in  Great  Jones 
street  and  Lafayette  place.  The  college  of  phy- 
sicians and  surgeons  has  a  valuable  physiologi- 
cal museum.  It  was 
founded  in  1791,  char- 
tered in  1807,  and  be- 
came connected  with 
Columbia  college  in 
1860.  The  building, 
in  4th  avenue  and  23d 
street,  is  of  brick  and 
rather  plain  in  appear- 
ance. The  university 
of  the  city  of  New 
York,  a  Gothic  white 
freestone  structure  in 
Washington  square, 
180  by  100  ft.,  four 
stories  high,  with  oc- 
tangular five  -  story 
turrets  at  the  angles, 
was  founded  in  1831. 
It  has  a  department 
of  arts  and  a  depart- 
ment of  science,  in 
which  instruction  is 
free.  A  school  of  art 
is  connected  with  the 
scientific  department. 

There  are  also  law  and  medical  departments; 
the  latter  is  conducted  in  E.  26th  street,  op- 
posite Bellevue  hospital.  Graduates  of  the 
law  department  as  well  as  of  the  Columbia 
college  law  school  are  admitted  to  the  New 
York  bar  without  examination.  The  number 
of  students  in  all  departments  of  the  university 
in  1873-'4  was  426,  of  whom  122  were  matric- 
ulated students  in  the  departments  of  arts  and 
science,  and  15  were  art  students.  The  faculty 
of  instruction  consisted  of  33  professors,  4  ad- 
junct professors,  and  6  assistants,  besides  the 
chancellor.  St.  John's  college,  at  Fordham, 
has  been  described  in  the  article  FOEDHAM. 
The  college  of  St.  Francis  Xavier,  in  W.  15th 
street,  has  besides  the  usual  curriculum  post- 
graduate, grammar,  commercial,  and  prepara- 
tory departments.  It  was  organized  in  1847 
and  chartered  as  a  college  in  1861.  Manhattan 
college,  near  131st  street  and  the  Boulevard, 
embraces  collegiate,  commercial,  and  prepara- 
tory courses.  These  three  are  Roman  Catholic 
institutions,  Manhattan  college  being  under  the 
direction  of  the  Christian  Brothers,  and  St. 
John's  and  St.  Francis  Xavier  of  the  Jesuits. 
Eutgers  female  college  occupies  a  handsome 
edifice  in  5th  avenue,  opposite  the  distributing 
reservoir.  It  has  collegiate,  academic,  and 
primary  departments.  It  was  established  in 
1838  and  chartered  as  a  college  in  1867.  St. 
Louis  college  (Roman  Catholic)  occupies  a  fine 
building  in^W.  42d  street,  and  is  under  the  di- 
rection of  the  fathers  of  mercy.  It  affords 
various  grades  of  instruction  from  the  kinder- 
garten to  the  collegiate.  The  classics  hold  a 
secondary  place  in  its  curriculum,  special  at- 
tention being  paid  to  modern  languages.  There 


NEW  YORK  (CITY) 


403 


are  two  extensive  theological  seminaries  in  the 
city.  The  first,  known  as  the  general  theolo- 
gical seminary  of  the  Protestant  Episcopal 
church  in  the  United  States,  was  established  in 
1819  at  New  Haven,  Conn.,  soon  after  removed 
to  New  York,  and  chartered  by  the  legislature 
in  1822.  It  occupies  two  substantial  stone 
buildings,  50  by  110  ft.,  in  9th  avenue  and  20th 
street.  The  Union  theological  seminary  (Pres- 
byterian) was  founded  in  1836,  chartered  in 
1839,  and  is  open  for  students  from  every  de- 
nomination of  Christians;  but  the  applicant 
must  be  a  member  in  good  standing  of  an 
evangelical  church,  and  a  graduate  from  col- 
lege, or  able  to  pass  an  examination  in  the  usual 
college  branches.  The  course  of  study  occu- 
pies three  years.  The  edifice,  of  plain  brick, 
is  in  University  place,  near  Washington  square ; 
it  contains  a  chapel,  four  lecture  rooms,  a 
library,  and  private  rooms  for  about  80  stu- 
dents. A  new  site  was  purchased  some  years 
since  in  the  upper  part  of  the  island,  but  the 
directors,  desiring  a  more  central  situation, 
have  appointed  a  committee  to  secure  another, 
which  has  not  yet  reported.  Besides  those  al- 
ready named,  there  are  six  medical  colleges,  a 


dental  college,  and  a  college  of  pharmacy,  viz. : 
Bellevue  hospital  medical  college;  the  homoeo- 
pathic medical  college  of  the  state  of  New 
York,  3d  avenue  and  23d  street;  the  New 
York  medical  college  and  hospital  for  women, 
2d  avenue  and  12th  street;  the  woman's  med- 
ical college  of  the  New  York  infirmary  for  wo- 
men and  children;  Eclectic  medical  college, 
admitting  both  sexes,  26th  street  between  2d 
and  3d  avenues,  with  a  medical  dispensary; 
New  York  free  medical  college  for  women,  in 
St.  Mark's  place,  with  a  free  dispensary ;  New 
York  college  of  dentistry,  in  2d  avenue  near 
23d  street,  with  a  museum  and  an  infirmary 
for  the  treatment  of  the  indigent ;  and  the  col- 
lege of  pharmacy  of  the  city  of  New  York,  in 
the  university  building.  The  New  York  col- 
lege of  veterinary  surgeons,  in  Lexington  ave- 
nue, is  the  only  institution  in  the  United  States 
specially  devoted  to  veterinary  education.  It 
was  incorporated  in  1857,  but  did  not  go  into 
operation  till  1864.  It  has  a  hospital  connect- 
ed with  it,  and  a  museum  containing  more 
than  1,500  valuable  specimens.  The  following 
table  embraces  the  latest  statistics  of  the  differ- 
ent collegiate  and  professional  institutions : 


INSTITUTIONS. 

Date  of  In- 
corporation. 

Number 
of  in- 
etructors. 

Number  of 
itudents. 

Volumes  in 

libraries. 

Columbia  college  (academic  department). 

1754 

15 

151 

17  500 

Columbia  college  (school  of  mines) 

1864 

24 

201 

4-  fiflO 

University  of  the  city  of  New  York  (departments  of  arts  and  science)  
St.  John's  college 

1831 
1846 

15 

26 

137 
186 

4,500 
17  000 

College  of  St.  Francis  Xavier  

1861 

27 

479 

16000 

Manhattan  college  

1863 

48 

694 

10000 

Rutgers  female  college. 

1867 

13 

100 

g'ooo 

St.  Louis  college  . 

15 

115 

1  500 

General  theological  seminary  ... 

1822 

6 

73 

15000 

Union  theological  seminary 

1889 

11 

117 

83000 

Columbia  college  law  school  

1858 

3 

438 

4000 

University  of  the  city  of  New  York  (law  department) 

1859 

5 

32 

2500 

College  of  physicians  and  surgeons  (medical  department  of  Columbia  college).  .  .  . 
University  of  the  city  of  New  York  (medical  department)  

1807 
1837 

26 

22 

421 
257 

1,200 

Bellevue  hospital  medical  college  

1861 

29 

•  472 

* 

Homoeopathic  medical  college  of  the  state  of  New  York  . 

1860 

19 

102 

New  York  medical  college  and  hospital  for  women 

1863 

16 

25 

Woman's  medical  college  of  the  New  York  infirmary  for  women  and  children  .  .  . 
Eclectic  medical  college 

1864 
1865 

20 
11 

87 
38 

New  York  free  medical  college  for  women  

1871 

14 

New  York  college  of  dentistry. 

1865 

9 

68 

College  of  pharmacy  of  the  city  of  New  York  

1831 

4 

135 

1000 

New  York  college  of  veterinary  surgeons  

1857 

8 

The  Catholics  have  about  30  select  schools  and 
academies,  with  from  2,500  to  3,000  pupils,  and 
56  parochial  schools,  with  about  28,000  pupils. 
There  are  numerous  other  denominational  and 
private  schools.  The  oldest  school  in  the  city 
is  that  of  the  Reformed  (Dutch)  church,  in  W. 
29th  street,  founded  in  1633.  Trinity  school 
(Episcopal),  in  7th  avenue,  was  founded  in 
1709.  The  Cooper  union  for  the  advancement 
of  science  and  art  (see  COOPEE,  PETEE)  occu- 
pies a  fine  edifice  of  six  stories,  195  ft.  on  4th 
avenue,  143  on  8th  street,  155  on  3d  avenue, 
and  86  on  7th  street,  costing  $650,000.  In  the 
basement  is  a  large  lecture  room  125  ft.  by  82, 
and  21  ft.  high,  in  which  many  political  and 
other  public  meetings  are  held.  The  building 
contains  a  free  library ;  a  free  reading  room, 
%**:*1*  more  than  300  American  and  foreign 


with 


newspapers  and  periodicals;  free  schools  of 
art,  wood  engraving,  photography,  and  teleg- 
raphy for  women ;  a  free  night  school  of  art 
for  men;  and  a  free  night  school  of  science  for 
both  sexes.  Free  lectures  are  given  by  distin- 
guished scientific  men  in  the  large  hall  every 
Saturday  evening  during  the  winter.  The  pro- 
fessors of  science  may  be  consulted  without 
cost  by  inventors  or  manufacturers  of  new 
processes.  The  number  of  instructors  con- 
nected with  the  institution  in  1873-'4  was  19  ; 
number  of  pupils  admitted  to  the  art  school 
for  women,  201 ;  school  of  wood  engraving, 
39  ;  school  of  telegraphy,  120 ;  night  school  of 
science,  1,160;  night  school  of  art,  1,505.  The 
Cooper  union,  or  Cooper  institute  as  it  is  com- 
monly called,  was  opened  in  1859,  and  the 
amount  expended  in  carrying  on  its  various 


404: 


NEW  YORK  (CITY) 


departments  to  the  beginning  of  1874  was 
$529,394  72,  the  greater  portion  of  which  was 
raised  by  renting  parts  of  the  building.  There 
are  a  number  of  commercial  colleges  and  musi- 
cal conservatories  and  schools. — The  American 
institute  was  incorporated  in  1829,  and  is  de- 


Academy  of  Design. 

signed  for  the  promotion  of  agriculture,  com- 
merce, manufactures,  science,  and  the  arts.  It 
has 'a  valuable  library  in  the  Cooper  institute, 
where  its  meetings  are  held.  Fairs  are  held 
annually  in  October  under  its  auspices  in  the 
capacious  building  in  3d  avenue  and  63d 
street,  which  attract  great  numbers  of 
visitors.  At  the  close,  premiums  and 
medals  are  awarded  to  exhibitors.  The 
American  geographical  society,  also  in 
the  Cooper  institute,  was  organized  in 
1852.  It  has  a  valuable  library  of 
works  devoted  to  geographical  science 
and  a  collection  of  2,000  maps  and 
charts.  The  New  York  historical  soci- 
ety, in  2d  avenue  and  llth  street, 
founded  in  1804,  has  a  library  par- 
ticularly rich  in  American  history, 
and  possesses  the  Abbott  collection  of 
Egyptian  antiquities,  the  Lenox  collec- 
tion of  Nineveh  sculptures,  a  fine  gallery 
of  paintings,  &c.  The  lyceum  of  natu- 
ral history,  in  Madison  avenue,  besides 
a  good  library,  has  a  collection  of  3,000 
specimens  of  plants.  The  American 
museum  of  natural  history,  in  Central 
park,  was  incorporated  in  1869.  Its 
collections  embrace  Indian  antiquities, 
minerals,  shells,  and  stuffed  and  mount- 
ed specimens  of  animals,  birds,  fishes,  insects, 
&c.  It  has  a  library  comprising  1,000  volumes 
of  rare  conchological  and  scientific  works.  It 
is  open  to  the  public,  except  on  Mondays  and 
Tuesdays,  which  are  reserved  for  special  stu- 
dents and  the  teachers  and  pupils  of  the  pub- 
lic schools.  The  metropolitan  museum  of  art, 


in  W.  14th  street,  besides  a  gallery  of  paint- 
ings by  the  old  masters,  contains  the  Cesnola 
collection  of  Cypriote  antiquities,  and  collec- 
tions loaned  by  wealthy  citizens,  embracing 
modern  pictures  and  statuary,  pottery  and  por- 
celain, arms  and  armor,  medieval  manuscripts, 
antique  and  mediaeval  cu- 
riosities, and  various  arti- 
cles of  vertu.  Admission 
is  free  on  Mondays;  on 
other  days  a  small  fee  is 
charged.  The  national 
academy  of  design,  found- 
ed in  1826,  occupies  a 
unique  building  of  gray 
and  white  marble  and  blue 
stone  in  23d  street  and 
4th  avenue.  It  has  a  col- 
lection of  paintings,  and 
in  spring  and  summer 
gives  exhibitions  of  recent 
works  of  American  artists. 
It  also  maintains  free 
schools  for  advanced  stu- 
dents in  art. — Booth's  the- 
tre,  in  23d  street  and  6th 
avenue,  is  a  fine  capa- 
cious edifice,  built  of  Con- 
cord granite  in  the  renais- 
sance style,  149  ft.  long 
and  99  ft.  high,  including  the  Mansard  roof 
of  24  ft.  The  Grand  opera  house,  in  8th 
avenue  and  23d  street,  is  a  handsome  white 
marble  structure  in  the  Italian  order,  113  by 
98  ft.,  and  80  ft.  high  from  base  to  cornice. 
The  Lyceum  theatre,  in  14th  street  near  6th 


Booth's  Theatre. 

avenue,  has  a  handsome  front  and  portico  in 
the  classical  style.  In  all  of  these  general  dra- 
matic representations  are  given.  The  other 
theatres  have  little  architectural  attraction, 
but  many  of  them  are  capacious  and  elegantly 
furnished.  The  leading  comedy  theatres  are 
"Wallack's,  in  Broadway  and  13th  street;  the 


NEW  YORK  (CITY) 


405 


Union  Square,  near  it ;  and  the  Fifth  Avenue, 
in  28th  street  near  Broadway.  Niblo's  thea- 
tre, in  Broadway  near  Prince  street,  has  been 
devoted  in  recent  years  chiefly  to  spectacular 
pieces.  Miscellaneous  dramas  are  represented 
at  "Wood's  museum,  Broadway  near  30th  street, 
the  Park  theatre,  Broadway  near  22d  street, 
and  the  Bowery,  in  the  Bowery  near  Canal 
street;  German  plays  in  the  Stadt  and  Ger- 
mania  theatres,  the  former  in  the  Bowery  near 
Canal  street,  and  the  latter  in  14th  street  near 
3d  avenue;  varieties  in  Tony  Pastor's  opera 
house,  Bowery  near  Spring  street,  and  Theatre 
Comique,  Metropolitan,  Olympic,  and  Globe 
theatres,  all  in  Broadway  between  Broome 
street  and  Astor  place;  and  minstrelsy  in 
Bryant's  opera  house,  23d  street  near  6th  ave- 
nue, and  San  Francisco  minstrel  hall,  Broad- 
way near  29th  street.  The  academy  of  music, 
in  14th  street  and  Irving  place,  is  devoted  chief- 
ly to  grand  opera ;  and  Stein  way  hall,  nearly 
adjoining  it,  is  used  for  concerts  and  lectures. 
The  square  bounded  by  4th  and  Madison  ave- 
nues and  26th  and  27th  streets  is  occupied  by 
the  hippodrome,  erected  and  opened  by  P.  T. 
Barnum.  In  the  Central  Park  garden,  7th 
avenue  and  59th  street,  concerts  are  nightly 
given  during  the  summer,  to  audiences  of  from 
1,000  to  2,500  persons,  by  Theodore  Thomas's 
orchestra  of  50  performers.  In  the  Bowery 
are  numerous  German  gardens,  the  largest 
and  most  popular  of  which  is  the  Atlantic, 
near  Canal  street,  where  from  1,000  to  1,500 
Germans  nightly  listen  to  orchestral  music  and 
drink  beer.  The  Tivoli,  in  8th  street  near  3d 
avenue,  and  Terrace  garden,  in  58th  street  near 
3d  avenue,  are  also  places  of  popular  resort, 
chiefly  for  Germans.  The  leading  clubs  are  the 
Union  (founded  in  1836),  the  Travellers'  (1865), 
and  the  Knickerbocker  in  5th  avenue,  the  Army 
and  Navy  (1871)  in  W.  27th  street,  and  the  New 
York  at  the  junction  of  Broadway,  5th  ave- 
nue, and  25th  street,  chiefly  social;  the  Cen- 
tury (1847)  in  E.  15th  street  near  Union  square, 
the  Lotos  (1870)  in  Irving  place,  the  Arca- 
dian (1871)  in  Union  place,  literary;  the  Pa- 
lette (1869)  in  E.  22d  street,  composed  of  art- 
ists ;  the  Union  League  (1863),  occupying  a 
fine  building  in  Madison  avenue  and  26th 
street,  and  the  Manhattan  (1864)  in  5th  avenue, 
political,  the  former  republican  and  the  latter 
democratic;  and  the  New  York  Yacht  club 
(1844)  and  the  American  Jockey  club,  in  Madi- 
son avenue  and  27th  street,  sporting,  the  latter 
having  a  house  at  Fordham.  The  Union  League 
club  was  organized  during  the  civil  war,  and 
was  active  in  aiding  the  federal  cause. — The 
Astor  library,  in  Lafayette  place,  was  founded 
by  a  legacy  from  John  Jacob  Astor  in  1848 ;  it 
is  for  study  and  reference,  no  books  being  taken 
away.  (See  ASTOK  LIBRARY.)  The  mercantile 
library  in  Astor  place,  and  the  apprentices' 
library  in  Broadway,  both  established  in  1820, 
and  the  society  library  in  University  place, 
organized  in  1754,  are  lending  libraries,  and 
have  reading  rooms  supplied  with  the  principal 


American  and  foreign  magazines  and  newspa- 
pers. The  privileges  of  the  mercantile  library 
are  obtained  by  the  payment  of  small  annual 
dues.  The  society  library  occupies  a  building 
70  by  100  ft.  It  belongs  to  shareholders,  but 
others  are  entitled  to  its  privileges  upon  the 
payment  of  periodical  dues.  The  apprentices' 
library  belongs  to  the  "  General  Society  of 
Mechanics  and  Tradesmen  of  the  City  of  New 
York."  It  is  free  to  apprentices ;  other  per- 
sons are  required  to  pay  small  annual  dues. 
The  principal  law  libraries  are  that  of  the 
New  York  law  institute  in  Chambers  street, 
accessible  to  members  of  the  bar  on  payment 
of  an  initiation  fee  and  annual  dues,  and  that 
of  the  "Association  of  the  Bar  of  the  City  of 
New  York  "  in  W.  27th  street,  incorporated  in 
1871.  The  city  library  in  the  city  hall,  free  to 
all,  is  a  collection  consisting  chiefly  of  the  city 
documents  and  the  laws  and  ordinances  of 
other  cities.  The  Mott  memorial  free  medical 
and  surgical  library,  in  Madison  avenue,  was 
founded  by  the  widow  of  Dr.  Valentine  Mott, 
and  comprises  his  medical  library  of  2,000  vol- 
umes, 800  volumes  contributed  by  Dr.  Alex- 
ander B.  Mott,  and  other  donations  and  pur- 
chases. The  other  principal  libraries  of  a  pub- 
lic character  are  the  eclectic  (circulating),  in 
17th  street  near  Irving  place ;  the  printers'  free 
library,  in  Chambers  street ;  the  woman's  libra- 
ry, in  Bleecker  street,  belonging  to  the  work- 
ing women's  protective  union;  that  of  the 
"New  York  Medical  Library  and  Journal  As- 
sociation," in  E.  28th  street;  the  Harlem  li- 
brary; and  the  Washington  Heights  library. 
There  are  also  a  number  of  circulating  libraries, 
consisting  chiefly  of  novels.  The  number  of 
volumes  in  the  various  libraries  not  connected 
with  institutions  of  learning  is  as  follows : 


LIBRARIES. 

Vol- 
ume*. 

LIBRARIES. 

Vol- 
umes. 

Astor  

148,000 

New  York  hospital.  . 

9,720 

Mercantile             

148,000 

Bar  association  

8,000 

Society 

64,000 

Harlem  

6,090 

Apprentices'  

50,000 
40000 

Lyceum    of    natural 
"history  

5,000 

30000 

City                      

4,000 

Law  institute  
Cooper  union  
Geographical  society. 

17,500 
12,600 
11,000 
10704 

Mott  memorial  
Medical    library  and 
journal  association 

4,000 

8,545 
3,500 

American  mstuute  „  . 

3,000 

tian  association  

10,000 

Washington  Heights. 

2,565 

The  Lenox  library  (free),  founded  by  James 
Lenox,  a  wealthy  citizen,  was  chartered  in 
1870.  A  splendid  building  of  Lockport  lime- 
stone has  been  erected  by  Mr.  Lenox,  occupy- 
ing the  entire  5th  avenue  front  between  70th 
and  71st  streets,  facing  Central  park;  but  the 
library  has  not  yet  been  opened.  It  is  to  re- 
ceive the  "collection  of  manuscripts,  printed 
books,  engravings  and  maps,  statuary,  paint- 
ings, drawings,  and  other  works  of  art"  made 
by  the  founder,  and  particularly  rich  in  early 
American  history,  Biblical  bibliography,  and 
Elizabethan  literature.  Other  donations  have 


406 


NEW  YOKE  (CITY) 


been  made  to  the  trustees,  of  which  the  most 
important  is  that  of  Felix  Astoin,  comprising 
about  5,000  French  works. — The  latest  statis- 


Lenox  Library. 

tics  of  churches  are  contained  in  the  table  be-  ! 
low,  besides  which  there  are  25  or  30  in  the 
new  wards : 


DENOMINATIONS. 

Number  of 

organization!. 

Number  of 
missions. 

Number  of 
edifices. 

Number 
of 
sittings. 

Value 
of 
edifices. 

Baptist*  

Congregational          

83 

4 

13 

4 

80 

s 

28,000 
2500 

$1,705,000 
450000 

Disciples 

1 

o 

1 

600 

26000 

Evangelical  

1 

0 

1 

750 

37.000 

Friends  
German  Evangelical  Re-  | 
formed..                        j 

3 
1 

3 
0 

3 
1 

2,000 
700 

375,000 
82,500 

Jewish 

27 

o 

17 

13650 

1  545000 

Lutheran  

14 

7 

19 

15000 

425'000 

Methodist  Episcopal  
Methodist      Episcopal,  1 
African        .                  j 

40 
5 

18 
0 

44 
4 

40,000 
3,000 

2,161,500 
120,000 

Methodist  Protestant  .  .  . 
Methodist,  Welsh  Cal-  ( 
vinistic...                      | 

1 
1 

0 
0 

1 
1 

750 

750 

35,000 
28,000 

Methodist,  Free  
Moravian  

1 
1 

0 
1 

1 
<> 

800 
1500 

47,000 
84000 

Presbyterian  
Presbyterian,  Reformed 
Presbyterian,  United.  . 
Protestant  Episcopal.   . 
Reformed  

43 
4 

7 
66 

18 

27 
3 
1 
26 
8 

53 
8 
6 
80 
21 

55,000 
2,500 
4,500 
60,000 
20000 

4,550,000 
105,000 
275,000 
7,500,000 
2  320  000 

Roman  Catholic  

40 
1 

0 

o 

40 
1 

56,000 
750 

5,400,000 
100  000 

Unitarian    

8 

ff 

2 

3500 

400000 

Universalist                  .   . 

3 

4 

3 

3500 

435000 

Union 

9 

5 

13 

7800 

625  000 

Miscellaneous  

5 

18 

1 

700 

so'ooo 

Total  

W 

1S8 

S41 

224,250 

$28  811,000 

The  miscellaneous  churches  and  missions  in- 
clude one  Catholic  Apostolic  (Irvingite),  one 
Christian  Israelite,  one  Congregational  Meth- 
odist, one  German  Swedenborgian,  one  Greek, 
one  Seventh-day  Baptist,  and  one  True  Ee- 
formed  Dutch.  There  are  also  four  societies 

*  Including  one  Freewill  Baptist 


of  Second  Adventists  and  four  of  Spiritualists. 
There  are  356  Protestant  (evangelical)  Sab- 
bath schools,  with  88,237  scholars  enrolled, 
and  an  average  atten- 
dance of  56,167,  and 
62  Catholic,  Jewish, 
&c.,  Sabbath  schools, 
with  27,589  scholars 
enrolled,  and  an  av- 
erage attendance  of 
18,274.— The  press  of 
New  York  in  num- 
bers and  influence 
takes  the  lead  in  the 
United  States.  The 
number  of  newspa- 
pers and  periodicals, 
according  to  Rowell's 
"  American  Newspa- 
per Directory "  for 
1874,  was  398,  besides 
10  semi- weekly  and 
20  weekly  editions  of 
daily  papers,  viz. 
daily,  28  (including  6 
German,  2  French, 
and  1  Swedish),  of 

which  18  were  morning  and  10  evening  papers ; 
semi- weekly,  7  (1  Italian  and  1  Spanish) ;  week- 
ly, 156  (13  German,  2  Spanish,  1  French,  and 
1  Swedish) ;  tri-monthly,  1  (Spanish) ;  bi- 
weekly, 2  (1  German);  semi-monthly,  20  (2 
German  and  2  Spanish)  ;  monthly,  168  (3  Ger- 
man, 1  Portuguese,  and  1  Spanish)  ;  bi-month- 
ly, 1 ;  quarterly,  15  (1  German).  The  whole 
number  printed  in  foreign  languages  was  40, 
viz. :  German,  26 ;  Spanish,  7 ;  French,  3  ;  Swe- 
dish, 2 ;  and  Italian  and  Portuguese,  1  each. 
There  are  7  special  Sunday  papers  and  7  Sun- 
day editions  of  daily  papers. — Henry  Hudson 
discovered  Manhattan  island  in  September, 
1609,  anchoring  in  New  York  harbor  on  the 
llth,  and  sailing  up  the  Hudson  on  the 
12th.  The  Dutch,  in  whose  service  Hudson 
sailed,  despatched  vessels  in  the  following 
years  to  this  region  to  trade  with  the  Indians 
for  furs,  but  the  first  settlement  on  the  isl- 
and appears  to  have  been  made  in  1623.  In 
1624  Cornells  Jacobsen  May  was  formally  in- 
stalled as  the  first  director  or  governor,  and 
was  succeeded  the  next  year  by  William  Ver- 
hulst.  In  1626  Peter  Minuit  arrived  as  direc- 
tor general,  with  more  ample  powers  for  the 
organization  of  a  regular  government.  The 
same  year  Fort  Amsterdam  on  the  S.  point  of 
the  island,  now  the  Battery,  was  commenced. 
Minuit  purchased  Manhattan  island  of  the  In- 
dians for  goods  worth  $24.  W  outer  van  Twil- 
ler  became  governor  in  1633,  and  William  Kieft 
in  1638.  In  1644  a  fence  was  built  nearly  on 
the  line  of  the  present  Wall  street,  and  in  1653 
the  city  was  enclosed  along  this  line  from  the 
East  to  the  North  river  by  a  ditch  and  pali- 
sades with  breastworks.  Peter  Stuyvesant,  the 
last  of  the  Dutch  governors,  arrived  in  1647, 
and  ruled  for  17  years.  Charles  II.,  having 


NEW  YORK  (CITY) 


407 


come  to  the  English  throne,  assumed  the  Dutch 
occupancy  in  North  America  to  be  a  usurpa- 
tion, and  on  March  12,  1664,  granted  the  entire 
territory  to  his  brother  the  duke  of  York.  A 
small  fleet  arrived  in  August,  and  the  city  sur- 
rendered without  resistance,  Col.  Richard  Ni- 
colls  assuming  the  office  of  governor.  The 
name  (New  Amsterdam)  was  changed  to  New 
York,  and  an  English  form  of  government  was 
established,  which  lasted  nine  years.  In  July, 
1673,  the  Dutch  recaptured  the  city,  named 
it  New  Orange,  made  Anthony  Colve  gov- 
ernor, and  drove  out  the  English.  Their  tri- 
umph was  short,  for  by  the  peace  between 
England  and  the  states  general  the  city  was 
restored  to  the  British  crown,  and  once  more 
called  New  York,  and  the  Dutch  power  was 
finally  ended,  Nov.  10,  1674.  For  the  remain- 
der of  the  17th  century  the  progress  of  the 
city  was  rapid.  The  only  untoward  event  of 
the  period  was  the  unsuccessful  rebellion  of 
Jacob  Leisler  in  1689.  (See  LEISLER.)  The 
first  Trinity  church  was  built  in  1696.  In  1702 
a  malignant  epidemic  prevailed.  The  "New 
York  Gazette,"  the  fifth  newspaper  in  the  col- 
onies, was  begun  in  1725,  and  Zenger's  "New 
York  Weekly  Journal "  in  1733.  In  1735  oc- 
curred the  first  great  libel  suit  in  the  city,  re- 
garded as  an  attack  upon  the  freedom  of  the 
press.  It  grew  out  of  the  claim  of  Gov.  Cosby 
to  half  the  salary  of  his  acting  predecessor. 
The  people  took  up  the  quarrel,  the  "  Gazette  " 
supporting  Cosby  and  the  "  Journal  "  violent- 
ly opposing  Mm.  Zenger  was  imprisoned  for 
libel,  and  Cosby's  party  strained  every  nerve 
to  convict  him,  but  the  jury  acquitted  him. 
The  year  1741  was  remarkable  for  the  sup- 
posed discovery  of  a  plot  on  the  part  of  the 
negroes  (slavery  having  been  introduced  at  an 
early  period)  to  burn  the  city  and  murder  the 
whites,  which  derived  some  support  from  the 
burning  of  a  part  of  the  public  buildings  in 
that  year  and  the  breaking  out  of  fires  in  other 
places  about  the  same  time.  Mainly  upon  the 
testimony  of  a  single  servant  girl  more  than  150 
negroes  and  about  20  whites  were  imprisoned. 
About  20  of  the  negroes  were  hanged,  a  smaller 
number  burned  at  the  stake,  and  more  than  75 
transported.  In  1765  a  congress  of  delegates 
from  nine  colonies  met  in  the  city,  and  adopted 
a  bill  of  rights,  in  which  they  asserted  that 
the  sole  power  of  taxation  resided  in  the  colo- 
nies. In  the  same  year  the  "  Sons'of  Liberty  " 
were  organized  to  oppose  the  stamp  act.  In 
1770  a  meeting  of  3,000  citizens  was  held,  who 
resolved  not  to  submit  to  oppression,  and  a  slight 
collision  with  the  troops  occurred.  In  1773 
the  vigilance  committee  agreed  to  resist  the 
landing  of  tea,  and  in  1774  a  ship  thus  laden 
was  sent  back  to  England,  and  18  chests  found 
in  another  vessel  were  thrown  overboard.  On 
April  3,  1775,  the  colonial  assembly  finally  ad- 
journed ;  on  July  25  delegates  were  elected  to 
the  continental  congress ;  and  on  Aug.  23  con- 
gress ordered  Capt.  Lamb  to  remove  the  can- 
non from  the  city  forts  to  the  Highlands.  Re- 


sistance was  offered  from  the  Asia  man-of-war, 
but  21  pieces,  all  that  were  mounted,  were  se- 
cured. On  Sept.  15, 1776,  by  the  result  of  the 
battle,  of  Long  Island,  the  city  fell  into  the  hands 
of  the  British,  and  so  remained  until  the  close 
of  the  war.  On  Sept.  21, 1776,  an  extensive  fire 
occurred,  all  the  west  side  of  Broadway  from 
Whitehall  to  Barclay  street  being  laid  in  ashes. 
On  Aug.  7,  1778,  a  fire  destroyed  300  build- 
ings around  Cruger's  wharf,  on  the  East  river. 
The  winter  of  1780  was  very  cold  ;  ice  covered 
the  bay,  and  heavy  teams  and  artillery  crossed 
to  Staten  island.  On  Nov.  25,  1783,  the  Brit- 
ish finally  evacuated  the  city,  and  Gen.  Wash- 
ington marched  in ;  the  day  is  still  annually 
celebrated  under  the  name  of  evacuation  day. 
During  the  war  tbe  British  had  nearly  de- 
stroyed all  the  churches  except  the  Episcopal, 
making  prisons,  riding  schools,  and  stables  of 
them  ;  the  college  and  schools  had  been  closed. 
The  city  was  the  seat  of  the  colonial  govern- 
ment until  the  revolution.  From  1784  to  1797 
it  was  the  state  capital,  though  two  sessions  of 
the  legislature  were  held  at  Poughkeepsie  and 
three  at  Albany  during  the  period.  From  1785 
to  1790  it  was  the  seat  of  government  of  the 
United  States.  The  adoption  of  the  federal 
constitution  was  grandly  celebrated  in  1788 ; 
and  the  inauguration  of  President  Washington 
took  place  at  the  city  hall,  April  30,  1789.  In 
1788  a  serious  riot  occurred  at  the  hospital,  in 
consequence  of  the  careless  exposure  of  dis- 
sected bodies.  The  doctors  were  mobbed,  and 
their  houses  invaded ;  some  of  them  fled  from 
the  city,  and  others  took  refuge  in  the  jail.  In 
1791  yellow  fever  carried  off  200  victims.  The 
city,  now  just  reaching  the  lower  corner  of 
the  present  City  Hall  park,  began  to  extend 
along  the  Boston  road  (Bowery)  and  Broad- 
way. In  1795  732,  and  in  1798  2,086  persons 
died  from  yellow  fever,  which  returned  at  inter- 
vals till  1805,  but  with  diminishing  virulence. 
On  Sept.  20,  1803,  the  corner  stone  of  the  city 
hall  was  laid  by  Mayor  Livingston ;  the  hall 
was  finished  in  1812,  when  the  old  one  in  Wall 
street  was  sold.  In  the  winter  of  1804,  40 
stores  in  Wall,  Front,  and  Water  streets  were 
burned.  The  free  school  society,  the  germ  of 
the  present  board  of  education,  was  incorpo- 
rated in  1805.  The  streets  were  now  extending 
across  the  Canal  street  marsh,  while  the  collect 
or  swamp  where  the  city  prison  now  stands 
was  being  filled  up.  The  spread  of  population 
was  stimulated  by  the  yellow  fever,  which  drove 
a  third  of  the  people  from  their  dwellings  be- 
low the  park  to  the  woods  and  fields  north  of 
the  fresh  water.  In  1807  Robert  Fulton  navi- 
gated the  first  steamboat  from  near  New  York 
to  Albany.  A  great  fire  in  Chatham  street  in 

1811  consumed  nearly  100  houses.    The  war  of 

1812  with  Great  Britain  temporarily  checked 
the  city's  growth.     In  1821  the  survey  and  lay- 
ing out  of  the  island  north  of  Houston  street 
was  completed  after  10  years'  labor.     In  the 
winter  of  this  year  the  bay  was  frozen  over 
for  the  first  time  in  41  years.    Yellow  fever 


408 


NEW  YOKE  (CITY) 


reappeared  in  1819,  and  again  in  1822  and  1823, 
occasioning  a  great  panic ;  the  city  south  of 
the  park  was  fenced  off  and  nearly  deserted, 
families,  merchants,  hanks,  and  even  the  city 
government,  removing  to  Greenwich  (now  the 
9th  ward)  and  upper  Broadway.  This  panic 
materially  improved  property  north  of  Canal 
street,  and  correspondingly  expanded  the  city. 
Gas  first  came  into  general  use  in  1825.  The 
city  now  had  12  wards,  and  was  growing  at 
the  rate  of  1,000  to  1,500  houses  a  year — a 
growth  occasioned  by  the  completion  of  the 
Erie  canal,  the  first  boat  from  which  arrived 
Nov.  4,  1825.  The  canal  celebration  was  the 
grandest  affair  ever  known  in  the  country.  In 
the  next  decade  New  York  received  some  se- 
vere blows  from  pestilence,  fire,  and  financial 
disaster.  The  cholera  appeared  in  1832,  carry- 
ing off  3,513  persons,  and  again  in  1834,  ta- 
king 971.  On  Dec.  16, 1835,  the  most  disastrous 
fire  known  to  the  city  swept  the  1st  ward  east 
of  Broadway  and  below  Wall  street,  destroy- 
ing 648  of  the  most  valuable  stores,  the  mer- 
chants' exchange  and  the  South  Dutch  church, 
and  property  valued  at  more  than  $18,000,000. 
With  almost  miraculous  energy  the  city  was 
rising  from  these  ashes,  when  the  financial  ex- 
plosion of  1837"  came,  with  suspension  of  spe- 
cie payments,  failures,  and  bankruptcy  through- 
out the  country.  Even  this,  however,  but  mo- 
mentarily checked  the  progress  of  the  city. 
In  1842  the  Croton  water  was  introduced.  On 
July  19,  1845,  a  great  fire  occurred  between 
Broadway,  Exchange  place,  Broad,  and  Stone 
streets,  destroying  over  $5,000,000  worth  of 
property.  Several  lives  were  lost  in  the  Astor 
place  riot  in  May,  1849,  growing  out  of  the  as- 
sumed hostility  of  two  prominent  actors.  (See 
MAOREADY.)  Cholera  came  again  in  the  sum- 
mer of  1849  and  carried  off  5,071  persons; 
again  in  1855,  when  374  died ;  and  lastly  in 
1866,  when  it  carried  off  1,212.  The  first  city 
railroad  (except  the  Harlem)  was  built  through 
6th  avenue  in  1852,  in  anticipation  of  the  pro- 
jected industrial  exhibition,  which  opened  with 
great  ceremony  (the  president  of  the  United 
States  officiating)  July  14,  1853,  in  a  magnifi- 
cent crystal  palace  in  the  form  of  a  Greek 
cross,  built  of  iron  and  glass,  365^-  ft.  in  diam- 
eter each  way,  with  galleries,  and  a  dome  123 
ft.  high  and  100  wide,  the  flooring  covering  5f 
acres.  This  building  was  burned  in  1858.  In 
1857  occurred  another  financial  panic.  In  the 
same  year  the  radical  change  in  the  control  of 
the  police  made  by  the  legislature,  and  the  re- 
sistance to  the  act  by  Mayor  Wood,  resulted 
in  popular  disturbances  in  June  and  July. 
Upon  the  outbreak  of  the  civil  war  the  citizens 
of  New  York  responded  heartily  in  behalf  of 
the  Union,  and  during  the  continuance  of  the 
struggle  the  city  furnished  116,382  men  (equiv- 
alent to  89,183  for  three  years)  to  the  federal 
armies,  at  a  net  cost  of  $14,577,214  65.  The 
only  serious  disturbance  during  this  period 
was  the  riot  that  broke  out  on  Monday,  July 
13, 1863,  in  opposition  to  the  draft.  The  mob, 


composed  of  the  poorer  class  of  the  people, 
held  practical  possession  of  the  city  for  sev- 
eral days,  and  it  was  not  until  the  17th  that 
the  mayor  issued  a  proclamation  declaring  the 
riot  suppressed.  The  offices  of  the  provost 
marshals  where  the  draft  was  going  on  were 
demolished  ;  stores  and  dwellings  were  rifled ; 
many  buildings  were  burned,  including  the 
colored  orphan  asylum,  then  in  5th  avenue; 
and  several  negroes,  against  whom  the  fury 
of  the  mob  was  particularly  directed,  were 
murdered.  Collisions  took  place  between  the 
rioters  and  the  troops,  who  were  several  times 
compelled  to  fire.  The  number  of  persons 
killed  during  the  riot  is  estimated  at  more  than 
1,000,  and  the  city  subsequently  paid  about 
$1,500,000  by  way  of  indemnity  for  losses  sus- 
tained at  the  hands  of  the  mob.  The  draft 
was  resumed  in  August  and  completed  with- 
out resistance.  Another  riot  occurred  on  July 
12,  1871,  in  which  62  persons  were  killed, 
growing  out  of  a  procession  of  Orangemen  in 
commemoration  of  the  battle  of  the  Boyne. 
Threats  having  been  made  by  their  enemies  to 
break  up  the  procession,  the  Orangemen  were 
provided  with  an  escort  of  militia.  They 
were  attacked  soon  after  the  procession  began 
its  march,  when  the  militia  fired  and  dispersed 
the  mob.  In  the  summer  of  1871  proofs  were 
furnished  that  enormous  frauds  had  been  per- 
petrated by  the  existing  officials  upon  the  city 
treasury,  raising  the  city  debt  in  2£  years  from 
$50,000,000  to  $113,000,000,  with  outstanding 
claims  to  an  unknown  amount  strll  unadjusted 
(1875).  One  of  the  chief  instruments  of  pecu- 
lation was  the  court  house,  large  sums  appro- 
priated for  its  construction  finding  their  way 
into  the  pockets  of  the  "  ring."  The  amount 
ostensibly  expended  in  its  erection  exceeds 
$12,000,000.  The  people  were  immediately 
aroused,  and  assembled  in  mass  meeting  in  the 
Cooper  institute  on  Sept.  4,  when  a  committee 
of  70  members  was  appointed,  to  take  the  ne- 
cessary measures  to  ascertain  the  true  state  of 
the  treasury,  to  recover  any  abstracted  mon- 
eys, and  to  secure  good  government  and  hon- 
est officers.  At  the  ensuing  November  elec- 
tion the  candidates  favorable  to  the  accused 
parties  were  defeated  by  large  majorities.  The 
latter  were  subsequently  prosecuted  and  some 
of  them  convicted  and  sentenced,  while  others 
fled  the  country.  Several  of  the  judges  were 
impeached,  and  resigned  or  were  removed  from 
office.  The  annexation  of  a  portion  of  West- 
chester  county  in  1873  has  already  been  re- 
ferred to. — The  original  charter  of  New  York 
city,  known  as  the  Dongan  charter,  was  granted 
by  James  II.  in  1686.  In  1730  the  Montgom- 
erie  charter  was  granted  by  George  II.,  and  in 
1732  it  was  confirmed  by  the  general  assembly 
of  the  province.  This  charter  was  of  the 
most  liberal  nature ;  it  made  New  York  prac- 
tically a  free  government,  established  an  elec- 
tive council,  and  gave  unusual  privileges  to  the 
people.  The  most  important  property  grants 
were  the  exclusive  possession  and  control  of 


NEW  ZEALAND 


409 


the  waters  to  low-water  mark  on  all  tlie  shores 
opposite  Manhattan  island,  with  the  ownership 
of  the  ferries  for  all  time,  and  the  proprietor- 
ship of  all  waste  and  unoccupied  lands  on  the 
island.  The  "mayor,  aldermen,  and  common- 
alty "  were  made  a  perpetual  corporation. 
No  direct  changes  were  made  in  this  charter 
for  100  years.  In  1829  the  people  in  city  con- 
vention prepared,  and  the  legislature  adopted, 
the  amended  charter  of  1830.  The  next  amend- 
ments were  in  1849,  when  important  changes 
were  made.  Other  changes  were  made  in  1851 
and  1853,  and  in  1857  the  charter  was  materi- 
ally changed.  It  was  again  amended  in  1863, 
and  in  1870  the  local  government  was  sub- 
stantially reorganized.  The  charter  of  1870, 
amended  in  1871,  was  superseded  by  the  pres- 
ent charter  in  1873,  and  this  was  itself  slightly 
amended  in  1874.  All  these  enactments  rec- 
ognize the  Dongan  and  Montgomerie  charters 
as  the  source  of  municipal  rights,  and  upon 
their  provisions  rest  the  vast  public  and  pri- 
vate interests  of  the  city. — See  "  History  of 
the  City  of  New  York,"  by  D.  T.  Valentine 
(1853)  ;  "  History  of  New  York  City,"  by  Mary 
L.  Booth  (2  vols.,  1867);  "History  of  New 
York  City,"  by  William  L.  Stone  (1872);  and 
"New  York  and  its  Institutions,  1609-1873: 
the  Bright  Side  of  New  York,"  by  the  Rev. 
J.  F.  Richmond  (1873). 

NEW  ZEALAND,  a  British  colony  consisting 
of  three  islands  in  the  South  Pacific  ocean, 
called  respectively  North  island  or  New  Ulster, 
South  island  or  New  Munster,  and  Stewart 
island  or  New  Leinster,  and  some  minor  ad- 
jacent islands,  extending  between  lat.  34°  15' 
and  47°  30'  S.,  and  Ion.  166°  30'  and  178°  45' 
E.,  about  1,000  m.  S.  E.  of  Australia ;  pop.  in 
1872,  279,560,  exclusive  of  about  40,000  abori- 
gines. North  island  is  500  m.  long  and  of  very 
irregular  shape,  varying  in  breadth  from  5  to 
300  m.  South  island  is  530  m.  long,  with  an 
average  breadth  of  110  m.  Stewart  island  is 
triangular,  and  measures  about  36  m.  on  each 
side.  North  island  contains  48,000  sq.  m., 
South  island  57,000,  and  Stewart  island  1,000 ; 
total  area,  106,000  sq.  m.  The  three  islands, 
like  Italy,  resemble  a  boot,  the  toe  of  which 
is  toward  the  north.  North  island  is  separa- 
ted from  South  island  by  Cook's  strait,  18  m. 
wide  in  its  narrowest  part;  and  South  from 
Stewart  island  by  Foveaux  strait,  15  m.  wide. 
The  coast  line  of  the  whole  group  is  about 
3,000  m.  in  length,  of  which  about  one  half 
belongs  to  North  island.  The  best  harbors 
of  this  island  are  in  the  north,  between  North 
cape  and  Cape  Colville,  including  Auckland 
and  other  excellent  ports.  South  of  Cape  Col- 
ville, on  the  E.  side,  for  the  space  of  200  m., 
there  are  only  two  safe  anchorages,  Mercury 
bay  and  Tauranga,  the  former  of  which  does 
not  admit  large  vessels.  On  the  remainder  of 
the  E.  coast,  for  a  distance  of  400  m.,  there  is 
no  safe  harbor  except  Wellington  at  the  S.  end 
of  the  island.  On  the  W.  coast  of  North  isl- 
and the  principal  harbors  are  Manukua,  Kai- 


para,  and  Hokianga,  which  are  spacious  and 
secure,  but  obstructed  by  sand  bars  at  the 
entrances.  At  the  N.  extremity  of  South  isl- 
and are  many  extensive  sounds  and  harbors 
with  deep  water ;  but  along  the  whole  of  the 
E.  coast,  for  500  m.,  the  only  harbors  are  Aka- 
roa,  Victoria,  and  Otago.  On  the  S.  and  S.  W. 
sides  of  this  island  ports  are  numerous  and 
excellent;  and  higher  up  on  the  W.  side  is 
Jackson's  bay,  a  safe  anchorage.  From  Jack- 
son's bay  northward,  300  m.,  the  rest  of  the  W. 
coast  of  South  island  is  open  and  exposed.  In 
Stewart  island  there  are  several  safe  harbors. 
The  tide  on  the  E.  coast  of  the  group  rises  to 
the  average  height  of  8  ft.,  and  on  the  W.  coast 
10  ft. — The  centre  of  North  island  is  occu- 
pied by  lofty  mountains,  which  send  off  spurs 
in  various  directions  to  the  seacoast,  and  are 
covered  from  their  bases  nearly  to  their  sum- 
mits with  primeval  forests.  The  highest  moun- 
tain of  the  central  range  is  Ruapehu,  9,195 
ft.  high,  rising  into  the  region  of  perpetual 
snow ;  one  of  its  peaks,  Tongariro,  is  an  ac- 
tive volcano,  6,500  ft.  high.  W.  <of  it,  near 
the  coast,  is  Mt.  Egmont,  a  volcano,  8,270  ft. 
high;  it  is  a  perfect  cone,  and  always  cap- 
ped with  snow.  Three  lines  of  volcanic  craters 
with  high  cones  stretch  across  the  island,  and 
in  the  centre  of  the  great  bay  of  Plenty  off  the 
N.  E.  coast  is  an  active  volcano  called  Wakari 
or  White  island,  3  m.  in  circumference  and 
860  ft.  high.  South  island  is  traversed  by  a 
mountain  range  running  from  the  N.  to  the  S. 
W.  extremity ;  in  some  places  it  reaches  an  ele- 
vation of  13,000  ft. ;  the  loftiest  peak  is  known 
as  Mt.  Cook  (13,200  ft.),  and  the  highest  por- 
tion of  the  range  as  the  Southern  Alps.  To- 
ward both  the  E.  and  W.  coasts  this  range  is 
abrupt  and  precipitous.  On  the  east  broad 
and  fertile  plains,  and  on  the  west  a  narrow 
strip  of  land,  lie  between  it  and  the  sea.  In 
the  centre  of  the  island  are  extensive  table 
lands.  There  are  no  active  volcanoes  in  South 
island.  Stewart  island  is  mountainous,  but  the 
highest  summits  barely  exceed  3,000  ft.— North 
island  abounds  in  rivers  and  inlets  of  the  sea, 
which  give  easy  access  to  the  most  inland  dis- 
tricts. The  largest  river,  the  Waikato,  rises 
in  the  Taupo  lake,  near  the  centre,  and  run- 
ning N.  200  m.  reaches  the  sea  on  the  W.  coast. 
Several  rivers  of  considerable  size  flow  from 
the  central  mountains  of  South  island  across 
the  great  eastern  plain  to  the  sea.  These  are 
subject  to  great  and  sudden  floods  from  the 
melting  of  the  mountain  snows.  The  inte- 
rior of  North  island  abounds  in  lakes,  one  of 
which,  Lake  Taupo,  is  30  m.  long  and  20  broad ; 
another,  Rotomahana,  is  in  parts  boiling  hot. 
There  are  several  extensive  lakes  in  the  cen- 
tre of  South  island,  one  of  which,  Te  Wai 
Pounamu,  is  said  to  be  of  a  green  color  and 
bordered  by  greenstone  rocks. — In  North  isl- 
and the  rocks  are  primary,  metamorphic,  vol- 
canic, trappean,  and  sedimentary.  The  moun- 
tains are  chiefly  composed  of  lower  slate  rocks, 
intersected  with  basaltic  veins,  scoriae,  slate, 


410 


NEW  ZEALAND 


primary  sandstone,  and  limestone.  The  rocks 
contain  sulphur,  alum,  manganese,  obsidian, 
iron,  copper,  silver,  gold,  and  other  minerals. 
In  the  limestone  districts  are  extensive  cav- 
erns. Hot  and  cold  springs,  impregnated  with 
sulphur,  iron,  and  silicious  matter,  abound. 
In  South  island  the  lower  rocks  are  clay  and 
metamorphic  schists,  intersected  by  dikes  of 
greenstone,  with  compact  and  amygdaloidal 
basalt.  The  plains  are  composed  of  clayey 
loam,  and  beds  of  coal  and  lignite  are  known 
to  exist.  Gold,  iron,  and  coal  abound,  and 
copper,  lead,  tin,  and  petroleum  are  found.  Iron 
sand,  or  steel,  as  the  natives  call  it,  is  found 
near  New  Plymouth  on  the  W.  coast  of  South 
island,  soft  to  the  touch,  but  almost  as  heavy 
as  iron,  from  which  it  is  said  75  per  cent,  of 
pure  metal  has  been  extracted.  Earthquakes 
are  very  frequent  in  New  Zealand.  Cook's 
strait  is  the  centre  of  the  earthquake  region. 
The  shocks  are  not  violent.  Throughout  the 
group  there  appears  to  be  a  gradual  rising  of 
the  land,  so  that  in  Cook's  strait  rocks  have 
appeared  where  none  were  visible  when  the 
country  was  first  discovered,  and  at  Port  Ni- 
cholson the  land  has  risen  several  feet  since 
1848.  "  New  Zealand,"  says  Dr.  Thomson,  "  is 
an  admirable  geological  school ;  there  travellers 
may  see  the  form  of  Vesuvius,  the  dome-shaped 
summits  of  Auvergne,  the  elevated  craters  of 
the  Caracas,  and  the  geysers  of  Iceland.  Taupo, 
Tongariro,  Rotomahana,  Rotorua,  and  "White 
island  are  almost  unrivalled  geological  curiosi- 
ties. Above  the  entombed  village  of  Te  Rapa, 
on  the  border  of  the  Taupo  lake,  basaltic  rocks 
may  be  seen  in  the  process  of  conversion  into 
soft  clay  by  heat  and  chemical  action ;  where 
the  Tongariro  river  falls  into  the  lake,  travel- 
lers may  observe  how  rapidly  pumice  stone 
and  other  deposits  are  lessening  the  size  of  this 
inland  sea.  Grand  and  beautiful  geysers  eject- 
ing water  2°  above  the  boiling  point,  and  hold- 
ing various  silicates  in  solution,  are  found 
around  the  lakes  of  Rotomahana  and  Rotorua. 
This  water  on  cooling  incrusts  every  substance 
it  comes  in  contact  with,  and  birds  thrown  into 
it  are  brought  out  like  pieces  of  flint."  (See 
GEYSER.) — The  flora  of  New  Zealand  is  as  re- 
markable as  its  geology.  It  is  characterized  by 
the  comparatively  large  number  of  trees  and 
ferns,  the  paucity  of  herbaceous  plants,  and 
the  almost  total  want  of  annuals.  There  are 
120  species  of  indigenous  trees,  and  more  than 
3,000  species  of  plants,  of  which  over  500  spe- 
cies of  flowering  plants  are  peculiar  to  the 
country.  The  coniferce  are  the  most  conspicu- 
ous natural  order,  although  with  comparatively 
few  species.  Almost  all  the  trees  are  ever- 
greens, and  the  change  of  seasons  consequently 
makes  little  difference  in  the  appearance  of  the 
forests.  The  most  remarkable  tree  is  the  Icauri 
pine,  which  is  found  only  in  the  N.  part  of 
North  island.  It  grows  to  great  size,  often  to 
a  circumference  of  40  ft.,  rising  to  the  height 
of  90  ft.  without  a  branch.  From  the  light- 
.ness  and  toughness  of  the  stem  it  is  well  adapt- 


ed for  masts.  It  produces  abundantly  a  gum 
which  becomes  very  valuable  after  lying  long 
buried  in  the  earth ;  it  is  dug  up  on  the  site 
of  ancient  forests,  and  is  a  considerable  article 
of  commerce.  The  totara  pine  equals  the  Icauri 
in  size  and  commercial  value ;  and  the  puriri, 
of  the  same  botanical  order  as  the  teak,  rivals 
the  English  oak  in  hardness,  and  has  a  girth 
of  20  ft.  One  palm  tree,  the  areca  sapida, 
grows  in  New  Zealand.  The  abundant  fern 
roots  of  the  country  formerly  supplied  the 
aborigines  with  food,  as  did  also  the  tender 
shoots  of  the  palm.  From  the  poisonous  tutu 
berries  they  expressed  a  wholesome  and  re- 
freshing drink.  The  trunks  of  the  Icauri  and 
totara  pines  served  for  canoes,  and  the  tough 
ti  tree  furnished  paddles  and  spears.  But 
the  main  reliance  of  the  natives  was  on  flax, 
which  was  used  for  building  and  thatching 
huts,  and  of  which  they  made  sails,  nets,  fish- 
ing tackle,  plates,  ropes,  baskets,  medicine,  and 
the  chief  part  of  their  clothing. — Thirteen  spe- 
cies of  sea  mammalia  are  found  on  the  coasts, 
viz.,  eight  whales,  two  dolphins,  and  three  seals. 
Dogs  and  rats  were  the  only  native  quadrupeds 
when  the  islands  were  first  visited  by  Euro- 
peans. The  native  rats  have  been  nearly  de- 
stroyed by  the  Norway  rat,  introduced  by  the 
English  settlers ;  and  the  native  dogs  are  now 
extinct,  no  care  having  been  taken  to  preserve 
them  after  the  introduction  of  swine,  which 
took  their  place  as  food  for  the  natives.  New 
Zealand  has  133  species  of  birds,  most  of  which 
have  plumage  of  dull  colors.  Of  the  falcon 
family  there  are  two  species :  the  kaku,  about 
the  size  of  a  pigeon,  and  the  karewarewa,  an 
active  sparrow  hawk.  The  only  species  of 
owl  is  called  by  the  natives  ku-ku  or  ru-ru, 
and  by  the  settlers  "more  pork,"  because  its 
cry  resembles  these  words.  The  Jiuia,  about 
the  size  of  a  blackbird,  has  four  long  tail  feath- 
ers tipped  with  white,  which  are  worn  by  the 
natives  as  ornaments  for  the  head.  The  tui, 
a  dark-colored  bird  of  the  honey  sucker  fam- 
ily, is  called  the  parson  by  the  Europeans  from 
two  snow-white  feathers  which  hang  under 
the  chin  like  a  clergyman's  bands;  it  is  also 
called  the  mocking  bird  from  its  powers  of  imi- 
tation. It  is  one  of  the  most  common  birds 
in  the  country.  Another  honeysucker,  called 
kokoromaka  by  the  natives  and  bell  bird  by 
the  settlers,  is  about  the  size  of  a  sparrow,  with 
a  long  beak,  and  is  a  famous  songster.  There 
is  one  species  of  crow,  a  small,  timid,  and  thiev- 
ish bird.  The  parrot  family  is  abundant,  and 
has  five  species,  three  of  which  are  small  green 
birds  with  different  colored  heads.  The  kaka 
is  a  large  brown  parrot,  great  numbers  of  which 
assemble  at  sunrise  and  sunset  on  berry-bear- 
ing trees,  uttering  discordant  screams,  which 
among  the  natives  serve  as  signals  for  the  be- 
ginning and  end  of  the  day's  labor.  The  ka- 
kapo,  or  night  parrot,  is  a  very  remarkable  spe- 
cies, about  the  size  of  a  common  fowl.  There 
is  one  species  of  pigeon,  a  large,  stupid  bird, 
very  numerous  and  much  used  for  food.  The 


NEW  ZEALAND 


411 


most  peculiar  birds  of  New  Zealand  are  three 
species  of  the  kiwi  or  apteryx,  allied  to  the 
gigantic  extinct  dinornis,  whose  bpnes  are  also 
found  here..  (See  APTERYX,  and  DINORNIS.) 
There  are  no  serpents  in  New  Zealand,  and 
toads  and  frogs  were  unknown  till  1852,  when 
a  few  small  specimens  were  found.  Six  spe- 
cies of  small  and  harmless  lizards  have  been 
found,  and  are  held  in  terror  by  the  natives, 
who  think  the  spirits  of  their  ancestors  inhabit 
them.  There  are  more  than  100  species  of  fish 
on  the  coasts,  the  largest  peculiar  to  the  isl- 
ands being  the  hapuJcu,  often  exceeding  100 
Ibs.  in  weight.  In  the  rivers  and  lakes  eels  are 
found  weighing  50  Ibs.,  and  the  lakes  abound 
with  inanga,  a  small,  delicate  fish,  resembling 
the  English  whitebait.  Of  the  100  species  of 
insects  one  half  belong  to  the  order  coleop- 
tera.  Mosquitoes  and  sand  flies  are  plentiful 
and  troublesome  in  North  island  in  summer. 
Spiders  are  numerous,  and  two  species  are 
said  to  be  poisonous. — The  climate  of  New 
Zealand  is  one  of  the  finest  in  the  world.  The 
summer  is  longer  and  somewhat  warmer  than 
that  of  England,  and  the  other  seasons  much 
milder,  with  many  more  fine  days.  High  winds 
prevail  in  some  districts ;  in  others  the  atmos- 
phere is  peculiarly  serene.  The  coast  climate 
is  the  most  changeable  and  the  most  temper- 
ate in  the  world,  the  heat  varying  from  40°  to 
70°,  and  occasionally  reaching  both  extremes 
in  24  hours.  The  mean  annual  temperature 
of  North  island  is  57°,  and  that  of  South  isl- 
and 52°.  January  and  February  are  the  warm- 
est months,  June  and  July  the  coldest.  Snow 
rarely  lies  on  the  ground  at  the  level  of  the 
sea,  and  ice  is  seldom  seen.  There  are  neither 
wet  nor  dry  seasons.  A  fortnight  seldom 
passes  without  rain,  and  rain  rarely  continues 
for  three  successive  days.  The  atmosphere  is 
moist,  and  fogs  are  frequent  in  the  southern 
part  of  the  group.  There  is  not  only  sufficient 
sunshine,  however,  to  ripen  every  English  fruit, 
but  figs,  peaches,  grapes,  nectarines,  melons, 
and  maize  thrive  well  in  the  open  air.  Spring 
begins  in  September,  summer  in  December, 
autumn  in  April,  and  winter  in  June.  The 
summer  mornings  are  always  cool  and  exhila- 
rating, and  the  summer  nights  often  singularly 
beautiful  and  mild. — New  Zealand  is  divided 
into  eight  provinces,  of  which  Auckland,  Tara- 
naki,  Wellington,  and  Hawke  Bay  are  on  North 
island,  and  Nelson,  Maryborough,  Canterbury, 
Otago,  and  Westland  on  South  island.  Stew- 
art island  is  included  in  the  province  of  Otago. 
Auckland,  the  chief  town  of  the  most  north- 
ern province,  was  the  capital  of  all  New  Zea- 
land till  1865,  when  the  seat  of  government  was 
transferred  to  Wellington.  The  Bay  of  Islands, 
a  small  settlement  on  a  fine  harbor,  120  m. 
N.  of  Auckland,  is  much  resorted  to  by  Amer- 
ican whalers,  and  is  the  seat  of  an  American 
consulate.  The  capital  of  Taranaki  is  New 
Plymouth,  beautifully  situated  near  Mt.  Eg- 
mont,  on  the  W.  coast.  Wellington,  the  pres- 
ent capital  of  the  colony  (pop.  about  8,000),  is 


on  a  beautiful  bay  opening  into  Cook's  strait. 
Napier,  a  small  village  on  the  S.  E.  coast,  is 
the  seat  of  government  for  the  province  of 
Hawke  Bay.  Nelson,  the  capital  of  the 
province  of  the  same  name,  is  on  Blind  bay 
at  the  N.  end  of  South  island.  It  enjoys  a 
more  equable,  serene,  and  dry  climate  than 
any  other  part  of  New  Zealand,  and  has  a 
population  of  6,000  in  its  immediate  vicinity. 
Blenheim,  near  the  mouth  of  Wairau  river  in 
Cook's  strait,  is  the  capital  of  Marlborough. 
The  capital  of  Canterbury  is  Christchurch,  on 
the  small  river  Avon,  on  the  E.  side  of  the 
island.  Dunedin,  on  the  S.  E.  coast,  is  the 
capital  of  Otago,  the  most  southern  province. 
Hokitika,  capital  of  the  province  of  West- 
land,  is  at  the  mouth  of  Hokitika  river;  pop. 
about  5,000.  It  was  hastily  built  in  1864, 
when  gold  mining  began  on  the  W.  coast.  The 
harbor  is  obstructed  by  dangerous  bars.  The 
colonists  of  New  Zealand  have  been  superior 
to  those  of  most  English  colonies.  The  impe- 
rial parliament  in  1852  sanctioned  a  constitu- 
tion for  the  colony,  of  which  the  main  provi- 
sions are  as  follows:  The  provinces  have 
distinct  governments,  consisting  of  a  superin- 
tendent and  provincial  council  elected  for  "four 
years  by  a  suffrage  nearly  universal.  The  gov- 
ernment of  the  whole  colony  is  vested  in  a 
governor  appointed  by  the  crown,  who  is  also 
Commander-in-chief  of  all  the  colonial  troops, 
and  in  a  general  assembly  consisting  of  a  legis- 
lative council  and  a  house  of  representatives, 
the  latter  having  78  members  elected  for  five 
years,  and  the  former  45  members  nominated 
for  life  by  the  crown.  Both  in  the  general 
and  provincial  administrations  the  principle 
of  responsible  government  is  carried  out,  and 
legislative  majorities,  as  in  England,  make  and 
unmake  cabinets.  The  colonial  cabinet  con- 
sists of  the  secretary,  treasurer,  postmaster 
general,  and  ministers  for  general  defence  and 
for  native  affairs.  The  revenue  in  1872  was 
£3,517,072;  expenditures,  £3,550,854;  pub- 
lic debt,  £7,360,616.  In  1873  there  were  about 
3,000  m.  of  telegraph  in  operation,  and  seve- 
ral railways  were  projected,  small  portions  of 
two  or  three  constructed,  and  nearly  4,000  m. 
under  contract.  In  the  same  year  775  ves- 
sels arrived,  and  773  departed.  The  inter- 
course with  the  United  States  has  been  chiefly 
confined  to  the  visits  of  a  few  whalers,  mostly 
at  the  Bay  of  Islands.  The  course  of  travel 
from  Great  Britain  to  the  colony  has  general- 
ly been  round  the  cape  of  Good  Hope,  but  a 
more  expeditious  journey  can  now  be  made  by 
way  of  the  United  States,  from  San  Francisco 
to  Auckland,  in  American  steamers  which  car- 
ry the  mail  by  contract  with  the  New  Zealand 
government.  The  colonists  are  mostly  em- 
ployed in  agriculture,  and  many  give  their  at- 
tention to  sheep  raising,  farms  of  thousands 
of  acres  being  devoted '  to  that  use.  •  The 
number  of  sheep  in  1872  was  9,700,629,  and 
the  value  of  wool  exported,  £2,064,480.  In 
North  island,  and  to  some  extent  in  South 


412 


NEW  ZEALAND 


island,  English  grasses  have  been  introduced, 
by  which  about  five  sheep  to  the  acre  may 
be  kept,  while  the  native  grasses  will  not  sus- 
tain more  than  half  that  number.  The  exports 
consist  of  potatoes  and  other  provisions  and 
timber  to  Australia,  and  of  gold,  wool,  tallow, 
spars,  flax,  gums,  and  copper  ore  to  England. 
Gold  was  first  discovered  in  1842,  and  subse- 
quently in  larger  quantities  in  1851,  1852,  and 

1856,  especially  in  Auckland,  Westland,  and 
Nelson  provinces ;  and  the  mines  have  proved 
to  be  among  the  richest  in  the  world.     The 
yield  in  1872  was  445,370  oz.,  and  from  April, 

1857,  to  December,  1872,  the  total  export  was 
6,718,248  oz.,  valued  at  £26,084,260 ;  capital 
employed  in   mining  in    1872,   £12,000,000; 
number  of  miners,  27,376,  of  whom  3,700  were 
Chinese.     The  total  exports  in  1872,  gold  in- 
cluded, were  £5,190,655 ;  imports,  £5,142,951. 
— Education  has  been  liberally  provided  for, 
chiefly  by  the  church  organizations,  and  there 
are  good  schools  in  all  the  towns.     In  some 
provinces  state  aid  is  given  to  both  national 
and  denominational  schools,  in  others  only  to 
the  national.      A  university  has  been  estab- 
lished at  Dunedin,  and  high  schools  exist  in 
many  of  the  towns.     In  1872  there  were  in  all 
397  schools,  602  teachers,  and  22,180  pupils. 
Among  the  religious  denominations,  the  church 
of  England  has  always  taken  the  lead,  having 
sent  out  the  first  missionary  to  the  natives, 
the  Rev.  Samuel  Marsden,  in  1814;  the  first 
bishop,  the  Rev.  Gr.  A.  Selwyn,  was  appointed 
in  1841.     There  are  now  six  bishops  of  that 
church  in  the  islands.     The  support  of  the 
churches  comes  from  home  grants,  lands  set 
apart  for  church  purposes,  and  voluntary  contri- 
butions. The  Wesleyans  commenced  missions  in 
1819,  and  now  have  77  chapels  and  a  larger 
number  of  adherents  among  the  natives  than 
any  other  denomination.     The    province   of 
Otago  was  settled  by  Scotch  Presbyterians, 
and  they  are  numerous  in  that  part  of  the 
islands.     The  Roman  Catholics  have  bishops 
at  Auckland,  Dunedin,  and  Wellington,  with 
a  large  number  of  adherents  among  the  colo- 
nists and  some  also  among  the  natives. — The 
Maoris,  the  primitive  inhabitants  of  New  Zea- 
land, are  a  tribe  of  the  Polynesian  branch  of 
the  Malayo-Polynesian  family.     The  average 
height  of  the  men  is  5  ft.  6J  in.,  average  weight 
140  Ibs.    Their  bodies  and  arms  are  longer  and 
their  legs  shorter  than  those  of  Englishmen  of 
the  same  stature.     The  New  Zealander's  hair 
is  generally  coarse  and  black,  though  sometimes 
rusty  red.     He  has  good  teeth,  a  broad  nose, 
dark  brown  eyes,  large  mouth,  and  an  olive 
brown  skin,  which  in  some  is  so  fair  that 
blushes  can  be  seen,  while  in  a  few  the  skin 
is  dark  almost  to  blackness.     The  women  are 
not  handsome,  though  when  young  they  are 
graceful  and  pleasing,  with  mild  eyes,  pathetic 
voices,  and  great  ease  of  manner.    In  tattooing 
the  New  Zealanders  have  outstripped  all  other 
people.    Tattooing  on  the  face  they  term  molco, 
and  on  the  body  wJialcairo,  the  term  tattoo, 


though  of  Polynesian  origin,  being  unknown 
in  their  dialect.  The  male  New  Zealanders 
tattoo  their  faces,  hips,  and  thighs ;  the  women 
their  upper  lips.  The  figures  are  alike  among 
persons  of  the  same  tribe.  The  pigment  used 
is  charcoal  made  from  kauri  gum  and  other 
vegetable  substances.  Under  the  skin  the  char- 
coal looks  blue,  and  grows  less  dark  in  the 
course  of  years.  Since  the  introduction  of 
Christianity  tattooing  is  going  out  of  fashion. 
The  heads  of  the  New  Zealanders  are  on  an 
average  smaller  than  those  of  Europeans.  They 
are  deficient  in  reason  and  judgment,  have 
little  imagination,  and  are  seldom  capable  of 
generalizing ;  but  they  possess  good  memories 
and  quick  perceptions.  Their  fables,  tradi- 
tions, and  songs  show  wit  and  humor,  which 
they  also  often  display  in  conversation.  They 
are  fond  of  simple  and  noisy  music,  and  have 
an  accurate  perception  of  time.  They  com- 
prehend pictures  with  difficulty,  and  do  not 
understand  the  blending  of  colors.  They  are 
vain,  proud,  arrogant,  and  revengeful;  hos- 
pitable to  strangers,  but  not  generally  benevo- 
lent ;  affectionate  to  their  friends  and  kindred, 
honest  and  observant  of  their  promises.  They 
are  dirty  and  indolent,  but  less  addicted  to  in- 
toxication than  most  savages.  When  found 
by  the  Europeans  they  were  divided  into  18 
nations,  which  were  subdivided  into  tribes. 
Each  tribe  acknowledged  a  chief,  who  in  his 
turn  regarded  the  chief  of  the  nation  as  his 
lord.  Each  nation  was  divided  into  six  classes : 
the  ariJci,  or  principal  chief,  who  was  also  high 
priest;  the  tana,  or  family  of  the  principal 
chief ;  the  rangatira,  or  inferior  chiefs ;  the 
tutua,  or  middle  classes;  the  ware,  or  lower 
classes ;  and  the  taurakareka,  or  slaves.  The 
succession  of  chiefs  was  hereditary,  and  they 
had  both  civil  and  ecclesiastical  jurisdiction, 
but  could  do  little  without  the  sanction  of  the 
majority  of  the  people.  The  institution  of  the 
tapu  or  taboo,  by  which  certain  things  or  per- 
sons were  made  sacred  for  longer  or  shorter 
periods,  was  of  much  political  value,  and  was 
freely  used  in  governing  and  restraining  the 
common  people.  The  New  Zealanders  wor- 
shipped various  gods,  apparently  personifica- 
tions of  natural  objects  and  powers,  to  whom 
they  addressed  prayers  and  offered  sacrifices. 
Their  gods  were  spiritual  and  invisible ;  they 
had  no  idols.  Many  of  the  gods  were  deified 
men,  ancestral  chiefs  of  the  tribe  or  nation  by 
whom  they  were  worshipped.  They  believed 
in  a  future  state  and  their  own  immortality. 
There  were  two  distinct  abodes  for  departed 
spirits,  neither  of  which  was  a  place  of  punish- 
ment, evil  deeds  being  punished  in  this  world 
by  sickness  and  other  personal  misfortunes. 
Their  priests  were  supposed  to  be  in  commu- 
nication with  the  gods,  and  to  express  their 
wishes  and  commands.  Sorcerers  were  thought 
to  possess  great  powers,  and  were  held  in  pe- 
culiar dread.  The  moral  code  was  adapted  to 
various  social  conditions  and  circumstances. 
Among  chiefs,  courage,  liberality,  command  of 


NEW  ZEALAND 


413 


temper,  endurance  of  torture  without  com- 
plaint, revenge  of  injuries,  and  abstinence  from 
insult  to  others,  were  regarded  as  virtues ; 
among  slaves,  obedience  to  their  masters  and 
respect  for  the  taboo  ;  among  married  women, 
fidelity  to  their  husbands.  A  ceremony  called 
iriiri  or  rohi  was  performed  by  the  priests 
upon  infants  before  they  were  a  month  old, 
and  consisted  of  a  species  of  baptism,  some- 
times by  sprinkling,  sometimes  by  immersion. 
After  baptism  the  priest  forced  little  pebbles 
down  the  throat  of  the  child  to  make  his  heart 
hard  and  revengeful.  When  first  visited  by 
Europeans,  the  New  Zealanders  lived  in  for- 
tified villages  (pahs),  built  on  peninsulas  or  on 
hilltops.  Since  the  general  introduction  of 
Christianity,  these  forts  have  been  abandoned, 
except  a  few  that  are  conveniently  situated, 
and  the  natives  live  in  open  villages  and  farm 
houses.  The  different  nations  were  almost 
constantly  at  war,  and  deadly  feuds  were  fre- 
quent between  tribes.  These  contests  were 
carried  on  with  great  ferocity,  the  defeated 
tribe  being  reduced  to  slavery,  or  killed  and 
eaten ;  cannibalism  was  universal.  Quarrels 
about  land  and  women  were  the  usual  causes 
of  strife,  but  wars  were  not  entered  upon  with- 
out much  deliberation  and  attempts  at  concil- 
iation. Sea  fights  occasionally  took  place  be- 
tween fleets  of  canoes,  these  vessels  for  mili- 
tary purposes  being  made  80  ft.  long,  4  ft. 
wide,  and  4  ft.  deep,  propelled  by  50  paddles. 
The  weapons  used  in  war  before  the  intro- 
duction of  firearms  were  slings,  javelins,  long 
spears  made  of  pine  hardened  by  fire  and 
sharp  at  both  ends,  and  clubs  and  tomahawks 
of  greenstone  or  other  hard  stones.  Bows 
and  arrows  were  known,  but  not  used  in  war. 
Of  late  years  these  arms  have  all  been  laid 
aside,  and  firearms  adopted.  Wars  among  the 
aborigines  have  nearly  ceased  since  slavery 
and  cannibalism  have  been  removed  by  Chris- 
tianity and  civilization.  Marriage  among  the 
New  Zealanders  did  not  involve  any  religious 
ceremonies.  Before  marriage  girls  not  be- 
trothed were  permitted  to  indulge  in  promis- 
cuous intercourse  if  they  pleased,  and  the 
more  lovers  they  had  the  more  highly  they 
were  esteemed.  Married  women,  however, 
were  kept  under  strict  restraint,  and  infidelity 
was  punished  severely,  often  with  death.  Po- 
lygamy was  permitted,  but  not  common,  and 
men  could  divorce  their  wives  simply  by  turn- 
ing them  out  of  doors.  Since  the  introduction 
of  Christianity  a  great  change  has  taken  place. 
The  natives  are  now  generally  clothed  like  civil- 
ized men,  and  possess  flocks,  herds,  furniture, 
houses,  and  cultivated  lands.  One  half  of  the 
adults  can  read  and  write,  and  two  thirds  of 
them  belong  to  Christian  churches.  But  from 
various  causes,  especially  from  the  introduc- 
tion of  new  diseases,  their  numbers  are  rapidly 
diminishing.  In  1872  the  number  of  the  abori- 
gines, formerly  computed  at  100,000,  was  less 
than  40,000,  nearly  all  in  the  North  island. — 
The  Maori  is  one  of  the  Polynesian  languages. 


(See  MALAYO-POLYNESIAN  EACES  AND  LAN- 
GUAGES.) Consonontal  sounds  employed  in  it 
are  &,  h,  h,  ',  £,  n,  s,  Z,  r,  p,  m,  /,  and  w  ;  the 
sound  of  v,  heard  in  the  other  languages  of  the 
Polynesian  group,  is  wanting,  and  replaced  by 
the  English  w.  It  possesses  the  vowels  a,  e,  i, 

0,  u,   both  long  and  short.      The  words  are 
formed  from  dissyllabic  stems,  either  by  redu- 
plication or  by  prefixes  and  suffixes.     Redupli- 
cation in  verbs  signifies  either  repetition,  as 
haere,  to  walk,  haerehaere,  to  walk  to  and  fro ; 
or  intensity,  as  Icai,  to  eat,  Tcalcai,  to  eat  rapa- 
ciously ;  or  simultaneousness,  as  moe,  to  sleep, 
momoe,  to  sleep  with  somebody.     Reduplica- 
tion  in  adjectives  signifies  either  the  superla- 
tive degree  or  the  plural  number,  as  iTca  pai,  a 
good  fish,  ika  papal,  good  fishes.     Reduplica- 
tion in  nouns  signifies  the  plural  of  collectives. 
The  prefixes  and  suffixes  are  loose  particles, 
without  exercising  any  phonetic  influence  on 
the  words  which  they  accompany.     The  want 
of  grammatical  number  and  the  processes  of 
indicating  it  in  the  Polynesian  languages  has 
been  spoken   of    in    the  article  referred    to 
above.     In  Maori  the  force  and  use  of  the  par- 
ticles would  render  the  declension  of  a  noun, 
after  the  model   of   the  inflected  languages, 
as    follows:     Singular — nom.   te   tahata,  the 
man ;    gen.  o  or  a  te  tahata  ;  dat.  M  te  ta- 
hata ;  ace.,  loc.,  and  instr.  i  te  tahata;  abl. 
e  te  tahata;   plural — nom.  ha  tahata;  gen. 
o  or  a  na  tahata;  dat.   Tci  ha  tahata;  ace., 
loc.,  and  instr.  i  ha  tahata  ;  abl.  e  ha  tahata. 
There  are  exclusive  and  inclusive  dual  and  plu- . 
ral  expressions.     The  personal  pronouns  ahau, 

1,  Tcoe,  thou,  ia,  he,  have  the  dual  taua,  Tcorua, 
raua,  and  the  plural  taton,  Tcouton,  and  raton. 
When  the  speaker  does  not  include  himself, 
he  says  maua  in  the  dual  and  maton  in  the 
plural  number.     Verbs  may  be  arranged  in 
paradigms  somewhat  as  follows:  Icaraha,  to 
call;  active — present  (1st  person  sing.),  e  Ica- 
raha ana  ahau ;  preterite,  *  Icaraha  aJiau; 
pluperfect,  Icua  haraha  ahau;  future,  e  Pa- 
rana ahau ;  future  present,  Jca  Icaraha  ahau  ; 
passive — present,  e  Tcarahatia  ana  ahau  ;  pre- 
terite, i  Tcarahatia  ahau;  pluperfect,  Icua  Tea- 
rahatia  ahau ;  future,  e  Icarahatia  ahau;  and 
future  present,  lea  Icarahatia  ahau.     The  par- 
ticles e,  i,  lea,  and  Icua  indicate  the  time;  the 
suffix  tia  the  passive  voice.     Negation  is  ex- 
pressed by  the  particle  te.     The  first  ten  car- 
dinal numbers  are  tahi,  rua,  toru,  wa,  rima, 
ono,  witu,  walu,  iwa,  and  nahuru.    A  consider- 
able body  of  literature  was  preserved  by  tra- 
dition in  the  shape  of  fables,  stories,  proverbs, 
songs,  and  laments  for  the  dead.    Their  poetry 
is  mostly  lyrical,  none  epic  or  dramatic.    Each 
sentence  is  metrically  arranged,  but  rhyme  is 
not  used.     The    prose    stories  are  of    great 
length,  some  of  them  requiring  successive  days 
for  their  narration.    In  style  and  spirit  they 
resemble  children's  tales.     Several  collections 
of  this  literature  have  been  made,  as  "Po- 
ems, Traditions,  and  Chaunts  of  the  Maoris," 
by  Sir  George  Grey  (Wellington,  1855),  and 


NEW  ZEALAND 


NET 


Monrad,  in  Das  alte  Neu-Seeland  (Bremen, 
1871). — The  Maoris,  according  to  tneir  own 
traditions,  came  originally  from  a  place  called 
Hawaiki,  which  the  most  recent  investigators 
suppose  to  have  been  Savaii  in  the  Samoan 
islands.  Their  traditions  still  speak  of  Raro- 
tonga  and  other  islands  of  that  region.  In  con- 
sequence of  civil  war  their  ancestors  to  the 
number  of  800  emigrated  from  Hawaiki  in  20 
large  canoes  about  A.  D.  1400,  and  after  a  voy- 
age of  3,000  m.  reached  New  Zealand,  which 
they  'found  uninhabited.  The  discovery  of 
New  Zealand  by  Europeans  is  claimed  by  the 
French,  Spaniards,  and  Dutch.  It  is  asserted 
that  Binot  Paulmier  de  Gonneville,  a  French 
navigator,  visited  the  country  in  1504,  and  that 
Juan  Fernandez  reached  it  from  the  W.  coast 
of  South  America  in  1576  ;  but  these  accounts 
are  doubtful.  The  Dutch  navigator  Tasman, 
with  two  ships  from  Batavia,  anchored  on 
Sept.  18,  1642,  in  a  bay  in  South  island,  next  to 
that  in  which  the  town  of  Nelson  now  stands. 
He  had  .an  encounter  with  the  natives,  in  which 
he  lost  four  men,  and  departed  without  land- 
ing, calling  the  place  Massacre  bay,  and  naming 
the  country  New  Zealand.  Oapt.  Cook  land- 
ed at  Tauranga  in  the  province  of  Auckland  in 
1769,  and  took  possession  of  the  country  for 
the  crown  of  England.  Three  years  later  a 
French  navigator,  Marion  du  Fresne,  arrived 
with  two  ships  in  the  bay  of  Islands,  and  after 
a  month's  friendly  intercourse  with  the  natives 
offended  them  by  violating  the  taboo  and  put- 
.ting  some  of  their  chiefs  in  irons,  and  was 
attacked  and  killed  with  25  of  his  men.  Capt. 
Cook  subsequently  visited  New  Zealand  four 
times,  and  introduced  pigs,  potatoes,  and  other 
animals  and  vegetables.  A  few  years  later 
English  and  American  whalers  began  to  fre- 
quent the  coast,  and  several  runaway  sailors 
took  up  their  abode  among  the  people  and 
married  native  women.  European  visitors  were 
generally  treated  with  kindness,  though  in  1809, 
the  captain  of  the  English  ship  Boyd  having 
flogged  and  otherwise  ill-treated  a  chief  at  Wan- 
garoa,  his  tribe  massacred  the  crew  and  pas-, 
sengers  to  the  number  of  70.  In  1820  Honga 
Hika,  the  most  distinguished  of  New  Zealand 
chiefs,  visited  England,  where  he  was  received 
with  attention  by  George  IY.  and  loaded  with 
presents,  with  which  he  returned  to  his  own 
country,  favorable  to  the  introduction  of  civili- 
zation and  Christianity ;  for  though  he  did  not 
become  a  Christian  himself,  he  intrusted  his 
children  to  be  educated  by  the  missionaries, 
whom  he  always  protected  and  encouraged. 
In  1833  the  British  government  appointed  a 
resident  at  New  Zealand,  and  in  1838  Capt. 
Hobson  was  sent  to  the  islands  as  lieutenant 
governor,  the  European  population  at  that  time 
exceeding  1,000  persons,  and  the  number  of 
vessels,  chiefly  whalers,  entering  the  bay  of 
Islands  in  that  year  amounting  to  130.  The 
number  of  converts  made  by  the  missionaries 
was  at  this  time  about  4,000.  In  1839  the  New 
Zealand  company  was  chartered  in  England 


with  a  capital  of  £500,000,  the  earl  of  Durham, 
Francis  Baring,  and  other  eminent  merchants 
and  statesmen  being  at  its  head  ;  and  system- 
atic colonization  was  commenced  by  a  settle- 
ment at  Port  Nicholson  on  Cook's  strait.  In 
1844  a  serious  war  broke  out  with  the  natives, 
in  which  the  town  of  Kororareka,  an  English 
settlement,  was  destroyed,  and  the  English 
troops  were  repeatedly  defeated.  Peace  was 
restored  in  1848,  and  shortly  afterward  a  severe 
earthquake  shook  a  large  portion  of  New  Zea- 
land, doing  much  damage  and  causing  great 
alarm.  In  1850  Canterbury  province  was  set- 
tled on  church  of  England  and  aristocratic 
principles,  a  bishop,  priests,  lords,  baronets, 
and  gentlemen  of  all  the  professions  being 
among  the  early  settlers.  Two  years  before 
the  province  of  Otago  had  been  settled  exclu- 
sively by  members  of  the  Free  church  of  Scot- 
land. These  colonies  are  now  composed  of 
persons  of  every  variety  of  Christian  faith. 
In  1855  a  second  war  with  the  natives  broke 
out  in  Taranaki  province,  about  land  claims, 
which  ended  in  1857.  It  is  generally  con- 
ceded, even  by  English  writers,  that  the  lands 
of  the  natives  were  sometimes  taken  without 
just  compensation,  and  that  wars  were  need- 
lessly provoked,  in  which  the  British  often 
fared  the  worst,  the  savages  fighting  with  fear- 
ful energy  and  desperation  behind  their  slight 
intrenchments.  One  of  the  most  desperate 
encounters  was  in  1863,  when  15,000  soldiers 
under  English  command  contended  against 
2,000  natives,  hiding  and  fighting  behind  ram- 
parts. Another  struggle  followed  in  1864,  and 
petty  rebellions  have  been  frequent,  causing 
great  expense  and  trouble  to  the  colonists  and 
great  demoralization  among  the  converted  na- 
tives. As  they  learned  to  hate  the  colonists, 
they  hated  their  religion,  and  invented  one 
of  their  own,  called  How-Howism,  those  who 
professed  it  being  called  How-Hows.  It  was 
a  most  absurd  mixture  of  their  old  supersti- 
tions with  some  Bible  tenets,  and  a  virtual 
return  to  heathenism.  One  Je  Kooti  made 
himself  famous,  fighting  with  a  handful  of  fol- 
lowers against  the  English  from  1866  to  1872, 
when  the  pursuit  of  him  was  virtually  aban- 
doned. Since  that  time  the  natives  have  been 
more  quiet,  and  the  colonists  seem  more  dis- 
posed to  try  the  effect  of  kind  treatment  and 
conciliation.  By  the  constitution  of  1872  the 
natives  were  made  voters  and  eligible  to  office. 
Four  of  them  have  recently  been  elected  mem- 
bers of  the  lower  house  of  the  legislature. — 
See  "The  Story  of  New  Zealand,"  by  A.  S. 
Thomson  (London,  1859)  ;  "  The  War  in  New 
Zealand,"  by  W.  L.  Fox  (1866);  "The  Past 
and  Present  of  New  Zealand,"  by  the  Rev.  R. 
Taylor  (1868) ;  Neu  Seeland,  by  Hochstetter 
(Stuttgart,  1863 ;  English  translation,  London, 
1868) ;  "Australia  and  New  Zealand,"  by  An- 
thony Trollope  (London,  1873). 

NEY.  I.  Michel,  duke  of  Elchingen  and  prince 
of  the  Moskva,  a  French  soldier,  born  at  Saar- 
louis,  Jan.  10,  1769,  executed  in  Paris,  Dec.  7, 


NEY 


415 


1815.  He  enlisted  in  the  army  at  the  age  of  18, 
and  when  the  revolution  of  1789  broke  out  he 
was  a  sub-lieutenant  of  hussars.  In  1794  he 
was  a  captain  in  the  army  of  the  Sambre  and 
Meuse.  Kleber  caused  him  to  be  promoted,  and 
intrusted  him  with  several  expeditions  which 
proved  highly  successful.  He  was  made  a 
brigadier  general,  and  on  April  18,  1797,  by  a 
brilliant  charge  he  contributed  to  the  victory 
of  Neuwied.  A  few  days  later  he  was  captured 
in  a  skirmish,  but  was  soon  exchanged.  In  1799, 
at  the  head  of  150  men,  he  surprised  Mann- 
heim, for  which  he  was  made  general  of  divi- 
sion. He  accompanied  Massena  to  the  valley 
of  the  Danube,  and  during  the  battle  of  Zurich 
kept  the  archduke  Charles  at  bay.  He  ap- 
proved of  the  coup  d'etat  of  the  18th  Brumaire. 
Under  Moreau  he  was  in  most  of  the  engage- 
ments of  the  spring  campaign  of  1800,  and  par- 
ticipated in  the  victory  of  Hohenlinden.  Du- 
ring the  peace  which  followed  he  married,  by 
Bonaparte's  advice,  Mile.  Auguie,  a  friend  of 
Hortense  Beauharnais.  He  was  appointed  in- 
spector general  of  cavalry  and  minister  pleni- 
potentiary to  Switzerland,  and  in  1803  was 
placed  in  command  of  the  sixth  corps  at  the 
camp  of  Boulogne.  On  the  proclamation  of 
the  empire,  Ney  received  the  title  of  marshal. 
In  1805  he  led  one  of  the  corps  of  the  great 
army  which,  under  command  of  the  emperor, 
crossed  the  Rhine.  His  generalship  and  bra- 
very at  Elchingen  won  him  his  title  of  duke. 
He  forced  Mack  into  Ulm,  entered  Tyrol, 
routed  the  archduke  John,  took  possession  of 
that  province,  and  seconded  the  operations 
which  resulted  in  the  victory  of  Austerlitz.  In 
the  Prussian  campaign  of  1806-'7  he  assisted 
in  the  victory  of  Jena,  forced  Magdeburg  to 
capitulate,  rescued  Bernadotte  at  Mohrungen, 
defeated  the  Prussians  under  Lestocq,  held  his 
ground  at  Eylau,  and  determined  the  triumph 
of  the  French  at  Friedland,  where  he  com- 
manded the  right  wing,  which  stormed  the 
town.  He  was  sent  to  the  peninsula  in  1808, 
took  possession  of  Asturias  and  Galicia,  at- 
tacked Portugal  with  some  success,  and  when 
Massena  was  compelled  to  fall  back  protected 
his  retreat.  But  Napoleon  suspected  his  fidel- 
ity, and  recalled  him.  In  1812  he  accompanied 
the  emperor  in  the  invasion  of  Russia.  He  de- 
feated the  Russians  at  Krasnoi,  assisted  in  the 
capture  of  Smolensk,  and  bore  himself  so 
bravely  at  Borodino  that  Napoleon  gave  him 
the  title  of  prince  of  the  Moskva.  During  the 
retreat  from  Moscow  he  was  separated  from 
the  army  for  several  days,  but  reappeared  with 
his  corps  greatly  reduced,  having  defeated  all 
the  Russian  troops  that  opposed  him.  When 
Napoleon  and  Murat  had  left  the  army,  Ney 
saved  all  that  could  be  saved  from  the  wreck. 
He  subsequently  worked  night  and  day  to  re- 
organize the  army,  and  he  was  conspicuous  at 
Ltitzen,  Bautzen,  Dresden,  and  Leipsic;  and 
when  the  French  army  evacuated  Germany,  he 
commanded  the  rear  guard.  "When  France  was 
invaded  in  1814,  he  fought  the  battles  of 
604  VOL.  xii.— 27 


Brienne,  Montmirail,  Craonne,  and  Chaions- 
sur-Marne.  On  Napoleon's  abdication,  April 
11,  1814,  Ney  flew  to  Louis  XVIIL,  who  made 
him  a  peer  of  France,  chief  of  nearly  the  whole 
French  cavalry,  and  commander  of  the  sixth 
military  district.  When  Napoleon  landed  at 
Cannes,  Ney  promised  Louis  under  oath  that 
he  would  bring  him  "a  prisoner  in  an  iron 
cage."  But  when  he  heard  of  the  enthusiastic 
reception  of  Napoleon  at  Lyons,  when  he  saw 
his  old  companions  flocking  around  the  em- 
peror, when  his  own  troops  called  upon  him  to 
lead  them  to  their  chief,  he  yielded  to  the  im- 
pulse of  the  moment,  proclaimed  Napoleon  the 
only  legitimate  sovereign  of  France,  joined  him 
at  Auxerre,  and  with  him  entered  Paris,  March 
20,  1815.  He  led  the  right  wing  in  the  march 
to  Belgium,  fought  all  day  at  Quatre-Bras,  and 
in  the  battle  of  Waterloo  displayed  the  utmost 
energy  and  bravery  in  the  attack  upon  La  Haie- 
Sainte,  having  five  horses  killed  under  him.  In 
the  chamber  of  peers,  June  22,  he  declared 
that  all  was  lost  and  the  country  could  only  be 
saved  by  negotiation.  He  was  not  employed 
by  the  provisional  government ;  and  the  king- 
on  his  return  issued  against  him  and  several 
others,  on  July  24,  a  decree  of  proscription. 
Ney  escaped  to  Auvergne,  but  was  arrested  in 
August,  brought  to  Paris,  and  arraigned  before 
a  court  martial,  consisting  of  Marshals  Moncey, 
Augereau,  Massena,  and  Jourdan.  These  old 
brothers  in  arms  availed  themselves  of  a  legal 
technicality  to  declare  their  incompetency  to 
judge  him,  and  the  case  was  transferred  to  the 
court  of  peers.  Here  the  majority  consisted  of 
his  political  or  personal  enemies,  so  that,  not- 
withstanding the  able  defence  of  his  counsel, 
Dupin  and  Berryer,  he  was  sentenced  to  death 
on  Dec.  6.  On  the  following  morning,  after 
taking  farewell  of  his  wife  and  sons,  he  was 
marched  to  the  end  of  the  Luxembourg  gar- 
den; there,  placing  himself  in  front  of  the 
troops  who  were  to  shoot  him,  and  pressing 
his  right  hand  to  his  heart,  he  cried :  u  Vive  la 
France  !  Fellow  soldiers,  fire  here !  "  He  was 
killed  instantly.  He  was  buried  in  Pere  La- 
chaise.  His  Memoires  (2  vols.  8vo,  1833)  were 
published  by  his  widow  and  sons,  and  Dumou- 
lin  has  given  a  full  account  of  his  trial  (Histoire 
complete  du  proces  du  marechal  Ney,  2  vols., 
1815).  Fruitless  attempts  were  made  to  have 
the  sentence  reversed  by  the  chamber  of  peers ; 
but  it  was  cancelled  by  public  opinion,  and  a 
bronze  statue  was  erected  to  him  in  1854  on 
the  spot  where  he  was  executed.  Ney  left  four 
sons,  Joseph  Napoleon,  Michel,  Eugene,  and 
Edgar.  II.  Joseph  Napoleon,  prince  of  the 
Moskva,  born  in  Paris,  May  8,  1803,  died  at 
St.  Germain-en-Laye,  July  26,  1857.  He  mar- 
ried in  1828  the  daughter  of  Jacques  Laflfitte, 
the  banker,  was  appointed  aide-de-camp  to  the 
duke  of  Orleans  after  the  revolution  of  1830, 
and  was  made  a  peer  in  1831,  but  did  not  take 
his  seat  in  the  chamber  till  1841.  In  1848  he 
sided  with  the  democratic  party.  He  was 
elected  to  the  legislative  assembly  by  the  de- 


416 


NEZ  PERCE 


partments  of  Moselle  and  Eure-et-Loir  in  1849, 
and  attached  himself  to  the  party  of  the  prince- 
president.  He  was  one  of  the  first  senators 
created  under  the  empire.  After  being  colonel 
of  lancers  and  dragoons,  he  was  appointed 
brigadier  general  in  1853;  but  he  was  better 
known  as  a  patron  of  arts,  literature,  and  the 
turf,  than  as  a  soldier.  He  composed  an  opera 
called  Begine.  His  only  daughter  was  married 
to  Count  Persigny. 

NEZ  PERCE,  a  N.  county  of  Idaho,  bounded 
N".  by  the  Clearwater  river,  E.  by  Montana,  S. 
by  Salmon  river,  and  W.  by  Oregon  and  Wash- 
ington territory,  from  which  it  is  separated  by 
the  Snake  river;  area,  7,350  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in 
1870,  1,607,  of  whom  747  were  Chinese.  It  is 
watered  by  tributaries  of  the  Clearwater  and 
Salmon  rivers.  The  surface  is  generally  rugged 
and  mountainous.  The  valley  of  the  Clear- 
water  contains  extensive  arable  lands,  and 
Camas  prairie  in  the  N.  W.  corner  is  very  fer- 
tile. Gold  is  mined  to  some  extent.  The 
chief  productions  in  1870  were  1,970  bushels 
of  wheat,  6,050  of  oats,  3,595  of  barley,  3,780 
j)f  potatoes,  and  18,900  Ibs.  of  butter.  There 
Vere  534  horses,  916  milch  cows,  1,076  other 
cattle,  and  542  swine.  Capital,  Lewiston. 

NEZ  PERCES,  a  tribe  of  American  Indians,  now 
in  Idaho,  belonging  to  the  Sahaptin  family. 
They  are  said  to  call  themselves  Numepo,  and 
are  styled  by  Lewis  and  Clarke  Chopunnish. 
The  origin  of  their  present  name  is  uncertain, 
for  they  are  not  known  to  have  pierced  their 
noses.  The  Wallawallas  and  Palooses  are  kin- 
dred tribes.  They  were  estimated  at  8,000 
on  the  Clearwater  and  Lewis  rivers,  where 
they  had  a  fine  grazing  country.  They  made 
a  treaty  of  peace  with  Lewis  and  Clarke, 
which  they  have  adhered  to.  Capt.  Bonne- 
ville  in  1832  acquired  influence  among  them, 
and  a  mission  under  the  American  board 
was  established  in  1836,  when  the  tribe  num- 
bered about  4,000.  A  school  was  opened, 
laws  were  adopted,  a  government  was  formed, 
and  attempts  were  made  to  advance  agricul- 
ture. But  the  mission  was  suspended  in  1847, 
after  the  murder  of  the  Rev.  Mr.  Whitman  by 
the  Cay  uses.  They  had  only  50  acres  under 
cultivation  in  1857.  In  the  Oregon  Indian 
war  the  mass  of  the  tribe  remained  friendly, 
saving  the  lives  of  Gov.  Stevens  and  others 
in  1855,  and  covering  Col.  Steptoe's  retreat. 
When  Col.  Wright  asked  the  head  chief  what 
they  wanted,  he  replied :  "  Peace,  ploughs, 
and  schools."  A  treaty  was  made  in  1854  dis- 
posing of  part  of  their  land,  but  a  portion  of 
the  tribe  never  submitted  to  it,  and  the  treaty 
Nez  Percys  alone  went  on  the  reservation.  The 
others  are  often  absent  for  years  on  the  buf- 
falo plains,  occasionally  at  war  with  the  Sioux. 
Those  on  the  reservation  were  soon  disturbed 
by  white  and  Chinese  miners  after  gold  was 
discovered  in  1859.  This  led  to  the  introduc- 
tion of  liquor,  and  drunkenness  now  prevails. 
The  Lapwai  reservation  is  in  the  N.  W.  part  of 
Idaho,  and  is  said  to  contain  the  best  land  in 


NIAGARA 

that  section.  The  Kamiah  reservation  is  in  N". 
E.  Oregon.  The  two  contain  1,925  sq.  m.  In 
1874  there  were  1,550  on  the  reservations,  and 
350  on  small  farms  off  the  reservations.  The 
Presbyterians  had  revived  the  mission,  a  stone 
church  had  been  erected,  about  1,800  acres 
were  cultivated,  and  their  property  in  horses 
and  cattle  was  estimated  at  $136,250.  There 
were  also  900  Nez  Percys  in  Wallowa  valley  in 
the  eastern  part  of  Oregon.  The  New  Testa- 
ment and  some  school  books  have  been  printed 
in  their  language. 

JVGAMI,  a  lake  of  South  Africa,  supposed  to 
be  from  50  to  70  m.  long,  and  from  7  to  9  m. 
wide.  Its  situation  may  be  roughly  stated  as 
in  lat.  20°  28'  S.,  Ion.  22°  50'  E.,  and  it  extends 
from  E.  N.  E.  to  W.  S.  W.,  being  narrowest 
at  a  point  near  the  middle.  Its  elevation 
above  the  sea  is  3,285  ft.  as  determined  by 
Livingstone,  but  a  subsequent  measurement  by 
Andersson  makes  it  3,713  ft.  The  water  is 
perfectly  fresh  except  when  the  lake  is  low; 
it  then  becomes  brackish.  It  is  subject  to  a 
rise  and  fall  of  two  or  three  feet,  the  cause  of 
which  is  unknown.  A  low  and  sandy  shore 
forms  the  northern  border  of  the  lake,  and  ex- 
tends about  a  mile  backward,  beyond  which 
the  country  is  well  wooded.  The  opposite 
shore  is  elevated,  fringed  with  belts  of  reeds 
and  bushes,  and  only  accessible  in  a  few  places. 
The  principal  tributary  of  Lake  Ngami  is  the 
Tioge,  a  river  which  flows  in  on  the  west  and 
is  about  40  yards  broad,  but  very  deep  when  at 
its  highest  stage.  It  overflows  in  June,  July, 
and  August,  and  sometimes  later.  The  Zouga, 
a  broad  and  sluggish  river,  issues  from  the  E. 
extremity  of  the  lake ;  its  width  at  the  outlet 
is  200  yards.  After  an  easterly  course  of 
about  200  m.  the  waters  of  this  stream  expand 
into  a  small  lake  known  as  Kumadan,  beyond 
which  they  do  not  suffice  to  fill  the  channel, 
and  disappear,  probably  by  evaporation.  It  is 
supposed,  however,  that  the  Zouga  communi- 
cates with  the  Limpopo,  and  also  that  the 
tributaries  of  Lake  Ngami  are  connected  with 
the  Zambesi  river  system.  This  lake  was  dis- 
covered in  1849  by  Livingstone,  Oswell,  and 
Murray,  and  has  since  been  visited  by  Anders- 
son  and  other  Europeans. 

NIAGARA,  a  river  of  the  United  States  and 
Canada,  flowing  N.  33  m.  from  Lake  Erie  to 
Lake  Ontario,  between  the  state  of  New  York 
and  the  province  of  Ontario,  and  having  in  its 
course  the  most  celebrated  falls  in  the  world. 
It  is  the  channel  by  which  all  the  waters  of 
the  four  great  upper  lakes  flow  toward  the  gulf 
of  St.  Lawrence,  and  has  a  total  descent  of 
333  ft.,  leaving  Lake  Ontario  still  231  ft.  above 
the  sea.  The  interruption  to  navigation  oc- 
casioned by  the  rapid  descent  of  the  Niagara 
river  is  overcome  on  the  Canadian  side  by  the 
Welland  canal ;  and  on  the  American  side  the 
communication  between  tide  water  and  the 
upper  lakes  was  first  effected  by  the  Erie  canal. 
From  the  N.  E.  extremity  of  Lake  Erie  the 
Niagara  river  flows  in  a  northerly  direction 


NIAGARA 


417 


with  a  swift  current  for  the  first  2  m.,  and  then 
more  gently  with  a  widening  current,  which 
divides  as  a  portion  passes  on  each  side  of 
Grand  island.  As  these  unite  below  the  island, 
the  stream  spreads  out  to  2  or  3  m.  in  width, 
and  appears  like  a  quiet  lake  studded  with 
small  low  islands.  About  16  m.  from  Lake 
Erie  the  current  grows  narrow  and  begins  to 
descend  with  great  velocity.  This  is  the  com- 
mencement of  the  rapids,  which  continue  for 
about  a  mile,  the  waters  accomplishing  in  this 
distance  a  fall  of  52  ft.  The  rapids  terminate 
below  in  a  great  cataract,  the  descent  of  which 
is  164  ft.  on  the  American  side  and  150  on  the 
Canadian.  At  this  point  the  river,  making  a 
curve  from  W.  to  N.,  spreads  out  to  an  extreme 
width  of  about  4,750  ft.  Goat  island,  which 
extends  down  to  the  brink  of  the  cataract,  oc- 


cupies about  one  fourth  of  this  space,  leaving 
the  river  on  the  American  side  about  1,100  ft. 
wide,  and  on  the  Canadian  side  about  double 
this  width.  The  line  along  the  verge  of  the 
Canadian  fall  is  much  longer  than  the  breadth 
of  this  portion  of  the  river,  by  reason  of  its 
horse-shoe  form,  the  curve  extending  up  the 
central  part  of  the  current.  The  waters  sweep- 
ing down  the  rapids  form  a  grand  curve  as  they 
fall  clear  of  the  rocky  wall  into  the  deep  pool 
at  the  base.  The  space  between  this  sheet  of 
water  and  the  wall  widens  near  the  bottom,  the 
strata  being  there  of  a  loose  shaly  character, 
and  consequently  hollowed  out  by  the  continual 
action  of  the  spray.  A  cave  (called  the  Cave  of 
the  Winds)  is  thus  formed  behind  the  fall,  into 
which  on  the  Canadian  side  persons  can  enter 
and  pass  by  a  rough  and  slippery  path  toward 


Falls  of  Niagara. 


Goat  island.  Among  the  great  cataracts  of  the 
globe  that  of  Niagara  stands  preeminent  for 
the  enormous  volume  of  water  that  is  carried 
over  so  high  a  precipice.  There  are  many 
cataracts  which  descend  from  greater  heights, 
but  the  sublimity  of  Niagara  is  in  the  vast 
power  displayed  by  a  mighty  current  descend- 
ing down  the  long  rapids,  and  finally  plunging 
in  one  unbroken  sheet  into  the  deep  abyss 
below.  In  the  deep  chasm  below  the  fall  the 
current,  contracted  in  width  to  less  than  1,000 
ft,  is  tossed  tumultuously  about,  and  forms 
great  whirlpools  and  eddies  as  it  is  borne  alori^ 
its  rapidly  descending  bed.  Dangerous  as  it 
appears,  the  river  is  here  crossed  by  small  row 
boats.  On  each  side  of  the  gorge  the  walls 
rise  almost  perpendicularly  from  the  talus  of 
fragments  piled  up  along  their  base,  and  access 
to  and  from  the  summit  is  had  only  by  means 
of  stairways  constructed  at  several  points.  For 


7  m.  below  the  falls  the  narrow  gorge  contin- 
ues, varying  in  width  from  200  to  400  yards. 
The  river  then  emerges  at  Lewiston  into  a  low- 
er district,  having  descended  104  ft.  from  the 
foot  of  the  cataract.  Several  objects  of  inter- 
est are  met  with  in  this  portion  of  its  course. 
About  2  m.  below  the  falls  is  a  suspension 
bridge,  thrown  across  the  gorge  at  the  height 
of  245  ft.  above  the  water,  and  supported  by 
towers  upon  each  bank,  the  centres  of  which 
are  821  ft.  apart.  The  current  is  here  about 
350  ft.  wide.  The  bridge  was  constructed  in 
1855  by  Mr.  Roebling  for  the  passage  of  rail- 
way trains,  and  18  ft.  below  the  railway  it  also 
sustains  a  carriage  and  foot  track.  From  this 
bridge  a  fine  view  is  had  of  the  falls.  A  sus- 
pension bridge  about  £  m.  below  the  falls  was 
finished  in  1869  at  a  cost  of  $175,000;  it  is 
1,190  ft.  from  cliff  to  cliff,  and  1,268  from 
tower  to  tower,  and  is  190  ft.  above  the  river, 


418 


NIAGARA 


Three  miles  below  the  falls  the  river,  bending 
toward  the  Canadian  side  and  contracted  to  a 
width  of  about  220  ft.,  rushes  violently  into  a 
deep  depression  in  the  steep  cliff  on  that  side, 
from  which  it  emerges,  turning  back  almost 
at  a  right  angle  into  the  American  side.  This 
depression  presents  the  appearance  of  having 
been  hollowed  out  by  a  great  eddy  or  whirl  of 
the  waters,  and  is  known  as  u  the  whirlpool." 
It  seems  to  be  a  portion  of  the  bed  of  an  an- 
cient channel,  now  filled  with  diluvium.  The 
surface  of  the  country,  which  at  the  foot  of 
Lake  Erie  is  low,  scarcely  rising  above  the 
level  of  its  waters,  gradually  becomes  more 
elevated  toward  the  north,  till  near  Lewiston 
it  is  38  ft.  higher  than  Lake  Erie.  The  course 
of  the  Niagara  river  is  thus  in  the  direction 
of  the  ascent  of  this  inclined  plane,  and  must 
originally  have  been  induced  by  a  depression  in 
the  surface.  Beyond  this  there  occurs  a  sud- 
den descent  toward  Lake  Ontario  of  250  ft., 
down  to  the  plateau  upon  which  stands  on  the 
American  side  of  the  river  the  village  of  Lew- 
iston, and  on  the  Canadian  that  of  Queenston. 
The  high  land  forms  a  bold  terrace  looking  out 
upon  Lake  Ontario,  from  which  it  is  7  m.  dis- 
tant, and  from  its  foot  the  surface  descends  so 
gently  to  the  lake  that  the  fall,  amounting  to 
120  ft.,  is  hardly  perceptible.  The  fall  made 
by  the  river  in  this  lowest  portion  of  its  course 
is  only  4  ft.,  not  impeding  navigation. — The 
gorge  through  which  the  Niagara  river  flows  be- 
low the  falls,  amounting  at  the  terrace  to  about 
366  ft.  in  depth,  bears  evidence  of  having  been 
excavated  by  the  river  itself.  In  the  short 
period,  hardly  reaching  back  into  the  last  cen- 
tury, during  which  observations  other  than 
those  of  passing  travellers  have  been  made  and 
preserved,  changes  have  taken  place  by  the 
falling  down  of  masses  of  rock,  the  effect  of 
which  has  been  to  cause  a  slight  recession  of 
the  cataract,  and  extend  the  gorge  to  the  same 
amount  upward  toward  Lake  Erie.  Thus  in 
1818  great  fragments  descended  at  the  Amer- 
ican fall,  in  1828  at  the  Horse-shoe  fall,  and 
since  1855  several  others,  which  have  mate- 
rially changed  the  aspect  of  the  falls.  Table 
rock,  once  a  striking  feature,  has  wholly  dis- 
appeared. Previous  to  the  careful  trigono- 
metrical survey  made  in  1842  under  the  direc- 
tion of  Prof.  James  Hall,  for  the  state  geologi- 
cal survey,  no  marks  nor  monuments  had  been 
fixed,  by  which  the  rate  of  recession  could  be 
ascertained.  The  results  of  this  survey,  with 
the  map  of  the  falls,  are  presented  in  the  state 
geological  report  of  Prof.  Hall.  In  this  report 
is  a  facsimile  of  a  view  of  the  falls  by  Father 
Hennepin,  made  in  1678.  This  sketch  and  the 
accompanying  description  present  a  striking 
feature  in  the  falls  which  has  now  entirely 
disappeared  ;  this  is  a  third  fall  from  the  Cana- 
dian side  toward  the  east,  facing  the  line  of 
the  main  fall,  and  caused  by  a  great  rock  that 
turned  the  divided  current  in  this  direction. 
In  1750  the  falls  were  visited  by  Kalm,  a  Swe- 
dish naturalist,  whose  description  and  view 


were  published  in  the  "  Gentleman's  Maga- 
zine" in  1751;  he  alludes  to  the  rock  having 
fallen  down  a  few  years  previous,  and  indicates 
the  spot  in  his  sketch.  From  such  evidences 
it  is  certain  that  changes  have  been  and  are 
taking  place,  which  have  excavated  the  great 
gorge,  and  will  carry  it  further  up  toward  Lake 
Erie.  But  the  rate  at  which  these  changes 
take  place  is  not  uniform.  For  several  succes- 
sive years  there  will  be  no  apparent  change ; 
and  then,  the  soft  underlying  strata  having 
been  gradually  worn  away,  great  masses  of  the 
upper  and  harder  ones  fall  down,  causing  a  very 
noticeable  change  in  a  very  brief  time.  Taking 
long  periods,  the  estimate  of  Lyell  that  the 
retrocession  of  the  falls  has  been  about  a  foot 
a  year  appears  to  be  approximately  correct. 
From  the  variable  nature  of  the  strata  over 
which  the  river  flows,  the  circumstances  that 
affect  the  rapidity  of  the  cutting  action  dif- 
fer all  along  its  course.  At  the  present  site  of 
the  falls  sheets  of  a  hard  limestone  rock,  of 
the  formation  known  as  the  Niagara  limestone, 
cover  the  surface  of  the  country,  and  form  the 
edge  of  the  cataract  to  the  depth  of  between 
80  and  90  ft.  Under  this,  extending  to  the 
foot  of  the  fall,  are  the  shaly  layers  of  the  same 
formation.  All  these  strata  slope  downward 
against  the  current  of  the  river  at  the  rate  of 
about  25  ft.  in  a  mile  ;  and  in  the  rapids  above 
the  fall  the  uppermost  layers  of  the  Niagara 
limestone  succeed,  one  stratum  above  another, 
till  about  50  ft.  more  is  added  to  the  thickness 
of  the  formation,  when  all  disappear  beneath 
the  outcropping  edges  of  the  next  series  above, 
which  is  that  of  the  shales  and  marls  of  the 
Onondaga  salt  group.  In  the  other  direction, 
toward  Lake  Ontario,  these  strata  gradually 
rise  to  higher  levels,  till  along  the  great  terrace 
the  capping  is  of  the  lower  20  ft.  of  the  Niag- 
ara limestone,  below  which  the  shaly  strata 
form  the  next  80  ft.  of  the  steep  slope ;  and 
next  appears  a  succession  of  calcareous  layers, 
shales,  and  sandstones,  belonging  successively 
to  the  Clinton  and  Medina  formations.  Through 
these  piles  of  strata  the  river  has  worked  its 
way  back,  receding  probably  most  rapidly 
where,  as  in  its  present  position,  the  lower 
portion  of  the  cutting  was  composed  of  soft 
beds,  which  being  hollowed  out  let  down  the 
harder  strata  above ;  and  less  rapidly  where 
the  strata  near  the  base  were  hard  sandstones, 
such  as  occur  in  some  of  the  lower  groups.  The 
effect  of  continued  recession  must  be  to  grad- 
ually diminish  the  height  of  the  falls,  both  by 
the  rising  of  the  bed  of  the  river  at  their  base 
and  by  the  slope  of  the  massive  limestone  to  a 
lower  level.  The  thin-bedded  limestones  above 
being  swept  off,  the  succeeding  shales  and  marls 
of  the  Onondaga  salt  group  must  immediately 
follow,  and  the  falls  may  then  become  almost 
stationary,  when  their  base  is  at  the  base  of 
the  massive  sandstone  and  their  upper  line  is 
as  now  over  its  upper  edge.  This,  as  shown 
by  Prof.  Hall,  is  likely  to  be  the  case  after  a 
further  recession  of  about  2  m.,  and  the  height 


NIAGARA 

of  the  fall  must  then  be  reduced  to  about  80  ft. 
On  both  sides  of  the  river,  and  especially  on 
Goat  island,  are  beds  of  sand,  gravel,  and  clay, 
evidently  deposited  by  running  water,  con- 
taining great  numbers  of  fresh-water  shells 
of  the  same  genera  and  species  as  those  now 
living  in  the  river  and  deposited  along  its  banks, 
such  as  the  unio,  cyclas,  limnea,  planorbis,  val- 
vata,  and  melania.  These  strata  reach  to  the 
height  of  40  ft.  above  the  top  of  the  fall,  and 
are  met  with  in  occasional  patches  at  the  same 
level  near  the  edges  of  the  precipice  for  4  m. 
below.  They  show  that  the  waters  must  have 
spread  over  a  wide  area  and  been  kept  back 
by  some  high  barrier  between  the  whirlpool 
and  Lewiston.  The  bowlder  or  drift  forma- 
tion underlies  the  fluviatile  strata,  thus  refer- 
ring their  formation  to  the  latest  geological 
period. — The  most  complete  accounts  of  Niag- 
ara falls  are  contained  in  the  report  of  Prof. 
Hall,  and  in  vol.  i.  of  "  Travels  in  North  Amer- 
ica," by  Sir  Charles  Lyell.  See  also  "Niagara, 
its  History,  Geology,  and  Poetry,"  by  George 
W.  Holley  (New  York,  1871). 

NIAGARA,  a  W.  county  of  New  York,  bounded 
N.  by  Lake  Ontario,  S.  by  Tonawanda  creek, 
and  W.  by  Niagara  river ;  area,  about  500  sq. 
m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  50,437.  The  surface  is  un- 
dulating, except  on  the  border  of  the  lake, 
where  it  is  low  and  level.  The  soil  is  produc- 
tive and  highly  cultivated.  It  is  traversed  by 
the  New  York  Central  railroad  and  branches, 
and  by  the  Erie  canal.  The  chief  productions 
in  1870  were  961,303  bushels  of  wheat,  396,- 
642  of  Indian  corn,  790,243  of  oats,  215,988  of 
barley,  236,026  of  potatoes,  296,458  Ibs.  of 
wool,  25,463  of  hops,  1,392,038  of  butter,  57,- 
596  of  cheese,  and  52,916  tons  of  hay.  There 
were  12,218  horses,  11,594  milch  cows,  7,952 
other  cattle,  53,362  sheep,  and  11,964  swine. 
The  number  of  manufacturing  establishments 
was  421,  employing  $2,968,605  capital;  value 
of  products,  $5,411,933.  The  most  important 
were  16  flour  mills,  25  saw  mills,  2  woollen 
mills,  6  manufactories  of  agricultural  imple- 
ments, 32  of  carriages  and  wagons,  51  of  coop- 
erage, 1  of  edge  tools,  1  of  glass  ware,  1  of 
hosiery,  6  of  forged  and  cast  iron,  7  of  ma- 
chinery, and  2  of  paper.  Capital,  Lockport. 

NIAGARA,  a  town  of  Niagara  co,,  New  York, 
on  the  Niagara  river,  extending  above  and  be- 
low the  falls ;  pop.  in  1870,  6,832.  It  contains 
two  incorporated  villages,  Niagara  Falls,  at  the 
falls,  and  Suspension  Bridge,  formerly  Niagara 
City,  about  a  mile  below.  Their  prosperity 
depends  largely  upon  the  great  numbers  of 
tourists  that  resort  to  the  falls. — NIAGARA 
FALLS  (pop.  in  1870,  3,006)  is  connected  with 
Buffalo  and  Suspension  Bridge  by  branches  of 
the  Erie  and  New  York  Central  railroads,  and 
with  Drummondville  on  the  Canadian  side  of 
the  river  by  a  suspension  bridge.  It  contains 
a  paper  mill,  two  grist  mills,  several  planing 
mills  and  machine  shops,  including  the  repair 
shops  of  the  New  York  Central  railroad,  a 
banking  and  exchange  office,  four  large  and 


NIBELUNGENLIED 


419 


seven  smaller  hotels,  two  public  school  build- 
ings with  graded  schools,  a  young  ladies'  in- 
stitute, a  weekly  newspaper,  and  five  churches. 
—SUSPENSION  BRIDGE  (pop.  in  1870,  2,276)  is 
the  port  of  entry  of  the  collection  district  of 
Niagara.  It  is  one  of  the  western  termini  of 
the  New  York  Central  railroad,  and  is  con- 
nected with  Clifton  (the  eastern  terminus  of 
the  Great  Western  railroad)  on  the  Canadian 
side  of  the  river  by  a  suspension  bridge  for 
railroad  and  ordinary  travel.  It  contains  a 
grist  mill  and  some  small  manufacturing  shops, 
a  banking  and  exchange  office,  one  large  and 
eight  smaller  hotels,  a  public  school  building 
with  graded  schools,  two  weekly  newspapers 
(one  masonic),  and  three  churches. 

NIASSA.    SeeNYAssA. 

NIBELUNGENLIED,  or  Nibelungennot,  an  old  Ger- 
man epic  poem,,  embodying  several  cycles  of 
heroic  traditions.  Its  legends  form  a  large  part 
of  the  Heldensagen  of  Germany,  and  are  found 
with  various  modifications  in  other  Germanic 
and  Scandinavian  poems.  It  begins  by  telling 
how  King  Gtinther  in  Worms  reigned  over  the 
Burgundians.  He  had  a  sister,  Chriemhild, 
the  world's  wonder,  of  rare  grace  and  beauty. 
She  forswears  marriage  in  consequence  of  a 
dream ;  but  the  gallant  Sigfried,  who  had  van- 
quished the  ancient  fabulous  royal  race  of  the 
Nibelungen,  and  taken  away  their  immense 
treasures  of  gold  and  gems,  comes  to  Worms 
to  woo  her.  He  is  welcomed,  triumphs  over 
all  the  knights  who  venture  to  meet  him,  wins 
her  heart  by  his  valor,  but  has  begun  to  despair 
of  success  when  Giinther  hears  of  the  beautiful 
and  redoubtable  Brunehild,  queen  of  Isenland, 
and  resolves  to  stake  his  fortune  as  her  suitor. 
The  condition  is  that  he  shall  engage  in  three 
combats  with  her,  and  if  vanquished  be  put 
to  death.  Sigfried  accompanies  and  aids  him, 
being  promised  the  hand  of  Chriemhild  if  suc- 
cessful. The  united  heroes  reach  their  desti- 
nation after  a  voyage  of  twelve  days.  Brune- 
hild appears  in  the  lists  with  a  shield  of  beaten 
gold,  so  heavy  that  four  of  her  chamberlains 
can  scarcely  bear  it.  Gtinther  is  in  despair, 
when  the  touch  and  voice  of  an  invisible  per- 
son by  his  side  give  him  courage  for  the  fight. 
The  same  person  seizes  his  arm,  hurls  the  spear, 
and  flings  the  stone,  till  the  martial  maid  con- 
fesses herself  vanquished,  and  bids  her  vas- 
sals do  homage  to  Gunther.  Sigfried,  the  real 
winner  of  the  contest,  who  had  been  made  in- 
visible by  his  magic  cap,  receives  for  his  re- 
ward the  hand  of  Chriemhild,  and  the  two 
marriages  are  celebrated  amid  the  utmost  pomp 
and  rejoicing.  Dissension  ensues  between  the 
queen  and  her  sister-in-law.  Sigfried  con- 
trives to  obtain  the  girdle  of  the  former,  and 
to  present  it  to  the  latter,  who  afterward  tells 
the  whole  tale  of  her  husband's  valor,  and 
charges  her  rival  with  love  for  him  and  infi- 
delity. The  queen  vows  revenge,  and  secures 
the  aid  of  the  fierce  Hagen,  who  skilfully  draws 
from  Chriemhild  the  secret  of  the  spot  where 
alone  Sigfried  was  mortal,  and  soon  after 


420 


NIBELUNGENLIED 


treacherously  plunges  a  lance  between  his 
shoulders  in  a  royal  chase.  After  this  Chriem- 
hild  lives  at  Worms  for  thirteen  years,  Hagen 
having  sunk  all  her  Nibelungen  treasure  in  the 
Khine.  Then  Etzel  (Attila),  king  of  the  Huns, 
seeks  her  in  marriage,  and  she  consents,  in 
order  that  she  may  avenge  the  death  of  Sig- 
f ried.  After  seven  years  of  repose  in  Hungary 
she  persuades  Etzel  to  invite  Gunther  and  his 
heroes  to  visit  him.  They  accept,  and  go  with 
a  retinue  of  10,000  men.  At  the  castle  of 
Riidiger,  ambassador  of  the  king,  they  are  hos- 
pitably entertained.  Provided  with  gifts,  they 
advance  into  Etzel's  land,  who  receives  them 
with  honor.  A  tumult  results  in  a  dreadful 
battle  in  which  many  of  the  heroes  on  both 
sides  are  slain,  and  Etzel  and  Chriemhild  are 
barely  rescued  from  the  hall  in  which  the  Bur- 
gundians  were  raving  with  Berserkir  rage.  The 
hall  is  then  assailed  by  20,000  Huns.  Gunther 
seeks  a  reconciliation,  but  rejects  the  proffered 
terms  requiring  the  surrender  of  Hagen,  and 
the  queen  orders  the  edifice  to  be  set  on  fire. 
Only  600  Burgundians  survive  the  conflagra- 
tion. The  contest  is  renewed  by  Riidiger,  and 
numerous  heroes  are  so  nearly  matched  that 
they  slay  each  other,  until  at  last  of  all  the 
Burgundians  only  Gunther  and  Hagen  remain, 
who  are  delivered  in  bonds  to  Chriemhild. 
She  demands  of  the  latter  where  the  Nibelun- 
gen treasure  is  concealed,  but  he  refuses  to 
betray  it  so  long  as  one  of  his  lords  lives.  The 
head  of  Gunther  is  struck  off,  but  Hagen  still 
declares  that  he  alone  of  men  knows  the  secret, 
and  that  he  will  not  reveal  it.  She  then  with 
the  sword  of  Sigfried  beheads  him  by  a  blow, 
but  the  Hunnish  warrior  Hildebrand  disdains 
to  see  a  hero  fall  beneath  a  woman's  hand,  and 
slays  the  queen;  and  Etzel  and  Dietrich  sur- 
vive alone  to  lament  the  dead. — The  action  of 
the  poem  extends  over  thirty  years,  and  it 
abounds  in  passages  of  remarkable  beauty. 
The  origin  of  the  traditions  embodied  in  it  is 
usually  attributed  to  the  Scandinavians.  They 
are  contained  in  the  Edda,  the  Brynhilda,  Gu- 
drun,  and  Sigurd  of  which  are  only  the  per- 
sonages of  the  Nibelungenlied  in  different  out- 
lines. Johannes  von  Mtiller  ascribes  the  au- 
thorship of  the  Nibelungenlied  to  Wolfram  von 
Eschenbach;  Bodmer  to  Kunrat,  a  scribe  of 
Bishop  Piligrim  of  Passau,  and  in  a  later  view 
to  Marner ;  Adelung  to  Konrad  of  Wilrzburg ; 
Zeune  to  Klinsor  von  Ungarland ;  A.  W.  von 
Schlegel  to  Heinrich  von  Ofterdingen;  Von 
der  Hagen  to  Walther  von  der  Vogelweide; 
Karl  Roth  to  Rudolf  von  Ems ;  Gartner  to 
the  prelate  Chuonrad ;  Heinrich  Haas  to  Wirnt 
von  Gravenberg;  Karl  and  Nikola  Mosler  to 
Friedrich  von  Hausen ;  and  Franz  Pfeiffer  to 
Kurenberg;  but  not  one  of  these  critics  has 
been  able  to  establish  his  opinion.  Lachmann 
endeavored  to  show  that  the  Nibelungenlied 
consists  of  20  songs,  originally  unconnected  and 
independent  of  each  other,  and  of  various  dates. 
According  to  Holtzmann,  the  Nibelungenlied 
is  the  work  of  a  single  poet,  and  did  not  ori- 


NICARAGUA 

ginate  by  joining  several  national  songs,  though 
founded  on  the  traditions  then  current,  and 
traceable  to  the  myths  and  legends  common  to 
all  Indo-European  races.  As  to  the  time  of  the 
composition  of  the  poem,  opinions  vary  from 
the  10th  to  the  beginning  of  the  13th  century. — 
See  Lachmann,  Ueber  die  ursprungliche  Gestalt 
des  GedicJites  von  der  Nibelunge  Not  (Berlin, 
1816);  Mone,  Einleitung  in  das  Nibelungen- 
lied (Heidelberg,  1818);  Von  der  Hagen,  Min- 
nesinger (Leipsic,  1838)  ;  Spaun,  Heinrich  von 
Ofterdingen  und  das  Nibelungenlied  (Linz, 
1840) ;  Holtzmann,  Untersuchungen  uber  das 
Nibelungenlied  (Stuttgart,  1854);  Zarncke, 
Beitrage  zur  Erlcldrung  und  Geschichte  des 
Niebelungenliedes  (Leipsic,  1857);  Gartner, 
Chuonrad  und  das  Nibelungenlied  (Pesth, 
1857);  Haas,  Die  Nibelungen  in  ihren  Be- 
ziehungen  zur  Geschichte  des  Mittelalters  (Er- 
langen,  1860);  Karl  and  Nikola  Mosler,  Der 
Nibelunge  Noth  (Leipsic,  1864) ;  Bartsch,  Un- 
tersuchungen uber  das  Nibelungenlied  (Vienna, 
1865) ;  Pfeiffer,  FreieForschung — Kleine  Schrif- 
ten  zur  Geschichte  der  deutschen  Literatur  und 
Sprache  (Vienna,  1867) ;  Zupitza,  Ueber  Franz 
Pfeiffer**  Versuch  (Oppeln,  1867);  Schults, 
Der  gegenwdrtige  Stand  der  Nibelungenfrage 
(Schleiz,  1874) ;  and  Fischer,  Die  Forschungen 
uber  das  Nibelungenlied  seit  Lachmann  (Leip- 
sic, 1874).  There  are  English  translations  by 
Birch  and  Letsam.  The  best  translation  into 
modern  German  is  by  Simrock  (new  ed.,  Stutt- 
gart, 1874). 

MCANDER,  a  Greek  poet  of  the  middle  of 
the  2d  century  B.  C.  He  was  a  native  of  Cla- 
ros  in  Ionia,  and  succeeded  his  father  as  priest 
in  the  temple  of  Apollo.  Of  his  voluminous 
works  only  two  poetical  treatises  are  extant, 
one  on  venomous  animals,  the  other  on  poi- 
sons and  their  antidotes.  The  earliest  edition 
is  that  of  Venice  (1499) ;  the  best  that  of  J. 
G.  Schneider  (vol.  i.,  Halle,  1792;  vol.  ii., 
Leipsic,  1816). 

NICARAGUA,  a  republic  of  Central  America, 
lying  between  lat.  10°  45'  and  14°  55'  N.,  and 
Ion.  83°  15'  and  87°  38'  W.,  bounded  N.  by  Hon- 
duras, E.'by  the  Caribbean  sea,  S.  by  Costa 
Rica,  and  W.  by  the  Pacific  ocean ;  area,  about 
58,000  sq.  m. ;  pop.  now  estimated  as  low  as 
250,000.  Capital,  Managua.  The  N.  bounda- 
ry line  with  Honduras  is  unsettled,  but  the 
Coco  river  is  generally  considered  as  the  sepa- 
rating line.  Nicaragua  has  nearly  the  form  of 
an  isosceles  triangle,  whose  base  is  Costa  Rica 
and  the  Pacific  coast,  and  whose  apex  is  at  the 
mouth  of  the  Coco  river.  The  E.  coast,  which 
lies  nearly  N.  and  S.,  embraces  the  shore  of  the 
Caribbean  sea  from  the  mouth  of  that  river  to 
that  of  the  San  Juan  river,  about  280  m.  Its 
southern  part,  from  the  delta  of  the  San  Juan 
to  Monkey  point,  has  dense  forests  and  bold 
rocky  headlands,  the  mountain  ranges  ap- 
proaching close  to  the  water.  Most  of  the 
streams  here  are  short,  shallow,  and  rapid. 
Beyond  Monkey  point  the  mountains  recede 
inland,  and  the  country  near  the  sea  is  flat  and 


NICARAGUA 


421 


alluvial,  forming  broad  savannas,  which  are 
intersected  where  the  rivers  traverse  them  by 
belts  of  forest.  Off  the  coast  are  numerous 
coral  keys  and  sandy  islets,  the  principal  of 
which  are  the  Pearl  islands,  numbering  15 
or  20;  and  within  the  coast  line  are  many 
lagoons  with  densely  wooded  shores  and  con- 
nected by  channels,  which  in  the  wet  sea- 
son furnish  interior  navigation  from  Bluefields 
lagoon  to  Cape  Gracias.  Pearl  lagoon,  the 
largest,  covers  an  area  of  200  sq.  m.  The  bar 
at  its  entrance  has  but  8  ft.  of  water.  It  re- 
ceives the  waters  of  the  little  lake  Tapac  and 
of  two  or  three  small  rivers.  Near  its  S.  end 
is  Hog  island.  Blue- 
fields  lagoon,  which 
covers  a  surface  of 
100  sq.  m.,  has  hilly 
shores  on  the  west. 
Within  its  entrance, 
about  5  m.  from  the 
mouth  of  the  Blue- 
fields  river,  lies  Casa- 
da  island,  and  opposite 
it,  on  the  W.  coast 
of  the  lagoon,  is  the 
town  of  Bluefields, 
formerly  the  capital 
of  the  Mosquito  king- 
dom. The  lagoon  has 
from  4  to  6  fathoms 
of  water,  but  the  bar 
at  its  mouth  has  but 
10  or  12  ft.  The 
Mico,  Escondido,  or 
Bluefields  river,  and 
a  number  of  smaller 
streams,  flow  into  it. 
All  the  lagoons  are 
brackish  in  the  rainy 
season  and  salt  in  the 
dry.  Other  rivers  on 
the  Atlantic  coast,  be- 
sides the  San  Juan, 
are  :  Indio,  Rama, 
Grande  or  Awaltara, 
Prinzapulka,  Wawa, 
Brackma,  Duckraw, 
Coco,  and  Wanks  or 

Segovia.  All  these  are  rough  and  rapid  near 
their  sources,  but  smoother  as  they  approach 
the  sea.  Most  of  them  have  different  names 
inland.  The  Grande  rises  in  the  sierra  of  Gua- 
guali  in  Matagalpa,  and  has  a  course  of  about 
230  m.,  the  last  90  m.  of  which  has  a  depth  of 
15  ft.,  but  there  is  a  dangerous  bar  at  its  mouth. 
The  Coco  is  the  longest  river  in  Central  Amer- 
ica, having  a  course  of  about  350  m.  from  its 
source  in  the  mountains  of  Segovia.  There  are 
many  rapids  in  its  upper  part,  but  it  is  naviga- 
ble for  small  steamers  for  about  140  m.  from 
its  mouth.  The  only  port  of  Nicaragua  on  the 
Atlantic  is  San  Juan  del  Norte,  also  called 
San  Juan  de  Nicaragua  and  Greytown,  at  the 
mouth  of  the  San  Juan  river.  By  treaty  with 
Great  Britain,  it  has  been  a  free  port  since 


1860.  The  San  Juan  river  receives  a  large  part 
of  the  drainage  of  both  Nicaragua  and  Costa 
Rica,  its  watershed  extending  to  within  a  few 
miles  of  the  Pacific.  In  the  rainy  season  it 
pours  out  a  very  large  volume  of  water,  and 
vast  quantities  of  earth  and  silt,  which  have 
formed  an  extensive  delta,  through  which  it 
seeks  the  sea  by  three  channels,  the  Colorado, 
the  Taura,  and  the  San  Juan.  The  last  was 
formerly  the  main  channel,  but  a  few  years  ago 
a  flood  enlarged  the  Colorado  channel,  and 
seven  eighths  of  the  water  now  flows  through 
it,  in  consequence  of  which  the  harbor  of  San 
Juan  has  filled  with  sand.  Ships  now  have  to 


lie  outside  of  the  bar,  which  is  very  dangerous 
for  even  small  boats  in  heavy  weather,  while 
the  bar  at  the  mouth  of  the  Colorado  has  12 
ft.  of  water  in  the  dry  season.  The  obvious 
remedy  would  be  to  remove  the  town  to  the 
latter  channel,  but  unfortunately  for  Nicaragua 
it  is  in  Costa  Rican  territory.  With  its  wind- 
ings the  San  Juan  is  120  m.  long.  The  largest 
of  its  numerous  affluents  are  the  San  Carlos 
and  the  Sarapiqui,  both  rising  in  the  highlands 
of  Costa  Rica.  The  streams  entering  it  from 
the  north  are  all  small.  The  width  of  the  San 
Juan  varies  from  100  to  400  yards,  and  its 
depth  from  2  to  20  ft.  It  is  interrupted  by  five 
rapids,  two  of  which  form  natural  dams  across 
the  river.  The  San  Juan  derives  its  chief  im- 
portance from  the  fact  that  it  is  the  only  possi- 


422 


NICARAGUA 


ble  course  for  the  Atlantic  section  of  the  pro- 
posed Nicaraguan  interoceanic  canal.  It  was 
indicated  as  one  of  the  four  possible  routes  by 
Gomara  in  1551.  In  1781  the  route  was  sur- 
veyed, by  order  of  the  Spanish  government,  by 
Don  Manuel  Galisteo ;  in  1838  by  John  Baily 
for  the  government  of  Central  America ;  and 
in  1851  by  Col.  Childs  under  the  direction  of 
the  "Atlantic  and  Pacific  Ship  Canal  Com- 
pany." Several  concessions  have  been  made 
to  different  parties  for  the  construction  of  a  ca- 
nal, but  no  practical  operations  have  ever  been 
undertaken.  In  1873  and  1874  the  route  was 
again  thoroughly  surveyed  by  a  party  under 
the  charge  of  Commander  Lull  for  the  United 
States  government. — The  "W.  coast  of  Nicaragua 
is  about  200  m.  long,  and  has  a  general  N.  W. 
and  S.  E.  direction.  It  is  nearly  straight,  and 
has  but  few  inlets.  At  its  S.  extremity  is  the 
bay  of  Salinas,  the  N.  shore  of  which  belongs 
to  Nicaragua  and  the  remainder  to  Costa  Rica. 
The  harbors  of  San  Juan  del  Sur,  Brito,  and 
Tamarinda  are  small  and  insecure.  About  lat. 
12°  25'  is  the  bay  of  Corinto,  formed  on  the 
south  by  a  long  peninsula  and  on  the  north  by 
the  island  of  Aserradores,  on  the  end  of  which 
is  the  town  of  Corinto  (lat.  12°  28'  N.,  Ion. 
87°  12'  W.),  the  principal  port  of  Nicaragua  on 
the  Pacific.  On  the  mainland,  N.  E.  of  it,  is 
Real e jo,  once  a  good  port,  but  now  almost  de- 
stroyed by  the  growth  of  the  mangrove  trees, 
which  are  rapidly  filling  it  up.  On  the  most 
northerly  part  of  this  coast  the  peninsula  of 
Chinandega  forms  the  bay  of  Fonseca,  the 
shores  of  which  are  divided  between  Nicaragua, 
Honduras,  and  San  Salvador.  At  the  S.  E.  end 
of  the  bay  is  the  Estero  Real,  a  long  arm  of  the 
sea  forming  an  estuary  for  several  small  rivers, 
of  which  the  Villanueva  is  the  largest.  The 
Estero  is  300  yards  wide,  has  three  fathoms  of 
water  at  30  m.  from  its  mouth,  and  is  free  from 
impediments  to  navigation ;  yet  Nicaragua  has 
but  two  small  ports  in  it,  Playa  Grande  and 
Tempi's  que.— From  10  to  20  m.  back  from  the 
coast  line,  and  running  nearly  parallel  to  it,  is 
a  range  of  mountains,  sometimes  rising  in  high 
volcanic  cones,  and  sometimes  subsiding  into 
low  hills  and  plains  of  slight  elevation.  It 
seems  to  have  been  the  principal  line  of  vol- 
canic action,  and  in  Nicaragua  is  marked  by 
the  volcanoes  of  Cosegtiina  (3,835  ft.),  Chon- 
co,  Viejo  (6,266),  Santa  Clara,  Telica  (4,190), 
Orota  (2,665),  Las  Pilas  (3,985),  Asososca, 
Momotombo  (7,200),  Momotombita,  Chilte- 
peque  (2,800),  Masaya  (2,972),  Mombacho 
(4,588),  Zapotera  (2,000),  Ometepe  (5,350), 
and  Madera  (4,190).  Of  these,  Cosegtiina  is 
remarkable  for  its  famous  eruption  in  1835, 
when  it  scattered  ashes  over  a  circle  1,500 
m.  in  diameter.  Santa  Clara  and  Telica  were 
in  eruption  at  the  time  of  the  conquest.  A 
few  of  these  peaks  are  still  active,  but  most 
of  them  have  long  been  extinct.  There  are 
many  smaller  extinct  craters  in  the  chain,  sur- 
rounded by  vast  beds  of  lava  and  scorise,  and 
numerous  vents  called  infiernillos,  which  emit 


smoke  and  sulphurous  vapors.  Nearly  paral- 
lel to  this  range  is  a  second  mountain  chain, 
the  backbone  of  the  continent  and  the  true 
Cordillera,  which  enters  from  Honduras  into 
the  department  of  Segovia,  and  extends  S.  E. 
to  the  San  Juan  river  about  50  m.  above  its 
mouth.  There  are  several  volcanic  peaks  in 
this  range.  It  sends  out  numerous  spurs 
toward  the  Atlantic,  between  which  are  the 
valleys  of  the  streams  flowing  into  the  Carib- 
bean sea.  The  principal  of  these  subordinate 
ranges  are  the  cordillera  of  Dipilto,  which 
forms  a  part  of  the  boundary  line  of  Hondu- 
ras, the  Yali  and  Yeluca  mountains  between 
the  departments  of  Segovia  and  Matagalpa, 
the  Huapi  range  in  Chontales,  and  the  cor- 
dillera of  Yolaina,  which  ends  at  Monkey  point 
on  the  Mosquito  coast.  Between  these  two 
principal  ranges  of  mountains  lies  a  great  in- 
terior basin,  the  plain  of  Nicaragua,  about 
300  m.  long  by  100  m.  wide,  containing  the 
beautiful  lakes  of  Nicaragua  and  Managua. 
(See  MANAGUA,  and  NICARAGUA,  LAKE.)  Ni- 
caragua is  thus  divided  into  three  zones :  the 
most  easterly  one,  between  the  main  mountain 
range  and  the  Atlantic,  a  country  of  almost  un- 
broken forest ;  the  central  one,  between  the  two 
chains,  composed  of  grassed  savannas  and  the 
lakes;  and  the  western,  which  skirts  the  Pa- 
cific, a  country  of  rich  and  fertile  soil.  The 
sole  outlet  of  the  central  basin  and  of  the  lakes 
which  occupy  it  is  the  San  Juan  river,  which 
flows  from  the  S.  E.  end  of  Lake  Nicaragua. 
— The  mountain  regions  of  N.  Nicaragua  are 
connected  geologically  with  the  metalliferous 
region  of  Honduras.  In  Segovia  the  rocks  are 
generally  quartz  and  gneiss,  succeeded  in  many 
places  by  overlying,  highly  inclined,  and  con- 
torted schists,  with  small  quartz  veins  running 
through  their  laminae.  Near  Ocotal  are  uri- 
stratified  beds  of  gravel,  sometimes  from  200 
to  300  ft.  thick,  consisting  mostly  of  quartz 
sand  with  numerous  angular  blocks  of  quartz 
and  talcose  schist.  Many  of  these  bowlders 
are  large,  some  of  them  15  ft.  in  diameter. 
There  are  many  evidences  throughout  this 
region  of  glacial  action.  Silver  is  found  in 
many  places,  but  few  mines  are  worked;  those 
at  Dipilto  are  now  closed.  There  are  mines 
also  at  Jalapa,  Jicaro,  and  Macuelizo.  In 
Chontales  are  rich  auriferous  quartz  lodes  in 
fissure  veins,  running  generally  E.  and  W.,  and 
cutting  nearly  vertically  through  beds  of  do- 
lerite.  These  veins  vary  greatly  in  thickness, 
a  lode  sometimes  widening  from  1  to  17  ft.  in 
100  yards.  The  gold  is  a  natural  alloy,  con- 
taining about  three  parts  of  gold  to  one  of 
silver.  Sulphide  of  silver,  peroxide  of  mag- 
nesia, peroxide  of  iron,  sulphides  of  iron  and 
copper,  and  occasionally  ores  of  lead,  are  also 
found  in  the  lodes.  The  mining  centre  of  Chon- 
tales is  at  Libertad,  in  the  vicinity  of  which 
more  than  300  gold  mines  have  been  discov- 
ered, and  several  are  profitably  worked  by 
English,  German,  and  French  companies.  Cop- 
per, iron,  lead,  tin,  zinc,  and  antimony  are 


NICARAGUA 


423 


found  in  Chontales,  Matagalpa,  and  Segovia, 
and  quicksilver  in  Chontales.  A  kind  of  brown 
coal  has  been  discovered  also  in  Chontales,  but 
the  deposits  remain  undeveloped.  Limestone, 
marble,  alabaster,  alum,  sulphur,  nitre,  and 
other  minerals  abound  in  the  mountainous  dis- 
tricts.— The  climate,  except  among  the  moun- 
tains of  Segovia  and  Chontales,  is  essentially 
tropical.  The  N.  E.  part  is  very  damp.  The 
rains  commence  in  May,  and  continue  with 
occasional  intermission  till  January,  when  a 
short  dry  season  of  three  months  begins.  Even 
then  rain  sometimes  falls,  and  the  ground  in 
the  woods  is  always  moist  and  the  brooks 
are  perennial.  The  heaviest  rains  are  in  July 
and  August.  In  September,  October,  and  No- 
vember there  are  spells  of  fine  weather,  last- 
ing sometimes  a  fortnight.  In  the  Nicaragua 
basin  the  wet  season  lasts  generally  from  May 
to  November.  The  rains  occasionally  last  sev- 
eral days,  but  generally  the  showers  occur  late 
in  the  afternoon  or  at  night.  Weeks  often 
elapse  without  a  cloud.  The  temperature  is 
very  equable,  preserving  a  nearly  uniform 
range  of  from  78°  to  88°  F.,  occasionally  sink- 
ing to  70°  in  the  night  and  rising  to  90°  in  the 
afternoon.  During  the  dry  season  the  tem- 
perature is  lower,  the  nights  are  cool,  and 
the  winds  sometimes  chilling.  Rain  falls  at 
rare  intervals.  The  fields  become  parched  and 
dry,  and  in  the  towns  the  dust  becomes  almost 
insufferable.  This  is  the  most  healthful  sea- 
son, its  effects  being  practically  that  of  a  north- 
ern winter.  The  climate  of  the  Pacific  coast 
is  essentially  that  of  the  central  zone. — The 
soil  of  Nicaragua  is  very  rich,  particularly  on 
the  Pacific  slope,  where  all  the  plants  and 
fruits  of  the  tropics  thrive  abundantly.  The 
central  zone  is  essentially  a  pasturage  coun- 
try, and  supports  large  herds  of  cattle,  mules, 
and  horses.  Great  numbers  of  cattle  also  are 
raised  on  the  savannas  of  the  Atlantic  coast, 
which  is  generally  uncultivated.  In  Segovia, 
Matagalpa,  and  Chontales  are  large  cattle  es- 
tates, but  little  care  is  taken  in  breeding,  and 
when  unusually  dry  seasons  occur  the  animals 
die  by  hundreds.  The  amount  of  cultivated 
land  is  relatively  small,  but  is  ample  for  the 
support  of  the  population.  Among  the  sta- 
ples which  grow  to  perfection  are  cacao,  sugar, 
cotton,  coffee,  indigo,  rice,  tobacco,  and  maize. 
The  cacao  of  Granada  and  Rivas  is  said  to  be 
among  the  best  grown,  and  there  are  large 
plantations  of  it  in  those  departments.  The 
sugar  cane  is  smaller  and  softer  than  the  Asi- 
atic varieties,  but  richer  in  juice.  Two  crops 
a  year,  and  with  irrigation  three,  are  taken, 
and  the  cane  requires  replanting  but  once  in 
12  or  14  years.  Excellent  cotton  is  grown, 
but  little  is  now  exported.  Coffee  is  cultiva- 
ted in  Chontales  and  on  the  Pacific  coast,  and 
is  exported  to  some  extent.  Indigo  was  once 
extensively  cultivated,  but  the  annual  product 
is  now  comparatively  small.  The  plant  from 
which  it  is  made  is  the  jiquilite  (indigo/era 
disperma).  Maize,  which  is  the  principal  food 


of  the  natives,  is  very  prolific.  It  is  planted 
in  May  and  harvested  in  September;  and  a 
second  crop,  planted  in  December,  is  gathered 
in  April.  Wheat  and  barley  grow  in  the  ele- 
vated districts  of  Segovia  and  Chontales,  and 
rice  is  raised  in  the  lowlands.  Tropical  fruits 
and  vegetables  of  many  kinds  abound.  The 
most  important  commercial  vegetable  pro- 
ductions are  caoutchouc,  sarsaparilla,  annotto, 
aloes,  ginger,  vanilla,  ipecacuanha,  arrowroot, 
copal,  cowhage,  gum  arabic,  copaiba,  and 
dragon's  blood.  Nicaragua  is  especially  rich 
in  valuable  woods.  Besides  many  kinds  of 
timber  trees,  there  are  of  cabinet  woods  the 
mahogany,  rosewood,  granadillo,  and  ronron ; 
of  dye  woods,  Nicaragua  wood,  logwood,  fus- 
tic, sandal  (santalum  rubrum),  moran  (morus 
tinctoria),  quercitron,  and  nanzite  (Malpi- 
ghia  punicifolid) ;  of  medicinal  trees,  the  co- 
paiba, liquidambar,  balsam  of  Peru,  cascarilla, 
cinchona,  and  sassafras.  Other  valuable  com- 
mercial trees  are  the  castilloa  elastica,  from 
which  India  rubber  is  made,  the  gutta  percha 
tree  (sapota  lassia)^  dragon's  blood,  quillay, 
nacascolo  (  Ocesalpinia  coriaria),  bixa  Orellana, 
and  several  which  produce  gums.  Along  the 
rivers  the  trees  grow  close  to  the  water's  edge, 
supporting  flowering  vines,  which  cover  the 
highest  tops  and  form  a  wall  of  sweet-smelling 
flowers  of  every  hue.  Among  the  wild  ani- 
mals are  the  black  and  spotted  jaguar,  the 
puma,  ocelot,  tapir,  tw»  species  of  deer,  wild 
boar,  peccary,  capybara  (hydrochcerus  capyba- 
ra),  coyote,  sloth,  fox,  several  species  of  mon- 
keys, manatee  or  sea  cow,  porcupine,  arma- 
dillo, coney,  opossum,  weasel,  skunk,  and  bat. 
The  rivers  and  swamps  abound  with  alligators 
and  iguanas.  The  latter,  which  are  frequently 
3  ft.  long,  are  eaten  by  the  Indians.  There 
are  also  many  other  species  of  lizards,  among 
them  a  venomous  one.  Snakes  are  numerous, 
but  not  many  are  venomous.  The  coral  snake', 
marked  with  rings  of  yellow,  black,  and  red, 
is  said  to  be  fatally  venomous,  as  is  also  the 
bite  of  a  small  yellow  snake  about  8  in.  long. 
A  species  of  boa,  sometimes  15  or  16  ft.  long, 
is  occasionally  found.  On  the  coast  are  many 
wading  and  aquatic  birds,  among  which  the 
pelican,  white  crane,  and  brown  jacana  are 
most  conspicuous.  Other  indigenous  birds 
are  the  curassow,  eagle,  hawk,  egret,  vulture, 
turkey  buzzard,  grouse,  pigeon,  duck,  parrot, 
trogon,  toucan,  tanager,  motmot,  macaw,  quail, 
oriole,  many  species  of  the  humming  bird,  and 
others  less  known.  In  the  interior  is  some- 
times found  the  quesal  (trogon  resplendent), 
the  royal  bird  of  the  Aztecs.  Altogether  150 
species  of  birds  have  been  classified.  The 
forests  abound  with  insects,  among  which  are 
numerous  species  of  butterflies,  13  of  honey 
bees,  and  more  than  300  of  longicorn  beetles. 
Mosquitoes  swarm  in  all  damp  places,  and 
wasps  are  numerous  and  troublesome.  There 
are  many  varieties  of  the  ecitons,  or  foraging 
ants,  which  move  in  large  armies  and  live  on 
other  insects,  larvae,  and  the  young  of  birds. 


424: 


NICARAGUA 


There  are  also  hunting  ants  an  inch  long,  and 
leaf-cutting  ants  (cecodoma).  Whole  groves  of 
orange,  mango,  and  lemon  trees  are  frequently 
destroyed  by  the  last.  The  seas,  rivers,  and 
lagoons  swarm  with  every  variety  of  tropical 
fish,  and  all  kinds  of  shell  fish  abound  on  the 
coasts  and  keys. — Nicaragua  is  divided  into 
seven  administrative  departments,  viz. :  Chi- 
nandega,  Ohontales,  Granada,  Leon,  Matagalpa, 
Rivas,  and  Segovia.  The  E.  boundary  of  Ohon- 
tales, Matagalpa,  and  Segovia  is  considered  to 
be  the  Atlantic,  notwithstanding  the  Mosquito 
reservation  on  the  coast,  the  limits  of  which, 
according  to  the  convention  of  Managua  of 
Jan.  28,  1860,  are  as  follows:  N.  the  Wawa 
river,  E.  the  Atlantic,  S.  the  river  Rama,  and 
W.  the  meridian  of  84°  15'  W.,  containing  an 
area  of  nearly  9,000  sq.  m.  Of  the  250,000 
inhabitants  of  Nicaragua,  220,000  belong  to 
civilized  and  30,000  to  uncivilized  races.  The 
former  may  be  divided  proportionately  as  fol- 
lows :  Indians  of  unmixed  blood,  550  in  1,000 ; 
mestizos  (ladinos  from  whites  and  Indians, 
zambos  from  negroes  and  Indians,  arid  mulat- 
toes  from  whites  and  blacks),  400 ;  whites,  45  ; 
negroes,  5.  The  ladino  element  predominates 
in  Jalapa,  Ocotal,  Matagalpa,  Corinto,  Leon, 
Libertad,  Managua,  Bluefields,  Acoyapa,  Ri- 
vas,  and  San  Juan  del  Sur;  the  mulatto  in 
Granada,  Nandaime,  San  Carlos,  and  San  Juan 
del  Norte.  Masaya  is  almost  entirely  Indian, 
and  Indians  occupy  a  large  part  of  the  basin 
of  the  two  lakes.  The  coast  basins  of  the  Pa- 
cific are  peopled  by  Indians  of  Aztec  descent. 
The  uncivilized  Indian  tribes  occupy  the  riv- 
er basins  of  the  Atlantic  slope :  the  Pantas- 
mas,  Poyas,  and  Oarcas,  in  the  several  up- 
per basins  of  the  Coco,  Rio  Grande,  and 
Mico,  the  lower  basins  of  which  are  peopled 
by  Mosquitos,  zambos,  and  black  Caries;  and 
the  Wawas,  Toonglas,  and  Ramas,  in  the  up- 
per basins  of  the  rivers  of  the  same  names. 
Most  of  the  Nicaraguans  live  in  towns,  many 
going  daily  long  distances  to  their  planta- 
tions, which  are  often  reached  by  paths  so 
obscure  as  to  escape  the  notice  of  travellers. 
The  chief  occupation  is  the  raising  of  cattle, 
and  large  quantities  of  cheese  are  made  on 
some  of  the  estates.  The  Indians,  who  are 
generally  a  sober  race,  are  the  principal  produ- 
cers. The  half-breeds  as  a  class  are  indolent, 
thriftless,  and  ignorant.  Baptism  is  consid- 
ered indispensable,  but  the  marriage  ceremo- 
ny is  often  omitted.  Petty  thefts  are  com- 
mon, but  robberies  and  murders  are  unusual. 
Every  few  years  a  revolution  breaks  out,  the 
population  divides  into  two  parties,  and  all 
business  is  suspended  until  the  insurgents  are 
put  down  or  a  change  of  rulers  is  effected. — 
"Ways  of  internal  communication  are  limited. 
There  are  roads  from  Managua  to  Leon  and 
Chinandega,  and  to  Granada  and  Rivas,  pass- 
able for  carriages  only  in  the  summer.  There 
is  also  a  macadamized  road  from  San  Juan  del 
Sur  to  the  port  of  La  Virgen,  on  Lake  Nicara- 
gua, which  was  built  by  the  old  Central  Amer- 


ican transit  company.  The  roads  in  other 
parts  of  the  country  are  little  better  than 
mule  tracks.  The  Nicaragua  mail  steam  navi- 
gation company  have  now  four  good  steamers 
running  on  the  San  Juan  river,  and  a  steamer 
and  a  schooner  on  Lake  Nicaragua.  The  Cen- 
tral American  and  Mexican  steamers  touch  at 
San  Juan  del  Sur  and  Corinto,  and  the  British 
mail  steamers  at  San  Juan  del  Norte.  In  1873 
a  concession  was  granted  for  the  construction 
of  a  railway  from  Granada  to  Leon,  and  an- 
other for  a  railway  from  Leon  to  the  bay  of 
Corinto. — The  commerce  of  Nicaragua  is  small. 
The  principal  exports  are  sugar,  cotton,  indigo, 
coffee,  India  rubber,  cheese,  cacao,  melada, 
Brazil  wood,  cedar,  tortoise  shells,  and  cocoa- 
nuts;  imports,  dry  goods,  groceries,  liquors, 
hardware,  and  miscellaneous  merchandise.  The 
total  value  of  exports  for  the  year  ending  Sept. 
1, 1873,  was :  San  Juan  del  Norte,  $977,918  48 ; 
Corinto,  $463,587  40.  The  value  of  the  im- 
ports for  the  same  year  was :  at  San  Juan  del 
Norte,  $1,007,309  18;  Corinto,  $528,771  40. 
The  greater  part  of  the  commerce  is  with 
Great  Britain.  The  trade  with  the  United 
States  was:  exports,  $215,852  30;  imports, 
$233,050  44.  The  total  tonnage  of  vessels  en- 
tered at  San  Juan  del  Norte  in  the  same  year 
was  42,463  tons;  Corinto,  8,617  tons.— The 
government  consists  of  a  president,  elected  for 
four  years,  and  a  congress  of  two  chambers,  a 
senate  and  a  house  of  representatives,  the  for- 
mer consisting  of  10  and  the  latter  of  11  mem- 
bers. The  president  is  assisted  by  four  minis- 
ters, viz. :  of  finances ;  of  foreign  affairs,  agri- 
culture, commerce,  and  public  instruction ;  of 
war,  public  works,  and  fine  arts;  and  of  the 
interior,  justice,  and  ecclesiastical  affairs.  The 
judicial  power  is  vested  in  a  supreme  court, 
divided  into  two  sections,  one  of  which  sits  at 
Leon  and  the  other  at  Granada.  There  are 
also  a  civil  and  a  criminal  judge  in  each  de- 
partment except  those  thinly  populated,  where 
the  two  are  combined  in  one  official,  and  in  the 
towns  alcaldes  and  other  officers,  who  have 
limited  judicial  powers.  The  army  consists 
nominally  of  6,000  men,  including  4,800  foot, 
400  horse,  500  artillery,  and  300  staff  officers ; 
but  seldom  more  than  1,000  are  under  arms. 
Nicaragua  has  no  navy,  and  there  are  no  light- 
houses or  buoys  on  her  coasts.  Each  port  has 
a  governor  intendant.  The  finances  are  in  a 
deplorable  condition.  The  revenue  is  derived 
mostly  from  import  duties,  a  monopoly  on 
rum,  tobacco,  and  gunpowder,  and  a  tax  on 
slaughtered  cattle.  The  total  annual  revenue 
is  about  $1,200,000.  The  expenditure  is  chiefly 
for  the  maintenance  of  the  army  and  the  gov- 
ernment departments,  and  the  payment  of  the 
interest  on  the  national  debt,  which  amounts  to 
about  $4,000,000. — Education  is  in  a  low  con- 
dition. In  1868  a  decree  was  passed  making 
radical  changes  in  public  instruction,  but  the 
reform  was  only  on  paper.  There  are  two  so- 
called  universities :  that  of  Leon,  which  in  1872 
had  faculties  of  law,  medicine,  and  theology, 


NICARAGUA 


425 


with  56  students,  and  an  intermediate  course 
with  102  students ;  and  that  of  Granada,  which 
had  a  faculty  of  law,  and  an  intermediate 
course  with  162  students.  In  the  same  year 
there  were  in  the  republic  92  male  primary 
schools,  with  3,871  pupils,  and  9  female  pri- 
mary schools,  with  532  pupils.  Education  is 
wholly  secular,  the  supreme  direction  being  in 
the  hands  of  the  executive.  Instruction  is  gra- 
tuitous, and  teachers  are  paid  from  the  public 
funds.  There  is  no  public  library  in  the  coun- 
try, no  museum,  and  no  newspaper.  According 
to  the  constitution,  the  religion  of  the  state  is 
the  Roman  Catholic,  and  the  republic  is  eccle- 
siastically a  suffragan  bishopric  subordinate  to 
the  archbishop  of  Guatemala.  There  are  117" 
parishes,  of  which  about  100  have  incumbents. 
There  are  no  religious  orders,  all  convents 
Laving  been  suppressed  in  1829.  Freedom  of 
worship  is  guaranteed  to  other  sects  by  treaties 
with  friendly  nations.  The  Moravians  have  a 
church  and  a  mission  school  at  Bluefields,  and 
several  schools  at  other  places  on  the  Mosquito 
coast;  in  all  eight  schools,  with  about  500 
pupils  of  both  sexes.  There  is  no  other  Prot- 
estant church  in  Nicaragua. — The  earliest  in- 
habitants of  Nicaragua  were  probably  Toltecs, 
who  entered  the  country  from  Mexico  and 
extended  their  dominion  over  the  region  com- 
prised in  it  and  Costa  Rica.  They  were  fol- 
lowed at  a  much  later  date  by  the  Aztecs,  who 
established  themselves  on  the  lakes  and  coun- 
try between  them  and  the  Pacific.  In  1502 
Columbus  sailed  down  the  coast.  In  1521  Gil 
Gonzales  de  Avila  entered  the  country  from 
the  south  with  a  small  force,  and  penetrated 
as  far  as  the  site  of  Granada,  but,  encounter- 
ing large  bodies  of  natives,  prudently  retraced 
his  steps.  He  found  on  the  borders  of  the 
great  lake  a  cacique  named  Nicarao,  and  he 
called  the  lake  after  him  Nicarao  agua,  a 
name  afterward  applied  to  the  whole  region. 
Pedrarias  Davila,  governor  of  Panama,  de- 
sirous of  anticipating  the  expected  results  of 
this  expedition,  sent  in  1523  a  large  force 
into  the  country  under  Francisco  Fernandez 
de  Cordova,  who  founded  Granada  and  Leon. 
Pedrarias  became  the  first  governor,  and  was 
succeeded  by  his  son-in-law  Rodrigo  de  Con- 
treras.  Nicaragua  was  first  included  in  the 
audiencia  of  Santo  Domingo,  and  then  in  that 
of  Panama,  but  in  1541  with  the  rest  of  Cen- 
tral America  was  erected  into  a  separate  gov- 
ernment. In  1549  Hernando  and  Pedro  de 
Contreras,  sons  of  Rodrigo,  rebelled  against 
the  authority  of  the  crown  and  proclaimed  the 
independence  of  Spanish  America.  They  re- 
duced Panama,  but  while  on  their  way  to  cap- 
ture Nombre  de  Dios  met  with  misfortunes 
which  resulted  in  their  death  in  1550.  Nica- 
ragua, then  attached  to  the  audiencia  of  Guate- 
mala, maintained  a  general  state  of  peace,  dis- 
turbed by  occasional  irruptions  of  the  bucca- 
neers,-until  the  revolution  of  1821,  which  re- 
sulted in-  its  independence,  together  with  that  of 
the  other  provinces  of  the  audiencia.  Shortly 


after  all  Central  America  became  a  part  of 
the  empire  of  Mexico;  but  in  1823,  on  the 
fall  of  Iturbide,  independence  was  again  de- 
clared, and  Nicaragua  became  one  of  the  states 
of  the  united  provinces  of  Central  America. 
After  various  changes,  this  union  was  finally 
dissolved  in  1839,  since  which  time  Nicaragua 
has  had  a  separate  existence.  A  constitution 
was  adopted  in  the  same  year.  In  1847-'8  it 
became  involved  in  a  dispute  with  Great  Brit- 
ain in  regard  to  the  Mosquito  territory.  Great 
Britain  had  retained  a  foothold  in  this  terri- 
tory since  1740,  notwithstanding  various  treaty 
stipulations  with  Spain.  In  1825  one  of  the 
native  chiefs  was  formally  crowned  at  Balize 
"king  of  the  Mosquito  nation,"  and  at  his 
death  he  appointed  as  regent  the  British  agent 
at  Balize,  who  was  recognized  by  his  govern- 
ment as  acting  in  its  behalf.  Thenceforth 
Great  Britain  claimed  a  protectorate  over  the 
kingdom,  and  in  1848  seized  the  port  of  San 
Juan  and  made  an  attempt  to  extend  the  pro- 
tectorate over  all  the  adjacent  coast.  This  led 
to  a  diplomatic  quarrel  with  the  United  States, 
which  joined  the  Central  American  republics 
in  refusing  to  acknowledge  the  claims  of  Great 
Britain.  The  acquisition  of  California  had 
made  the  question  of  practical  importance,  as 
San  Juan  was  regarded  as  the  probable  Atlan- 
tic terminus  of  the  interoceanic  canal.  The 
occupation  of  San  Juan  by  Americans  engaged 
in  opening  the  transit  line  to  California  at 
length  led  to  a  settlement  through  the  Clayton- 
Bui  wer  convention  of  July  4,  1850.  By  the 
convention  of  Managua  in  1860,  between  Nica- 
ragua and  Great  Britain,  San  Juan  was  consti- 
tuted a  free  port,  and  Nicaragua  assumed  the 
protectorate  over  the  Mosquitos  on  the  with- 
drawal of  the  English,  with  the  understanding 
that  they  should  recognize  the  sovereignty  of 
the  republic,  the  king  and  his  successors  to  ex- 
ercise a  purely  administrative  authority.  The- 
king  was  to  receive  from  Nicaragua  annually 
$5,000  for  ten  years,  from  1860  to  1870 ;  but 
he  died  in  1864,  and  the  republic  refused  to 
recognize  his  successor,  and  stopped  the  pay- 
ment of  the  subvention.  In  1855  a  civil  war 
broke  out,  and  the  country  was  divided  into 
two  governments,  with  capitals  respectively  at 
Leon  and  Granada.  The  liberals  called  in  the 
aid  of  Col.  William  Walker  of  California,  who, 
at  first  successful,  was  finally  overthrown  by  a 
coalition  of  the  other  Central  American  states. 
(See  WALKER,  WILLIAM.)  After  his  expulsion 
the  government  was  reestablished,  and  in  1858 
a  new  constitution  was  adopted.  Nicaragua 
took  an  active  part  in  the  struggle  between 
Guatemala  and  San  Salvador,  which  resulted 
in  .the  shooting  of  President  Barrios  and  the 
death  of  Carrera  in  1865.  Since  then  the 
country  has  been  comparatively  quiet.  P.  Cha- 
morra  was  elected  president  in  1875. 

NICARAGUA,  Lake,  a  body  of  fresh  water  in 
the  republic  of  Nicaragua,  lying  between  lat. 
10°  57'  and  12°  9'  N.,  and  Ion.  84°  42'  and  85° 
53'  W.  It  is  about  110  m.  long,  and  46  m.  broad 


426 


NICARAGUA 


NICE 


in  its  widest  part,  its  general  form  being  an  el- 
lipse, whose  greater  axis  lies  nearly  N.  W.  and 
S.  E.  It  has  an  elevation  of  129  ft.  above  low 
tide  in  the  Pacific,  from  which  it  is  separated 
by  a  range  of  low  hills,  which  at  one  place  are 
only  about  48  ft.  above  the  lake  level.  The 
distance  between  it  and  the  Pacific,  at  the 
nearest  point,  is  about  llm.;  between  it  and 
the  Atlantic,  65  m.  It  is  28  ft.  lower  than 
Lake  Managua,  with  which  it  is  connected 
by  the  Rio  Tipitapa  or  Ester o  de  Panaloya. 
Many  streams  empty  into  it.  On  the  east 
the  principal  of  these  are  the  Tule,  Camastro, 
Tepenaguasapa,  Oyate,  Ojucuapa,  Acoyapa, 
Mayales,  Tecolostote,  and  Malacatoya;  on  the 
west,  the  Ochomogo,  Gil  Gonzales,  Las  Lajas, 
and  Sapoa ;  on  the  south,  the  Tortuga,  Negro, 
Vie  jo,  Zapotero,  Niflo,  and  Frio.  The  largest 
is  the  Rio  Frio,  which  rises  in  the  Guatuzos 
mountains  in  Costa  Rica.  The  sole  outlet  of 
the  lake  is  the  San  Juan,  which  leaves  it  at 
its  S.  E.  extremity  and  flows  into  the  Atlan- 
tic. It  has  numerous  islands,  the  principal  of 
which  are  Ometepe  and  Zapotera.  Ometepe, 
which  belongs  to  the  department  of  Rivas, 
is  20  m.  long,  and  consists  of  two  parts  con- 
nected by  a  narrow  isthmus.  On  the  N.  part 
are  the  volcano  of  Ometepe  and  the  Indian  vil- 
lages of  Alta  Gracia  and  Moyogalpa ;  on  the 
S.  part,  the  volcano  of  Madera.  The  island  of 
Zapotera,  which  belongs  to  the  department  of 
Granada,  is  nearly  6  m.  long,  and  is  the  base 
of  the  volcano  of  Zapotera.  It  is  not  now  in- 
habited, but  numerous  ruins  show  that  it  was 
peopled  in  ancient  times.  At  the  S.  end  of  the 
lake  is  the  archipelago  of  Solentiname,  now 
deserted,  but  susceptible  of  cultivation.  Other 
smaller  groups  are  the  San  Bernardo  and  Nan- 
zital,  on  the  E.  coast,  and  Las  Isletas  or  Los 
Corales,  near  Granada  on  the  W.  coast.  There 
are  more  than  100  of  the  latter,  which  lie  at 
the  foot  of  the  volcano  of  Mombacho.  The 
principal  harbors  on  the  lake  are  Granada  and 
the  Charco  Muerto,  the  latter  a  fine  bay  be- 
tween the  island  of  Zapotera  and  the  coast. 
Other  ports  are  San  Jorge  and  La  Virgen  on 
the  W.  coast,  and  San  Carlos,  San  Miguelito,  San 
Ubaldo,  Los  Cocos,  and  several  smaller  ones, 
on  the  E.  coast.  In  its  deepest  part  Lake  Nica- 
ragua has  about  45  fathoms  of  water,  but  its 
depth  is  very  variable,  and  near  its  outlet  it 
does  not  exceed  from  5  to  10  ft. ;  at  a  proper 
distance  from  the  coasts  and  islands  its  depth 
is  ample  for  all  purposes  of  navigation.  It 
has  currents,  but  they  are  weak ;  their  general 
direction  is  not  known.  When  the  N.  E.  trade 
winds  blow  from  the  Caribbean  sea,  the  waves 
roll  high,  and  the  water  is  piled  up  on  the  S. 
shore,  sometimes  overflowing  the  low  lands. 
These  trade  winds  are  intermittent,  and  the 
waters  rise  with  them  in  the  evening  and  fall 
with  them  in  the  morning,  which  gave  rise  to 
the  notion  entertained  by  the  early  chroniclers 
that  the  lake  had  a  tide.  Lake  Nicaragua  forms 
a  part  of  the  course  of  the  proposed  interoce- 
anic  canal,  via  the  San  Juan  river  and  Lake 


Managua,  and  its  waters  are  amply  sufficient 
to  supply  the  summit  levels  of  a  canal  of  any 
dimensions  demanded  by  the  exigencies  of 
commerce.  The  lake,  which  was  called  Coci- 
bolca  by  the  natives,  was  discovered  in  1521 
by  the  Spaniards,  who  called  it  Nicarao  agua, 
after  an  Indian  cacique  whose  village  stood 
on  its  western  shore. 

NICARAGUA  WOOD.     See  BRAZIL  WOOD. 

NICCOLINI,  Giovanni  Battista,  an  Italian  poet, 
born  at  San  Giuliano,  near  Pisa,  Oct.  31,  1785, 
died  in  Florence,  Sept.  20,  1861.  He  studied 
at  the  university  of  Pisa,  and  in  1807  was 
made  librarian  and  professor  of  history  and 
mythology  in  the  academy  of  fine  arts  in  Flor- 
ence. His  dramatic  works  are  Polissena,  Ino 
e  Temisto,  Medea,  Edipo,  Matilda,  Nabucco, 
and  Antonio  Foscarini.  His  "Lessons  on 
Mythology"  was  published  in  1855.  He  left 
an  unfinished  "  History  of  the  House  of  Swa- 
bia  "  and  a  large  number  of  poems.  An  edi- 
tion of  his  works  was  published  in  Florence 
in  1847,  but  did  not  include  two  of  his  most 
celebrated  plays,  Arnaldo  da  Brescia  and  Fi- 
lippo  Strozzi.  The  publication  of  a  new  edi- 
tion was  commenced  at  Turin  in  1862. 

NldXA.     See  NICE,  in  Bithynia. 

MCE  (Ital.  Nizza).  I.  A  former  adminis- 
trative division  of  the  kingdom  of  Sardinia, 
bounded  N.  and  E.  by  Piedmont,  S.  E.  by  the 
Mediterranean,  and  W.  and  S.  W.  by  the  French 
departments  of  Basses- Alpes  and  Var.  In  1860 
the  larger  part  of  Nice  was  ceded  by  Italy  to 
France.  That  part  of  it  retained  by  Italy  now 
forms  the  province  of  Porto  Maurizio.  The 
part  ceded  to  France,  together  with  a  small  por- 
tion of  the  department  of  Var,  was  united  into 
a  new  department  called  Alpes-Maritimes.  IL 
A  seaport  town  of  France,  capital  of  the  de- 
partment of  Alpes-Maritimes,  on  a  narrow  plain 
between  the  Alps  and  the  Mediterranean,  and 
on  both  sides  of  the  mouth  of  the  river  Paillon 
or  Paglione,  98  m.  S.  S.  W.  of  Turin,  in  lat.  43° 
42'  N.,  Ion.  70°  17'  E. ;  pop.  in  1872,  52,377. 
The  port  is  small,  but  admits  vessels  drawing 
15  ft.  of  water,  and  is  protected  by  two  moles, 
one  of  which  is  surmounted  by  a  battery  and 
a  lighthouse.  The  oldest  part  of  the  town  lies 
on  the  E.  side  of  the  river.  It  has  narrow 
streets,  but  from  its  centre  rises  a  hill  800  ft. 
high,  the  summit  of  which,  formerly  occupied 
by  a  castle,  is  now  laid  out  in  public  plea- 
sure grounds.  Parts  of  the  old  town  have 
been  greatly  improved  of  late  years.  The  W. 
division  is  called  the  "quarter  of  the  marble 
cross,"  from  a  monument  commemorative  of 
the  reconciliation  of  Charles  V.  and  Francis  I. 
in  1538  through  the  intervention  of  Pope  Paul 
III.  It  is  inhabited  chiefly  by  English,  who 
have  here  a  chapel  and  two  cemeteries.  The 
houses  are  neat  and  encompassed  by  gardens ; 
and  there  are  two  public  squares,  one  of  which 
is  surrounded  by  colonnades.  The  town  con- 
tains a  cathedral  of  the  17th  century,  a  na- 
tional college  with  a  botanical  garden  attached 
to  it,  a  public  library,  a  zoological  museum,  a 


NICE 


427 


theatre,  baths,  hospitals,  and  convents.  There 
are  manufactories  of  silk,  cotton,  paper,  oil, 
tobacco,  perfumery,  soap,  and  leather,  and  a 
considerable  trade  in  those  articles  and  in  wine 
and  fruit.  Nice  is  a  free  port,  and  there  are 
steamers  three  times  a  week  to  Marseilles  and 
Genoa.  It  is  chiefly  noted  as  a  watering  place 
and  resort  for  English  invalids,  who  frequent 
it  in  such  numbers  that  they  have  produced  a 
complete  change  in  the  aspect  of  that  part  of 
the  town  which  they  inhabit.  As  many  as 
5,000  or  6,000  British  visitors  are  found  here 


in  the  winter,  besides  a  large  number  of  Rus- 
sians, Poles,  French,  Germans,  and  Americans. 
The  climate  is  remarkably  mild  and  salubrious, 
and  the  suburbs,  which  lie  among  the  low  hills 
a  mile  or  two  inland,  are  particularly  delight- 
ful. The  greatest  drawback  is  a  dry  wind 
called  the  mistral,  which  at  times  blows  from 
the  Alps.  But  the  temperature  is  regular; 
there  are  no  sudden  changes,  and  the  atmos- 
phere is  clear  and  pure.  The  mean  annual 
temperature,  deduced  from  15  years'  observa- 
tions, is  60£°,  the  extremes  being  in  January 


Nice,  from  the  Promenade  des  Anglais. 


and  August,  27-£°  and  88J°  respectively.  The 
climate,  however,  is  not  considered  favorable 
for  persons  afflicted  with  pulmonary  com- 
plaints. The  language  of  Nice  is  a  dialect  of 
the  Provencal  called  the  Nizzard,  which  may 
be  heard  in  its  greatest  purity  in  the  neighbor- 
ing rural  districts.  In  the  town  French  is 
generally  spoken,  and  the  vernacular  is  much 
corrupted.— Nice  is  built  near  the  site  of  the 
ancient  Ligurian  town  of  Nicaea,  founded  by 
the  Phoca3ans  of  Massilia;  and  even  after 
both  became  subject  to  the  Romans  it  contin- 
ued to  be  dependent  for  municipal  purposes 
upon  its  parent  city.  In  the  12th  century 
Nice  was  the  capital  of  an  independent  coun- 
ty, and  in  1388  it  became  a  dependency  of  the 
house  of  Savoy.  In  1543  it  was  captured  by 
the  French  and  the  Turks  under  Khair  ed-Din 
Barbarossa,  who  were  however  unable  to  re- 
duce the  citadel.  It  was  taken  by  Catinat  in 
1691,  and  by  the  duke  of  Berwick  in  the  ser- 
vice of  Louis  XIV.  in  1706.  It  fell  into  the 
hands  of  the  French  in  1793,  but  was  restored 
to  Sardinia  in  1814.  Nice  was  ceded  with  Sa- 
voy to  France  by  the  treaty  of  March  24,  1860, 
subject  to  the  consent  of  the  inhabitants  by  bal- 


lot.   The  vote,  taken  on  April  15,  resulted  in  a 
large  majority  in  favor  of  annexation. 

NICE,  or  Nic%a  (now  Isnilc),  an  ancient  city 
of  Asia  Minor,  in  Bithynia,  situated  on  the  E. 
shore  of  Lake  Ascania,  54  m.  S.  E.  of  Byzan- 
tium or  Constantinople.  It  was  said  to  have 
been  colonized  by  Bottiasans,  who  called  it  An- 
core,  and  having  been  destroyed  by  the  Mysi- 
ans  was  rebuilt  after  the  death  of  Alexander 
the  Great  by  Antigonus,  who  named  it  Anti- 
gonea.  Lysimachus  changed  this  appellation 
to  Nicsea  in  honor  of  his  wife.  It  became  a 
place  of  great  importance,  and  disputed  with 
Nicomedia  the  title  of  metropolis  of  Bithynia, 
Under  the  Byzantine  emperors  it  was  long  a 
bulwark  against  the  Arabs  and  Seljuks,  the  lat- 
ter of  whom  conquered  it  about  1080.  Before 
the  end  of  the  century  it  was  taken  from  them 
by  the  soldiers  of  the  first  crusade,  but  it  was 
restored  at  the  next  treaty  of  peace.  In  1204, 
Constantinople  having  become  the  seat  of  a 
Latin  empire,  Theodore  Lascaris  made  Nicaaa 
the  capital  of  a  Greek  kingdom  or  empire  in 
western  Asia,  comprehending  Bithynia,  Mysia, 
Ionia,  and  a  part  of  Lydia.  He  was  succeed- 
ed by  John  Ducas  Vatatzes  (1222-'55),  Theo- 


428 


NICE  (COUNCILS  OF) 


NICHOL 


dore  II.  (1255-'9),  John  Lascaris  (1259),  and 
Michael  Palaaologus,  who  in  1261  transferred 
the  seat  of  power  to  Constantinople.  In  1330 
the  city  surrendered  to  Orkhan,  and  was  incor- 
porated with  the  recently  founded  Ottoman 
empire.  The  modern  town  is  a  place  of  no 
importance,  comprising  fewer  than  200  houses 
and  about  1,000  inhabitants. 

NICE,  Councils  of,  two  general  councils  of  the 
church  held  at  Nice  or  Nicaaa  in  Bithynia,  of 
which  the  first  is  usually  reckoned  as  the  first 
of  the  series  of  general  councils.  I.  The  first 
council  of  Nice,  according  to  the  most  proba- 
ble account,  opened  on  May  20,  325,  and  closed 
on  Aug.  25 ;  according  to  others,  it  lasted  from 
June  9  to  the  end  of  July.  It  is  of  universal 
and  permanent  interest,  both  for  the  great  sig- 
nificance of  the  subjects  brought  before  it  and 
the  lasting  influence  of  its  determinations,  and 
as  the  beginning  of  active  participation  on  the 
part  of  the  secular  power  in  measures  affecting 
the  doctrine  and  discipline  of  the  church.  The 
letters  summoning  the  bishops  were  issued  by 
the  emperor  Constantine,  and  the  sixth  general 
council  (680)  expressly  declares  that  it  was  con- 
vened by  him  and  Sylvester,  bishop  of  Borne ; 
but  the  statement  as  regards  Sylvester  is  dis- 
puted. The  object  of  convocation  was  to  sup- 
press the  Arian  heresy  and  the  schism  of  Me- 
letius  in  Egypt,  and  to  settle  the  differences 
about  the  proper  time  of  celebrating  Easter. 
About  318  bishops,  nearly  all  orientals,  with 
inferior  clerics  to  the  number  of  2,000,  attend- 
ed. The  emperor  was  present  at  the  princi- 
pal sessions,  which  were  held  in  a  church  up 
to  July  3,  and  afterward  in  a  hall  of  the  im- 
perial palace  prepared  for  the  purpose.  The 
question  of  who  were  the  presiding  officers  is 
much  disputed.  Baronius,  with  the  latest  his- 
torian of  the  council,  Hefele,  and  Roman  Cath- 
olic writers  generally,  contend  that  Hosius, 
bishop  of  Cordova,  with  the  Roman  priests 
Vitus  and  Vincentius,  presided  as  the  legates  of 
Sylvester,  pointing  out  that  in  all  the  lists  of 
signatures  extant  the  names  of  these  three  per- 
sonages precede  all  the  others.  But  Tillemont 
and  most  Protestant  historians  deny  the  fact 
of  their  having  so  presided.  According  to  the 
Greek  historian  Socrates,  the  interval  between 
May  20  and  the  first  solemn  session  of  June  14 
was  occupied  in  discussing  the  doctrines  of 
Arius,  who  was  supported  by  15  bishops,  chief 
among  whom  were  Eusebius  of  Nicomedia  and 
Theognis  of  Nice.  The  orthodox  bishops  had 
for  spokesmen  Athanasius,  then  archdeacon  of 
Alexandria,  Alexander,  a  priest  of  Constanti- 
nople, and  Marcellus,  bishop  of  Ancyra.  The 
Semi- Arian  or  middle  party  was  represented 
by  the  historian  Eusebius,  bishop  of  Caesarea, 
and  thence  called  Eusebians.  (See  ARIANISM.) 
Two  formulas  of  belief  were  submitted  and  dis- 
cussed. The  one,  drawn  up  by  Eusebius  of 
Cresarea,  was  characterized  by  the  omission  of 
the  word  6/j.oobato?,  "  consubstantial,"  intended 
to  express  that  the  Son  was  begotten  of  the 
Father's  substance;  the  other,  of  unknown 


authorship,  was  adopted  by  the  council,  and 
has  since  been  known  as  the  "  Nicene  Creed.1' 
In  the  most  ancient  and  authentic  form  it  cor- 
responds with  this  latter  as  far  as  the  words 
"  and  in  the  Holy  Ghost."  After  these  is  add- 
ed a  solemn  anathema  formally  condemning 
the  chief  points  of  the  Arian  doctrine.  The 
remaining  articles  of  the  Nicene  creed,  as  we 
now  have  it,  were  added  subsequently  by  the 
council  of  Constantinople  in  381,  with  the 
exception  of  the  words  "  and  from  the  Son  " 
(filioque),  after  the  clause  "who  proceedeth 
from  the  Father."  The  filioque  was  added  by 
the  western  churches,  first  in  Spain,  then  in 
Gaul  and  Germany,  about  the  5th  century,  and 
adopted  by  the  church  of  Rome  in  1014,  though 
by  no  formal  and  official  declaration.  The 
Easter  controversy  and  the  Meletian  schism 
were  then  disposed  of,  and  20  canons  were 
enacted  regulating  various  points  of  church 
discipline;  among  others,  the  jurisdiction  of 
the  great  patriarchal  sees.  A  law  was  also 
introduced  compelling  married  clerics  to  sepa- 
rate from  their  wives,  but  was  withdrawn  at 
the  remonstrance  of  the  Egyptian  confessor 
Paphnutius.  II.  The  seventh  general  council, 
convened  by  the  empress  regent  Irene,  with 
the  concurrence  of  Pope  Adrian  I.,  to  condemn 
the  errors  and  excesses  of  the  Iconoclasts. 
(See  ICONOCLASTS.)  The  council  first  met  in 
Constantinople  Aug.  1,  786,  but,  on  account  of 
the  violent  opposition  it  met  with,  was  ad- 
journed to  Nice,  where  it  opened  Sept.  24,  787, 
and  closed  Oct.  13.  From  330  to  387  bishops, 
besides  about  130  abbots,  attended.  Tarasius, 
patriarch  of  Constantinople,  presided.  Seven 
sessions  were  held.  It  was  decreed  that  the 
cross,  and  images  in  colors,  or  in  mosaic  work 
or  any  other  material,  of  Christ,  his  mother, 
saints,  and  holy  men,  might  be  set  up  on  walls 
and  tablets,  in  churches,  houses,  and  highways, 
and  used  on  sacred  vessels  and  vestments ;  and 
that  they  should  be  treated  as  pious  memorials, 
venerated,  and  kissed,  but  not  with  the  honor 
and  worship  due  to  God  alone. 

MCERON,  Jean  Pierre,  a  French  author,  born 
in  Paris,  March  11,  1685,  died  July  8,  1738. 
He  was  a  member  of  the  order  of  Barnabites 
and  a  relative  of  Jean  Francois  Niceron,  the 
writer  on  optics.  After  teaching  Latin  and 
rhetoric  in  provincial  colleges,  he  devoted  him- 
self to  the  preparation  of  his  Memoires  pour 
sermr  d  VMstoire  des  hommes  illustres  de  la 
republique  des  lettres,  avec  un  catalogue  rai- 
sonne  de  leurs  outrages  (43  vols.  12mo,  Paris, 
1727-'45),  the  last  four  volumes  of  which  were 
published  by  Pere  Oudin,  Michault,  and  the 
abbe  Goujet.  The  work  is  valuable  for  infor- 
mation, but  has  slight  literary  merit. 

MCHOL,  John  Pringle,  a  Scottish  astronomer, 
born  in  Brechin,  Jan.  13,  1804,  died  in  Rothe- 
say,  Sept.  19, 1859.  He  was  the  son  of  a  book- 
seller, and  at  the  age  of  16  taught  school  at 
Dun.  He  studied  for  the  ministry,  and  was 
licensed  to  preach,  but  gave  up  his  profession 
for  scientific  pursuits,  and  became  professor  of 


NICHOLAS 


429 


practical  astronomy  in  the  university  of  Glas- 
gow. He  was  a  successful  popular  lecturer  on 
his  favorite  science.  He  wrote  "  The  Archi- 
tecture of  the  Heavens"  (8vo,  1838);  "Con- 
templations on  the  Solar  System "  (1844) ; 
"  Thoughts  on  some  Important  Points  relating 
to  tjie  System  of  the  World  "  (1846);  "Expo- 
sition and  History  of  the  Planet  Neptune" 
(1848) ;  "  The  Stellar  Universe :  Views  of  its  Ar- 
rangements, Motions,  and  Evolutions"  (12mo, 
1848) ;  "  The  Planetary  System,  its  Order  and 
Physical  Structure  "  (8vo,  London,  1851)  ;  and 
"  Cyclopaedia  of  the  Physical  Sciences  "  (1857). 

NICHOLAS.  I.  A  central  county  of  West  Vir- 
ginia, intersected  by  the  Gauley  river,  a  branch 
of  the  Great  Kanawha,  and  drained  by  Mea- 
dow river  and  Buffalo  creek ;  area,  880  sq.  m. ; 
pop.  in  1870,  4,458,  of  whom  31  were  colored. 
It  has  a  mountainous  surface  and  a  soil  not 
generally  productive.  The  chief  productions 
in  1870  were  10,242  bushels  of  wheat,  101,300 
of  Indian  corn,  38,365  of  oats,  3,029  tons  of 
hay,  18,838  Ibs.  of  wool,  164,990  of  butter,  and 
12,589  gallons  of  sorghum  molasses.  There 
were  1,073  horses,  1,600  milch  cows,  4,144 
other  cattle,  8,171  sheep,  and  5,291  swine. 
Capital,  Summerville.  II.  A  N.  E.  county  of 
Kentucky,  intersected  by  Licking  river  and 
drained  by  its  branches;  area,  about  300  sq. 
m.;  pop.  in  1870,  9,129  of  whom  1,244  were 
colored.  It  has  a  diversified  surface,  rugged 
in  the  north  and  undulating  in  the  south,  the 
latter  portion  being  very  fertile.  The  Blue 
Lick  spring,  celebrated  for  its  mineral  waters, 
is  in  this  county  on  the  banks  of  Licking  river. 
The  chief  productions  in  1870  were  39,397 
bushels  of  wheat,  24,638  of  rye,  665,795  of 
Indian  corn,  68,304  of  oats,  2,345  tons  of  hay, 
83,994  Ibs.  of  tobacco,  25,796  of  wool,  163,- 
448  of  butter,  and  21,380  gallons  of  sorghum 
molasses.  There  were  4,314  horses,  1,729  mules 
and  asses,  2,477  milch  cows,  4,978  other  cattle, 
9,032  sheep,  and  16,566  swine;  2  distilleries, 
4  flour  mills,  and  6  saw  mills.  Capital,  Carlisle. 

NICHOLAS,  the  name  of  five  popes  and  one 
antipope,  of  whom  the  following  are  the  most 
important.  I.  Nicholas  I.,  the  Great,  and  Saint, 
born  in  Rome  about  800,  died  there,  Nov.  13, 
867.  He  belonged  to  the  Conti  family,  and 
was  elected  pope  April  24,  858.  In  860,  hav- 
ing received  ambassadors  from  the  Greek  em- 
peror Michael  III.,  and  letters  from  Photius, 
the  usurper  of  the  patriarchal  see  of  Con- 
stantinople, urging  him  to  acknowledge  the 
latter  as  lawful  patriarch,  Nicholas  sent  two 
legates  to  Constantinople  to  inquire  into  the 
facts  of  the  case,  and  report  to  himself,  for- 
bidding them  to  pronounce  any  decision.  The 
legates  were  persuaded  to  approve  of  the  de- 
position of  the  lawful  patriarch,  Ignatius  ;  but 
the  pope  cancelled  their  action,  and  called 
upon  all  the  eastern  churches  to  sustain  this 
sentence.  This  led  to  the  final  rupture  be- 
tween the  Greek  and  Latin  churches.  (See 
PHOTIUS.)  Lothaire,  king  of  Lorraine,  having 
put  away  his  wife  Theutberga,  and  obtained 


from  two  synods  of  bishops  a  sentence  au- 
thorizing this  divorce  and  his  marriage  with 
Waldrada,  his  concubine,  Theutberga  appealed 
to  the  pope.  Nicholas  summoned  a  court  to 
meet  at  Metz  (863),  before  which  Lothaire  and 
Theutberga  were  enjoined  to  appear.  The 
court  was  only  empowered  to  hear  the  case, 
and  to  report  the  facts  to  the  pope.  But  Lo- 
thaire, who  meanwhile  was  publicly  married 
to  Waldrada,  obtained  a  decree  sanctioning  the 
nuptials.  Nicholas  annulled  the  decree,  but 
the  partisans  of  Lothaire  appealed  to  the  em- 
peror Louis,  then  present  with  his  army  in  It- 
aly. He  espoused  the  cause  of  Lothaire,  and 
marched  upon  Rome,  but  fell  sick,  and,  con- 
sidering this  as  a  sign  of  the  divine  anger,  em- 
ployed the  mediation  of  the  empress  to  become 
reconciled  with  the  pope.  Lothaire  offered  to 
go  to  Rome  to  justify  his  conduct ;  but  Nicholas 
refused  to  see  him,  and  required  that  he  should 
put  away  Waldrada  and  take  back  Theutberga. 
This  Lothaire  did  in  865,  when  he  and  his  wife 
were  solemnly  crowned  by  the  papal  legate. 
Lothaire,  however,  soon  renewed  his  connec- 
tion with  Waldrada,  and  accused  the  queen  of 
adultery.  The  pope  again  interfered,  in  Janu- 
ary, 867,  and  both  king  and  queen  were  about 
to  go  to  Rome  when  he  died.  Two  councils  pre- 
sided over  by  Hincmar,  archbishop  of  Rheims, 
in  863,  had  deposed  Rothrad,  bishop  of  Sois- 
sons,  and  imprisoned  him  for  appealing  from 
this  sentence  to  the  Roman  see.  After  a  long 
controversy  with  Hincmar  and  King  Charles 
the  Bald,  Rothrad  was  allowed  to  go  to  Rome, 
and  was  reinstated  in  his  office  without  opposi- 
tion. In  865  Nicholas  received  an  embassy  from 
the  recently  converted  Bogoris,  prince  of  the 
Bulgarians ;  and  in  866  he  sent  the  ambassa- 
dors back  with  two  legates,  and  a  letter  contain- 
ing 106  answers  to  as  many  questions  submitted 
to  him  by  Bogoris.  Nicholas  is  praised  by  his- 
torians for  his  unblemished  life,  as  well  as  for 
his  active  charity.  II.  Nicholas  V.  (TOMMASO  PA- 
KENTTJCELLI,  called  also  Tommaso  da  Sarzana), 
born  at  Sarzana,  near  Genoa,  in  1398,  died  in 
Rome,  March  24, 1455.  He  was  ordained  priest 
at  25,  filled  several  diplomatic  offices  under 
successive  popes,  was  created  cardinal  by  Eu- 
genius  IV.,  became  archbishop  of  Bologna  in 
1445,  was  sent  as  legate  to  Frankfort  in  1446, 
and  was  elected  pope  March  6,  1447.  He  be- 
gan his  pontificate  by  remodelling  the  Vatican 
library,  and  concluding  with  Germany  a  con- 
cordat which  abolished  some  abuses  relating 
to  the  collation  of  benefices  ;  by  soliciting  the 
aid  of  all  Christian  princes  and  peoples  in 
favor  of  Cyprus,  threatened  by  the  Turkish 
forces  ;  and'  by  urging  anew  the  Greek  emperor 
to  -seek  in  a  religious  and  political  union  with 
western  Christendom  the  safety  of  his  empire. 
In  1449  Ije  prevailed  on  the  antipope  Felix  V. 
to  terminate  the  western  schism  by  abdica- 
ting the  papacy.  In  1452  he  crowned  the  em- 
peror Frederick  III.  and  his  wife  at  Rome; 
and  a  year  afterward,  upon  the  fall  of  Con- 
stantinople, he  published  a  bull  calling  on  all 


430 


NICHOLAS  I. 


Christians  to  unite  against  the  Turks.  He 
abandoned  in  favor  of  this  crusade  all  the 
revenues  of  the  church,  the  tenths  due  to  his 
treasury,  and  all  the  imposts  of  which  he  had 
the  disposal.  His  generosity  and  the  assis- 
tance of  Alfonso,  king  of  Sicily,  enabled  him 
to  place  a  large  force  in  the  field  under  Scan- 
derbeg,  who  gained  several  important  victo- 
ries. He  also  displayed  great  munificence  in 
welcoming  the  Greek  refugees,  and  providing 
honorable  employment  for  their  men  of  let- 
ters. He  purchased  the  manuscripts  of  every 
description  saved  from  the  sack  of  Constan- 
tinople, encouraged  the  translation  into  Latin 
of  all  the  great  literary  monuments  of  Greece, 
enlarged  the  great  Roman  schools,  embellished 
Eome  with  sumptuous  buildings,  and  may  be 
said  to  have  founded  the  Vatican  library. 
When  the  plague  which  ravaged  Italy  in  1449 
and  1450  forced  the  pope  to  fly  from  Rome, 
his  temporary  abodes  in  Fabriano,  Spoleto, 
Assisi,  and  Tolentino  were  filled  with  men  of 
letters,  booksellers,  and  bookbinders.  In  De- 
cember, 1452,  he  frustrated  a  conspiracy  formed 
against  his  life.  He  succeeded  in  terminating 
the  feuds  which  had  so  long  disturbed  Italy, 
and  gave  its  people  several  years  of  peace.  He 
was  free  from  the  charge  of  nepotism,  and  an 
enemy  to  all  duplicity  and  hypocrisy. 

NICHOLAS  I.  (NIKOLAI  PAVLOVITOH),  empe- 
ror of  Russia,  born  in  St.  Petersburg,  July 
6,  1796,  died  there,  March  2,  1855.  He  was 
the  third  son  of  Paul  I.  by  his  second  wife,  a 
daughter  of  the  duke  Eugene  of  Wiirtemberg. 
With  the  exception  of  political  economy,  he 
showed  little  interest  in  scientific  attainments, 
but  was  quick  in  mastering  foreign  languages. 
From  the  peace  in  1815  to  his  accession  in 
1825,  he  devoted  himself  to  military  matters, 
but  never  gave  evidence  of  any  real  strategi- 
cal capacity.  In  1816  he  visited  England  and 
the  Russian  provinces.  On  July  13,  1817,  he 
married  Charlotte  of  Prussia  (Alexandra  Feo- 
dorovna),  eldest  daughter  of  Frederick  William 
III. ;  she  gave  birth  on  April  29  (O.  S.  17),  1818, 
to  the  present  emperor  Alexander  II.  About 
1821  the  family  pact  was  secretly  agreed  upon, 
by  which  his  elder  brother  Constantine  re- 
nounced the  succession  in  his  favor.  Nicho- 
las, however,  on  the  news  of  the  death  of  the 
eldest  brother,  the  emperor  Alexander  I.  (Dec. 
1, 1825),  took  the  oath  of  allegiance  to  Constan- 
tine, and  did  not  assume  the  reins  of  power 
until  the  latter  had  publicly  signified  his  de- 
termination not  to  reign.  The  accession  of 
Nicholas  became  the  signal  of  a  formidable  in- 
surrection, in  the  suppression  of  which  the  new 
emperor  showed  personal  courage  and  pres- 
ence of  mind,  but  an  unrelenting  disposition. 
Capital  punishment,  abolished  by  the  empress 
Elizabeth,  was  inflicted  by  Nicholas  upon  the 
leaders  of  the  insurrection.  Four  were  pub- 
licly executed,  one  after  another,  in  St.  Peters- 
burg. The  fifth  was  the  poet  Rileyeff.  The 
rope  broke,  and  he  fell  to  the  ground  still  alive. 
The  sight  of  his  agony  created  such  sympathy 


in  the  assembled  multitude,  that  the  gover- 
nor general  sent  for  instruction  to  the  empe- 
ror. The  command  of  Nicholas  was :  "  Take  a 
stronger  rope  and  proceed  with  the  execution." 
The  other  parties  to  the  insurrection  were  ban- 
ished to  Siberia,  some  for  life,  and  others  for 
20  years  or  for  shorter  periods ;  but  the  sen- 
tence of  none  of  them  was.  ever  commuted. 
The  brilliant  victories  of  Paskevitch  and  Die- 
bitsch  over  Persia  and  Turkey  in  1827-'9  add- 
ed prestige  to  his  government,  especially  as 
the  Turkish  war  also  saved  the  independence  of 
Greece,  as  well  as  the  autonomy  of  the  Danu- 
bian  principalities,  which  were  now  reorganized 
under  a  Russian  protectorate.  The  revolution 
of  1830-'31  in  Poland  terminated  in  the  anni- 
hilation of  Polish  nationality.  These  events, 
accomplished  in  rapid  succession,  surrounded 
Nicholas  with  a  halo  of  glory.  He  now  for  some 
time  relaxed  the  rigor  of  the  censorship,  com- 
bated the  venality  of  public  men,  and  ordered 
the  codification  of  the  laws.  But  the  tempta- 
tions of  power  caused  him  to  relapse  into  rigid 
absolutism ;  and  Russia  soon  presented  again 
the  spectacle  of  a  vast  empire  ruled  by  the  iron 
hand  of  a  single  man.  The  United  Greeks, 
who  acknowledged  the  authority  of  the  pope 
while  preserving  the  usages  of  the  Greek 
church,  were  compelled  to  unite  with  the  or- 
thodox establishment ;  the  Protestants  of  the 
Baltic  provinces  were  persecuted ;  and  the 
Jews  were  subjected  to  a  barbarous  treatment. 
He  indirectly  supported  Don  Carlos  in  Spain, 
but  considered  Dom  Miguel  of  Portugal  a 
usurper.  During  the  political  complications 
in  connection  with  the  conflict  between  the 
viceroy  of  Egypt  Mehemet  Ali  and  the  sultan, 
Nicholas  secured  his  predominance  in  the  East 
by  a  speedy  intervention  against  the  advance 
of  Ibrahim  Pasha  in  1833,  and  acted  in  alliance 
with  England  and  the  German  powers  in 
1840.  In  1844  he  paid  a  visit  to  Queen  Victo- 
ria, and  subsequently  he  visited  the  emperor 
of  Austria,  and  in  1846  Pope  Gregory  XVI. 
The  attempted  Polish  rising  of  1846  was  sup- 
pressed with  little  bloodshed.  He  abstained 
from  interfering  during  the  political  excitement 
of  1848,  except  in  the  Danubian  principalities, 
until  his  assistance  was  invoked  by  the  empe- 
ror of  Austria  against  the  Hungarians,  whose 
revolution  was  in  1849  crushed  by  the  aid  of 
Russian  troops.  In  the  East,  Nicholas  followed 
the  traditions  of  his  house  in  his  wars  of  con- 
quest in  Persia,  the  Caucasus,  and  Turkey.  His 
ambition  of  gaining  preponderance  in  Turkey 
was  constantly  perceptible  during  his  reign, 
and  led  in  1853  to  the  rupture  with  Turkey, 
which  resulted  in  the  war  with  England  and 
France.  The  repeated  defeats  and  losses  of 
his  armies  and  fleet  produced  a  deep  effect 
upon  his  powerful  constitution,  and  hastened 
his  death,  the  more  immediate  cause  of  which 
was  atrophy  of  the  lungs.  Nicholas  had  a 
commanding  presence,  and  great  capacity  for 
labor  and  endurance.  He  travelled  day  and 
night  to  inspect  fortresses  and  review  troops, 


NICHOLAS 

and  he  worked  at  times  14  and  16  hours  a  day. 
His  temperance  and  frugality  were  as  remark- 
able as  his  industry ;  to  create  a  prestige  was 
his  constant  object,  whether  in  his  own  capital 
or  foreign  countries.  The  church,  the  army, 
and  the  secret  police  were  the  great  engines 
of  his  government.  In  the  latter  part  of  his 
reign  he  suppressed  liberal  studies,  while  the 
universities  of  the  empire,  maintained  with 
great  ostentation,  were  devoted  to  educating 
men  in  sciences  useful  in  war  or  in  adminis- 
tration. He  was  strenuously  opposed  to  the 
liberty  of  the  press  in  Russia.  He  was  an 
excellent  husband  and  father. 

NICHOLAS,  Saint,  bishop  of  Myra,  born  in  Pa- 
tara,  Lycia,  died  about  340.  He  is  invoked  as 
the  patron  of  sailors,  merchants,  travellers,  and 
captives,  and  the  guardian  of  schoolboys,  girls, 
and  children.  He  takes  rank  in  the  Greek 
church  immediately  after  the  great  fathers. 
Justinian  dedicated  a  church  to  him  in  Con- 
stantinople about  560 ;  he  has  been  reverenced 
in  the  West  since  the  10th  century,  and  became 
one  of  the  favorite  patron  saints  of  Italy  and 
northern  Europe  about  the  beginning  of  the 
12th.  His  feast  is  celebrated  on  Dec.  6.  In 
works  of  art  St.  Nicholas  is  represented  with 
three  children,  or  three  purses,  or  three  balls 
symbolical  of  the  purses. 

NICHOLS,  lehabod,  an  American  clergyman, 
born  in  Portsmouth,  N.  H.,  July  5,  1784,  died 
in  Cambridge,  Mass.,  Jan.  2,  1859.  He  grad- 
uated at  Harvard  college  in  1802,  and  from 
1805  to  1809  was  tutor  there  in  mathematics. 
On  Jan.  7,  1809,  he  was  ordained  as  associate 
pastor  of  the  first  Congregational  church  in 
Portland,  Me.,  and  was  sole  pastor  from  1814 
to  1855,  when  he  received  a  colleague,  and 
afterward,  though  retaining  his  pastorate,  re- 
sided in  Cambridge.  He  received  the  degree 
of  D.  D.  from  Bowdoin  college  in  1821,  and 
from  Harvard  college  in  1831 ;  and  he  was  for 
many  years  one  of  the  trustees  of  Bowdoin 
college.  He  was  also  for  several  years  vice 
president  of  the  American  academy  of  arts  and 
sciences.  In  1830  he  published  a  work  on  nat- 
ural theology,  and  he  left  a  work  nearly  ready 
for  the  press,  entitled  "  Hours  with  the  Evan- 
gelists "  (2  vols.  8vo,  Boston,  1859-'64),  which 
embraces  an  argument  for  the  Christian  revela- 
tion and  miracles,  directed  mainly  against  the 
Straussian  theory,  and  a  series  of  critical  and 
philosophical  comments  on  the  principal  epochs 
in  the  life  of  Jesus.  A  volume  entitled  "Re- 
membered "Words  from  the  Sermons  of  the 
Rev.  I.  Nichols"  appeared  in  Boston  in  1860. 

NICHOLS,  John,  an  English  printer,  born  in 
Islington,  Feb.  2,  1745,  died  in  London,  Nov. 
26,  1826.  At  an  early  age  he  was  apprenticed 
to  the  learned  printer  William  Bowyer,  and 
succeeded  to  the  business  on  his  death  in  1777. 
His  "  Biographical  and  Literary  Anecdotes  of 
William  Bowyer,  Printer,  F.  S.  A.,  and  of 
many  of  his  Learned  Friends  "  (4to,  1782),  was 
recast  in  9  vols.  8vo  under  the  title  of  "  Lit- 
erary Anecdotes  of  the  Eighteenth  Century  " 
605  VOL.  xii.— 28 


NICKEL 


431 


(181 2-' 15),  and  the  series  further  continued  by 
himself  and  his  son,  John  Bowyer  Nichols, 
under  that  of  "  Illustrations  of  Literary  His- 
tory "  (8  vols.  8vo,  1817-'58).  From  1778  till 
his  death  he  was  editor  and  publisher  of  the 
"  Gentleman's  Magazine." 

NICIAS,  an  Athenian  general  of  the  latter 
part  of  the  5th  century  B.  C.  He  was  several 
times  associated  with  Pericles  in  command, 
gaining  a  reputation  for  prudence  and  incor- 
ruptibility ;  and  on  the  death  of  Pericles  he 
was  conspicuous  as  the  opponent  of  Cleon  and 
other  demagogues.  He  early  gained  a  repu- 
tation for  mildness,  liberality,  and  piety ;  but 
his  timidity  and  superstition  made  him  an  ob- 
ject of  ridicule.  He  sacrificed  every  day,  as- 
sociated much  with  diviners,  and  kept  a  sooth- 
sayer in  his  own  house  that  he  might  know 
the  will  of  the  gods  both  in  public  and  private 
affairs.  In  the  Peloponnesian  war  he  was  dis- 
tinguished rather  for  prudence  than  genius,  but 
was  almost  always  successful.  He  conquered 
the  island  of  Minoa  in  427,  ravaged  the  island 
of  Melos  and  the  Locrian  coast  in  426,  gained 
a  victory  over  the  Corinthians  in  425,  and  in 
conjunction  with  two  colleagues  captured  the 
island  of  Cythera,  belonging  to  Lacedsemon,  in 
424.  But  on  the  death  of  Cleon  a  treaty  was 
concluded  with  the  Spartans,  called  the  peace 
of  Nicias  (421).  Nicias  and  Alcibiades  were 
now  open  rivals,  and  the  demagogue  Hyperbo- 
lus  strove  to  procure  the  banishment  of  one 
or  the  other  of  them ;  but  through  their  uni- 
ted efforts  Hyperbolus  himself  was  ostracized. 
In  415  the  Athenians,  in  spite  of  Nicias,  re- 
solved to  send  an  expedition  to  Sicily.  Ni- 
cias, Alcibiades,  and  Lamachus  were  appointed 
to  the  command ;  but  Alcibiades  was  soon 
recalled,  Lamachus  was  slain  before  Syracuse, 
and  Nicias  was  left  to  conduct  operations 
alone.  At  first  he  was  successful,  but  on  the 
arrival  of  the  Spartan  commander  Gylippus 
with  succors  for  the  town,  he  sent  home  for 
reinforcements  and  permission  to  resign.  Re- 
enforcements  were  sent  under  Demosthenes 
and  Eurymedon,  but  the  second  request  was  re- 
fused, and  Nicias  continued  the  war,  but  with 
constantly  failing  fortunes.  He  was  about  to 
retreat  when  an  eclipse  of  the  moon  occurred, 
and  this  Nicias  regarded  as  an  injunction  from 
the  gods  to  remain  until  the  next  full  moon. 
The  delay  proved  fatal.  The  Syracusans  forced 
the  Athenians  to  a  naval  engagement,  destroyed 
their  fleet,  and  when  they  attempted  to  escape 
by  land  pursued  and  captured  them.  Nicias 
and  Demosthenes  were  put  to  death,  Eury- 
medon having  fallen  (413). 

NICKEL,  a  silver-white,  malleable,  and  duc- 
tile metal,  discovered  by  Cronstedt  in  1751.  It 
is  represented  by  the  symbol  Ni;  its  atomic 
weight  is  58-8,  and  its  specific  gravity  is  8'279, 
increasing  to  8'666  when  forged.  It  is  closely 
allied  to  iron  and  cobalt,  and  is  associated 
with  them  in  meteorites  and  many  ores.  The 
principal  ore  of  nickel  is  the  arsenide,  to  which 
the  ancient  miners  gave  the  name  of  Kupfer- 


432 


NICKEL 


nickel,  or  false  copper,  because  they  tried  in 
vain  to  extract  copper  from  it;  and  it  was 
in  this  mineral  that  Cronstedt  first  detected 
the  metal.  Among  the  other  ores  of  nickel  are 
the  following:  1.  Pentlandite,  sulphuret  of 
iron  and  nickel,  occurring  in  hornblende  in 
southern  Norway,  and  in  gneiss  at  Craigmuir 
in  Argyleshire,  Scotland,  where  it  is  exten- 
sively mined.  It  is  also  found  in  Cornwall, 
and  was  named  after  Mr.  Pentland.  2.  Nickel 
vitriol,  a  native  sulphate,  often  found  with 
kupfernickel  in  cobalt  mines.  It  results  from 
alteration  of  nickel  ores,  and  occurs  in  Galicia, 
Spain ;  near  Baireuth,  Germany ;  at  the  Wallace 
mine,  Lake  Huron,  in  crystals  with  pentlandite ; 
and  at  Gap  nickel  mine,  Lancaster  co.,  Pa.  3. 
Nickel  glance,  gersdorfite,  or  weisses  Nickelerz, 
sulpho-arsenide  of  nickel,  found  at  Loos  in 
Sweden ;  in  the  Albertine  mine  in  the  Hartz, 
with  calcite,  fluor  spar,  and  quartz ;  in  quick- 
silver near  Ems;  and  with  decomposed  ga- 
lenite  and  blende  at  Phoenixville,  Pa.  Nickel 
also  exists  in  genthite,  a  silicate,  found  at 
Texas,  Lancaster  co.,  Pa.,  containing  about  35 
parts  of  silica,  31  of  nickel,  and  15  of  mag- 
nesia; at  Lake  Superior;  and  in  Malaga, 
Spain,  with  chromate  and  talcose  schist.  It 
also  occurs  in  emerald  nickel  (Nicfolsmaraffd), 
which  is  found  in  chromic  iron  in  Lancaster 
co.,  Pa.,  in  the  Shetland  islands,  and  in  Gali- 
cia, Spain.  It  is  a  hydrated  carbonate  of  nick- 
el with  a  little  carbonate  of  magnesia.  Kup- 
fernickel occurs  in  the  Saxon  mines  of  An- 
naberg,  and  in  Thurginia,  Hesse,  and  Styria; 
in  Dauphiny,  France ;  in  Cornwall,  England  ; 
in  Chili  and  the  Argentine  provinces;  and  at 
Chatham,  Conn.,  in  gneiss.  Nickel  is  obtained 
in  Birmingham  from  the  arsenio-sulphide  and 
from  /Speiss,  a  deposit  formed  in  the  pots  in 
which  arsenide  of  cobalt  and  copper  nickel 
are  fused  with  carbonate  of  potassium  and 
pounded  quartz  in  preparing  smalt.  The  ore 
or  speiss  is  fused  with  chalk  and  fluor  spar,  and 
the  metal  afterward  separated  by  means  of 
sulphuretted  hydrogen  and  chloride  of  lime.  A 
button  of  pure  metal  can  also  be  obtained  by 
heating  the  oxalate  of  nickel  without  further 
flux ;  and  by  reducing  the  oxide  by  means  of 
hydrogen  gas  and  fusing  with  borax,  we  can 
also  obtain  pure  metal.  In  the  United  States 
the  metal  is  usually  obtained  by  roasting  the 
powdered  ore  or  speiss  first  by  itself,  and  then 
with  powdered  charcoal,  till  the  garlic  odor 
of  arsenic  has  disappeared,  mixing  the  residue 
with  three  parts  of  sulphur  and  one  of  potash, 
and  melting  in  a  crucible  with  a  gentle  heat. 
The  product  is  a  sulphide  free  from  arsenic, 
which  being  washed  is  dissolved  in  concen- 
trated sulphuric  acid  containing  a  small  por- 
tion of  nitric  acid.  The  addition  of  carbonate 
of  soda  causes  a  precipitate  of  carbonate  of 
nickel,  which  may  be  reduced  by  heating  with 
charcoal. — Nickel,  according  to  Deville,  is 
more  tenacious  than  iron,  and  not  much  more 
fusible.  It  is  magnetic  at  ordinary  tempera- 
tures, but  loses  this  property  at  250°  0.,  re- 


covering it  on  cooling ;  burns  in  oxygen  gas 
like  iron,  and  is  converted  into  oxide;  dis- 
solves readily  in  hydrochloric  and  dilute  sul- 
phuric acids,  with  evolution  of  hydrogen ;  is 
also  soluble  in  nitric  acid  and  aqua  regia ;  and 
does  not  readily  tarnish  in  the  air.  Although 
nickel  can  be  hammered  into  thin  f oil,  x  and 
drawn  into  fine  wire,  it  is  rarely  used  alone 
except  as  an  electro-plating. —  Compounds  of 
Nickel.  The  principal  alloys  of  nickel  are: 
German  silver,  composed  of  copper  51,  zinc 
30-6,  and  nickel  18'4  parts  in  100,  and  also  in 
other  proportions;  tiers-argent,  composed  of 
two  parts  of  nickel  and  one  of  silver ;  pacTc- 
fong,  an  alloy  resembling  German  silver, 
brought  from  China  nearly  200  years  ago,  and 
composed  of  zinc  44,  copper  16,  and  nickel  40 
per  cent. ;  tutenag,  another  Chinese  alloy,  con- 
taining zinc  37,  copper  46,  and  nickel  17  per 
cent.  Many  of  the  copper  coins  of  the  Euro- 
pean continent  and  the  United  States  are  al- 
loys containing  various  proportions  of  nickel. 
Kupfernickel,  NiaAsa,  already  mentioned  as 
the  principal  ore,  is  a  true  arsenide.  Some- 
times a  part  of  the  arsenic  is  displaced  by 
an  equivalent  quantity  of  antimony.  Arsenical 
nickel,  NiAs2,  is  another  native  ore,  which  by 
ignition  in  closed  vessels  parts  with  a  portion 
of  arsenic,  and  becomes  kupfernickel.  Nickel 
glance,  already  mentioned  as  an  ore,  has  the 
formula  NiSAs.  Nickelous  chloride,  or  chlo- 
ride of  nickel,  NiCla,  is  formed  by  treating 
the  oxide  with  hydrochloric  acid,  by  heating 
nickel  filings  to  low  redness  in  a  stream  of 
chlorine  gas,  or  by  heating  the  hydrated  chlo- 
ride. Its  solution  on  evaporation  yields  beau- 
tiful green  hydrated  crystals,  containing  nine 
equivalents  of  water.  There  is  a  double  salt 
of  chloride  of  nickel  ammonium.  There  are 
two  oxides :  a  protoxide,  NiO,  and  a  sesquiox- 
ide,  NiaOs,  the  first  of  which  only  forms  salts. 
It  may  be  obtained  in  an  anhydrous  state  by 
calcining  the  nitrate  or  carbonate  in  a  cov- 
ered crucible,  or  by  heating  nickel  filings  with 
nitre.  It  is  olive  green,  of  specific  gravity 
5-75.  It  may  be  precipitated  as  a  bulky  green 
hydrate  from  its  salts  by  caustic  potash.  It  is 
soluble  in  acids,  forming  pale  green  salts.  It 
forms  insoluble  compounds  with  baryta,  stron- 
tia,  and  several  other  bases,  and  forms  a  deep 
blue  solution  with  ammonia.  Three  sulphides 
are  known:  a  subsulphide,  Ni4S,  formed  by 
reducing  the  sulphate  by  charcoal  or  hydro- 
gen ;  the  protosulphide,  NiS,  occurring  native 
as  millerite,  or  formed  by  fusing  sulphur  and 
nickel ;  and  the  disulphide,  NiS2,  a  steel-gray 
powder  obtained  by  heating  to  redness  sulphur 
with  carbonates  of  nickel  and  potash,  and 
treating  the  mass  with  water.  An  anhydrous 
carbonate,  NiCO3,  is  formed  by  heating  chlo- 
ride of  nickel  with  alkaline  carbonates  in  sealed 
tubes.  It  crystallizes  in  minute  rhombohe- 
drons,  and  is  not  attacked  by  strong  acids  at 
ordinary  temperatures.  The  hydrocarbonate, 
NiCOa,2NiH6O4,  exists  in  the  ore  emerald 
nickel  already  mentioned.  Its  specific  gravity 


y 

i 
I 


NICKEL 

is  2'67,  hardness  3  to  3'25,  color  emerald-green 
with  strong  vitreous  lustre ;  it  gives  off  water 
when  heated,  and  turns  blackish.  Nitrate  of 
nickel,  or  nickelous  nitrate,  Ni2NOs,6H2O, 
formed  by  dissolving  the  metal  in  nitric  acid, 
crystallizes  in  emerald-green  eight-sided  prisms, 
soluble  in  twice  their  weight  of  cold  water, 
and  when  heated  forms  a  basic  salt.  An  am- 
moniacal  nitrate,  Ni2N034NHs,2HaO  (Lau- 
rent), is  deposited  in  octahedral  crystals  from 
a  warm  concentrated  solution  of  nickel  in  am- 
monia. When  exposed  to  the  air  the  crystals 
give  off  ammonia  and  crumble  to  a  bluish 
white  powder.  Sulphate  of  nickel,  or  nickel- 
ous sulphate,  NiSO^THaO,  may  be  obtained  by 
dissolving  metallic  nickel  or  its  oxide  or  car- 
bonate in  sulphuric  acid.  It  crystallizes  in 
green  rhombic  prisms,  soluble  in  three  parts  of 
cold  water,  insoluble  in  alcohol.  When  the 
prismatic  crystals  are  exposed  to  the  light,  they 
are  converted  into  small  regular  octahedrons 
held  together  in  the  form  of  the  parent  crystal. 
When  the  solution  crystallizes  between  59° 
and  77°  F.  the  octahedrons  form  directly  with 
six  molecules  of  water,  having  a  specific  grav- 
ity of  2'037.  A  potassic  nickelous  sulphate 
also  may  be  formed,  and  other  double  sulphates 
of  nickel.  Each  molecule  of  nickel  sulphate 
in  the  solid  form  will  absorb  six  molecules 
of  ammoniacal  gas.  There  are  several  other 
salts  of  nickel,  as  the  fluoride,  bromide,  iodide, 
phosphide,  and  many  oxygen  salts. — The  salts 
of  nickel  are  generally  of  a  delicate  green,  both 
when  solid  and  in  solution ;  they  redden  litmus 
slightly,  have  a  sweet  metallic  astringent  taste, 
and  taken  into  the  stomach  excite  vomiting. 
With  borax  before  the  blowpipe  they  form  a 
reddish  yellow  bead,  which  becomes  paler  on 
cooling.  The  addition  of  a  potassium  salt 
colors  the  bead  blue.  In  the  reducing  flame 
the  bead  becomes  gray  from  particles  of  re- 
duced metal.  Sulphuretted  hydrogen  gives  no 
precipitate  in  a  solution  acidulated  with  sul- 
phuric acid,  but  a  nearly  neutral  solution  of 
nickel  acetate  may  be  perfectly  precipitated 
by  this  reagent  with  the  aid  of  a  gentle  heat. 
Hydric  ammoriisulphide  gives  a  black  sulphide, 
slightly  soluble  in  excess  of  precipitant.  Am- 
monia gives  a  pale  green  precipitate,  soluble 
in  excess  of  ammonia,  forming  a  bright  blue 
solution,  from  which  potash  in  excess  precipi- 
tates a  green  compound  of  nickelous  oxide  and 
potash.  Caustic  potash  and  soda  throw  down  a 
pale  green  bulky  precipitate  of  hydrated  nick- 
elous oxide,  insoluble  in  excess  of  alkali.  The 
carbonates  of  the  alkaline  metals  give  a  pale 
apple-green  precipitate  of  basic  carbonate  of 
nickel,  which  is  soluble  in  sesquicarbonate  of 
ammonia.  Potassic  f  errocyanide  gives  a  green  - 
ish  white,  and  the  ferricyanide  a  yellowish 
green  precipitate,  both  soluble  in  hydrochloric 
acid.— Nickel  Plating.  The  possibility  of  de- 
positing nickel  by  means  of  the  battery  ap- 
pears to  have  been  known  to  Becquerel  and 
Jacobi  as  early  as  1862 ;  but  it  remained  for 
Isaac  Adams  of  Boston,  Mass.,  to  invent  a 


NICOBAR  ISLANDS 


433 


method  for  practically  accomplishing  the  ob- 
ject. Adams  employs  the  double  chloride  of 
nickel  and  ammonium  or  'sulphate  of  nickel 
and  ammonium.  He  says  the  presence  of  even 
slight  traces  of  the  fixed  alkalies  is  injurious, 
as  they  occasion  the  deposition  of  oxide  of 
nickel.  From  pure  salts  the  layers  of  metals 
are  deposited  with  great  regularity  and  of  suffi- 
cient thickness  to  admit  of  a  fine  polish.  Ac- 
cording to  Jacobi,  the  anode  should  be  made 
of  pure  fused  nickel,  and  Remington  prefers 
to  suspend  pieces  of  metal  in  the  bath.  Prof. 
Bottger  observes  that  porous  nickel  occludes 
hydrogen  the  same  as  palladium.  Becquerel 
insists  that  the  presence  of  a  fixed  alkali,  such 
as  potassa,  is  not  at  all  injurious  to,  and  in  no 
wise  affects  the  deposition  of  nickel,  since  the 
double  sulphate  of  nickel  and  potassa  can  be 
applied,  as  well  as  the  double  sulphate  of  nickel 
and  ammonia ;  but  if  the  positive  electrode  is 
not  made  of  nickel,  it  is  necessary  to  add  am- 
monia in  order  to  saturate  the  sulphuric  acid 
which  is  set  free.  A  method  for  plating  va- 
rious metals  with  nickel  without  the  aid  of  the 
battery,  devised  by  Prof.  Stolba,  is  as  follows : 
In  the  plating  vessel,  which  may  be  of  por- 
celain, though  the  author  prefers  copper,  is 
placed  a  concentrated  solution  of  zinc  chloride, 
which  is  then  diluted  with  from  one  to  two 
volumes  of  water,  and  heated  to  boiling.  If 
any  precipitate  separates,  it  is  to  be  redissolved 
by  adding  a  few  drops  of  hydrochloric  acid. 
As  much  powdered  zinc  as  can  be  taken  on  the 
point  of  a  knife  is  thrown  in,  by  which  the 
vessel  becomes  covered  internally  with  a  coat- 
ing of  zinc.  The  nickel  salt  (either  the  chlo- 
ride or  sulphate  may  be  used)  is  then  added 
until  the  liquid  is  distinctly  green;  and  the 
articles  to  be  plated,  previously  thoroughly 
cleaned,  are  introduced,  together  with  some 
zinc  fragments.  The  boiling  is  continued  for 
15  minutes,  when  the  coating  of  nickel  is  com- 
pleted, and  the  process  is  finished.  The  arti- 
cles are  well  washed  with  water  and  cleaned 
with  chalk.  If  a  thicker  coating  be  desired, 
the  operation  may  be  repeated.  Prof.  Stolba 
found  that  copper  vessels  thus  plated  were 
scarcely  tarnished  after  several  months'  use  in 
the  laboratory.  Nickel  plating  has  now  be- 
come an  industry  of  great  importance  in  the 
United  States.— Nickel  is  used  for  magnetic 
needles,  for  philosophical  and  surgical  instru- 
ments, and  in  watch  movements. 

MCOBAR  ISLMDS,  a  cluster  in  the  Indian 
ocean,  S.  of  the  Andaman  group  and  N.  of 
Sumatra,  between  lat.  6°  45'  and  9°  15'  N.,  and 
Ion.  92°  45'  and  94°  E. ;  pop.  about  6,000.  It 
includes  nine  islands  of  considerable  size,  and 
several  smaller  ones.  The  most  important  are 
Great  and  Little  Nicobar,  Katchall,  Kamorta, 
Teressa,  Tillanchong,  and  Car-Nicobar.  The 
largest  and  southernmost  is  Great  Nicobar, 
abput  30  by  12  m.,  separated  by  a  channel  6 
m.  wide  from  Little  Nicobar,  the  next  in  size, 
which  is  14  m.  in  length  and  12  m.  in  width. 
The  surface  of  all  the  islands  is  generally  hilly 


434 


NICODEMUS 


KICOLAITANS 


and  well  wooded.  The  soil  is  fertile,  and  capa- 
ble of  producing  nearly  all  the  fruits  and  vege- 
tables of  tropical  regions.  The  cocoanut  palm 
grows  luxuriantly  on  the  coral  formations  of 
the  northern  islands,  and  it  is  estimated  that 
5,000,000  cocoanuts  are  exported  annually, 
three  fifths  of  them  from  Car-Nicobar  alone. 
Ambergris  and  edible  birds'  nests  abound,  and 
a  limited  trade  is  carried  on  in  these  articles 
by  the  Malays,  Chinese,  and  English  from  the 
Straits  Settlements.  The  inhabitants,  who  re- 
semble the  Malays  in  their  characteristics, 
dwell  in  conical  huts  raised  above  the  ground 
and  reached  by  means  of  ladders.  They  make 
few  or  no  efforts  to  cultivate  the  soil,  and  in 
many  of  the  islands  their  condition  is  very 
miserable  and  degraded.  They  have  frequent- 
ly murdered  the  crews  of  ships  which  have 
touched  on  their  coasts.  The  Danes  made  sev- 
eral attempts  to  colonize  the  Nicobars  from 
1754  to  1848,  when  they  abandoned  their  claim 
to  sovereignty.  In  1869  the  British  East  Indian 
government  took  possession  of  the  islands  and 
began  a  penal  colony  on  Nancowry,  where 
there  is  an  excellent  harbor,  and  regular  steam 
communication  is  now  kept  up  with  the  Straits 
Settlements.  The  colony  is  on  the  N.  side  of 
the  harbor. 

NICODEMUS,  a  member  of  the  sanhedrim, 
who  came  to  Jesus  by  night,  and  held  with 
him  the  discourse  related  in  the  third  chapter 
of  John.  Subsequently  he  claimed  for  Jesus, 
at  a  meeting  of  the  sanhedrim,  the  legal  right 
to  be  heard  before  being  judged  (Deut.  i.  16), 
and  also  assisted  Joseph  of  Arimathaea  in  lay- 
ing out  the  dead  body  of  Christ.  According  to 
tradition  Nicodemus  afterward  became  openly 
a  Christian,  was  baptized  by  Peter,  and  in  con- 
sequence was  expelled  from  the  sanhedrim  and 
driven  from  Jerusalem.  An  apocryphal  gospel 
is  attributed  tcr  him. 

IN  ICO L,  Erskine,  a  British  painter,  born  in 
Leith  in  July,  1825.  He  became  an  apprentice 
to  a  house  painter  in  Edinburgh,  and  in  his 
leisure  hours  studied  at  the  trustees'  academy. 
He  was  drawing  master  in  the  high  scho.ol 
of  Leith,  and  afterward  practised  his  profes- 
sion in  Dublin,  where  he  acquired  his  familiar- 
ity with  Irish  characteristics.  He  removed  to 
London  in  1862,  and  became  an  associate  of 
the  royal  academy  in  1866.  He  began  to  ex- 
hibit his  pictures  at  the  academy  in  1851. 
Among  his  works  are:  "Did  it  Pout  with 
its  Betsey?"  (1857);  "Renewal  of  the  Lease 
refused  "  (1863) ;  "  Among  the  Old  Masters  " 
and  "  Waiting  for  the  Train  "  (1864) ;  and  "  A 
Deputation  "  (1865). 

NICOLAI,  Christoph  Friedrieh,  a  German  author, 
born  in  Berlin,  March  18,  1733,  died  Jan.  8, 
1811.  His  father  was  a  bookseller,  and  at  the 
age  of  16  he  was  sent  to  Frankfort-on-the-Oder 
to  learn  the  same  occupation.  He  returned  to 
Berlin  in  1752,  and  in  1755  published  a  volume 
of  "  Letters "  which  gained  him  the  intimacy 
of  Lessing  and  Moses  Mendelssohn,  with  whom 
he  commenced  in  1757  the  Bibliofhek  der 


schonen  Wissenschaften.  In  conjunction  with 
Lessing  he  established  in  1759  the  Brief e,  die 
neueste  Literatur  betreffend  ;  and  in  1765  he 
projected  the  Allgemeine  deutsche  Bibliothek, 
which  he  edited  until  it  reached  its  107th  vol- 
ume. In  the  latter  part  of  his  life  Nicolai,  in 
consequence  of  illness  and  depression  of  spirits, 
was  haunted  by  phantoms  which,  as  he  ima- 
gined, even  spoke  to  him  ;  and  when  by  the  use 
of  medicine  these  apparitions  were  dispelled, 
he  reported  to  the  philosophical  society  of 
Berlin  a  full  account  of  the  matter.  His  prin- 
cipal works  are :  Character  is  tische  Anekdoten 
von  Friedrieh  II.  (6  vols.,  Berlin,  1788-'92); 
Leben  und  Meinungen  des  Hagisters  Sebal- 
dus  Noihanker  (4th  ed.,  Berlin,  1799);  and 
Beschreibung  einer  Reise  durch  Deutschland 
und  die  Schweiz  (3d  ed.,  12  vols.,  Berlin,  1788- 
'96).  NicolaVs  Leben  und  sonderbare  Mein- 
ungen^ by  Fichte,  was  edited  by  A.  "W.  von 
Schlegel  (Tubingen,  1801);  and  his  biography 
and  literary  remains,  by  Gockingk,  were  pub- 
lished at  Berlin  in  1820. 

NICOLAI,  Karl  Otto  Ehrenfrled,  a  German  com- 
poser, born  in  Konigsberg,  June  9,  1810,  died 
in  Berlin,  May  10,  1849.  During  his  childhood 
he  learned  to  play  the  piano  from  his  father, 
whose  cruelty  drove  him  from  home  at  the  age 
of  16.  He  went  to  Stargard  in  Pomerania, 
where  he  found  a  patron  in  Adler,  who  assisted 
him  in  his  studies  in  literature  as  well  as  music. 
In  1830  he  became  a  teacher  of  singing  and 
playing  in  Berlin,  and  in  1834  organist  at  the 
ambassador's  chapel  in  Rome.  There  he  stud- 
ied ancient  sacred  music,  and  commenced  a 
valuable  collection  of  manuscripts,  which  at 
his  death  was  purchased  by  the  royal  library 
of  Berlin.  In  1839  he  became  for  a  year  di- 
rector of  orchestra  at  the  imperial  opera  of 
Vienna.  He  afterward  wrote  at  Trieste  his 
opera  Enrico  II.,  and  in  1840  he  produced  at 
Turin  ft  templario,  which  was  performed  in 
most  of  the  Italian  theatres.  In  1841  he  pro- 
duced Odoardo  e  Gildippe  and  II  proscritto. 
He  returned  to  Vienna  in  1842,  and  became 
first  chapelmaster  at  the  imperial  opera.  In 
1848  he  was  made  director  of  the  orchestra  oi 
the  theatre  in  Berlin,  and  there  wrote  his  mosl 
famous  opera,  Die  lustigen  Weiber  von  Wind- 
sor. For  the  commemoration  of  the  300th 
anniversary  of  the  university  of  Konigsberg 
he  wrote  his  well  known  "  Festival  Overture," 
the  theme  of  which  is  Ein>  feste  Burg.  He  also 
wrote  a  symphony,  many  songs,  and  pianoforte 
compositions.  The  character  of  his  music  is  me- 
lodious, but  without  great  force  or  originality. 

NICOLAITANS,  a  heretical  sect,  alluded  to  in 
Rev.  ii.  6,  15,  and  by  some  supposed  to  have 
received  their  name  from  Nicolas  of  Antioch, 
one  of  the  seven  deacons  said  to  have  fallen 
into  practices  opposed  to  the  gospel  and  to  the 
instructions  of  the  apostles.  According  to  Ire- 
nseus,  who  is  the  first  Christian  writer  that 
mentions  them,  they  held  fornication  and  the 
eating  of  meats  which  had  been  offered  to 
idols  not  to  be  sinful.  St.  Epiphanius  relates 


NICOLAS 

that  Nicolas  had  a  beautiful  wife  whom  he 
abandoned  for  a  life  of  celibacy,  but  afterward, 
unable  to  keep  his  resolution,  returned  to  her, 
and  justified  his  conduct  by  licentious  princi- 
ples, which  became  the  basis  of  the  Nicolaitan 
sect.  Eusebius  says  that  they  soon  became  ex- 
tinct, but  according  to  Tertullian  they  contin- 
ued to  exist  under  another  name,  and  their 
heresies  passed  into  the  sect  of  the  Cainites. 
It  is  suggested  by  Mosheim  that  the  church 
fathers  confounded  them  with  the  Gnostics, 
and  by  Neander  that  the  name  is  employed  in 
the  Apocalypse  in  a  purely  symbolical  sense, 
and  signifies  seducers  of  the  people. 

NICOLAS,  Sir  Nicholas  Harris,  an  English  anti- 
quary, born  at  East  Looe,  in  Cornwall,  March 
10,  1799,  died  near  Boulogne,  Aug.  3,  1848. 
He  entered  the  navy  as  midshipman  in  1808, 
and  was  made  lieutenant  in  1815.  On  the 
conclusion  of  peace  he  studied  law,  and  was 
called  to  the  bar  in  1825.  He  was  chosen  a 
member  of  the  council  of  the  society  of  anti- 
quaries, but  his  imprudence  and  fiery  temper 
caused  him  to  be  expelled  after  he  had  appear- 
ed once  at  their  meeting ;  and  he  thereupon 
began  a  series  of  attacks  on  the  society.  In 
1826  he  became  joint  editor  of  the  "  Retrospec- 
tive Review."  His  most  important  works  are : 
"Life  of  Secretary  Davison  "  (1823)  ;  Notitia 
Historica  (1824),  which  was  remodelled,  under 
the  title  of  "  Chronology  of  History"  (1835), 
for  Lardner's  "Cabinet  Cyclopaedia;"  "Sy- 
nopsis of  the  Peerage  of  England  "  (1825 ;  new 
ed.  by  W.  Courthope,  "  Historic  Peerage  of 
England,"  1857) ;  Testamenta  Vetusta  (1826)  ; 
"History  of  the  Battle  of  Agincourt"  (1827) ; 
"Controversy  between  Sir  Richard  Scrope 
and  Sir  Robert  Grosvenor  "  (2  vols.,  1832,  un- 
finished) ;  "History  of  the  Orders  of  Knight- 
hood of  the  British  Empire"  (4  vols.  4to, 
1841 -'2)  ;  "Observations  on  the  Institution 
of  the  Order  of  the  Garter,"  in  vol.  xxxi.  of 
Archceologia ;  and  "History  of  the  Royal 
Navy"  (2  vols.  8vo,  1847,  unfinished).  He 
prepared  for  Pickering's  Aldine  edition  of  the 
British  poets  the  lives  of  Chaucer,  Surrey, 
Wyatt,  Collins,  Cowper,  Thomson,  Burns,  and 
Henry  Kirke  White,  and  edited  the  poems  of 
Davison,  the  "Literary  Remains  of  Lady  Jane 
Grey,"  the  "  Siege  of  Carlaverock,"  the  "Privy 
Purse  Expenses  of  Henry  VIII.,"  a  "Chronicle 
of  London  from  1089  to  1483,"  "Memoirs  of 
Lady  Fanshawe,  written  by  Herself,"  and  the 
"Letters  and  Despatches  of  Admiral  Lord 
Viscount  Nelson"  (7  vols.  8vo,  1844-' 6). 
When  he  died  he  was  editing  the  papers  of 
Sir  Hudson  Lowe. 

NICOLE,  Pierre,  a  French  moralist,  born  in 
Chartres,  Oct.  19,  1625,  died  in  Paris,  Nov.  16, 
1695.  He  graduated  at  the  university  of  Paris 
in  1644,  and  for  several  years  held  a  professor- 
ship in  the  Port  Royal  community.  He  was 
one  of  the  authors  of  their  school  books,  and 
assisted  in  their  controversy  with  the  Jesuits. 
According  to  the  abbe  Goujet,  he  had  a  share, 
either  by  advice  or  correction,  in  several  of 


NICOMACHUS 


435 


Pascal's  "Provincial  Letters,"  of  which  he 
made  an  elegant  Latin  translation  under  the 
assumed  name  of  William  Mendrock  (Cologne, 
1658).  He  was  the  principal  author  of  De 
la  perpetuite  de  la  foi  de  VJ&glise  catholique 
touchant  reucharistie,  published  under  the 
name  of  Arnauld.  He  shared  in  the  persecu- 
tions which  befell  the  Port  Royalists,  and  was 
obliged  to  leave  Paris  in  1677.  His  fame  rests 
upon  his  Essais  de  morale  et  instructions  the- 
ologiques  (25  vols.  12mo,  1671  et  seq.).  There 
is  a  life  of  him  by  Goujet  (1732). 

NICOLET,  a  central  county  of  Quebec,  Cana- 
da, bounded  N.  W.  by  the  St.  Lawrence,  and 
intersected  by  the  Becancour;  area,  593  sq. 
m. ;  pop.  in  1871,  23,262,  of  whom  22,621  were 
of  French  origin  or  descent.  It  is  traversed  by 
the  Three  Rivers  division  of  the  Grand  Trunk 
railway.  Capital,  Becancour. 

NICOLLET,  a  S.  E.  county  of  Minnesota,  bound- 
ed E.  and  S.  W.  by  the  Minnesota  river ;  area, 
about  400  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  8,362.  Its 
surface  is  level,  and  contains  several  lakes,  of 
which  Swan  lake  is  the  largest.  The  soil  is 
fertile.  The  Winona  and  St.  Peter  railroad 
passes  through  it.  The  chief  productions  in 
1870  were  315,803  bushels  of  wheat,  83,256  of 
Indian  corn,  264,565  of  oats,  32,411  of  barley, 
36,158  of  potatoes,  24,446  tons  of  hay,  5,389 
Ibs.  of  wool,  250,844  of  butter,  and  4,117  gal- 
lons of  sorghum  molasses.  There  were  1,879 
horses,  3,189  milch  cows,  788  working  oxen, 
3,386  other  cattle,  1,619  sheep,  and  1,982  swine; 
2  manufactories  of  brick,  3  of  furniture,  1  tan- 
nery, and  1  flour  mill.  Capital,  St.  Peter. 

NICOLLET,  Jean  Nicolas,  a  French  explorer, 
born  at  Cluses,  Savoy,  July  24,  1786,  died  in 
Washington,  D.  C.,  Sept.  11,  1843.  He  was  a 
pupil  of  Laplace,  and  came  to  the  United  States 
in  1832  for  a  scientific  tour.  After  exploring 
the  southern  states,  he  entered  the  great  basin 
embraced  by  the  sources  of  the  Red,  Arkansas, 
and  Missouri  rivers.  In  1836  he  had  extended 
his  observations  to  the  sources  of  the  Missis- 
sippi. Returning,  he  was  engaged  by  the  war 
department  to  revisit  the  far  west  and  prepare 
a  general  report  and  map  for  the  government. 
In  1841  Nicollet  presented  to  the  association 
of  American  geologists  a  communication  on 
the  geology  of  the  upper  Mississippi  and  Mis- 
souri. He  published  Lettre  sur  les  assurances 
qui  ont  pour  "base  les  probdbilites  de  la  duree 
de  la  me  humaine  (Paris,  1818) ;  Memoire  sur 
la  mesure  d'un  arc  de  parallele  moyen  entre  le 
pole  et  Vequateur  (1826)  ;  and,  with  Reynaud, 
Cours  mathematique  d  Vusage  de  la  marine  (2 
vols.,  1830). 

NICOLO  DA  PISA.  See  PISANO. 
.  NICOMACHCS.  I.  A  painter  of  Thebes,  Greece, 
who  flourished  in  the  middle  of  the  4th  cen- 
tury B.  C.  Cicero  ranks  him  with  Apelles  and 
Protogenes,  and  Plutarch  extols  his  genius. 
Pliny  says  he  used  only  four  colors,  and  that 
he  was  the  first  to  represent  Ulysses  with  the 
pileus  or  sailor's  cap.  His  finest  works  found 
their  way  to  Rome.  Of  these,  Pliny  mentions 


436 


NICOMEDES 


NICOSIA 


the  "  Rape  of  Proserpine  "  and  "  Female  Bac- 
chantes surprised  by  Satyrs."  II.  A  Pythago- 
rean philosopher  of  the  1st  century  A.  D.,  born 
at  Gerasa,  Palestine,  and  hence  surnamed  Ge- 
rasenus.  His  name  became  proverbial  in  con- 
nection with  skilful  computation;  hence  the 
adage,  "  You  reckon  like  Nicomachus  of  Ge- 
rasa." His  extant  works  are  an  introduction 
to  the  study  of  arithmetic,  first  printed  in  the 
original  Greek  at  Paris  (1538),  and  a  manual 
on  music,  edited  by  Meursius  (Leyden,  1616), 
and  with  a  Latin  translation  by  Meibom  (Am- 
sterdam, 1652). 

NICOMEDES,  the  name  of  three  kings  of 
Bithynia. — Nicomedes  I.  succeeded  his  father 
Zipoetes  in  278  B.  0.,  and  one  of  his  first  acts 
was  to  assassinate  two  of  his  younger  brothers. 
Another  brother,  Zipoetes,  who  rebelled  and 
took  possession  of  the  maritime  districts  of 
Bithynia,  he  defeated  with  the  assistance  of 
the  Gauls,  and  also  put  to  death.  He  was  the 
first  ruler  of  the  Thracian  dynasty  who  took 
the  title  of  king.  He  fixed  his  residence  near 
the  ruined  city  of  Astacus,  where  he  built  a 
new  capital  and  called  it  Nicomedia.  He  died 
about  250  B.  C.— Nicomedes  II.,  surnamed  EPI- 
PHANES,  fourth  in  descent  from  the  prece- 
ding, reigned  from  149  to  91  B.  0.  He  was 
educated  at  Rome,  where  he  found  such  favor 
with  the  senate  that  his  father  Prusias  II., 
dreading  his  ambition,  sent  orders  to  have  him 
assassinated.  Nicomedes,  discovering  the  plot, 
entered  Bithynia  in  arms,  and,  being  supported 
by  the  inhabitants,  dethroned  his  father  and 
put  him  to  death.  He  made  an  alliance  first 
with  the  Romans,  whom  he  assisted  in  their 
war  with  Aristonicus  (131),  and  afterward 
with  Mithridates,  and  having  seized  Paphlago- 
nia,  placed  it  under  the  government  of  one  of 
his  sons.  Foiled  by  Mithridates  in  an  attempt 
upon  the  Cappadocian  throne,  to  secure  which 
he  had  married  Laodice,  the  widow  of  Ariara- 
thes  VI.,  he  was  soon  afterward  deprived  of 
Paphlagonia  also  by  the  Romans,  and  is  said 
to  have  died  of  disappointment. — Nicomedes  III., 
surnamed  PHILOPATOE,  son  and  successor  of 
the  preceding,  and  the  last  king  of  Bithynia, 
died  about  the  beginning  of  74  B.  0.  On  the 
death  of  his  father,  Mithridates  incited  another 
son,  Socrates,  to  claim  the  crown,  and  Nicome- 
des  was  driven  from  the  kingdom.  Restored 
by  the  Romans  the  next  year,  he  was  persuaded 
by  his  allies  to  make  war  upon  Mithridates, 
who  deposed  him  a  second  time  (88).  At  the 
conclusion  of  the  first  Mithridatic  war  (84), 
which  broke  out  in  consequence  of  this  action, 
he  was  restored  again.  Having  no  children, 
he  bequeathed  his  kingdom  to  the  Romans. 

NICOJIEDIA,  the  capital  of  ancient  Bithynia, 
on  the  Astacenian  gulf,  at  the  E.  extremity  of 
the  Propontis.  It  was  built  in  264  B.  0.  by 
Nicomedes  I.,  and  for  six  centuries  prospered, 
being  often,  under  the  Roman  empire,  the  resi- 
dence of  the  emperors  while  engaged  in  their 
eastern  wars.  It  was  adorned  with  many  mag- 
nificent buildings,  the  ruins  of  which  still  exist, 


but  is  especially  celebrated  as  having  been  the 
place  where  the  historian  Arrian  was  born, 
where  Hannibal  and  Constantine  the  Great 
died,  and  Diocletian  abdicated.  The  modern 
name  is  Ismid,  and  the  place  is  still  of  some 
importance.  (See  ISMID.) 

NICOPOLI,  or  Nicopolis,  a  city  of  European 
Turkey,  in  Bulgaria,  on  the  right  bank  of  the 
Danube,  75  m.  S.  W.  of  Bucharest,  and  280  m. 
N.  W.  of  Constantinople;  pop.  about  10,000. 
It  consists  of  the  fortified  or  Turkish  town, 
perched  on  limestone  cliffs,  overhanging  the 
Danube,  and  an  open  quarter  on  the  declivity 
of  an  adjoining  height,  inhabited  by  Bulgari- 
ans, Wallachs,  and  Jews.  It  was  founded  by 
Trajan  in  the  beginning  of  the  2d  century,  and 
gives  title  to  a  Greek  archbishop  and  a  Catholic 
bishop.  The  sultan  Bajazet  I.  defeated  King 
Sigismund  of  Hungary  (the  future  emperor  of 
Germany)  under  the  walls  of  this  city,  Sept. 
28,  1396.  The  Christian  army,  numbering 
60,000  men,  among  them  several  thousand 
French  warriors,  was  totally  routed,  but  Sigis- 
mund escaped  in  a  boat. 

NICOPOLIS,  a  city  of  ancient  Greece,  in  Epi- 
rus,  on  the  Ambracian  gulf,  built  by  Augustus 
to  commemorate  his  victory  over  Mark  Antony, 
achieved  off  the  neighboring  promontory  of 
Actium  (31  B.  C.).  It  was  peopled  from  the 
Epirotic  towns,  invested  with  the  privileges  of 
a  Roman  colony,  and  raised  to  the  dignity  of 
an  amphictyonic  city.  The  conqueror  erected 
a  temple  to  Neptune  and  Mars,  and  instituted 
a  quinquennial  festival  styled  Actia.  Under 
his  successors  this  city  became  the  capital  of 
Epirus,  but  it  decayed  in  the  middle  ages.  Nu- 
merous ruins  remain,  and  the  great  theatre  is 
one  of  the  best  preserved  of  Roman  theatres. 

NICOSIA,  Leneosia,  or  Lef kosha,  a  town  of  Asi- 
atic Turkey,  capital  of  Cyprus,  situated  in  the 
N.  part  of  the  island,  9  m.  from  the  sea ;  pop. 
about  12,000,  two  thirds  of  whom  are  Turks. 
It  is  about  three  miles  in  circuit,  and  surround- 
ed by  strong  walls  with  three  gates.  With  the 
exception  of  the  Greek  quarter,  the  town  is 
generally  ill  built  with  narrow  unpaved  streets 
and  hut-like  houses.  There  are  some  imposing 
buildings,  among  which  are  the  mosque  of 
St.  Sophia,  formerly  a  Christian  church,  the 
church  of  St.  Catharine,  the  Armenian  church, 
the  church  of  St.  Nicholas,  now  used  as  a  grain 
depot,  the  seraglio  or  governor's  palace,  erect- 
ed as  a  royal  residence  while  the  island  was 
held  by  the  Christians,  and  the  palace  of  the 
Greek  archbishop.  There  are  manufactures  of 
Turkey  leather,  carpets,  and  silk,  and  British 
calicoes  are  printed  for  exportation.  The  Cy- 
prus wines  are  produced  on  the  neighboring 
hills. — Nicosia  in  the  time  of  Constantine  the 
Great  was  9  m.  in  circuit,  and  before  Cyprus 
came  into  the  possession  of  Venice  had  300 
churches.  It  was  taken  from  the  Venetians 
by  the  Turks  in  1570,  when  20,000  of  its  in- 
habitants perished. 

NICOSIA,  a  town  of  Sicily,  in  the  province 
and  40  m.  N.  W.  of  the  city  of  Catania ;  pop. 


NICOT 

about  15,000.  It  is  built  on  a  rocky  crest,  on 
the  highest  part  of  which  is  a  ruined  castle. 
The  cathedral  and  other  churches  have  fine 
works  of  art.  It  is  the  seat  of  a  bishop,  and 
has  a  royal  gymnasium.  There  are  salt  works 
and  several  sulphur  springs.  A  brisk  trade  is 
carried  on  in  grain,  wine,  oil,  and  cattle. 

MOOT,  Jean,  a  French  diplomatist,  born  in 
1530,  died  in  Parisr  May  5,  1600.  Being  sent 
by  Francis  II.  as  ambassador  to  the  court  of 
Portugal,  he  there  procured  some  seeds  of  a 
tobacco  plant  from  a  Flemish  merchant,  who 
had  obtained  them  from  Florida.  These  he 
brought  into  France,  and  in  honor  of  him  the 
botanical  name  Nicotiana  was  given  to  tobacco. 

MCOTIA,  or  Nicotine  (Oi0H14N"2),  a  volatile 
alkaloid,  the  active  principle  of  tobacco,  dis- 
covered by  Vauquelin  in  1809,  and  obtained  by 
Posselt  and  Reimann  in  1828  in  a  state  of  com- 
parative purity.  It  may  be  prepared  by  the 
distillation  of  the  infusion  of  the  plant.  It 
is  a  clear  oily  fluid,  of  specific  gravity  1-048, 
soluble  in  water,  alcohol,  ether,  the  fixed  oils, 
and  oil  of  turpentine.  It  possesses  an  exceed- 
ingly acrid  burning  taste,  even  when  largely 
diluted,  and  an  odor  like  that  of  tobacco.  Its 
vapor  is  very  powerful  and  irritant  to  the  nos- 
trils ;  that  arising  from  a  single  drop  is  suffi- 
cient to  render  the  whole  atmosphere  of  a  room 
insupportable.  Nicotia  partly  decomposes  at 
482°,  and  becomes  brown  and  thick  on  expo- 
sure to  the  air.  It  has  a  strong  alkaline  reac- 
tion, and  forms  crystallizable  salts  with  the 
acids.  It  is  one  of  the  most  virulent  poisons 
known,  a  drop  of  anhydrous  and  pure  nicotia 
being  sufficient  to  kill  a  dog  in  from  half  a 
minute  to  two  minutes.  Tannin  combines 
with  it  to  form  a  compound  of  little  solubility, 
and  it  may  therefore  serve  as  a  temporary  an- 
tidote to  the  poison  if  there  be  time  for  its  ap- 
plication. Mcotia  has  been  used  in  criminal 
poisoning,-  and  in  the  celebrated  case  of  Count 
Bocarme"  it  was  detected  in  the  body  of  the 
victim.  It  protects  the  animal  tissues  from 
decomposition,  and  Orfila  found  it  several 
months  after  death  in  bodies  of  animals  de- 
stroyed by  it.  The  proportion  of  the  alkaloid 
obtained  by  this  chemist  from  Havana  tobacco 
was  2  per  cent.,  from  that  of  Maryland  2 -3,  and 
from  that  of  Virginia  6 -9.  The  empyreumatic 
oil  of  tobacco,  which  imparts  the  well  known 
odor  to  old  tobacco  pipes,  contains  a  large  pro- 
portion of  nicotia,  and  is  a  virulent  poison. — 
Nicotianine  is  probably  the  odorous  principle 
of  tobacco.  It  is  a  fatty  substance  haying  the 
smell  of  tobacco  smoke,  and  an  aromatic,  some- 
what bitter  taste.  It  produces  sneezing  when 
applied  to  the  nostrils,  and  a  grain  of  it  swal- 
lowed occasions  nausea.  (See  TOBACCO.) 

NICOYA,  Gnlf  of,  a  bay  of  Costa  Rica  on  the 
Pacific  ocean,  formed  by  the  peninsula  of  Ni- 
coya,  the  S.  point  of  which,  Cape  Blanco,  is  in 
lat.  9°  37'  K,  Ion.  85°  7'  W.  Its  mouth,  be- 
tween Capes  Blanco  and  Herradura,  is  about 
30  m.  wide,  and  the  gulf  extends  N.  about  55 
m.  It  contains  many  islands,  of  which  the 


NIEBUHR 


437 


principal  are  Chira,  Venado,  Bejuco,  Castillo, 
and  San  Lucar ;  and  numerous  streams  empty 
into  it,  the  largest  being  the  Rio  Grande  on  the 
east  and  the  Tempisque  on  the  north.  Punta 
Arenas,  on  the  E.  side  of  the  gulf,  is  the  only 
port  of  entry  of  Costa  Rica  on  the  Pacific. 

NIEBUHR,  Barthold  Georg,  a  German  historian, 
son  of  Karstens  Niebuhr,  born  in  Copenha- 
gen, Aug.  27,  1776,  died  in  Bonn,  Jan.  2,  1831. 
He  was  two  years  old  when  his  father  removed 
to  Meldorf  in  Holstein,  where  he  passed  his 
boyhood  till  1793.  He  learned  in  the  nursery 
both  the  German  and  Danish  languages ;  was 
instructed  by  his  father  in  geography,  history, 
and  English  and  Latin ;  and  on  entering  the 
gymnasium  of  Meldorf  in  1789  was  advanced 
at  once  to  the  first  class.  After  having  passed 
some  time  in  Gottingen,  he  was  sent  in  1794 
to  the  university  of  Kiel,  where  he  remained 
two  years,  and  became  intimately  acquaint- 
ed with  Mme.  Hensler  (whose  sister  Amalia 
Behrens  was  his  first  wife),  with  the  counts 
Stolberg,  and  with  Voss  and  Jacobi.  In  1796 
he  became  private  secretary  to  Schimmel- 
mann,  the  Danish  minister  of  finance,  was 
soon  after  appointed  secretary  to  the  royal 
library  by  Count  Bernstorff,  and  in  1798  went 
to  England,  and  resided  chiefly  in  London  and 
Edinburgh  for  more  than  a  year.  Having  re- 
ceived two  small  appointments  from  the  gov- 
ernment at  Copenhagen,  he  married,  and  re- 
sided in  that  capital  till  1806,  directing  his 
studies  chiefly  toward  classical  antiquity,  and 
establishing  his  reputation  both  as  a  scholar 
and  an  administrative  officer.  In  1806  he  re- 
moved to  Berlin,  having  received  an  appoint- 
ment as  joint  director  of  the  bank,  but  was 
soon  obliged  to  flee  with  the  other  officials 
after  the  battle  of  Jena.  He  was  intrusted  by 
Hardenberg  with  the  financial  department  of 
the  commissariat,  and  accompanied  the  army 
till  the  battle  of  Friedland.  After  the  .dis- 
missal of  Hardenberg  (1807)  he  was  appointed 
on  the  commission  to  conduct  the  government 
provisionally,  and  suggested  fiscal  reforms 
which  were  accepted  by  the  new  administration 
under  Stein.  He  resided  one  year  in  Amster- 
dam, making  unsuccessful  efforts  to  negotiate 
a  loan,  and  on  his  return  to  Berlin  in  1809  was 
nominated  privy  councillor,  and  was  made  the 
head  of  the  department  for  the  management 
of  the  national  debt  and  the  supervision  of  the 
banks.  The  opposition  made  by  the  ministry 
to  his  financial  plans  caused  him  to  demand  his 
dismissal,  and  both  Hardenberg  and  Stein  at- 
tributed his  conduct  to  an  undue  waywardness 
and  impatience  of  disposition.  His  own  let- 
ters prove  that  while  the  important  offices  to 
which  he  had  been  raised  had  given  him  an 
extravagant  estimate  of  his  financial  abilities, 
he  was  nevertheless  chiefly  desirous  to  return 
to  the  literary  studies  from  which  he  had  been 
withheld  by  public  duties.  Appointed  histo- 
riographer to  the  king,  he  delivered  lectures  on 
ancient  Roman  history  in  the  university  of 
Berlin  in  1810  and  1811,  which  were  immedi- 


438 


NIEBUHR 


ately  published,  and  contained  the  germs  of 
his  later  doctrines.  He  was  also  associated 
with  Spalding,  Buttmann,  Ancillon,  Schleier- 
macher,  Savigny,  and  a  few  others,  in  a  philo- 
logical society.  His  studies  and  lectures  were 
interrupted  by  the  events  of  the  war  of  libera- 
tion in  1813-'14,  by  writing  several  political 
tracts,  and  by  the  subsequent  illness  and  death 
of  his  wife;  and  in  1816  he  sought  change  of 
scene,  and  went  as  Prussian  ambassador  to  the 
court  of  Rome.  On  his  way  he  discovered  at 
Verona  the  palimpsest  manuscript  of  the  "  In- 
stitutes" of  Gaius.  In  Rome  he  was  chiefly 
occupied  with  studies  concerning  its  ancient 
history.  He  did  not  receive  his  final  instruc- 
tions as  ambassador  till  he  had  been  at  his 
post  four  years,  and  the  negotiations  with  the 
papal  court  were  completed  by  Hardenberg  in 
person  in  1821.  But  the  services  of  Niebuhr 
in  the  entire  arrangement  of  the  preliminaries 
were  acknowledged  by  the  court,  and  he  was 
rewarded  by  the  king  of  Prussia  with  the  or- 
der of  the  red  eagle,  and  by  the  emperor  of 
Austria  with  the  Leopold  order  of  knighthood. 
In  1818  Bunsen  became  secretary  of  the  lega- 
tion, and  Niebuhr  was  engaged  in  planning  the 
work  on  Roman  topography,  which  he  subse- 
quently aided  Bunsen,  Platner,  and  others  in 
preparing.  In  1822  he  obtained  a  release 
from  his  duties,  and  resided  chiefly  in  Berlin 
and  Bonn  till  in  1823  he  became  adjunct  pro- 
fessor of  ancient  history  in  the  university  re- 
cently established  in  the  latter  city.  He  insti- 
tuted in  1827  the  Rheinisches  Museum,  a  peri- 
odical consisting  of  short  philological  essays 
by  eminent  scholars ;  superintended  the  repub- 
lication  of  the  Corpus  Scriptorum  Histories 
Byzantines,  to  which  he  furnished  an  edition 
of  Agathias ;  and  was  especially  occupied  with 
revising  and  correcting  his  great  work  on  the 
history  of  Rome,  the  first  volume  of  the  new 
edition  of  which  appeared  in  1827.  It  at- 
tracted general  attention,  and  gave  a  new  im- 
pulse to  the  investigation  of  classical  antiqui- 
ty. In  the  winter  of  1829-'30  his  house  was 
burned,  and  with  it  nearly  all  the  manuscript 
of  his  second  volume,  which,  however,  he  was 
able  to  prepare  again  for.  the  press  within  a 
year.  The  French  revolution  of  July,  1830, 
caused  him  the  deepest  anxiety,  and  he  fore- 
boded the  worst  consequences  from  the  revi- 
val of  popular  sovereignty.  A  cold  which  he 
caught  on  one  of  his  frequent  visits  to  the 
news  rooms  resulted  in  inflammation  of  the 
lungs,  which  terminated  fatally  after  a  week's 
illness.  Niebuhr  was  personally  remarkable  for 
amiability,  earnestness,  and  integrity,  combined 
with  a  wayward,  impatient,  and  impracticable 
temper.  He  had  married  a  second  time  before 
his  visit  to  Rome,  where  his  son  Marcus  was 
born,  whom  he  educated  with  peculiar  care, 
and  who  attained  to  high  office  in  the  Prus- 
sian civil  service,  was  an  enemy  of  liberal 
ideas,  and  died  in  1860. — The  principal  monu- 
ment of  the  genius  of  Niebuhr  is  his  Romische 
Geschichte  (3  vols,,  1811-'32  ;  2d  ed.,  1827-'42; 


translated  into  English  by  J.  0.  Hare  and  Con- 
nop  Thirlwall),  which  has  been  called  the  most 
original  historical  work  of  the  present  age. 
It  was  a  reconstruction  of  Roman  history,  a 
development  of  historical  materials  from  the 
early  traditions  and  legends.  Its  aim  to  repro- 
duce the  fabric  of  history  from  scattered  frag- 
ments, to  extract  truth  and  certainty  out  of 
traditional  narratives,  together  with  the  erudi- 
tion, sagacity,  and  power  of  imagination  which 
it  displayed,  excited  the  enthusiasm  of  intelli- 
gent readers.  In  England  his  theories  were 
generally  accepted  by  scholars,  and  Dr.  Arnold 
professed  never  to  venture  to  differ  from  him 
except  when  he  manifestly  had  evidence  that 
had  not  occurred  to  him.  Macaulay  also  fa- 
vored his  theory  of  the  presumed  derivation 
of  early  Roman  history  from  national  ballads, 
which  has  since  been  generally  abandoned  in 
Germany,  and  which  Sir  G.  Oornewall  Lewis 
has  proved  to  rest  on  insufficient  positive  evi- 
dence. Another  view  which  he  brought  into 
prominence  was  that  the  patricians  and  ple- 
beians were  respectively  a  conquering  and  con- 
quered race,  with  different  languages,  feelings, 
and  habits,  yet  gradually  coalescing  into  a  single 
body  politic.  Three  series  of  his  lectures  have 
been  published  since  his  death  in  both  German 
and  English,  respectively  on  Roman  history, 
on  ancient  ethnography  and  geography,  and 
on  ancient  history.  They  were  edited  by  his 
son  Marcus  and  Dr.  Isler,  from  notes  taken  by 
his  pupils,  and  also  independently  in  English 
by  Dr.  L.  Schmitz  (8  vols.  8vo).  His  opinion 
that  the  mediaeval  municipal  institutions  of 
Italy  were  derived  from  the  Romans,  and  not 
from  the  northern  invaders,  has  been  generally 
rejected.  His  principal  minor  writings  were 
collected  in  his  Kleine  historische  und  pJiilo- 
logische  Schriften  (2  vols.,  Bonn,  1828-'43), 
and  his  Nachgelassene  Schriften  nicht  philo- 
logischen  InJialts  (Hamburg,  1842).  In  1838 
appeared  his  Lelensnachrichten  (2  vols.,  Ham- 
burg), consisting  largely  of  his  correspondence, 
abridged  and  translated  into  English  by  Miss 
Winkworth,  with  additions  by  Bunsen,  Bran- 
dis,  and  others  (3  vols.,  London,  1852). 

NIEBUHR,  Karstens,  a  German  traveller,  born 
at  Ludingworth,  Lauenburg,  March  17,  1733, 
died  at  Meldorf,  Holstein,  April  26,  1815.  He 
studied  at  Hamburg  and  Gottingen  with  a  view 
to  becoming  a  land  surveyor,  and  in  1760  was 
appointed  mathematician  to  an  expedition  sent 
to  Egypt,  Arabia,  and  Syria  by  Count  Bern- 
storff,  minister  of  Frederick  V.  of  Denmark,  for 
the  purpose  of  illustrating  Old  Testament  geog- 
raphy and  natural  history.  He  had  the  rank  of 
lieutenant  of  engineers.  The  expedition  sailed 
in  January,  1761,  and  after  touching  at  Con- 
stantinople proceeded  to  Alexandria,  ascended 
the  Nile,  examined  the  pyramids,  and  went 
with  a  caravan  to  Suez,  whence  Niebuhr  made 
an  excursion  to  Mount  Sinai.  In  October, 
1762,  they  took  ship  from  Suez  to  Loheia,  and 
thence  travelled  by  land  to  Mocha,  where  Von 
Haven,  the  philologist,  died  in  May,  1763;  and 


NIEDERMEYER 


NIEMCEWICZ 


439 


on  their  journey  to  Sana,  the  capital  of  Yemen, 
they  lost  the  naturalist  Forskal.  They  were 
well  received  at  Sana,  but  dreading  the  climate 
they  resolved  to  return  to  Mocha,  where  the 
whole  party  were  taken  sick,  but  at  length  ob- 
tained passage  to  Bombay.  Baurenfeind,  the 
draughtsman,  died  on  the  voyage,  and  Cramer, 
the  physician,  the  last  of  Niebuhr's  compan- 
ions, expired  soon  after  their  arrival.  Niebuhr 
remained  14  months  in  Bombay,  and  then 
turned  homeward,  visiting  Muscat,  Bushire, 
Shiraz,  and  the  ruins  of  Persepolis,  ascending 
the  Euphrates  to  the  ruins  of  Babylon,  and 
thence  going  to  Bagdad  and  to  Mosul,  where 
he  joined  a  caravan  going  to  Aleppo.  He 
passed  over  to  Cyprus,  and  returning  made  a 
tour  to  Palestine,  went  with  a  caravan  across 
Mount  Taurus  to  Brusa  in  Asia  Minor,  arrived 
at  Constantinople  in  February,  1767,  and  final- 
ly reached  Copenhagen  in  November  of  the 
same  year.  He  published  the  first  fruits  of 
the  expedition  in  German  under  the  title  of 
Beschreibung  von  Arabien  (Copenhagen,  1772), 
the  government  defraying  the  expense  of  the 
illustrations.  In  1774-' 8  he  continued  his  nar- 
rative by  publishing  his  Reisebeschreibung  von 
Arabien  und  andern  umliegenden  Landern  (2 
vols.,  Copenhagen).  The  third  volume  was 
not  published  till  1837;  it  bore  the  same  title 
as  the  preceding,  and  contained  an  account  of 
his  homeward  journey,  through  Aleppo,  Jaffa, 
Jerusalem,  and  Constantinople,  with  brief  no- 
tices of  Bulgaria,  Wallachia,  Poland,  and  Ger- 
many. He  contributed  to  a  German  period- 
ical a  paper  on  the  "  Interior  of  Africa,"  and 
one  on  the  a  Political  and  Military  State  of  the 
Turkish  Empire."  He  also  edited  Forskal's 
papers,  Descriptions  Animalium,  and  Flora 
JEgyptiaco-Ardbica  (4to,  1775).  The  Danish 
government  rewarded  his  services  with  the 
cross  of  Dannebrog.  Toward  the  close  of  his 
life  he  became  blind.  His  son,  the  historian, 
wrote  his  life  (Kiel,  1817). 

NIEDERMEYER,  Louis,  a  composer,  born  at 
Nyon,  Switzerland,  April  27,  1802,  died  in 
Paris,  March  14,  1861.  He  was  the  son  of  a 
German  music  teacher,  and  received  lessons  on 
the  piano  from  Moscheles  and  in  vocal  music 
from  Zingarelli.  His  first  work,  II  reo  per 
amore,  was  represented  at  Naples  in  1820. 
In  1823  he  went  to  Paris,  where  most  of  the 
remainder  of  his  life  was  spent.  He  wrote 
several  operas,  one  of  which,  La  casa  nel  bosco, 
was  produced  at  the  Theatre  Italien,  through 
Rossini's  aid,  in  1828.  In  1836  his  Stradella 
was  produced  at  the  Grand  Opera;  in  1844, 
Marie  Stuart ;  and  in  1853,  La  Fronde.  None 
of  these  works  achieved  any  decided  success. 
Niedermeyer,  disheartened,  abandoned  dramat- 
ic composition,  and  revived  Choron's  school  for 
religious  music  with  good  results.  Besides  his 
operas,  he  composed  many  masses,  motets,  and 
other  religious  compositions,  and  a  number  of 
excellent  songs. 

MEL,  Adolphe,  a  French  general,  born  at  Mu- 
ret,  Haute-Garonne,  Oct.  4, 1802,  died  in  Paris, 


Aug.  13,  1869.  He  entered  the  polytechnic 
school  of  Paris  in  1821,  and  the  military  acad- 
emy of  Metz  in  1823,  and  became  a  second 
lieutenant  of  engineers.  In  1836-'7  he  distin- 
guished himself  in  the  expedition  against  Con- 
stantine  in  Algeria,  and  was  promoted,  Oct.  25, 
1837,  to  command  the  engineers  in  that  prov- 
ince. On  his  return  to  France  he  gained  dis- 
tinction as  military  engineer,  and  was  appoint- 
ed colonel  in  1846.  In  1849  he  took  part  in 
the  expedition  to  Rome.  He  became  general 
of  division  in  1853,  commanded  in  1854  the 
siege  operations  against  Bomarsund,  and  in  1855 
was  appointed  adjutant  of  Napoleon  III.,  and 
was  employed  in  the  siege  of  Sebastopol.  In 
1859  he  took  a  prominent  part  in  the  Italian 
campaign,  and  decided  by  the  artillery  under 
his  command  the  victory  of  Solferino  (June  24), 
after  which  he  was  made  a  marshal  of  France. 
In  1857  he  was  appointed  a  senator,  and  in  1867 
minister  of  war,  which  office  he  held,  with  the 
exception  of  a  few  weeks,  until  his  death. 

NIEMANN,  Albert,  a  German  tenor  singer,  born 
at  Erxleben,  near  Magdeburg,  in  1831.  He 
commenced  his  career  as  a  chorus  singer  at 
Dessau,  and  afterward  obtained  distinction  by 
means  of  a  voice  of  unusual  power  and  beauty. 
Most  of  his  career  has  been  spent  in  the  service 
of  the  king  of  Hanover.  He  was  the  tenor  se- 
lected by  Wagner  to  sing  in  his  Tannhauser 
when  it  was  produced  in  Paris  in  1861 ;  but, 
disgusted  with  the  temper  shown  by  the  Pari- 
sians toward  that  work,  he  broke  his  engage- 
ment and  returned  to  Hanover.  He  married 
the  German  actress  Marie  Seebach. 

NIEMBSCH  YON  STREHLENAU.     See  LENATJ, 

NlKOLAUS. 

NIEMCEWICZ,  Julian  Ursin,  a  Polish  author, 
born  at  Skoki,  Lithuania,  in  1757,  died  in  Paris, 
May  21, 1841.  He  was  educated  in  the  military 
academy  of  Warsaw,  and  became  an  adjutant 
of  Czartoryski ;  but  he  left  the  military  service 
in  1788  with  the  rank  of  major,  and  served 
from  1788  to  1792  in  the  constituent  Polish 
diet  as  a  deputy  of  Lithuania.  On  the  out- 
break of  the  revolution  of  1794  he  fought  on 
the  side  of  Kosciuszko,  afterward  shared  his 
imprisonment  in  Russia,  and  accompanied  him 
in  1797  to  America,  where  he  married  an  Amer- 
ican lady.  After  Napoleon's  invasion  of  Po- 
land he  returned  to  Warsaw  (1807),  and  was 
appointed  secretary  of  the  senate;  and  after 
the  annexation  of  Poland  to  Russia,  he  became 
president  of  the  committee  on  the  new  consti- 
tution. During  the  revolution  of  1830  he  was 
a  member  of  the  administrative  council.  Short- 
ly before  the  fall  of  Warsaw  he  went  to  Paris, 
where  he  spent  the  rest  of  his  life.  His  prin- 
cipal works  are  £piewy  histioryczne,  or  "  His- 
torical Songs  of  the  Poles,"  with  historical 
sketches  (Warsaw,  1816),  which  attained  im- 
mense popularity;  history  of  the  "Reign  of 
Sigismund  III."  (1819);  "Leb  and  Sarah,"  a 
novel  in  letters,  illustrative  of  Jewish  life  in 
Poland ;  a  historical  novel,  "  John  of  Tenczyn ;" 
and  a  collection  of  admirable  tales  and  fable? 


44:0 


NIEMEtf 


NIEUWENTYT 


in  the  style  of  Lafontaine.  A  complete  edi- 
tion of  his  poetical  works  was  published  in  12 
vols.  in  Leipsic  in  1840,  but  his  other  works, 
including  memoirs,  have  not  yet  been  collect- 
ed. His  Notes  sur  ma  captimte  d  St.  Peters- 
burg was  published  in  Paris  in  1843. 

BttEMEiV,  a  river  of  Europe,  rising  in  the 
Eussian  government  of  Minsk,  and  flowing  W. 
to  the  town  of  Grodno,  through  the  govern- 
ments of  Wilna  and  Grodno,  then  K  between 
those  of  Wilna  and  Suwalki  to  Kovno,  and 
W.  between  Suwalki  and  Kovno,  and  thence 
through  Prussia  to  the  Kurisches  Haff,  an  arm 
of  the  Baltic.  After  entering  Prussia  it  takes 
the  name  of  Memel.  About  8  m.  below  Tilsit 
it  divides  into  two  branches,  one  of  which  is 
called  the  Russ,  and  the  other  the  Gilge.  The 
delta  which  they  form,  called  the  island  of 
Kaukehnen,  is  remarkable  for  its  fertility. 
The  chief  tributaries  of  the  Niemen  are  the 
Wilia,  Shara,  and  Zelva.  Its  entire  length  is 
about  500  m.,  50  of  which  are  in  Prussia.  It 
is  the  main  outlet  for  the  products  of  the  coun- 
tries through  which  it  flows.  As  the  snows 
of  the  regions  which  it  drains  dissolve  rapidly 
on  the  approach  of  summer,  the  Niemen  fre- 
quently rises  20  or  30  ft.  above  its  ordinary 
level,  causing  great  devastation.  It  is  con- 
nected by  the  Oginski  canal  with  the  Dnieper 
and  the  Black  sea. 

NIEMEYER,  August  Hermann,  a  German  author, 
born  in  Halle,  Sept.  11,  1754,  died  in  Magde- 
burg, July  7,  1828.  He  acquired  distinction 
as  a  theologian  and  pedagogue,  and  in  1808 
became  chancellor  and  rector  of  the  university 
of  Halle.  In  1816  he  went  to  Magdeburg  as 
consistorial  councillor  His  principal  works 
are:  Characteristics  der  Bibel  (5  vols.,  Halle, 
1775-'82) ;  Handbucli fur  cJiristliche  Religions- 
lehrer  (2  vols.,  1790) ;  Grundsdtze  der  Erzie- 
hung  und  des  UnterricJits  (3  vols.,  1796) ;  and 
Lehrbuch  der  Religion  far  die  obern  Klassen 
in  gelehrten  Schulen  (18th  ed.,  1843).  All  his 
works  passed  through  many  editions,  especially 
the  last  on  account  of  its  prohibition. 

MEPCE,  Joseph  Mcephore,  a  French  chemist, 
one  of  the  inventors  of  photography,  born  in 
Chalon-sur-Sa6ne,  March  7,  1765,  died  July  5, 
1833.  After  serving  in  the  army  for  one  year, 
he  was  obliged  by  severe  illness  to  resign,  and 
was  appointed  civil  administrator  of  the  dis- 
trict of  Nice,  which  post  he  held  from  1795  to 
1801.  Retiring  then  to  private  life,  he  devoted 
himself  to  the  study  of  mechanics  and  chem- 
istry, and  as  early  as  1813  made  a  series  of  in- 
vestigations, which  he  styled  "  heliographic  re- 
searches," to  find  the  means  of  fixing  images 
upon  metallic  plates  by  the  agency  of  light.  In 
1824  he  had  partially  succeeded  in  producing 
pictures,  first  on  tin  and  polished  glass,  then 
on  copper,  and  finally  on  silver,  the  surface 
having  in  each  case  been  covered  with  a  thin 
film  of  bitumen ;  but  the  process  was  very  slow. 
In  the  mean  time  Daguerre  had  been  engaged 
upon  the  same  problem,  and  in  1829  the  two 
experimenters  entered  into  a  copartnership  to 


improve  the  discovery,  which,  according  to  the 
terms  of  agreement,  had  been  made  by  Mepce; 
but  the  latter  died  before  it  was  perfected. 
— See  Histoire  de  la  decouverte  improprement 
nommee  daguerreotype,  by  Isidore  Niepce  fils. 

MEPCE  DE  SAINT-VICTOR,  Claude  Marie  Fran- 
$ois,  a  French  chemist,  nephew  of  the  preceding, 
born  at  St.  Oyr,  near  CMlon-sur-Saone,  July 
26, 1805,  died  in  Paris  in  April,  1870.  He  was 
educated  at  the  military  school  of  Saumur  and 
commissioned  a  sub-lieutenant  of  dragoons. 
His  first  chemical  invention  was  a  process  by 
which  the  color  of  the  facings  of  a  large  num- 
ber of  cavalry  uniforms  was  changed  from 
crimson  to  orange  at  a  cost  of  half  a  franc 
the  uniform.  For  this  service,  which  saved 
the  government  100,000  francs,  he  received  a 
reward  of  500  francs  and  permission  to  ex- 
change into  the  municipal  guard  of  Paris.  The 
transfer  was  not  effected  until  three  years 
later,  April,  1845,  and  in  the  mean  while  he 
experimented  for  the  perfecting  of  the  photo- 
graphic process  discovered  by  his  uncle.  In 
1847  he  communicated  to  the  academy  of  sci- 
ences two  papers,  the  first  of  which  related 
chiefly  to  the  reproduction  of  designs  by  the  use 
of  vapors  of  iodine,  and  the  second  announced 
his  method  of  obtaining  images  on  glass  plates 
coated  with  a  film  of  starch,  gelatine,  or  albu- 
men. In  1848  he  announced  some  important 
improvements,  and  the  process  was  soon  gen- 
erally adopted.  In  1851-'2  he  presented  sev- 
eral memoirs  on  the  subject  of  photographing 
colors.  He  had  obtained  upon  silvered  plates, 
washed  with  chloride  of  copper,  accurate  rep- 
resentations of  a  variety  of  colored  objects,  but 
was  unable  to  fix  the  tints.  In  1853  he  pre- 
sented to  the  academy  an  account  of  his  pro- 
cess of  heliography,  by  which  he  obtained  the 
impression  of  the  image  upon  a  polished  steel 
plate  covered  with  a  thin  film  of  varnish,  of 
which  benzine  was  the  chief  ingredient,  after 
which  the  picture  was  bit  in  with  acid.  In 
1854  he  was  appointed  commandant  of  the 
Louvre.  In  1855  he  published,  under  the  title 
of  RechercJies  photograpliiques,  all  the  memoirs 
on  photographic  subjects  presented  by  him  to 
the  academy.  He  never  patented  any  of  his 
inventions.  He  received  the  Tremont  prize 
from  the  academy  of  sciences  in  1861,  '62,  and 
'63.  Among  his  later  works  are :  Memoires 
sur  une  nouvelle  action  de  la  lumiere  (1857- 
'8) ;  Memoire  sur  la  tJiermograpJiie  (1859) ; 
and  Note  sur  Faction  de  la  lumiere  et  de 
Velectricite  (1860). 

NIESHIX,  a  town  of  Russia,  in  the  govern- 
ment and  35  m.  S.  E.  of  the  city  of  Tcherni- 
gov,  on  the  Ostr;  pop.  in  1872,  20,516,  inclu- 
ding many  Greeks.  It  contains  a  cathedral, 
21  other  churches,  a  monastery,  a  lyceum,  a 
gymnasium,  and  several  schools.  The  princi- 
pal article  of  trade  is  tobacco,  which  is  raised 
in  large  quantities ;  and  there  is  much  activity 
in  other  branches  of  industry. 

NIEUWENTYT,  Bernardns,  a  Dutch  mathema- 
tician and  philosopher,  born  at  Westgraafdyk, 


NIEUWERKERKE 

North  Holland,  Aug.  10,  1654,  died  at  Purme- 
rend,  May  30, 1718.  He  studied  law,  medicine, 
logic,  philosophy,  and  mathematics,  and,  set- 
tling in  the  town  of  Purmerend,  became  fa- 
mous as  an  orator,  physician,  and  magistrate. 
His  mathematical  works  enjoyed  an  epheme- 
ral popularity  in  consequence  of  their  attacks 
on  the  infinitesimal  calculus.  His  most  impor- 
tant production  is  his  treatise  on  "  The  Eight 
Use  of  contemplating  the  Works  of  the  Crea- 
tor "  (Amsterdam,  1715),  from  which  Paley  is 
supposed  to  have  borrowed  the  substance  of 
his  essay  on  "Natural  Theology."  It  was 
translated  into  English  by  John  Ohamberlayne, 
under  the  title  of  u  The  Religious  Philosopher" 
(3  vols.  8vo,  London,  171 8-' 19). 

NIEUWERKERKE,  Alfred  Emilien  de,  count,  a 
French  sculptor,  born  in  Paris,  April  16,  1811. 
He  belongs  to  a  noble  family  of  Dutch  origin, 
and  studied  the  fine  arts  in  the  great  collections 
of  European  artists.  His  equestrian  statue  of 
William  the  Silent,  exhibited  in  1843,  was  pur- 
chased by  the  king  of  Holland,  and  is  in  the 
Hague  ;  as  is  his  subsequent  and  superior  statue 
of  Descartes,  of  which  he  executed  a  duplicate 
for  the  city  of  Tours.  Among  his  later  works 
is  an  equestrian  statue  of  Napoleon  I.  In  1853 
he  became  a  member  of  the  institute,  and  Na- 
poleon III.  created  for  him  the  office  of  super- 
intendent of  fine  arts,  which  he  retained  till 
Jan.  2,  1870,  when  a  ministry  was  created  for 
that  department.  He  however  remained  in 
charge  of  the  museums  till  the  establishment 
of  the  republic,  Sept.  4,  1870.  He  has  shown 
much  zeal  in  promoting  art ;  but  his  success  is 
in  a  measure  due  to  his  great  fortune,  rank, 
and  high  connections. 

NIEVRE,  a  central  department  of  France, 
comprising  the  old  province  of  Nivernais,  bor- 
dering on  the  departments  of  Yonne,  Cote 
d'Or,  Saone-et-Loire,  Allier,  Cher,  and  Loiret ; 
area,  2,632  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1872,  339,917.  It 
is  intersected  from  S.  E.  to  N.  W.  by  the 
mountains  of  Morvan,  which  divide  the  basin 
of  the  Seine  from  that  of  the  Loire,  and  cul- 
minate in  Mont  Presnay,  3,000  ft.  above  the 
sea.  The  surface  N.  of  this  chain  is  an  alter- 
nation of  rugged  hills  and  deep  valleys ;  but  S. 
of  it  are  extensive  plains  sloping  gently  to  the 
Loire.  The  principal  rivers  are  the  Loire, 
Allier,  Yonne,  Abron,  and  Ni£vre.  The  climate 
is  mild  but  moist.  The  soil  is  not  in  general 
remarkably  fertile.  The  quantity  of  wine 
made  annually  averages  about  6,000,000  gal- 
lons. Mining,  especially  of  iron  and  coal,  is 
largely  carried  on.  Woollen  cloth,  linen,  and 
hardware  are  manufactured.  It  is  divided  into 
the  arrondissements  of  Chateau-Chinon,  Cla- 
mecy,  Cosne,  and  Nevers.  Capital,  Neveps. 

NIGER,  or  Qnorra,  a  river  of  western  Africa, 
which  falls  into  the  gulf  of  Guinea  by  several 
mouths,  between  the  bights  of  Benin  and  Bi- 
afra.  The  Niger  is  formed  by  two  principal 
rivers,  the  Benoowe  or  Tchadda  (see  BENOOWE) 
and  the  Joliba,  the  latter  of  which  is  the  more 
western,  and  is  regarded  as  the  main  stream. 


NIGER 


441 


It  rises,  according  to  Winwood  Reade,  in  lat. 
9°  25'  N.,  Ion.  10°  20'  W.,  at  an  elevation  of 
more  than  1,300  ft.  above  the  ocean,  on  the 
N.  slope  of  Mt.  Loma,  in  the  Koranko  coun- 
try, about  200  m.  from  the  coast  of  Sierra 
Leone.  Thence  it  flows  in  a  northeasterly 
direction,  pursuing  a  very  circuitous  course 
throughout  two  fifths  of  its  entire  length, 
toward  the  Sahara.  Near  Cabra,  the  port  of 
Timbuctoo,  it  turns  E.  and  afterward  S.  E., 
and  near  the  Kong  mountains,  in  lat.  7°  47' 
N.,  Ion.  7°  27'  E.,  is  joined  by  the  Benoowe, 
from  which  point  it  flows  S.  by  W.  and  finally 
S.  W.  till  it  falls  into  the  ocean  after  a  course 
of  about  2,500  m.  Down  to  a  point  about  40 
m.  distant  from  its  supposed  source,  which  has 
not  yet  been  visited  by  any  European,  the  river 
is  known  as  the  Teembo  or  Toombeenko ;  but 
below  Farabana,  in  the  Sangara  country,  it 
assumes  the  name  Joliba,  signifying  great  river, 
which  is  changed  into  Quorra  in  that  part  of 
its  course  below  Timbuctoo.  The  upper  portion 
of  the  Niger  has  not  been  thoroughly  explored. 
At  Farabana,  the  limit  of  exploration  up  to 
the  present  time,  reached  by  Winwood  Reade 
in  1869,  the  current  of  the  river  is  swift,  and 
about  100  yards  wide.  A  hundred  miles  fur- 
ther down,  at  Babbila,  where  the  French 
traveller  Caillie"  crossed  in  1827,  the  breadth 
of  the  river  is  described  by  the  English  ex- 
plorer as  equal  to  that  of  the  Thames  at  Lon- 
don. Here  it  is  joined  by  the  river  Yanda  from 
the  south.  From  this  point  Winwood  Reade 
navigated  the  main  stream  down  to  Nora,  a 
large  town  near  lat.  11°  N.  There  is  but  lit- 
tle navigation  on  this  portion  of  the  river, 
owing  to  the  absence  of  large  trees  along  its 
banks.  Between  Nora  and  Bammakoo  the 
course  of  the  Niger  has  not  been  traced,  but 
from  the  latter  place,  in  lat.  13°  N.,  down  to 
Timbuctoo,  it  is  tolerably  well  known.  The 
river  is  described  as  a  broad  and  majestic 
stream  flowing  slowly  eastward  between  low 
banks,  and  through  a  populous,  fertile,  and 
well  cultivated  country.  In  some  parts  it  is 
studded  with  small  green  islands,  many  of 
which  are  inhabited.  The  banks  are  fre- 
quently flooded  during  the  rainy  season.  On 
this  portion  of  the  river  trade  is  carried  on 
in  boats  of  over  60  tons  burden,  worked  with- 
out sails  by  large  crews  of  natives.  Not  far 
from  lat.  16°  N.  the  Niger  flows  through  Lake 
Debo,  a  distance  of  about  10  m.  The  extent 
of  this  lake  westward  from  the  river  is  be- 
lieved to  be  much  greater.  Above  Timbuctoo 
the  river  separates  into  two  branches,  which 
unite  a  little  further  down.  Cabra,  the  port 
of  Timbuctoo,  is  situated  on  the  N.  branch. 
In  this  vicinity,  according  to  Dr.  Barth,  the 
river  overflows  the  surrounding  country,  and 
consequently  the  climate  in  the  neighborhood 
of  that  city,  during  the  season  of  the  inun- 
dation, is  very  unhealthy.  The  middle  por- 
tion of  the  Niger  extends  from  Timbuctoo  in 
a  southeasterly  direction  to  Yauri,  described 
by  Richard  Lander  as  the  largest  city  in  cen- 


442 


NIGER 


NIGHT  HAWK 


tral  Africa,  its  walls  enclosing  a  circumference 
of  more  than  20  m.  In  this  part  of  its  course, 
which  must  be  nearly  1,000  m.,  its  principal 
tributary  is  the  Sackatoo  or  Rima  river,  which 
joins  the  main  stream  from  the  east  near  lat. 
12°  N.  The  town  of  Sackatoo  is  situated  on 
this  affluent.  Amid  the  plains  of  Soodan  the 
width  of  the  Niger  varies  from  1  to  8  m.,  and 
the  rate  of  its  current  from  5  to  8  m.  an  hour. 
Below  Yauri  it  is  2  m.  wide,  and  at  Boossa, 
four  days'  journey  further  down,  it  is  divided 
into  three  channels  and  obstructed  by  rapids. 
Thence  to  lat.  7°  N.  the  Niger  runs  through  a 
low  valley  in  a  mountainous  country,  and  the 
banks  are  annually  inundated,  very  fertile,  and 
well  peopled.  The  mountains  in  many  places 
approach  both  sides  of  the  river,  and  the  val- 
ley is  nowhere  very  wide  or  thickly  inhab- 
ited. At  a  distance  of  about  250  m.  from  the 
sea  the  Niger  receives  the  waters  of  the  Be- 
noowe  or  Tchadda,  its  greatest  affluent,  with  a 
volume  quite  equal  to  its  own  above  the  junc- 
tion. Near  lat.  6°  N.  the  united  stream  leaves 
the  mountain  region  and  enters  an  alluvial 
plain  of  forest,  swamp,  and  jungle,  where  it 
divides  into  three  large  branches,  the  main  out- 
let being  the  Nun,  which  flows  into  the  gulf 
of  Guinea  near  Cape  Formosa.  Another  arm 
of  the  delta,  extending  at  right  angles  with 
this,  is  the  Benin  river ;  and  the  entire  region 
between  them  and  the  sea  is  intersected  by  nu- 
merous small  rivers,  creeks,  and  lagoons.  The 
Old  Calabar  river  is  the  principal  eastern  branch 
of  the  delta.  The  oil-producing  palm  is  an  im- 
portant product  of  this  region.  The  area  of  the 
delta  is  estimated  at  32,000  sq.  m.,  and  it  is  sub- 
ject to  an  annual  inundation,  attaining  its  max- 
imum height  in  August.  It  is  one  of  the  most 
unhealthy  and  pestilential  tracts  in  the  world. 
— The  identity  of  the  modern  Niger  with  the 
Niger  of  Ptolemy  and  Strabo  is  now  generally 
admitted.  Ptolemy  describes  its  upper  course 
with  an  approach  to  accuracy,  but  he  believed 
that  its  waters  were  lost  in  the  sands  before 
reaching  the  sea.  Pliny  regarded  it  as  an 
affluent  of  the  Nile,  while  Leo  Africanus  be- 
lieved that  it  rose  near  the  sources  of  the  Nile 
and  flowed  westward.  When  the  Portuguese 
explored  the  W.  coast  of  Africa  they  discover- 
ed the  rivers  Senegal,  Gambia,  and  Grande, 
each  of  which  in  succession  they  supposed  to 
be  the  Niger,  and  explored  to  its  source  in  the 
hope  of  reaching  Timbuctoo.  Even  after  the 
real  direction  of  the  Niger  began  to  be  suspect- 
ed, it  was  supposed  for  some  time  to  be  identi- 
cal with  the  Congo  river,  and  Mungo  Park 
explored  it  with  this  idea.  He  was  the  first 
European  traveller  who  reached  the  banks  of 
the  Niger  in  the  upper  part  of  its  course.  In 
his  first  journey  (1796)  he  traced  it  for  about 
160  m.  from  Bammakoo  down  to  Silla.  In  his 
second  journey  (1805)  he  embarked  upon  its 
waters  at  Sego,  between  Bammakoo  and  Silla, 
and  descended  the  stream  to  Boossa,  where  he 
was  killed.  The  loss  of  many  of  his  papers 
deprived  the  world  of  the  information  which 


he  had  gathered,  but  the  deficiency  was  subse- 
quently partly  supplied  by  Caillie,  who  sailed 
down  the  river  from  Jenne  to  Timbuctoo  in 
1828.  In  1830  Richard  and  John  Lander  navi- 
gated the  Niger  from  Yauri  to  the  sea,  and 
proved  that  it  was  not  the  Congo.  The  lower 
portion  of  the  river  was  subsequently  explored 
by  English  expeditions  in  1832,  1834,  and 
1841.  The  last  was  a  government  expedition 
sent  out  for  the  suppression  of  the  slave  trade ; 
an  attempt  was  made  to  establish  a  model  farm 
on  the  W.  bank,  opposite  the  mouth  of  the  Be- 
noowe,  but  the  effects  of  the  climate  were  so 
fatal  to  the  Europeans  that  after  a  short  trial 
the  undertaking  was  abandoned.  In  1853 
Timbuctoo  was  visited  by  the  German  trav- 
eller Barth,  who  in  1854  explored  the  valley 
of  the  river  southward  to  the  town  of  Say, 
in  lat.  13°  8'  S.,  ion.  2°  5'  E.  In  1869  Win- 
wood  Reade  succeeded  in  reaching  the  head 
waters  of  the  Niger,  not  far  from  the  source 
of  the  river,  by  a  journey  inland  from  Free- 
town, the  capital  of  Sierra  Leone. 

NIGHT  HAWK,  a  North  American  goatsuck- 
er of  the  subfamily  caprimulginw  and  genus 
cJiordeiles  (Swains.).  In  the  G.  Virginianus 
(Swains.)  the  length  is  9£  in.,  and  the  extent 
of  wings  about  23£;  the  bill  is  very  small 


Night  Hawk  (Chordeiles  Virginianus). 

and  curved,  with  a  wide  gape  furnished  with 
a  few  very  short  hairs,  and  the  tip  hooked ; 
the  wings  very  long  and  pointed,  the  second 
quill  the  longest;  the  tail  long,  broad,  and 
forked;  tarsi  short  and  partly  feathered,  and 
toes  feeble ;  the  head  large  and  flat,  the  eyes 
and  ears  large,  neck  short,  and  body  slender ; 
the  plumage  is  soft  and  blended.  The  male  is 
greenish  black  above,  slightly  mottled  on  the 
head  and  back ;  wing  coverts  varied  with  gray- 
ish, and  the  scapulars  with  yellowish  rufous ; 
a  white  V-shaped  mark  on  the  throat,  and  ter- 
minal patch  on  the  tail ;  a  collar  of  pale  rufous 
blotches,  and  grayish  mottled  on  the  breast; 
under  parts  transversely  banded  with  rufous 


NIGHT  HEKON 

white  and  brown;  quills  brown;  five  outer 
primaries  with  a  white  blotch  midway  between 
the  tip  and  carpal  joint ;  the  female  has  not  the 
white  patch  on  the  tail,  and  that  on  the  throat 
is  mixed  with  reddish.  The  common  name  of 
this  bird  is  ill  chosen,  as  it  is  not  a  hawk,  nor 
does  it  fly  by  night ;  in  cloudy  weather  it  flies 
all  day,  and  its  favorite  time  is  from  an  hour 
before  sunset  to  dark.  It  is  distributed  over 
North  America,  appearing  in  Louisiana  on  the 
way  to  the  north  and  east  about  April  1,  in 
the  middle  states  about  May  1,  in  Maine  about 
June,  going  even  into  New  Brunswick  and 
Nova  Scotia,  and  returning  to  the  south  in 
autumn.  The  flight  is  rapid,  light,  and  capable 
of  long  continuance.  From  the  small  size  and 
backward  position  of  the  legs,  it  can  hardly 
walk,  or  stand  erect.  It  breeds  from  South 
Carolina  to  Maine ;  in  the  middle  states  it 
deposits  two  freckled  eggs  about  May  20, 
on  the  bare  ground,  without  any  nest;  both 
sexes  assist  in  incubation,  and  the  female 
adopts  various  devices  to  distract  attention 
from  her  eggs  or  young.  The  food  consists  of 
insects,  especially  beetles,  moths,  caterpillars, 
crickets,  and  grasshoppers ;  it  drinks  while 
flying  low  over  the  water,  in  the  manner  of 
swallows.  The  flesh  is  esteemed  as  food  when 
they  return  from  the  north  in  autumn,  as  it  is 
then  fat  and  juicy.  It  is  the  C.  popetue  of 
Baird.  Other  species  are  described. 

^  NIGHT  HERON,  the  common  name  of  the  di- 
vision nycticoracece  of  the  family  ardeidce  or 
herons.  The  common  night  heron  of  America 
is  the  nycticorax  ncevius  (Bodd.),  or  nyctiardea 
Oardeni  (Baird) ;  the  bill  is  3£  in.  long  above, 
very  stout,  curved  from  the  base,  with  emargi- 
nated  tip  and  compressed  grooved  sides ;  wings 
long,  the  second  and  third  quills  longest ;  tail 
short  and  even,  with  12  feathers ;  tarsi  strong, 
as  long  as  the  middle  toe,  covered  with  small 
scales;  toes  long  and  slender,  united  at  the 


NIGHTINGALE 


443 


Night  Heron  (Nyctiardea  Gardeni). 

base  by  a  membrane,  the  outer  the  longest,  and 
the  hind  one  even  with  the  others;  claws 
moderate,  slightly  curved,  and  acute ;  the  neck 


short,  with  a  long  occipital  plume  of  three 
feathers,  rolled  together;  body  slender  and 
compressed;  lower  fifth  of  tibise  bare.  The 
bill  is  black,  the  iris  red,  and  the  feet  yellow  ; 
the  head  above  and  the  middle  of  back  steel 
green;  wings  and  tail  ashy  blue;  forehead, 
under  parts,  and  occipital  feathers  white,  pass- 
ing into  pale  lilac  on  the  sides  and  neck ;  the 
length  is  25£  in.,  the  extent  of  wings  about  43, 
and  the  weight  nearly  2  Ibs. ;  the  adult  female 
resembles  the  male,  but  the  young  are  grayish 
brown  above.  It  is  distributed  generally  over 
the  United  States,  residing  permanently  in  the 
southern  portion;  in  the  eastern  states  it  is 
called  the  "qua"  bird  from  the  noise  which  it 
makes.  Going  north  in  the  spring,  some  get 
as  far  as  Maine  :  at  Hingham,  Mass.,  and  in  the 
woods  near  Fresh  pond,  Cambridge,  there  used 
to  be  famous  heronries,  to  which  the  birds  re- 
turned year  after  year,  until  the  persecutions 
of  those  in  search  of  their  young  drove  them 
away  entirely,  or  into  more  inaccessible  places. 
The  nests  are  made  of  coarse  sticks  on  bushes 
or  trees,  often  overhanging  the  water,  and  are 
revisited  and  repaired  annually  ;  they  congre- 
gate in  large  numbers  in  the  breeding  season, 
during  which  they  lose  their  natural  shyness ; 
the  eggs  are  usually  four,  2  by  1-^  in.,  of  a  plain 
light  sea-green  color  and  thin-shelled.  By  day 
they  are  harassed  by  crows,  hawks,  and  vul- 
tures, and  at  night  by  raccoons  and  other 
animals.  The  young  birds  are  as  tender  and 
juicy  as  pigeons.  They  return  to  the  south  in 
autumn.  The  night  heron  generally  remains 
on  the  low  swampy  lands  near  the  coast,  where 
it  feeds  upon  fish,  reptiles,  crustaceans,  water 
insects,  leeches,  and  even  mice  and  such  other 
small  animals  as  fall  in  its  way.  The  flight  is 
slow,  steady,  and  long  continued,  with  the  head 
drawn  in  and  the  legs  extended  ;  on  the  ground 
it  is  very  restless,  and  without  the  grace  of  the 
true  herons. — The  European  night  heron  (N. 
griseus,  Strickl.)  is  similar,  but  smaller,  and  the 
young  have  not  the  white  spot  at  the  apex  of 
the  quills  seen  in  the  American  bird.  Several 
other  species  occur  in  other  parts  of  the  world. 
NIGHTINGALE  (luscinia  philomela,  Bonap. ; 
the  pMlomela  of  the  ancients  and  rossignol 
of  the  French),  one  of  the  finest  of  European 
singing  birds,  whose  melody  has  been  cele- 
brated from  time  immemorial.  The  genus  be- 
longs to  the  subfamily  of  warblers,  from  which 
it  differs  principally  in  its  more  slender  shape 
and  longer  bill,  tarsi,  and  tail ;  it  comes  near 
many  of  the  smaller  thrushes  both  in  form  and 
color,  and  in  the  character  of  the  song.  In 
this  genus  the  bill  is  short  and  straight,  with 
the  culmen  slightly  curved,  sides  compressed, 
and  tip  emarginated ;  the  gape  without  bris- 
tles ;  the  wings  moderate,  with  the  first  quill 
one  third  the  length  of  the  second,  and  the 
third  the  longest ;  the  tail  moderate,  rounded 
at  the  sides ;  tarsi  long  and  strong,  covered  in 
front  with  an  entire  scale ;  toes  very  long  and 
slender,  the  outer  longer  than  the  inner  and 
united  at  the  base ;  hind  toe  long,  with  a  curved 


444 


NIGHTINGALE 


NIGHTMARE 


claw.  The  length  is  6|  in.,  the  extent  of  wings 
10£,  and  the  bill  about  £  in.  The  nightingale 
is  very  plainly  colored;  the  upper  parts  are 
rich  brown,  with  a  reddish  tinge  on  the  back 
and  tail ;  below  grayish  brown,  with  the  throat 


Nightingale  (Luscinia  philomela). 

and  abdomen  whitish ;  the  female  is  like  the 
male  in  color,  and  is  nearly  of  the  same  size ; 
there  is  considerable  variation  in  the  reddish 
and  grayish  tints,  and  in  the  occurrence  of 
white  feathers.  They  begin  to  appear  in  the 
middle  of  France  about  the  first  week  in  April, 
and  in  England  a  week  or  ten  days  later ;  the 
males  arrive  a  few  days  before  the  females, 
travelling  singly  and  at  night ;  they  get  mated 
in  about  a  week,  and  commence  their  nests  on 
the  ground  in  thickets ;  these  are  rudely  made 
of  leaves  and  grasses,  and  the  four  or  five  eggs, 
£  by  TVin.,  are  of  a  pale  brownish  color,  some- 
times tinged  with  grayish  blue,  especially  at  the 
small  end ;  both  sexes  incubate.  It  is  a  migrato- 
ry bird,  passing  the  winter  in  northern  Africa, 
but  in  the  summer  found  over  the  greater  part 
of  Europe,  even  to  Sweden  and  temperate  Rus- 
sia ;  it  is  said  not  to  be  found  in  Great  Britain 
north  of  the  Tweed.  They  begin  to  sing  when 
mated,  and  continue  in  full  song  till  the  young 
are  hatched ;  the  notes  are  most  rich  at  the  be- 
ginning of  summer,  and  toward  the  end  the 
song  becomes  a  single  low  croaking  note.  They 
are  very  shy,  remaining  concealed  as  much 
as  possible  among  the  foliage ;  they  frequent 
woods,  hedges,  and  thickets,  feeding  on  insects 
and  larvae,  soft  berries,  and  fruits ;  the  flight  is 
short,  even,  and  swift,  but  not  so  rapid  as  that 
of  the  true  warblers  and  flycatchers  which 
seize  insects  on  the  wing.  Though  the  song 
is  heard  at  intervals  during  the  day,  it  excites 
the  greatest  admiration  on  quiet  evenings  an 
hour  or  two  after  sunset ;  when  the  moon  is 
nearly  full  and  the  weather  is  serene  and  still, 
it  may  be  heard  till  midnight,  and  is  then  ex- 
ceedingly pleasing.  Virgil  and  other  classical 
poets,  from  the  melancholy  character  of  part 
of  its  song,  call  it  miserabile  carmen.  Its  natu- 
ral song  is  certainly  very  sweet,  but  not  more 


so,  in  the  opinion  of  Audubon,  than  that  of 
the  black-capped  warbler,  and  but  little  if  at 
all  superior  to  that  of  the  woodlark  ;  the  song 
of  the  skylark  is  far  more  spirited,  more 
prolonged,  and  of  much  greater  compass, 
though  less  sweet ;  the  notes  of  the  American 
mocking  bird  are  very  much  sweeter,  more 
varied,  of  greater  compass,  power,  and  dura- 
tion; and  many  birds  which  naturally  have  no 
song,  like  the  bullfinch,  can  be  taught  to  sing 
in  perfect  time  and  tune,  which  the  nightingale 
cannot.  But,  take  it  as  a  whole,  it  is  superior 
at  least  to  that  of  all  British  songsters.  The 
compass  of  its  song  is  only  11  or  12  notes. 
(See  Macgillivray's  "  British  Birds,"  vol.  ii.,  p. 
331,  London,  1839.)  The  males  only  sing,  and, 
like  other  migratory  birds,  never  during  the 
winter  in  cages,  and  not  till  after  the  spring 
moult.  They  are  short-lived  in  captivity  from 
being  kept  too  warm  and  from  improper  food ; 
this  should  be  chiefly  insects,  or  small  bits  of 
meat  and  fruits. 

JHGHTLVGALE,  Florence,  an  English  philan- 
thropist, born  in  Florence,  Italy,  in  May,  1820. 
She  is  the  younger  daughter  of  William  Edward 
Shore,  a  Sheffield  banker,  who  inherited  the 
estates  of  Peter  Nightingale,  and  in  accordance 
with  the  will  assumed  that  surname.  Florence 
early  became  proficient  in  the  classics,  mathe- 
matics, modern  languages,  and  music ;  but  her 
favorite  study  was  the  methods  of  caring  for 
the  sick,  and  while  a  girl  she  visited  numerous 
hospitals.  In  1849  she  underwent  a  course  of 
training  in  Pastor  Fliedner's  school  of  deacon- 
esses at  Kaisers werth.  In  1851  she  took  charge 
of  a  sanatorium  for  infirm  and  invalid  gov- 
ernesses in  London,  and  soon  brought  it  to  a 
high  state  of  efficiency.  In  1854  she  went  to 
the  army  in  the  Crimea  as  superintendent  of  a 
corps  of  volunteer  female  nurses,  92  in  num- 
ber, and  organized  a  hospital  at  Scutari  on 
Nov.  5.  On  the  7th  they  received  600  soldiers 
wounded  at  Inkerman,  and  in  three  weeks 
the  number  was  increased  to  3,000.  In  the 
face  of  great  discouragements  Miss  Nightingale 
soon  made  her  hospital  a  model  for  thorough- 
ness and  perfection  of  arrangements,  and  all 
the  other  hospitals  on  the  Bosporus  were  placed 
under  her  superintendence.  She  suffered  a 
severe  attack  of  hospital  fever,  and  returned 
to  England  in  September,  1856,  with  broken 
health,  which  has  never  been  fully  restored. 
The  queen  sent  her  a  jewel  and  a  letter  of 
thanks,  a  fund  of  £50,000  was  raised  to  found 
a  school  for  nurses  under  her  direction,  and 
the  soldiers  of  the  Crimean  war  made  a  penny 
contribution  to  raise  a  statue  in  her  honor, 
which  she  would  not  permit.  She  has  pub- 
lished "  The  Institution  at  Kaiserswerth  on  the 
Rhine"  (1850),  "Notes  on  Hospitals"  (1859), 
"Notes  on  Nursing"  (1850),  "Observations 
on  the  Sanitary  State  of  the  Army  in  India" 
(1863),  "  Notes  on  Lying-in  Institutions " 
(1871),  and  "  Life  and  Death  in  India  "  (1874). 

NIGHTMARti,  or  Incnbns,  an  affection  coming 
on  during  sleep,  in  which  there  is  a  sense  of 


NIGHTSHADE 


NIKKO 


445 


great  pressure  upon  the  chest  accompanied  by 
inability  to  move.  It  is  well  known  that  un- 
easy or  painful  sensations  occurring  during 
sleep,  when  insufficient  to  wake  the  patient 
directly,  are  apt  to  produce  disagreeable  or 
frightful  dreams.  Thus  persons  laboring  under 
a  variety  of  chronic  affections,  particularly 
heart  disease,  upon  falling  asleep  suffer  from 
dreadful  illusions ;  they  are  attacked  by  wild 
beasts  or  armed  men,  they  are  falling  down 
precipices,  &c.  The  same  phenomenon  often 
occurs  during  fever  or  after  mental  excitement 
attended  with  anxiety.  The  more  common 
form  of  nightmare  usually  comes  on  during 
the  first  sleep,  and  is  caused  by  a  constrained 
position  or  by  a  distended  stomach,  which 
act  by  somewhat  impeding  respiration.  The 
feeling  of  oppression  thus  caused  gives  rise  to 
the  nightmare,  and  is  dispelled  at  once  when 
the  patient  awakes,  and,  bringing  the  volun- 
tary muscles  into  play,  draws  a  full  breath. 

NIGHTSHADE  (Ang.  Sax.  niht-scada),  a  name 
applied  to  several  plants,  but  especially  to 
solarium,  nigrum,  the  common  or  black  night- 
shade. This  is  a  much-branched,  spreading 


Common  Nightshade  (Solanum  nigrum). 

annual  herb,  1  to  2  ft.  high,  with  angled  stems, 
and  stalked,  ovate  leaves,  which  have  coarse 
angular  teeth ;  the  small  white  flowers  are  in 
lateral  and  umbel-like  clusters,  and  succeeded 
by  globular  berries,  green  at  first,  but  black 
when  ripe ;  it  blooms  from  July  to  September, 
and  may  usually  be  found  with  flowers  and 
ripe  fruit  upon  the  same  plant.  This  homely 
introduced  weed  is  quite  common  in  fields  in 
the  older  parts  of  the  country,  and  often  met 
with  in  the  shady  places  around  dwellings 
and  in  waste  grounds  near  villages.  It  is  so 
readily  exterminated  that  it  can  hardly  rank 
as  a  troublesome  weed.  The  plant  has  a  bad 
reputation,  though  the  evidence  as  to  its  poi- 
sonous qualities  is  very  conflicting ;  it  is  stated 
that  children  have  died  soon  after  eating  the 
berries  with  all  the  symptoms  of  narcotic  poi- 


soning, while  on  the  other  hand  the  berries  are 
said  to  be  used  in  some  countries  as  food.  It 
is  possible  that  this  difference  may  be  due  to  soil 
and  climate,  as  the  plant  varies  so  much  in  the 
color, of  its  berries  and  other  characters  that 
it  has  been  described  under  some  40  different 
names.  The  dried  foliage  seems  to  act  upon 
the  secretions,  and  in  doses  of  one  or  two 
grains  has  been  used  for  diseases  of  the  skin. 
— The  alkaloid  solania  or  solanine  was  first 
discovered  in  this  plant,  but  was  afterward 
found  in  the  foliage  of  other  species  of  sola- 
tium, including  the  potato  (S.  tuberosum).  A 
grain  of  this  alkaloid  killed  a  rabbit  in  six 
hours.  The  plant  is  of  a  sufficiently  suspicious 
character  to  make  its  extermination  desirable. — 
Deadly  nightshade  is  atropa  belladonna.  (See 
BELLADONNA.)  Climbing  or  woody  nightshade, 
or  bittersweet,  is  solanum  dulcamara.  (See 
SOLANUM.)  Enchanter's  nightshade  is  Circ&a 
Lutetiana,  which,  though  bearing  the  name  of 
Circe,  and  formerly  used  in  the  mysteries  of 
witchcraft,  is  a  very  innocent  plant  of  the 
evening  primrose  family.  Three-leaved  night- 
shade is  one  of  the  common  names  for  species 
of  the  genus  trillium.  (See  TRILLIUM.) 

NIGRITIA.     See  SOODAN. 

NI1GATA,  a  seaport  on  the  W.  coast  of  the 
main  island  of  Japan,  in  the  province  of 
Echigo,  on  the  S.  bank  of  the  Shinano  river, 
opposite  Sado  island,  capital  of  the  Jcen  or  pre- 
fecture of  the  same  name ;  pop.  about  60,000.  It 
is  the  place  of  greatest  mercantile  importance 
on  the  W.  coast  of  the  main  island,  but  the 
existence  of  a  long  and  dangerous  bar  at  the 
mouth  of  the  river  renders  it  nearly  useless 
for  any  but  junks  and  vessels  of  light  draught. 
Inside,  the  water  is  15  or  20  ft.  deep.  The 
city  is  neatly  laid  out ;  the  streets  are  levelled, 
paved  with  gravel,  well  drained,  cleaned,  and 
lighted  with  the  coal  oil  obtained  in  the  neigh- 
borhood. The  river  islands  are  connected  With 
the  city  by  bridges.  It  has  a  flourishing  in- 
land trade,  the  excellent  roads  and  waterways 
approaching  the  city  reaching  into  the  silk 
districts  of  Aidzu,  and  the  coal  and  petroleum 
deposits  of  Echigo.  A  rich  overland  trade  is 
carried  on  with  Sendai  on  the  E.  coast.  Junks 
and  steamers  ply  in  the  rivers,  distributing  the 
exports  of  rice,  coal,  coal  oil,  fish,  and  silk, 
and  the  imports  of  sugar,  wax,  &c.  It  con- 
tains a  government  hospital,  national  and  pri- 
vate banks,  and  a  school  of  foreign  languages. 
Niigata  was  founded  in  the  17th  century,  and 
was  under  the  direct  government  of  the  sho- 
gun.  It  was  opened  to  foreign  commerce  by 
the  treaties  of  1858,  but  owing  to  the  bar  it 
cannot  be  used  for  that  purpose. 

NIJNI  NOVGOROD.     See  NIZHNI  NOVGOROD. 

NIKKO  (u  Sunny  Splendor  "),  the  name  of  a 
range  of  mountains  in  the  province  of  Shi- 
motsuke,  on  the  main  island  of  Japan,  about 
100  m.  N.  of  Tokio,  famous  for  its  scenery, 
and  for  being  the  burial  place  of  the  great- 
est personage  in  Japanese  history,  Tokugawa 
lyeyasu,  the  warrior,  lawgiver,  and  founder  of 


446 


NIKOLAYEV 


NILE 


the  last  and  greatest  dynasty  of  shoguns,  which 
held  the  military  power  of  Japan  from  1603  to 
1867.  The  highest  mountain  of  the  range  is 
Nan-Taizan.  The  sanctity  of  Nikko  dates  from 
A.  D.  767,  and  from  the  most  ancient  times  it 
was  the  seat  of  one  of  the  many  Shinto  deities 
whom  the  early  Buddhists  transferred  to  their 
pantheon,  under  the  general  title  of  Gongen. 
It  contains  a  vast  number  of  temples,  shrines, 
pagodas,  monuments,  and  religious  edifices  of 
all  kinds,  and  has  long  heen  the  favorite  resort 
of  thousands  of  pilgrims.  The  village  of  Ha- 
chiishi  lies  at  the  entrance  to  the  holy  places. 
At  the  decease  of  lyeyasu  two  nobles  were 
commissioned  to  select  a  suitable  burying  place 
for  his  body.  In  1617  the  shrine  and  many  of 
the  surrounding  edifices  were  completed,  the 
corpse  deposited,  the  Buddhist  high  mass  cele- 
brated, and  the  title  of  Dai  Gongen  conferred, 
whence  lyeyasu  is  often  called  Gongen  Sama. 
lyemitsu,  grandson  of  lyeyasu,  and  the  third 
prince  of  the  line,  is  also  buried  at  Nikko. 
From  an  early  date  the  chief  priest  of  Nikko 
was  a  prince  of  the  imperial  blood.  The  gifts 
of  vassal  daimios  and  of  pious  pilgrims  have 
so  beautified  and  sanctified  the  place  as  to 
make  it,  both  as  to  nature  and  art,  the  most 
attractive  in  all  Japan.  Seven  miles  from 
the  tombs  are  the  lake  of  Chiuzenji,  and  the 
famous  waterfall  of  Kiri-furi  (falling  mist), 
which  is  more  than  700  ft.  high. 

NIKOLAYEV,  or  Nieolaiey,  a  town  of  Eussia,  in 
the  government  and  36  m.  N.  W.  of  the  city 
of  Kherson,  near  the  confluence  of  the  rivers 
Bog  and  Ingul;  pop.  in  1867,  67,972.  It  occu- 
pies a  large  extent  of  ground,  and  is  fortified. 


Nikolayev. 

The  streets  are  of  enormous  width  ;  the  houses 
are  generally  of  one  story,  and  have  large  gar- 
dens attached  to  them;  and  there  is  a  fine 
boulevard  planted  with  trees  along  the  Bog. 
The  principal  public  edifices  are  the  cathedral, 
town  hall,  observatory,  admiralty,  navy  bar- 
racks, naval  hospital,  and  hydrographical 


seminary.  The  dockyards  are  very  extensive. 
The  town  was  founded  in  1790,  and  for  a  time 
grew  very  rapidly,  but  its  commercial  prosperi- 
ty was  hindered  by  its  proximity  to  Kherson. 
After  the  fall  of  Sebastopol  it  was  made  one  of 
the  principal  stations  of  the  Russian  navy.  In 
1867  474  vessels,  of  58,255  tons,  cleared  from 
the  port,  with  cargoes  valued  at  $5,500,000. 

NIKOLSBURG,  a  town  of  Austria,  in  the  prov- 
ince of  Moravia,  45  m.  N.  by  E.  of  Vienna ;  pop. 
in  1869,  8,758.  It  has  a  gymnasium  conducted 
by  the  Piarists,  a  Jewish  school,  an  industrial 
school,  a  beautiful  Gothic  collegiate  church,  and 
two  synagogues.  In  the  centre  of  the  town, 
on  a  rock,  is  the  castle  of  Prince  Dietrichstein, 
with  a  library  of  more  than  20,000  volumes. 
Near  it  is  the  village  of  Voitelsbrunn,  with  a 
sulphur  bath.  In  December,  1805,  negotia- 
tions were  conducted  here  which  led  to  the 
peace  of  Presburg.  On  July  26,  1866,  a  truce 
and  preliminary  peace  was  concluded  here  be- 
tween Austria  and  Prussia,  and  on  July  28  a 
truce  between  Prussia  and  Bavaria. 

NILE  (Gr.  NeUoc;   Lat.  Nilus ;  Arab.  En- 
NiT),  the  principal  river  of  Africa,  and  one 
of  the  largest  and  most  famous  rivers  of  the 
world.     The  name  is  of  Semitic  origin,  and  is 
applied  to  rivers  that  periodically  overflow  and 
irrigate  their  banks.     Near  the  city  of  Khar- 
toom,  in  the  Egyptian  province  of  Soudan  or 
Sennaar,  in  lat.  15°  36'  N.,  Ion.  32°  38'  E.,  two 
great  rivers  unite,  the  larger  of  which  comes 
from  the  southwest,  and  is  called  in  Arabic 
Bahr  el-Abiad  or  White  river,  and  in  English 
is  commonly  known  as  the  White  Nile.     This 
appellation  is  derived  from  the  color  given  to 
its  waters  by  the  clay  with 
which  they  are  saturated. 
The  other  river  flows  from 
the  southeast,  and  is  called 
in  Arabic  Bahr  el-Azrek, 
Blue  river,  and  in  English 
is  commonly  termed  the 
Blue  Nile.    It  is  the  Asta- 
pus  of  ancient  geography, 
and  was  long  regarded  as 
the  true  Nile.     It  is  form- 
ed by  the  junction  of  the 
Abai  and  Dedhesa  rivers, 
about  lat.  10°  30' N. ;  and 
the    question    which    of 
these  is  the  main  stream 
of   the    Blue    Nile,    and 
which  the  tributary,  has 
been  a  subject  of  contro- 
versy among  geographers. 
The  weight  of  opinion  is 
in  favor  of  regarding  the 
Dedhesa  as  the  principal 
river,  which  if  this  view  is  correct  rises  in 
the  Galla  country  S.  of  Abyssinia.     On  the 
other  hand,  the  sources  of  the  Abai  were  vis- 
ited, as  being  those  of  the  Nile,  in  the  16th 
century  by  the  Portuguese  missionary  Paez, 
and  in  1770  by  the  celebrated  Scottish  travel- 
ler James  Bruce,  who  traced  them  to  a  point 


NILE 


447 


S.  of  the  Tzana  or  Dembea  lake  in  Abys- 
sinia, in  lat.  10°  58'  N.,  Ion.  36°  50'  E.,  at 
an  altitude  of  6,000  ft.  above  the  sea.  level. 
Thence  the  river  flows  about  80  m.  N.  W. 
into  the  lake  itself  on  its  W.  side,  through  it, 
and  out  again  on  its  S.  E.  side.  Its  current 
is  so  rapid  that  it  scarcely  mingles  its  waters 
with  those  of  the  lake.  Flowing  southward 
in  many  cataracts,  it  winds  around  the  moun- 
tainous region  of  Gojam  till  by  a  bend  '  to  the 
northwest  it  returns  to  within  about  70  m. 
of  its  source.  While  forming  this  remark- 
able curve,  which  makes  Gojam  a  peninsula, 
the  Abai  receives  numerous  streams  from  the 
mountains  of  that  peninsula.  The  total  length 
of  the  Blue  Nile,  measured  from  the  sources 
of  the  Abai,  is  supposed  to  be  about  800  m. 
The  river  is  navigable  as  far  as  the  district 
of  Fazogle,  between  the  llth  and  12th  paral- 
lels of  latitude,  about  1,500  m.  from  the  Medi- 
terranean.— The  superior  magnitude  of  the 
Bahr  el-Abiad  unquestionably  entitles  it  to  be 
considered  the  Nile  proper ;  and  a  correct  de- 
termination of  the  sources  of  this  river  has 
justly  been  regarded  as  the  greatest  geograph- 
ical problem  of  modern  times.  It  has  been  at 
least  approximately  solved  by  the  discovery  of 
two  great  lakes  lying  side  by  side  directly 
under  the  equator,  and  known  respectively  as 
the  Victoria  N'yanza  and  the  Albert  N'yanza. 
The  first  of  these  equatorial  fresh-water  basins 
was  discovered  on  July  30,  1858,  by  Capt.  J. 
H.  Speke  of  the  British  Indian  army,  who  in 
1862  explored  its  western  and  northern  margin, 
in  company  with  Capt.  (now  Col.)  J.  W.  Grant. 
According  to  his  observations,  it  is  3,308  ft. 
above  the  sea  level,  and  extends  from  lat.  2° 
24'  S.  to  0°  21'  N.,  a  distance  of  nearly  200  m., 
with  its  westernmost  shore  in  about  Ion.  31° 
30'  E.,  although  by  far  the  largest  portion  of 
the  lake  lies  E.  of  the  32d  meridian.  The  mea- 
surements taken  on  his  first  journey,  however, 
showed  an  elevation  of  3,740  ft.  above  the 
ocean.  From  these  observations  those  of  Ba- 
ker, who  visited  the  Victoria  Nile  in  1864,  dif- 
fer materially.  (See  N'YANZA.)  The  width  of 
the  lake  is  unknown.  Its  outlet,  the  Somerset 
river  or  Victoria  Nile,  supposed  by  Speke  to  be 
the  Bahr  el-Abiad  itself,  flows  northward  and 
westward  into  the  Albert  N'yanza,  in  lat.  2° 
16'  N.,  on  the  E.  shore  of  that  lake,  about  30 
m.  S.  of  its  N.  E.  extremity.  On  March  14, 
1864,  Mr.  (now  Sir)  Samuel  Baker  discovered 
this  second  great  lake,  the  Albert  N'yanza, 
whose  outlet  is  the  White  Nile  of  Egypt,  of 
which  the  lake  had  hitherto  been  supposed 
from  native  report  to  be  merely  an  extensive 
but  sluggish  backwater.  The  most  southerly 
point  which  he  visited  on  its  E.  shore  is  proba- 
bly not  more  than  100  m.  N.  W.  of  the  Victo- 
ria N'yanza.  The  Albert  N'yanza  is  2,720  ft. 
above  the  ocean,  according  to  Baker's  corrected 
observations.  The  width  of  the  northern  por- 
tion is  estimated  at  60  m. ;  it  narrows  to  17  m. 
near  the  exit  of  the  Nile,  which  is  not  far 
from  lat.  2°  45'  N.,  Ion.  31°  30'  E.  From  this 
606  VOL.  xii.— 29 


point  the  lake  extends  some  distance  N.  W., 
but  how  far  is  not  known.  The  only  knowl- 
edge of  its  prolongation  southward  which  we 
possess  is  derived  from  native  accounts,  which 
represent  it  as  extending  to  between  lat.  1° 
and  2°  S.,  where  it  is  said  to  bend  W.  Its 
shores  so  far  as  known  are  for  the  most  part 
rocky  and  mountainous.  The  existence  of 
these  lakes  confirms  to  some  extent  the  notions 
of  the  geographer  Claudius  Ptolemy,  who  in 
the  2d  century  of  our  era  stated  the  sources 
of  the"  Nile  to  be  in  two  lakes  lying  N.  of  a 
snowy  range  which  he  calls  the  mountains  of 
the  Moon,  and  which  he  describes  as  extending 
for  10°  of  longitude  along  the  parallel  of  lat. 
12°  30'  S.  From  the  snows  of  these  moun- 
tains were  principally  derived  the  waters  of 
the  two  lakes,  which  were  due  N.  of  the  moun- 
tains, the  western  lake  in  lat.  6°  and  the  east- 
ern in  7°  S.,  with  a  distance  between  them  of 
8°  of  longitude.  Owing  to  the  imperfection 
of  astronomical  science  in  his  day,  his  lati- 
tudes and  longitudes  are  incorrectly  given. 
Notwithstanding  'the  discovery,  however,  that 
from  the  Albert  N'yanza  comes  the  Nile  proper, 
and  that  the  Somerset  river,  flowing  from  the 
Victoria  N'yanza  into  this  more  northern  lake, 
must  be  regarded  as  at  least  an  important  trib- 
utary, if  not  the  upper  course  of  the  veritable 
Nile,  the  ultimate  sources  of  the  great  river 
still  remain  undetermined.  There  is  every  in- 
dication that  they  lie  S.  of  the  two  great  equa- 
torial lakes,  and  the  probability  that  a  channel 
exists  between  one  of  these  lakes  and  Lake 
Tanganyika  was  long  ago  suggested.  The  alti- 
tude of  Tanganyika  above  the  level  of  the  sea 
is  1,844  ft.  according  to  Burton  and  Speke, 
2,586  ft.  according  to  Livingstone,  and  2,711-2 
ft.  as  measured  by  Lieut.  L.  V.  Cameron 
of  the  British  navy,  in  1874.  The  largest  of 
these  results  is  not  equal  to  the  elevation  -of 
the  Albert  N'yanza,  itself  far  below  the  level 
of  the  Victoria  lake ;  so  that  if  we  assume 
as  correct  the  maximum  altitude  obtained  for 
Lake  Tanganyika,  it  is  still  impossible  that  its 
waters  should  flow  into  the  Albert  N'yanza, 
unless  Baker's  measurement  of  the  height 
of  that  lake  was  erroneous.  Under  the  be- 
lief, however,  that  an  outlet  existed,  forming 
such  a  communication,  Livingstone,  accompa- 
nied by  Mr.  H.  M.  Stanley,  explored  the  north- 
ern end  of  Tanganyika  in  1871.  Contrary 
to  previous  supposition,  the  Lusize"  or  Eusizi 
river,  at  this  extremity  of  the  lake,  proved  to 
be  an  affluent,  and  the  travellers  were  unable 
to  find  any  outflow  whatever  to  the  north  ;  ^the 
other  streams  of  the  region  also  flowed  into 
the  lake,  none  of  them  out  of  it.  The  weight 
of  opinion  among  European  geographers  is 
opposed  to  the  conclusion  reached  by  Living- 
stone, that  the  vast  lacustrine  river  system  W. 
of  the  Tanganyika  lake,  which  he  discovered 
during  his  final  sojourn  in  Africa,  is  connected 
with  the  basin  of  the  Nile.  The  Lualaba,  which 
appears  to  be  the  principal  stream  of  this  vast 
network,  rises  directly  S.  of  Lake  Tanganyika, 


448 


NILE 


under  the  name  of  the  Chambeze,  and  flows 
thence  S.  W.  into  Lake  Bangweolo  or  Bemba, 
which,  according  to  Livingstone's  unconnected 
map,  extends  150  m.  from  E.  to  W.  and  80  m. 
from  N.  to  S.,  at  a  height  of  3,688  ft.  above 
the  sea,  between  lat.  10°  55'  and  12°  S.,  and 
Ion.  28°  15'  and  30°  35'  E.  Emerging  from  the 
N.  W.  corner  of  this  lake,  with  a  width  of  four 
miles,  as  the  Luapula,  the  river  follows  a  cir- 
cuitous course,  the  general  direction  of  which 
is  exactly  N.,  until  it  falls  into  the  Moero  Oka- 
ta,  "  the  great  lake  Moero,"  which  is  bisected 
by  the  9th  parallel  of  S.  latitude,  and  lies  be- 
tween Ion.  28°  and  29°  E.  Livingstone  de- 
scribes this  lake  as  about  50  m.  long  from  N. 
to  S.,  with  a  width  ranging  from  12  to  40  m., 
and  its  altitude  is  marked  on  his  map  as  3,000 
ft.  From  its  northern  termination  issues  the 
Lualaba  under  that  name,  distinguished  by  him 
however  as  Webb's  Lualaba,  flowing  north- 
ward to  the  7th  degree  of  S.  latitude,  which  it 
follows  toward  the  west  from  the  28th  to  the 
26th  meridian,  through  Lake  Kamolondo,  a 
sheet  of  water  supposed  to  be  not  less  than 
150  m.  long.  After  leaving  this  lake  the  direc- 
tion of  the  river  is  again  northerly,  and  at  the 
lowest  point  in  its  course  yet  reached,  just  S. 
of  the  4th  degree  of  S.  latitude,  the  width  of 
the  stream  is  3,000  yards.  Beyond  this,  ac- 
cording to  native  information,  it  pours  into  a 
reedy  lake  which  stretches  nearly  up  to  the 
equator.  It  is  apparent  from  what  has  been 
stated  that  the  Lualaba  occupies  a  valley  trend- 
ing northward,  situated  W.  of  the  Tanganyika 
lake  and  generally  parallel  to  it.  Still  further 
W.  is  the  valley  of  the  Lufira,  a  river  which  is 
believed  to  fall  into  Lake  Kamolondo  on  its 
S.  W.  shore.  Beyond  this  lies  the  valley  of 
the  Loeki  or  Lomame,  another  great  river,  which 
traverses  a  lake  lying  W.  of  Kamolondo,  known 
to  the  natives  as  Ohebungo,  but  named  Lake 
Lincoln  by  Livingstone.  It  is  conjectured  that 
this  river,  which  he  called  Young's  Lualaba, 
joins  the  Lualaba  proper,  already  described,  at 
some  point  between  Kamolondo  and  the  equa- 
tor. The  elevated  plateau,  from  which  pro- 
ceeds this  entire  system  of  200,000  sq.  m.  of 
drainage,  is  described  by  Livingstone  as  extend- 
ing along  the  12th  degree  of  S.  latitude  about 
700  m.  E.  and  W.,  with  an  altitude  which  he 
estimates  at  6,000  ft.  A  doubt  whether  its 
waters  might  not  possibly  find  their  way  into 
the  Congo  instead  of  into  the  Nile  is  recorded 
in  his  last  journals,  under  the  date  of  June  24, 
1 872.  The  improbability  that  they  belong  to  the 
Nile  basin  has  been  strengthened  by  Schwein- 
furth's  discovery  in  1870  of  the  westward- 
flowing  river  Welle,  which  he  crossed  in  about 
lat.  3°  30'  N.,  S.  of  the  mountains  among  which 
rise  the  principal  known  tributaries  of  the 
Bahr  el-G-hazal,  the  great  western  arm  of  the 
Nile.  He  learned  that  the  source  of  the  Welle 
was  in  the  mountainous  country  W.  of  the 
Albert  lake.  The  course  of  this  river  tends  to 
confirm  the  view  that  the  watershed  of  the 
Lualaba  system  is  wholly  western,  and  cannot 


therefore  be  connected  with  the  Nile;  but 
further  explorations  are  necessary  to  a  satis- 
factory determination  of  the  question. — The 
White  Nile  emerges  from  the  Albert  N'yanza 
into  a  valley  of  green  reeds,  from  4  to  6  m. 
wide,  bordered  on  the  west  by  the  range  of 
mountains  which  bounds  the  W.  shore  of  the 
lake.  Unbroken  by  a  single  cataract,  it  flows 
with  a  scarcely  perceptible  current,  and  in 
some  places  several  miles  in  width,  northerly 
to  Afuddo,  2,116ft.  above  the  sea,  in  lat.  3°  32' 
N.,  where  there  is  a  fall  of  from  30  to  40  ft.  A 
few  miles  further  down  it  receives  from  the  east 
its  first  important  affluent,  the  Asua  river, 
with  a  channel  over  100  yards  wide  and  15  ft. 
deep  during  the  rains,  but  without  water  in  the 
dry  season.  The  country  on  the  west  continues 
mountainous  as  far  as  lat.  4°  N.,  where  the  Nile 
is  about  650  ft.  broad  and  from  5  to  8  ft.  deep. 
At  lat.  4°  37'  the  river  descends  a  series  of 
rapids  to  Gondokoro,  about  20  m.  below,  a 
small  ivory-trading  station  on  the  E.  bank, 
celebrated  as  a  starting  point  of  exploration. 
The  altitude  above  the  ocean  here  is  1,559  ft. 
The  Nile  now  leaves  the  hill  region  and  passes 
into  a  well  wooded  and  thickly  populated 
country,  the  level  of  which  is  only  about  4  ft. 
above  the  river.  Beyond  lat.  5°  the  river  makes 
a  great  bend  westward  through  nearly  three 
degrees  of  longitude,  returning  to  the  merid- 
ian of  Gondokoro  before  reaching  lat.  10°. 
After  passing  lat.  6°  the  character  of  the 
country  changes.  The  forests  disappear,  and 
the  shores  become  marshy  and  covered  with 
tall  grass.  The  course  of  the  river  is  exceed- 
ingly tortuous  and  its  current  sluggish,  not  ex- 
ceeding 3  m.  an  hour,  while  the  width  of  clear 
water  is  about  120  yards.  Two  small  tribu- 
taries from  the  west  join  the  Nile  in  this  part 
of  its  course,  but  are  full  only  in  the  wet 
season.  In  lat.  9°  16'  is  the  mouth  of  its  great- 
est western  affluent,  the  Bahr  el-Ghazal.  Here 
the  waters  expand  into  a  shallow  lacustrine 
formation  known  on  the  maps  as  Lake  No,  but 
more  properly  designated  Mogren  el-Bohoor, 
the  mouth  of  the  streams.  It  is  described  by 
Baker  as  having  the  appearance  of  a  lake  3 
m.  long  by  1  m.  wide,  varying  according  to 
the  seasons;  but  it  is  divided  into  a  perfect 
labyrinth  of  channels,  and  is  so  obstructed 
by  floating  vegetation  as  frequently  to  render 
navigation  utterly  impracticable.  The  navi- 
gable portion  of  the  Bahr  el-Ghazal,  or  Gazelle 
river,  properly  so  called,  does  not  extend  more 
than  140  rn.  from  the  Nile,  and  terminates  in 
an  island-studded  lake-like  basin  called  the 
Meshera  or  Kyt,  situated  in  about  lat.  8°  35' 
N.,  Ion.  29°  15'  E.  This  basin  presents  the  as- 
pect of  an  extensive  backwater.  The  eastward 
current  is  extremely  languid,  and  indeed  is  fre- 
quently only  perceptible  in  the  upper  course 
of  the  river,  the  depth  of  which  varies  from  8 
to  14  ft.  Sixteen  miles  below  the  Meshera  the 
Gazelle  receives  the  Bahr  el-Dyoor  from  the 
south,  and  still  further  down  its  volume  is 
increased  by  the  waters  of  the  Bahr  el- Arab, 


NILE 


449 


which  flows  almost  directly  from  the  west. 
This  tributary,  which  Schweinfurth  believes 
to  be  the  main  stream,  is  said  to  be  unfordable 
at  a  distance  of  300  m.  above  its  mouth,  while 
the  Dyoor  and  all  the  S.  W.  affluents  of  the 
Gazelle  are  known  to  be  much  smaller.  The 
drainage  area  of  the  Bahr  el-Ghazal  and  its 
tributaries  is  estimated  by  Schweinfurth  at 
150,000  sq.  m. ;  there  are  great  discrepancies, 
however,  between  the  views  of  different  ex- 
plorers of  the  Nile,  as  to  the  importance  of 
this  western  branch  and  the  actual  quantity 
of  water  which  it  supplies  to  the  main  stream. 
It  is  about  1,000  ft.  wide  at  the  mouth  of  the 
Bahr  el-Arab.  A  few  miles  N.  of  its  conflu- 
ence with  the  Gazelle,  the  Nile  receives  from 
the  south  the  Bahr  Giraffe,  a  river  about  70 
yards  wide  and  19  ft.  deep  in  the  dry  season, 
once  believed  to  be  an  independent  tributary 
stream,  but  now  known  to  be  an  eastern  offset 
of  the  Bahr  el-Abiad,  which  it  leaves  in  the 
Aliab  country  not  far  from  lat.  6°  N.,  and 
rejoins  at  this  point,  lat.  9°  25'.  Although 
densely  clogged  with  water  plants,  it  has  some- 
times afforded  a  navigable  route  up  the  Nile 
for  ivory  merchants,  when  that  by  the  main 
channel  has  been  impassable  by  reason  of  the 
grass  barrier.  The  junction  of  the  Sobat  is 
38  m.  below,  being  about  750  m.  from  Gon- 
dokoro.  Baker  regards  this  as  probably  the 
most  powerful  affluent  of  the  Nile.  It  is  650 
ft.  broad,  and  brings  down  a  vast  volume  of 
yellow  water,  in  a  swift  and  strong  current 
from  26  to  28  ft.  in  depth.  It  comes  from  the 
southeast,  and  is  supposed  to  rise  in  the  Kaffa 
country  S.  of  Abyssinia.  Little  is  known  of 
its  upper  course,  which  has  never  been  ex- 
plored, but  the  earthy  matter  which  it  holds  in 
solution  indicates  a  mountain  origin.  The  dis- 
tance from  the  mouth  of  the  Sobat  to  Khar- 
toom  is  684  m.  The  river  increases  in  width 
from  1,500  yards  to  2  m.,  flowing  between  the 
lands  of  the  Dinkas  on  the  east  and  those  of 
the  Shillooks  on  the  west.  The  marshy  banks 
and  floating  islands  of  aquatic  plants  are  left 
behind,  and  the  Nile  emerges  into  a  perfectly 
level  region,  where  arboreal  vegetation  is  con- 
fined mainly  to  the  margin  of  the  river,  and 
consists  principally  of  mimosas.  At  rare  in- 
tervals the  monotonous  character  of  the  land- 
scape is  diversified  by  an  isolated  elevation, 
and  the  right  bank  of  the  river,  through  seve- 
ral degrees  of  latitude  before  reaching  Khar- 
toom,  is  bordered  by  a  succession  of  sand 
banks  30  ft.  high.  Immense  numbers  of  cat- 
tle are  pastured  on  the  light  but  rich  soil  of 
the  shores,  and  innumerable  ducks  and  geese 
haunt  the  stream. — From  Khartoom  the  united 
waters  of  the  White  Nile  and  Blue  Nile  flow 
northward  about  50  m.,  and  then  make  a  sud- 
den bend  to  the  east  between  a  thick  cluster 
of  islands.  At  this  point  there  is  a  rapid  ex- 
tending half  way  across  the  river,  known  as 
the  sixth  cataract  of  the  Nile,  it  being  the  last 
which  is  met  in  ascending  from  the  sea  till  the 
traveller  reaches  on  the  White  Nile  the  rapids 


above  Gondokoro,  and  on  the  Blue  Nile  the 
cataracts  by  which  the  river  descends  from  the 
Abyssinian  highlands.  Here  the  Nile  is  very 
narrow,  being  compressed  between  high  hills 
of  naked  red  sandstone  rock.  From  the  sixth 
cataract  it  flows  in  a  N.  E.  direction  to  Shendy, 
and  is  studded  with  islands  covered  with  a 
luxuriant  growth  of  palms,  mimosas,  acacias, 
sycamores,  and  other  trees.  The  banks  are 
high  and  steep  and  covered  with  bushes  and 
rank  grass.  Reefs  of  black  rock  make  the 
navigation  intricate  and  dangerous.  The 
country  is  thickly  populated.  Shendy  is  a 
long  straggling  town  of  mud  huts,  with  about 
10,000  inhabitants.  Thence  the  river  runs  N. 
E.  past  the  ruins  of  Meroe  through  a  well  cul- 
tivated region.  In  lat.  17°  37',  160  m.  below 
Khartoom,  the  Abyssinian  river  Atbara,  called 
also  Bahr  el-Aswat  or  Black  river  from  the 
quantity  of  black  earth  brought  down  by  it 
during  the  rains,  enters  the  Nile  on  the  right 
bank,  flowing  from  the  southeast.  It  is  the 
ancient  Astaboras.  The  peninsula  between 
it  and  the  Blue  Nile  was  the  ancient  kingdom 
of  Meroe,  which  was  called  an  island  by  the 
Greek  and  Roman  writers,  who  were  accus- 
tomed to  give  this  name  to  the  irregular  spaces 
included  between  confluent  rivers.  The  At- 
bara is  the  last  affluent  of  the  Nile,  which  for 
the  rest  of  its  course  presents  the  unparal- 
leled phenomenon  of  a  river  flowing  1,500  m. 
without  a  tributary.  It  contributes  to  the 
Nile  the  largest  part  of  the  slimy  mud  which 
fertilizes  Egypt.  The  Atbara  is  formed  about 
lat.  14°  15'  by  two  great  streams,  the  larger  of 
which  bears  the  name  of  Tacazze,  and  rises  in 
the  table  land  of  Abyssinia ;  the  other,  which 
is  considered  the  direct  upper  course  of  the  At- 
bara, has  its  sources  in  the  highlands  N.  and  N. 
W.  of  Lake  Tzana  or  Dembea.  From  its  con- 
fluence with  the  Atbara  the  Nile  flows  through 
Nubia  for  700  m.  to  Syene  or  Asswan  on  the 
frontiers  of  Egypt.  It  passes  over  a  series 
of  rapids  and  cataracts,  all  formed  by  granite 
or  kindred  rocks.  For  120  m.  from  the  At- 
bara it  runs  nearly  N.  through  the  province 
of  Berber.  A  strip  of  arable  land  about  2  m. 
in  breadth  borders  the  river;  beyond  it  all  is 
desert,  the  inundation  not  extending  further. 
At  Abu  Hammed,  where  the  river  is  divided 
by  the  large  rocky  island  of  Mograt,  it  makes 
a  great  bend  S.  W.,  and  runs  in  that  direction 
about  150  m.,  enclosing  on  its  left  bank  a  re- 
gion called  the  desert  of  Bahiuda,  which  was 
occupied  in  ancient  times  by  the  Nuba3,  from 
whom  Nubia  derives  its  name.  The  naviga- 
tion in  this  part  is  impeded  by  rapids,  and  the 
land  susceptible  of  cultivation  is  so  small  in 
extent  that  the  inhabitants  avail  themselves  of 
the  patches  of  loamy  soil  which  the  river  de- 
posits in  the  rocky  hollows.  Travellers  going 
down  the  Nile  quit  the  river  at  Abu  Hammed 
and  cross  the  desert  to  Korosko,  a  march  of 
250  m.,  while  by  the  course  of  the  river  the 
distance  between  the  same  points  is  upward 
of  600  m.  The  banks  of  the  Nile  where  it 


450 


NILE 


skirts  the  desert  of  Bahiuda  on  the  north  are 
without  antiquities;  but  at  Noori  on  the  left 
bank,  below  the  fourth  cataract,  are  the  re- 
mains of  35  pyramids,  of  which  about  half 
are  in  good  preservation ;  they  have,  however, 
no  sculptures  or  hieroglyphics,  nor  are  there 
any  ruins  which  indicate  the  former  existence 
of  a  city.  Nearly  opposite  Noori,  on  the 
right  bank,  is  Jebel  Barkal,  a  hill  of  crum- 
bling sandstone  400  ft.  high  and  a  mile  distant 
from  the  river.  On  the  W.  side  of  the  hill  are 
13  pyramids  from  35  to  60  ft.  high.  Here  are 
also  the  remains  of  several  large  Egyptian  tem- 
ples, one  of  them  nearly  500  ft.  long.  These 
ruins  are  supposed  to  mark  the  southern  limits 
of  the  empire  of  the  Pharaohs,  and  the  city  to 
which  they  belonged  was  probably  Napata,  the 
capital  of  Tirhakah,  the  king  of  the  Ethiopians, 
and  also  of  those  sovereigns  of  Ethiopia  who 
are  mentioned  in  the  ancient  history  of  Egypt. 
A  short  distance  below  Jebel  Barkal,  on  the 
right  bank  of  the  river,  is  the  village  of  Me- 
rawe,  nearly  opposite  to  which  is  the  point 
from  which  travellers  up  the  Nile  begin  their 
march  across  the  desert  of  Bahiuda  to  Shendy, 
and  thus  cut  off  the  great  upper  bend  of  the 
river.  After  passing  Merawe  the  Nile  contin- 
ues S.  W.  till  it  reaches  lat.  18°,  when  it  again 
turns  N.  In  this  part  of  its  course  it  is  about 
half  a  mile  wide.  The  desert  on  both  sides 
reaches  to  the  banks,  and  there  is  little  culti- 
vable land  except  on  the  islands.  The  province 
of  Dongola  begins  at  this  point,  and  extends 
northward  about  175  m.  This  region  is  tol- 
erably fertile,  the  banks  of  the  river  being  no 
longer  rocky,  and  the  annual  inundation  diffu- 
sing itself  over  a  large  extent  of  land,  abound- 
ing in  fine  pastures  where  excellent  horses  are 
bred.  A  little  above  the  third  cataract,  in  lat. 
19°  24',  is  the  island  of  Argo,  which  is  12  m. 
long,  and  contains  a  number  of  ruins,  among 
them  two  overthrown  colossal  statues  of  gray 
granite,  in  Ethiopian  costume  with  Egyptian 
features.  Below  the  third  cataract,  near  lat. 
19°  45',  the  Nile  makes  a  bend  to  the  east;  and 
travellers  descending  the  river  usually  take  a 
straight  line  through  the  desert  to  Saleb  on  the 
left  bank,  where  are  found  the  ruins  of  a  tem- 
ple remarkable  for  the  elegance  of  its  archi- 
tecture and  its  imposing  and  picturesque  posi- 
tion on  the  line  which  separates  the  desert  from 
the  fertile  land.  A  few  miles  below,  the  large 
island  of  Say  divides  the  river,  which  soon 
after  contracts  between  granite  rocks  so  close- 
ly that  it  is  but  a  few  hundred  feet  in  width. 
The  rocks  hang  over  the  shore  and  fill  the  river 
with  shoals,  causing  so  many  eddies,  rapids, 
and  shallows,  that  navigation  is  practicable 
only  at  the  time  of  highest  flood,  and  is  even 
then  dangerous.  About  half  way  between  the 
island  of  Say  and  the  second  cataract,  in  lat. 
21°  27',  is  the  village  of  Semneh  on  the  left 
bank,  where  are  the  remains  of  a  small  but 
interesting  temple  of  the  third  Thothmes.  As 
the  river  approaches  the  second  cataract,  near 
the  22d  parallel,  the  porphyritic  and  granitic 


rocks  on  its  banks  give  place  to  sandstone. 
The  second  cataract,  which  was  called  by  the 
ancients  the  great  cataract,  is,  like  all  the  oth- 
ers, formed  by  primitive  rocks  rising  through 
the  sandstone,  in  a  succession  of  islands  di- 
viding the  stream,  which  foams  and  rushes  be- 
tween them,  with  a  roar  which  may  be  heard 
at  the  distance  of  more  than  a  mile.  It  is 
rather  a  collection  of  rapids  than  a  fall.  A  city 
once  existed  here,  and  the  remains  of  three  an- 
cient temples  are  yet  visible.  From  the  second 
cataract  to  the  frontier  of  Egypt,  a  distance  of 
220  m.,  there  is  a  multitude  of  temples,  some 
on  the  right,  some  on  the  left  bank  of  the 
river,  the  most  remarkable  of  which  are  those 
of  Abu  Sambul  or  Ipsambul,  on  the  left  bank, 
two  days'  journey  below  the  cataract.  (See  IP- 
SAMBUL.) A  few  miles  lower  down,  at  Ibrim, 
the  ancient  Premis,  are  ruins  of  the  same 
kind,  of  the  age  of  Thothmes  I.  and  III.,  and 
Barneses  II.  Just  beyond  Ibrim  the  channel 
of  the  river  is  compressed  between  a  range  of 
sandstone  hills  rising  almost  perpendicularly, 
so  close  to  the  shore  that  there  is  hardly  room 
to  pass  between  their  bases  and  the  water.  A 
few  miles  below,  at  Derr,  the  capital  of  Lower 
Nubia,  the  river  bends  abruptly  S.  E.  and  then, 
near  Korosko,  again  N.  All  this  region  abounds 
in  temples  of  Rameses  the  Great,  Thothmes 
III.  and  IV.,  and  Amenophis  II.  Amada,  two 
hours'  sail  below  Derr  and  on  the  opposite 
bank,  has  a  temple  whose  sculptures  are  re- 
markable for  the  brightness  of  their  colors, 
having  been  preserved  by  the  early  Christians, 
who  covered  them  with  mud  and  mortar  to 
conceal  them  from  their  sight ;  and  the  trav- 
eller proceeding  northward  passes  in  rapid  suc- 
cession Wady  es-Seboo,  the  valley  of  lions  or 
sphinxes ;  Dakkeh,  the  ancient  Pselchis,  the  site 
of  a  temple  of  Ergamenes,  mentioned  by  Dio- 
dorus  as  resisting  the  tyranny  of  the  priests 
(the  deity  of  which  was  Hermes  Trismegistus, 
identified  with  Thoth),  the  furthest  S.  point  at 
which  any  traces  of  Greek  or  Roman  dominion 
have  been  found  on  monuments  ;  Dendoor,  the 
site  of  a  temple  of  the  age  of  Augustus ;  and 
Kalabshe,  the  ancient  Talmis,  situated  in  lat. 
23°  30',  directly  under  the  tropic  of  Cancer, 
where  is  the  largest  temple  in  Nubia,  which 
was  built  in  the  reign  of  Augustus,  and  enlarged 
by  Caligula,  Trajan,  and  Severus.  In  this  part 
of  its  course  the  river  flows  between  moun- 
tains on  each  side  rising  from  the  water's 
edge,  and  piles  of  dark  sandstone  or  porphyry 
rock,  sometimes  1,000  ft.  in  height,  where  a 
blade  of  grass  never  grew,  every  notch  and  jag 
on  their  crests,  every  fissure  on  their  sides, 
revealed  in  a  pure  and  crystalline  atmosphere. 
Their  hue  near  at  hand  is  a  glaring  brown  ;  in 
the  distance  an  intense  violet.  On  the  W.  bank 
they  are  lower ;  and  the  sand  of  that  vast 
desert,  which  stretches  unbroken  to  the  Atlan- 
tic, has  heaped  itself  over  their  shoulders  and 
poured  long  drifts  and  rills  even  to  the  water. 
The  arable  land  is  a  mere  hem,  a  few  yards  in 
breadth,  on  each  bank  of  the  river,  supporting 


NILE 


451 


a  few  scattering  date  palms,  which  are  the  prin- 
cipal dependence  of  the  Nubians.  The  rise  of 
the  Nile  during  the  annual  inundation  is  in 
some  parts  of  this  region  as  much  as  30  ft.,  but 
the  height  of  the  banks  is  such  that  the  adja- 
cent land  derives  but  little  benefit  from  the 
overflow.  When  the  river  is  low  the  fields  are 
irrigated  by  water  wheels  of  clumsy  construc- 
tion. At  the  boundary  between  Nubia  and 
Egypt  is  the  island  of  Philas,  where  the  Nile  is 
3,000  ft.  broad.  The  island  is  about  a  quarter 
of  a  mile  long,  and  is  covered  with  picturesque 
ruins  of  temples,  almost  entirely  of  the  times 
of  the  Ptolemies  and  of  the  Roman  emperors. 
Immediately  below  Philae  is  the  first  cataract, 
the  last  in  descending  the  river,  which  extends 
to  Asswan,  and  to  the  island  of  Elephantine\ 
The  ridge  of  granite  by  which  they  are  formed 
crosses  the  river  and  extends  into  the  desert 
on  either  side.  The  rocks  are  much  more 
rugged  than  those  of  the  second  cataract,  and 
rise  to  the  height  of  40  ft.  There  are  three 
principal  falls ;  at  the  steepest,  which  is  about 
30  ft.  wide,  the  descent  is  about  12  ft.  in  100. 
The  entire  descent  in  a  space  of  5  m.  is  80  ft., 
and  the  whole  constitutes  a  series  of  rapids 
rather  than  falls,  the  highest  single  fall  not 
exceeding  6  ft.  The  channel  has  been  widened, 
and  may  be  passed  by  boats  at  all  seasons. 
From  the  quarries  on  the  banks  were  derived 
the  colossal  statues,  obelisks,  and  monoliths 
which  are  found  throughout  Egypt.  The  isl- 
and of  Elephantine",  in  lat.  24°  5',  just  oppo- 
site Syene,  is  fertile  and  covered  with  verdure. 
From  Asswan  to  the  Mediterranean,  a  distance 
of  700  m.,  the  Nile  runs  down  a  gentle  decliv- 
ity of  about  300  ft.  The  valley  through  which 
it  flows  till  it  reaches  the  apex  of  the  delta 
varies  in  breadth,  with  an  average  of  V  m., 
the  greatest  width  being  llm.  A  short  dis- 
tance below  Asswan  begins  a  district  of  sand- 
stone, which  extends  nearly  to  lat.  25°.  This 
part  of  the  valley  is  narrow  and  barren.  Near 
lat.  25°  is  Edfoo,  the  ancient  Apollinopolis 
Magna,  which  stands  on  the  left  bank,  and 
contains  two  famous  temples  built  by  the  Ptol- 
emies, the  largest  of  which  is  the  best  pre- 
served of  all  the  edifices  of  the  kind  in  Egypt. 
AtEsne,  the  ancient  Latopolis,  on  the  left  hank, 
30  m.  N.  W.,  the  valley  of  the  river  expands  to 
the  width  of  nearly  5  m.  Here  are  the  remains 
of  a  magnificent  temple  built  by  the  Roman 
emperors.  Still  lower  down  the  rocks  of  Je- 
belain  or  the  "two  mountains"  approach  so 
near  each  other  on  opposite  sides,  that  the  riv- 
er occupies  nearly  the  whole  valley.  Here 
the  sandstone  disappears,  and  is  succeeded  by 
limestone  hills,  which  border  the  river  till  it 
reaches  the  delta.  There  is  from  this  pokit 
a  wider  interval  of  fertile  land,  especially  on 
the  W.  side.  Fifty  miles  below  Edfoo,  in  lat. 
25°  38',  stand  the  magnificent  ruins  of  Thebes, 
the  ancient  capital  of  Upper  Egypt.  Here 
the  river  is  1J  m.  wide,  and  is  divided  by 
islands.  On  the  right  bank  are  the  modern  vil- 
lages of  Luxor  and  Karnak,  on  the  left  Medi- 


net  Abu  and  Goorna.  From  Thebes  the  trav- 
eller descending  the  river  passes  numerous 
ruins,  at  Medamot,  at  Koos  or  Apollinopolis 
Parva,  and  at  Coptos  on  the  right  bank ;  and 
on  the  left  bank,  38  m.  below  Thebes,  reaches 
Denderah,  the  ancient  Tentyra,  where  are  seen 
the  majestic  remains  of  the  temple  dedicated 
to  Athor  or  Aphrodite,  or,  as  some  believe,  to 
Isis,  one  of  the  most  impressive  of  Egyptian 
monuments.  Not  far  below  this  the  river 
bends  W.,  and  at  How  or  Diospolis  Parva  on 
the  left  bank  begins  the  canal  or  ancient  branch 
of  the  Nile,  called  the  Bahr  Yusuf  or  river  of 
Joseph,  which  flows  between  the  river  and  the 
Libyan  hills  to  the  entrance  of  the  Fayoom. 
Not  far  distant  is  Abydos  or  This,  one  of  the 
most  ancient  cities  of  Egypt,  the  birthplace  of 
Menes,  the  first  of  the  Pharaohs.  Beyond  this 
are  Chemmis  or  Panopolis  on  the  E.  bank ;  Si- 
oot,  the  ancient  Lycopolis,  on  the  W.  bank ;  and 
a  little  lower  down,  on  both  banks,  the  grottoes 
of  Manfaloot,  the  sepulchres  of  embalmed  dogs, 
cats,  and  crocodiles.  Still  lower  are  the  ruins 
of  Hermopolis  Magna  oil  the  W.  side,  and  on 
the  E.  side  the  remains  of  Antlnoe,  built  by 
Hadrian  in  the  Roman  style.  North  of  Anti- 
noe,  on  the  E.  bank,  are  the  famous  grottoes  of 
Beni-Hassan,  about  30  in  number,  excavated 
by  the  kings  of  the  12th  dynasty,  containing 
paintings  of  scenes  in  the  civil  and  domestic 
life  of  the  ancient  Egyptians,  from  which  mod- 
ern Egyptologists  have  derived  most  of  the 
existing  knowledge  of  the  manners  and  cus- 
toms of  that  people.  From  this  point  the 
course  of  the  river  presents  no  remarkable 
feature  till  it  reaches  Beni-Sooef  in  lat.  29° 
9',  where  the  Libyan  chain  of  hills  begins  to 
retire  from  the  river,  bends  N.  W.,  and  again 
returning  toward  the  river  encloses  the  prov- 
ince of  Fayoom,  in  which  were  the  lake  of 
Mceris,  the  labyrinth,  and  the  city  of  Crocodi- 
lopolis.  The  next  objects  of  interest  in  de- 
scending the  stream  are  the  pyramids  of  Da- 
shoor  and  Sakkara,  and  finally  the  great  pyra- 
mids of  Gizeh,  the  royal  sepulchres  of  ancient 
Memphis.  The  site  of  this  ancient  city  is 
marked  by  the  mounds  of  Mitrahenny.  A  few 
miles  lower  down,  on  the  E.  bank,  is  Boolak, 
the  port  of  Cairo,  which  was  originally  on  an 
island.  A  little  above  Cairo  the  double  chain 
of  hills  between  which  the  Nile  has  so  long 
flowed  terminates,  those  on  the  E.  side  turning 
off  toward  the  head  of  the  Red  sea,  and  those 
on  the  opposite  side  returning  toward  the 
northwest.  From  this  point  the  Nile  expands, 
and  its  current  slackens,  and  soon  begins  to 
flow  sluggishly  in  separate  branches,  though  at 
Rosetta,  only  6  m.  from  the  sea,  the  water  is 
perfectly  fresh  except  after  long  prevalence  of 
northerly  winds.  Twelve  miles  below  Cairo  is 
the  apex  of  the  delta,  the  point  of  separation, 
which  in  ancient  times  was  6  or  7  m.  higher  up. 
Thence  the  delta  extends  90  in.  seaward,  a 
broad  and  perfectly  level  alluvial  plain,  without 
a  hill,  rock,  or  natural  elevation  of  any  kind. 
Anciently  the  Nile  traversed  the  delta  by  seven 


452 


NILE 


branches,  of  which  only  three  appear  to  have 
been  of  much  size,  the  Pelusiac  or  eastern  arm, 
the  Oanopic  or  western,  and  the  Sebennytic  or 
middle.  The  river  now  enters  the  Mediter- 
ranean by  two  outlets,  the  Rosettalbranch  on 
the  west  and  the  Damietta  branch  on  the  east, 
with  their  mouths  in  lat.  31°  36'  N.,  sepa- 
rated from  each  other  by  95  m.  of  seacoast. 
The  Pelusiac  branch  is  now  dry.  On  the  E. 
side  of  it,  not  far  from  the  apex  of  the  delta, 
was  Heliopolis,  the  On  of  Scripture,  of  whose 
ruins  only  an  obelisk  remains.  Forty  miles 
lower  down  was  Bubastis;  and  still  lower, 
near  the  sea,  though  its  remains  are  now  sev- 
eral miles  inland,  was  Pelusium,  from  which 
the  arm  derived  its  name.  The  ancient  Se- 
bennytic branch  had  its  mouth  where  the 
lake  of  Boorlos  now  lies.  It  has  been  par- 
tially renewed  in  a  free  wide  canal,  which 
starts  midway  between  the  two  modern 
branches,  and  continues  as  far  as  Tanta,  about 
half  way  between  Cairo  and  the  sea.  The 
Canopic  branch  is  represented  by  the  first 

Eart  of  the  present  Rosetta  branch  as  far  as 
it.  31°,  whence  it  turned  to  the  west  and 
entered  the  sea  near  the  bay  of  Aboukir. 
The  W.  or  Rosetta  branch  is  the  usual  chan- 
nel of  communication  between  Alexandria  and 
Cairo,  and  is  navigated  by  small  steamers  at 
regular  intervals ;  it  is  1,800  ft.  broad,  and  has 
in  the  dry  season  a  depth  of  about  5  ft.  The 
Damietta  branch  is  900  ft.  wide,  and  its  depth 
when  the  river  is  lowest  is  about  8  ft. — In  the 
ordinary  state  of  its  waters  the  Nile  has  not 
depth  sufficient  for  vessels  of  more  than  60 
tons  burden,  but  during  the  height  of  the  inun- 
dation the  depth  of  water  is  40  ft.,  and  large 
vessels  can  ascend  to  Cairo.  The  river  begins  to 
rise  as  early  as  April  in  its  upper  branches,  but 
not  until  the  latter  part  of  June  in  Egypt,  where 
it  reaches  its  greatest  height  between  Sept.  20 
and  30,  when  it  is  usually  at  Cairo  24  ft.  above 
the  low-water  level,  and  at  Thebes  36  ft. 
About  the  middle  of  October  it  begins  to  fall, 
and  in  Egypt  is  at  the  lowest  about  the  middle 
of  May.  The  rise  sometimes  reaches  30  ft., 
and  the  overflow  then  does  great  damage  ;  on 
the  other  hand,  when  it  falls  short  of  18  ft.,  the 
harvests  fail,  and  Egypt  experiences  a  famine. 
Of  the  66  inundations  between  1735  and  1801, 
11  were  very  high,  30  good,  16  feeble,  and  9 
insufficient.  The  water  of  the  river  is  charged 
with  mud,  which  it  deposits  over  the  cultivated 
land  of  Egypt  to  an  average  depth  of  not  more 
than  the  20th  part  of  an  inch  each  year.  Not- 
withstanding its  turbidness,  the  water  is  sweet 
and  wholesome,  and  is  freely  drunk  by  the  peo- 
ple, among  whom  the  saying  is  proverbial  that 
he  who  has  drunk  of  the  Nile  will  always  long  to 
return  and  drink  of  it  again. — On  the  island  of 
Rhoddah,  near  Cairo,  is  the  celebrated  nilome- 
ter  for  indicating  the  height  of  the  Nile  during 
the  annual  inundation.  It  consists  of  a  square 
well  or  chamber,  in  the  centre  of  which  is  a 
graduated  pillar,  divided  into  cubits  of  about 
22  in.  each.  A  nilometer  existed  at  Memphis 


in  the  times  of  the  Pharaohs,  and  during  the 
reigns  of  the  Ptolemies  there  was  one  at  Ili- 
thyia,  and  another  at  Elephantine  in  the  reigns 
of  the  early  Roman  emperors.  That  at  Rhod- 
dah is  attributed  to  the  caliph  Amin,  who 
reigned  from  809  to  833.  During  the  inunda- 
tion four  criers  proclaim  every  morning  in  the 
streets  of  Cairo  the  height  to  which  the  water 
has  risen.  When  it  has  reached  18  cubits  the 
canals  are  opened  and  it  is  allowed  to  flow  over 
the  land.  In  1847  the  French  engineer  Linant 
commenced  the  construction  of  a  barrage  or 
great  dam,  just  below  the  apex  of  the  delta, 
whereby  it  was  intended  so  to  regulate  the 
flow  of  water  as  to  produce  two  inundations  in 
a  year ;  but  after  62  beautiful  arches  had  been 
thrown  across  the  Rosetta  branch,  the  work 
was  abandoned  in  consequence  of  the  practical 
difficulties  which  were  encountered. — As  the 
extent  of  the  Nile  basin  is  not  definitely  known, 
no  accurate  estimate  of  its  area  can  be  given ; 
but  it  may  safely  be  stated  as  at  least  500,000 
sq.  m.  Its  approximate  length,  throughout  all 
its  windings,  from  the  limit  of  steam  naviga- 
tion above  Gondokoro,  in  lat.  4°  37'  N.,  is  3,000 
m.,  which  gives  an  average  descent  in  the  river 
of  9  in.  per  mile.  The  average  fall  per  mile 
from  Asswan  to  Cairo,  555  m.,  is  6-4  in.  The 
additional  length  of  the  river  between  the 
point  we  have  mentioned  and  its  exit  from  the 
Albert  N'yanza  can  scarcely  be  less  than  200 
m.  According  to  Lyell,  not  only  the  fertility 
of  the  alluvial  plain  above  Cairo,  but  the  very 
existence  of  the  delta  below  that  capital,  are 
due  to  the  power  possessed  by  the  Nile  of 
transporting  mud  from  the  interior  of  Africa 
and  depositing  it  on  its  inundated  plains.  The 
following  is  the  composition  of  the  Nile  mud, 
which  is  generally  found  unstratified:  silica, 
42'50 ;  alumina,  24'25 ;  carbonate  of  lime,  3 '85 ; 
peroxide  of  iron,  13'65;  magnesia,  T05;  car- 
bonate of  magnesia,  1'20;  humic  acid,  2'80; 
water,  10'70.  The  investigations,  conducted 
under  the  auspices  of  the  royal  society  of  Eng- 
land, for  the  purpose  of  ascertaining  the  rate 
of  accumulation,  indicate  a  mean  increase  of 
3£  in.  in  a  century;  but  this  result  requires 
verification,  especially  as  there  are  geological 
reasons  for  believing  that  a  slow  subsidence  of 
the  land  in  Egypt  has  taken  place  within  the 
historic  period. — The  ibis,  the  hippopotamus, 
and  the  crocodile  are  characteristic  animals  of 
the  Nile  fauna,  all  frequenting  the  upper  por- 
tion of  the  river,  though  formerly  common  in 
the  northern  latitudes.  The  lotus  and  the  papy- 
rus are  equally  distinctive  representatives  of 
the  flora.  The  Nile  abounds  with  fish,  among 
which  are  large  eels,  white  trout,  and  a  large 
species  of  salmon. — The  course  of  the  White 
Nile  above  its  junction  with  the  Blue  Nile  at 
Khartoom  was  first  explored  in  1827  by  M. 
Linant,  who  ascended  the  stream  as  far  as  El- 
Ais  in  lat.  13°  23'  N.  A  few  years  afterward 
Mehemet  Ali,  pasha  of  Egypt,  determined  to 
have  the  river  explored  to  its  sources.  Accord- 
ingly, between  1839  and  1842,  three  expedi- 


NILES 

tions  were  fitted  out  for  that  purpose ;  the  first 
ascended  to  lat.  6°  30'  N.,  discovering  on  its 
passage  the  mouth  of  the  Sobat,  Lake  No,  and 
the  Bahr  el-Ghazal ;  the  second  reached  lat.  4° 
42'  N. ;  and  the  third  went  not  quite  so  far. 
In  November,  1849,  Dr.  Knoblecher,  a  Roman 
Catholic  missionary  at  Khartoom,  accompanied 
the  annual  trading  expedition  sent  up  the  Nile 
by  the  Egyptian  authorities,  and  ascended  the 
river  to  lat.  4°  10'  N.,  then  further  than  any 
other  explorer  had  ever  gone.  The  Bahr  el- 
Ghazal  was  explored  by  Petherick  in  1853  and 
the  five  following  years,  and  subsequently  in 
1862  and  1863.  In  the  latter  year,  Miss  Tinne, 
the  Dutch  traveller,  visited  the  southwestern 
affluents  of  the  river,  and  lost  her  life  in  this 
region  in  1869.  She  was  succeeded  in  the 
same  field,  in  1869-'71,  by  Schweinfurth,  whose 
acquirements  as  a  botanist  have  given  excep- 
tional value  to  his  work.  The  explorations  of 
Speke  and  Grant,  Baker,  and  Livingstone  have 
already  been  mentioned.  A  short  time  prior 
to  the  first  journey  of  Baker,  however,  Miani, 
the  Italian  traveller,  advanced  the  limit  of  ex- 
ploration from  the  north  to  a  point  considera- 
bly beyond  Gondokoro,  in  the  neighborhood  of 
Afuddo,  lat.  3°  32'  N.  Our  knowledge  of  the 
White  Nile  has  been  largely  increased  by  the 
recent  military  expedition  sent  out  by  the  khe- 
dive  for  the  suppression  of  the  slave  trade 
(1871-'3)  under  the  command  of  Sir  Samuel 
Baker. — The  following  are  the  more  important 
works  of  recent  date  relating  to  the  exploration 
of  the  Nile:  Petherick's  "Travels  in  Central 
Africa"  (1859);  Speke's  "Journal  of  the  Dis- 
covery of  the  Source  of  the  Nile"  (1863); 
Baker's  "Albert  N'yanza"  (1866),  "The  Nile 
Tributaries  of  Abyssinia"  (1867),  and  "Is- 
maiilia ''  (1874) ;  Sehweinfurth's  "  The  Heart  of 
Africa"  (2  vols.,  1874);  and  "The  Last  Jour- 
nals of  David  Livingstone  "  (2  vols.,  1874). 

NILES,  a  city  of  Berrien  co.,  Michigan,  on 
the  E.  bank  of  the  St.  Joseph  river,  here 
crossed  by  an  iron  bridge,  and  on  the  Michi- 
gan Central  railroad,  105  m.  S.  W.  of  Lansing 
and  165  m.  W.  S.  W.  of  Detroit ;  pop.  in  1874, 
4,592.  The  site  is  diversified,  and  the  sur- 
rounding country  is  rich  in  agricultural  pro- 
ducts. There  are  several  handsome  business 
blocks,  and  the  chief  street  is  well  built  up 
with  brick  structures.  The  business  houses 
carry  on  a  large  trade.  The  river  affords  good 
water  power,  which  is  controlled  by  the  Niles 
manufacturing  company.  There  are  two  pa- 
per mills,  several  large  founderies  and  machine 
shops,  a  national  bank,  several  union  schools, 
two  weekly  newspapers,  a  monthly  periodical, 
and  six  churches.  Niles  was  settled  in  1828, 
and  incorporated  as  a  village  in  1838. 

NILES,  Hezekiah,  an  American  journalist,  born 
in  Chester  co.,  Pa.,  Oct.  10,  1777,  died  in  Wil- 
mington, Del.,  April  2,  1839.  He  learned  the 
trade  of  a  printer,  and  about  1800  was  one  of  a 
publishing  firm  in  Wilmington ;  afterward  he 
contributed  to  a  periodical,  and  for  six  years 
edited  a  daily  paper  in  Baltimore.  He  is  chief- 


NILSSON 


453 


ly  known,  as  the  founder  in  1811  of  "  Niles's 
Register,"  a  weekly  journal  published  at  Balti- 
more, of  which  he  was  the  editor  till  August, 
1836.  The  "  Register  "  was  republished  by  him 
in  32  volumes,  extending  from  1812  to  1827, 
and  was  continued  by  his  son  W.  O.  Niles  and 
others  till  June  27,  1849,  making  76  volumes 
in  all.  He  also  compiled  "  Principles  and  Acts 
of  the  Revolution  "  (1822). 

NILES,  Nathaniel,  an  American  inventor,  born 
in  South  Kingston,  R.  I.,  April  3, 1741,  died  at 
West  Fairlee,  Vt.,  Oct.  31,  1828.  He  gradu- 
ated at  Princeton  in  1766,  studied  medicine  and 
law,  and  afterward  theology,  and  was  licensed 
to  preach.  He  was  never  ordained,  but  con- 
tinued to  preach  occasionally  during  his  whole 
life.  Becoming  a  resident  of  Norwich,  Conn., 
he  invented  a  process  of  making  wire  from 
bar  iron  by  water  power,  and  connected  it  with 
a  wool-card  manufactory.  After  the  revolu- 
tion he  removed  to  Orange  co.,  Vt.,  and  filled 
subsequently  several  public  offices  in  that  state, 
being  speaker  of  the  house  of  representatives 
in  1784,  judge  of  the  supreme  court  for  several 
years,  a  representative  in  congress  from  1791 
to  1795,  one  of  the  censors  for  the  revision  of 
the  state  constitution,  and  six  times  presiden- 
tial elector.  He  published  several  discourses 
and  sermons,  and  wrote  a  "History  of  the 
Indian  Wars,"  published  in  the  "  Massachu- 
setts Historical  Collections." 

NILGHAU.     See  ANTELOPE. 

NILSSON,  Christine  (Mme.  ROUZAUD),  a  Swedish 
vocalist,  born  at  Hussaby,  near  Wexio,  Aug.  3, 
1843.  Her  father,  though  only  a  peasant,  was 
a  violinist,  and  had  charge  of  the  music  at  the 
village  church.  He  taught  his  son  Carl  the 
violin,  and  Christine  would  pick  out  for  her- 
self on  the  instrument  the  tunes  that  she  heard 
her  brother  play.  Her  proficiency  became  so 
great  that  the  neighbors  came  to  listen  and 
admire,  and  finally  Carl  took  her  with  him  to 
the  fairs  at  the  neighboring  market  towns.  At 
one  of  these  her  playing  and  singing  attracted 
the  attention  of  Thornerhjelm,  a  magistrate 
of  Ljunby,  who  offered  to  provide  for  her  mu- 
sical education.  The  offer  was  accepted,  and 
Mile.  Valerius,  afterward  baroness  of  Lenhu- 
sen,  became  her  first  instructor.  She  was  sub- 
sequently sent  to  Stockholm  and  placed  under 
the  tuition  of  Franz  Berwald.  From  Stock- 
holm she  went  to  Paris  and  studied  assiduous- 
ly under  Wartel  for  three  years,  making  her 
debut  in  October,  1864,  at  the  Theatre  Lyrique 
in  Verdi's  Tramata.  At  this  theatre  she  also 
appeared  in  Don  Giovanni  and  in  the  char- 
acter of  Astrafiammante  in  Mozart's  "  Magic 
Flute."  In  June,  1 867,  she  appeared  in  London 
in  Tramata,  singing  later  the  part  of  Margue- 
rite in  Gounod's  Faust.  In  March,  1868,  she 
made  her  appearance  at  the  Grand  Opera  in 
Paris  as  Ophelia  in  Ambroise  Thomas's  Ham- 
let. Later  in  that  year,  on  the  occasion  of  her 
second  visit  to  England,  she  took  part  in  the 
Handel  commemorative  festival  at  the  crystal 
palace.  Her  first  appearance  in  America  was 


454: 


NILSSON 


NlMES 


made  in  September,  1870.  During  the  ensuing 
winter  she  sang  only  in  concerts,  but  in  the 
autumn  of  1871  appeared  in  opera,  one  of  her 
chief  r61es  being  that  of  Mignon  in  Thomas's 
opera  of  that  name.  In  July,  1872,  she  was 
married  in  Westminster  abbey,  London,  to 
Auguste  Rouzaud,  a  merchant  of  Paris,  and 
during  the  succeeding  winter  sang  with  im- 
mense success  in  St.  Petersburg.  In  the  au- 
tumn of  1873  she  returned  to  the  United 
States,  and  appeared  in  Wagner's  Lohengrin 
during  the  winter  of  1873-'4.  The  remarkable 
purity  of  her  voice,  its  perfect  evenness,  its 
great  range  and  flexibility,  combined  with  her 
talent  as  an  actress,  have  placed  Nilsson  among 
the  foremost  singers  of  her  day.  She  is 
equally  great  in  tragic  as  in  comic  opera,  and 
her  position  as  an  oratorio  singer  is  scarcely 
less  distinguished  than  as  a  prima  donna. 

NILSSON,  Sven,  a  Swedish  naturalist,  born 
near  Landskrona,  March  8,  1787.  He  took 
his  doctor's  degree  at  Lund  in  1811,  and  be- 
came professor  of  zoology  and  president  of 
the  zoological  museum,  of  which  he  was  the 
principal  founder.  From  1828  to  1831  he  di- 
rected a  similar  institution  in  Stockholm,  and 
subsequently  resumed  his  functions  at  Lund 
until  1859,  when  he  returned  to  Stockholm. 
His  principal  works  are :  Ornithologia  Suecica 
(2  vols.,  Copenhagen,  1817-'21) ;  Skandinavisk 
Fauna  (10  vols.,  1820-'53);  and  STcandinavislca, 
nordens  urinvfynare,  or  "  The  Primitive  Inhab- 
itants of  Northern  Scandinavia"  (4  vols.,  1838- 
'43),  his  most  renowned  publication,  consist- 
ing of  the  "  Stone  Age  " 
(2d  ed.,  1866),  and  the 
"  Bronze  Age  "  (2d  ed., 
1862-'6). 

NOIEGCEN,  Nimwegen, 
or  Nijmegen  (anc.  Nomo- 
magus),  a  fortified  fron- 
tier town  of  the  Neth- 
erlands, in  Gelderland, 
on  the  left  bank  of  the 
Waal,  10  m.  S.  by  W.  of 
Arnhem  and  13  m.  N.  W. 
of  Oleves,  Prussia;  pop. 
in  ^  1872,  22,785.  It  is 
built  on  several  hills,  on 
which  in  ancient  times 
the  Romans  had  formed 
a  camp  to  guard  their 
Batavian  possessions 
against  the  Germans. 
The  town  is  well  built, 
though  the  streets  are 
narrow.  The  most  re- 
markable public  building 
is  the  town  hall,  containing  a  few  Romaa 
antiquities,  the  swords  of  Egmont  and  Horn, 
statues  of  German  emperors,  and  portraits 
of  the  ambassadors  connected  with  the  treaty 
of  peace  signed  there  in  1678,  between  Spain, 
France,  and  Holland,  followed  in  1679  by 
that  between  the  two  former  countries  and 
Germany  and  Sweden.  On  the  principal  hill 


(Hoenderlerg}  are  the  ruins  of  the  castle  of 
Falkenhof,  said  to  have  been  built  by  Charle- 
magne; and  not  far  from  it  is  the  fine  cafe 
and  promenade  of  the  Belvedere,  a  lofty  struc- 
ture, originally  built  under  the  direction  of 
the  duke  of  Alva.  The  harbor  is  protected 
by  a  wall  from  the  floods  and  floating  ice  of 
the  river.  There  are  numerous  breweries  and 
flour  mills,  and  manufactories  of  hardware, 
stoves,  fire  engines,  cabinet  work,  painted  glass, 
hats,  and  gold  and  silver  work ;  and  there  is  a 
brisk  trade  in  corn  and  wine. — Nirneguen  was 
formerly  a  Hanse  town.  After  joining  in  1579 
the  Utrecht  league  of  the  United  Provinces  of 
the  Netherlands,  it  was  taken  by  the  Spaniards 
in  1585,  and  recovered  by  Maurice  of  Orange 
in  1591.  In  1672  it  was  taken  by  Turenne;  but 
in  1702  it  resisted  another  attack  of  the  French. 
NlMES,  or  Nismes  (anc.  Nemausus),  a  city  of 
France,  in  Languedoc,  capital  of  the  depart- 
ment of  Gard,  27  m.  N.  E.  of  Montpellier  and 
62  m.  N.  W.  of  Marseilles;  pop.  in  1872,  62,- 
394.  The  city  proper  is  small  and  irregular- 
ly laid  out,  with  narrow  streets  and  ill-built 
houses;  but  its  three  suburbs,  one  of  which, 
called  the  Cours  Neuf,  is  larger  than  the  city 
itself,  present  a  finer  aspect,  having  wide, 
straight  avenues,  fine  public  walks,  and  hand- 
some buildings.  No  other  town  in  France  can 
compare  with  Nimes  for  its  ancient  Roman 
edifices.  The  maison  carree,  so  called  from  its 
rectangular  form,  is  a  beautiful  Corinthian 
temple  nearly  in  the  centre  of  the  city.  It 
suffered  greatly  during  the  middle  ages,  but 


Maison  Carree,  Nirnes 

since  1789  has  been  restored.  In  1823  it  was 
converted  into  a  museum  of  paintings  and  an- 
tiquities, called  the  musee  Marie  Therese.  The 
amphitheatre,  or  les  ar&nes,  is  one  of  the  most 
perfect  structures  of  its  kind  extant.  It  has 
from  32  to  35  ranges  of  seats,  and  was  capable 
of  accommodating  from  17,000  to  23,000  spec- 
tators. It  was  used  as  a  fortress  by  the  Visi- 


NiMES 


NIMRUD 


455 


goths  and  the  Saracens,  when  attacked  by  the 
Franks ;  during  the  following  centuries  it  was 
also  occupied  as  a  stronghold.  About  2,000 
persons  had  established  their  abode  within  this 


The  Amphitheatre  of  Nimes 

building,  when  in  1809  it  was  cleared  by  order 
of  the  prefect ;  and  in  1858  its  restoration  was 
begun.  The  tour  magne  (turris  magnd)  is  the 
remnant  of  a  tower  which  flanked  the  ancient 
walls.  The  boulevards  now  occupy  the  site  of 
the  ramparts,  but  portions  of  them  are  still 
extant  in  the  porte  d1  Augusts  and  porte  de 
France,  two  Roman  gates,  the  former  of  which 
is  ornamented  with  sculptures.  To  these  monu- 
ments must  be  added  a  ruined  nympJioBum,  a 
fane  dedicated  to  the  nymphs,  which  communi- 
cated with  a  neighboring  bath  for  women,  the 
remains  of  which  have  been  taken  for  those  of 
a  temple  of  Diana.  The  magnificent  aqueduct, 
known  as  the  pont  du  Gard,  is  in  the  vicinity 
of  Nimes.  (See  AQUEDUCT,  vol.  i.,  p.  613.) 
Among  the  edifices  of  a  later  period  are  the 
cathedral,  begun  in  the  llth  century,  but  con- 
structed chiefly  in  the  16th  and  17th,  occupy- 
ing the  site  of  a  temple  of  Apollo ;  the  church 
of  St.  Paul ;  the  palace  of  justice ;  the  general 
hospital;  the  H6tel-Dieu,  rebuilt  in  1830;  the 
public  library ;  the  central  house  of  detention, 
which  is  the  citadel  built  by  Vauban  over  the 
remains  of  the  old  Fort  Rohan  erected  in  1629 
by  the  Huguenots;  and  the  fine  monumental 
fountain  by  Pradier,  erected  in  1851,  on  the 
esplanade.  In  the  public  garden  is  still  to  be 
seen  the  fountain  that  furnished  the  Roman 
baths  with  water.  Nimes  is  the  seat  of  a 
bishop,  and  has  a  high  court,  tribunals  of 
primary  jurisdiction  and  commerce,  a  depart- 
mental academy,  several  learned  institutions,  a 
lyceum  or  college,  a  normal  school,  a  theologi- 
cal seminary,  schools  of  drawing,  chemistry 
and  physics,  geometry  and  mechanics  as  applied 
to  the  arts,  a  society  of  medicine,  a  public  li- 
brary of  50,000  volumes,  and  a  cabinet  of  natu- 
ral history.  Nimes  employs  10,000  operatives 
in  different  departments  of  industry;  and  its 


trade  in  wine  and  spirits  amounts  to  $1,400,000 
a  year,  and  in  other  articles  to  more  than 
$3,000,000.  It  is  the  great  southern  mart  for 
raw  and  manufactured  silk.  A  conseil  de  prud*- 
Jiommes  and  a  chamber 
of  commerce  watch  over 
the  interests  of  work- 
men and  manufacturers. — 
Nimes  was  occupied  by 
the  Romans  in  121  B.  0. 
It  was  already  one  of  the 
most  important  cities  of 
Gaul  and  the  capital  of  the 
Volcaa  Arecomici.  Au- 
gustus, Tiberius,  Trajan, 
Hadrian,  Antoninus,  and 
Diocletian  contributed  to 
its  embellishment.  But, 
pillaged  by  the  Vandals, 
occupied  by  the  Visigoths 
from  465  to  507,  and 
then  by  the  Franks,  taken 
by  the  Saracens,  from 
whom  it  was  wrested  by 
Charles  Martel  in  737, 
visited  by  the  Norman 
pirates,  ill  treated  by  its  feudal  lords,  it  dwin- 
dled away,  until  in  the  14th  century  its  popu- 
lation scarcely  amounted  to  400.  Francis  I. 
assisted  in  its  restoration.  Most  of  its  new 
inhabitants  being  Huguenots,  it  suffered  du- 
ring the  religious  wars,  and  was  severely 
treated  by  Louis  XIII.  and  Louis  XIV.  It 
was  also  involved  in  bloody  conflicts  in  1791 
and  1815. 

NIMROD,  a  son  of  Cush  and  grandson  of 
Ham,  the  events  of  whose  life  are  briefly  re- 
corded in  the  book  of  Genesis  (x.  8-12).  It  is 
there  said  of  him,  "  he  began  to  be  a  mighty 
one  in  the  earth;"  and  it  is  added,  "he  was  a 
mighty  hunter  before  the  Lord."  He  founded 
an  empire  in  Shinar  or  Babylonia,  the 'chief 
towns  being  Babel,  Erech,  Accad,  and  Calneh. 
"  Out  of  that  land  he  went  forth  to  Assyria," 
as  the  words  are  properly  rendered,  "and 
builded  Nineveh,"  &c.  (verse  2);  and  this  is 
confirmed  by  Micah  v.  6,  where  "the  land  of 
Nimrod"  is  a  synonyme  for  "the  land  of  As- 
syria." The  Nimrod  of  the  Scriptures  cannot 
yet  be  identified  with  any  personage  known 
to  us  from  inscriptions  or  from  classical  wri- 
ters. The  traditional  notion  of  his  character 
connects  with  it  the  ideas  of  violence  and  in- 
solence. He  is  supposed  to  have  been  the 
Chesil  of  Semitic  mythology,  answering  to  the 
Orion  of  the  Greeks,  and  in  Hebrew  astron- 
omy to  the  constellation  of  that  name  (Job  ix. 
9,  xxxviii.  31;  Amos  v.  8;  and  Isa.  xiii.  10, 
"constellations,"  properly  Orions);  or  less 
probably  to  the  star  Oanopus  in  the  constella- 
tion Argo  Navis.  He  is  a  representative  hero 
in  Arab  tradition,  which  ascribes  many  great 
works  to  him,  especially  the  Birs  Nimrud  near 
Babylon,  and  the  mound  Nimrud  near  Nineveh. 
NIMRVD*  See  NINEVEH. 
NIMRUD,  Birs.  See  BABEL,  and  BABYLON. 


456 


NIMWEGEN 


NINEVEH 


NIMWEGEN.    See  NIMEGTJEX. 

NINEVEH  (Gr.  NZvof ;  Lat.  Ninu$  ;  Assyrian 
Ninua),  an  ancient  city  of  Asia,  the  capital  of 
the  Assyrian  empire,  situated  on  the  E.  bank 
of  the  Tigris,  opposite  the  present  city  of  Mo- 
sul, and  about  220  m.  N.  N.  W.  of  Bagdad. 
The  name  appears  to  be  formed  from  that 
of  an  Assyrian  deity,  Nin,  occurring  in  the 
names  of  several  Assyrian  kings,  as  in  Ninus, 
the  mythical  founder  of  the  city.  According 
to  Schrader,  it  signified  "abode,"  correspond- 
ing to  the  Hebrew  naveh.  In  the  Assyrian  in- 
scriptions Nineveh  is  also  supposed  to  be  called 
the  "  city  of  Bel."  It  is  often  mentioned  in 
the  historical  and  prophetical  books  of  the 
Bible ;  the  prophet  Jonah  warned  it  to  re- 
pent; and  its  overthrow  is  the  principal  theme 


Plan  of  the  Site  of  Nineveh. 

of  the  prophecies  of  Nahum.  It  is  mentioned 
by  Herodotus,  Ctesias,  Strabo,  and  Diodorus, 
among  classical  writers;  but  its  overthrow 
and  ruin  was  so  complete,  that  Xenophon, 
though  in  401  B.  C.  he  led  the  10,000  Greeks 
over  the  ground  on  which  it  had  stood,  does 
not  even  mention  its  name;  and  though  70 
years  later  Alexander  fought  the  great  battle 
of  Arbela  in  the  vicinity,  none  of  his  histo- 
rians allude  to  the  ruins  of  the  city.  Huge 
mounds,  apparently  of  mere  earth  and  rubbish, 
covered  its  site,  the  most  important  of  which 
are  known  as  the  mounds  of  Nimrud,  of  Ko- 
yunjik, of  Selamiyeh,  of  Nebi  Yunus  or  the 
prophet  Jonah  (so  called  from  the  current  be- 
lief among  the  people  that  the  sepulchre  of  the 
prophet  is  on  its  summit,  a  tradition  which 
probably  originated  in  the  former  existence 
on  the  spot  of  a  Christian  church  dedicated  to 
Jonah),  of  Keremlis,  about  15  m.  N.  E.  of  Nim- 
rud,  and  of  Khorsabad,  12  m.  N.  E.  of  Mosul. 
The  first  accurate  description  and  plan  of  these 


ruins  was  given  by  Claudius  James  Rich,  who 
was  for  several  years  the  English  East  India 
company's  political  agent  at  Bagdad.  In  1820 
he  made  a  survey,  which  was  published  after 
his  death.  From  the  neighboring  inhabitants 
he  learned  that  not  long  before  his  visit  sculp- 
tured figures  of  men  and  animals  had  been  dug 
out  of  one  of  the  mounds,  and  had  been  de- 
stroyed as  idols.  He  collected  a  few  specimens 
of  pottery  and  brick  inscribed  with  cuneiform 
or  arrow-headed  characters.  In  1843  M.  Paul 
Emile  Botta,  French  consul  at  Mosul,  after  hav- 
ing examined  the  mound  of  Koyunjik  without 
making  discoveries  of  much  importance,  turned 
his  attention  to  the  mound  of  Khorsabad, 
where  he  soon  laid  bare  the  ruins  of  a  mag- 
nificent palace  which  had  evidently  been  de- 
stroyed by  fire.  He  found  among  the  remains 
a  series  of  apartments  panelled  with  slabs  of 
coarse  gray  alabaster,  on  which  were  sculp- 
tured in  bass  relief  figures  of  men  and  animals, 
with  inscriptions  in  the  cuneiform  character. 
In  November,  1845,  Austen  Henry  Layard,  an 
English  traveller,  began  excavations  at  Nim- 
rud, which  were  continued  till  April,  1847,  with 
great  success.  He  discovered  immense  quan- 
tities of  sculptures,  inscriptions,  pottery,  and 
antiquities  of  all  sorts,  by  means  of  which  more 
light  has  been  thrown  on  the  history  and  civil- 
ization of  the  Assyrians  than  by  all  the  ac- 
counts transmitted  to  us  by  the  writers  of  an- 
tiquity. Excavations  with  like  results  were  also 
made  in  the  mounds  of  Koyunjik  and  Nebi 
Yunus.  In  the  latter  part  of  1849,  under  the 
direction  and  at  the  expense  of  the  trustees  of 
the  British  museum,  Mr.  Layard  resumed  his  ex- 
plorations, and  continued  them  for  about  a  year. 
— Before  these  explorations  the  ruins  which 
occupied  the  presumed  site  of  Nineveh  seemed 
to  consist  of  mere  shapeless  heaps  or  mounds 
of  earth  and  rubbish,  with  little  sign  of  arti- 
ficial construction  except  occasional  traces  of 
a  rude  wall  of  sun-dried  bricks.  Some  of  the 
mounds  were  so  large  as  to  seem  natural  hills, 
and  some  had  been  chosen  as  sites  for  villages, 
or  for  small  mud  forts  for  defence  against 
marauding  Bedouins  and  Kurds.  They  are 
spread  over  a  considerable  space,  and  com- 
prise various  separate  arid  distinct  groups  of 
ruins,  four  of  which  certainly  are  the  remains 
of  fortified  enclosures,  defended  by  walls  and 
ditches,  towers  and  ramparts.  The  ruins  op- 
posite Mosul  consist  of  an  enclosure  formed 
by  a  continuous  line  of  mounds,  marking  the 
remains  of  a  wall  the  western  face  of  which 
is  interrupted  by  the  two  great  mounds  of 
Koyunjik  and  Nebi  Yunus.  Eastward  is  a  par- 
allel line  of  ramparts  and  moats.  The  whole 
enclosure  is  a  quadrangle,  the  northern  side 
of  which  is  7,000  ft.  long;  the  western  13,600 
ft.,  forming  the  chord  to  the  arc  of  the  river, 
which  anciently  flowed  parallel  and  close  to 
the  wall ;  the  eastern,  which  is  somewhat 
curved  outward,  15,900  ft.;  the  southern  3,000 
ft.;  the  entire  circumference  thus  being  be- 
tween 7  and  8  m.  The  general  height  of  this 


NINEVEH 


457 


earthen  wall  is  between  40  and  50  ft.  Some 
remains  have  been  found  of  stone  masonry, 
which  faced  the  walls  to  a  certain  height. 
The  wall  occasionally  rises  above  the  usual 
height,  marking  the  remains  of  a  gateway 
or  tower.  The  mound  of  Koyunjik  is  96  ft. 
high,  nearly  4,000  ft.  long  from  N.  to  S.,  and 
about  1,500  ft.  from  E.  to  W.  The  summit  is 
nearly  flat,  and  was  formerly  occupied  by  a 
small  village.  The  sides  are  steep  and  fur- 
rowed with  occasional  watercourses.  Koyun- 
jik was  once  surrounded  by  a  small  but  deep 
stream  called  the  Khosr,  which  now  flows 
around  its  S.  E.  side.  The  mound  of  Nebi 
Yunus  is  about  1,600  ft.  from  E.  to  W.  and 
1,300  ft.  from  N.  to  S.,  but  about  as  high 
as  Koyunjik.  Its  summit  is  divided  by  a  de- 
pression into  two  parts.  The  Turkoman  vil- 
lage containing  the  traditional  tomb  of  Jonah 
occupies  its  summit,  together  with  a  burial 
ground  held  very  sacred  from  its  neighbor- 
hood. The  W.  side  of  the  great  quadrangle 
was  protected  by  the  Tigris.  The  E.  side  was 
defended  in  its  northern  part  by  the  Khosr, 
which  there  runs  parallel  with  the  wall,  and 
in  its  southern  part  by  two  great  moats,  which 
were  filled  from  the  Khosr  by  means  of  dams 
that  can  still  be  traced.  One  of  these  moats 
was  about  200  ft.  wide,  and  cut  in  the  native 
rock.  The  outer  eastern  rampart  was  of  earth, 
and  is  80  ft.  high ;  and  some  detached  towers 
seemed  marked  by  mounds  outside  of  this  out- 
er rampart.  The  mounds  at  Nimrud  have  an 
arrangement  somewhat  similar  to  those  op- 
posite Mosul.  They  are  included  in  a  walled 
square,  somewhat  irregular,  about  7,000  ft.  by 
6,285,  defended  on  the  west  and  south  by  the 
river,  on  the  north  and  east  by  moats,  and 
showing  traces  of  108  towers;  the  great 
mound  is  on  the  S.  W.  face  of  the  enclosure, 
and  2,100  ft.  by  1,200,  rising  in  its  N.  W. 
corner  in  a  pyramid  140  ft.  high.  A  group 
of  high  mounds,  which  the  Arabs  call  Athur, 
is  at  the  S.  E.  corner  of  the  enclosure.  The 
remains  at  Khorsabad  consist  of  an  enclosure 
about  6,000  ft.  square,  with  traces  of  gate- 
ways and  towers,  but  no  ditches,  and  in  the 
N.  W.  side  a  mound  in  two  parts  or  stages, 
the  lower  about  1,350  ft.  by  300,  and  the  up- 
per about  650  ft.  square  and  30  ft.  high,  while 
one  corner  is  marked  by  a  pyramid  like  that 
at  Nimrud,  but  smaller.  An  Arab  village 
formerly  occupied  the  summit  of  the  Khorsa- 
bad mounds. — In  the  three  mounds  of  Nim- 
rud, Koyunjik,  and  Khorsabad  the  most  of 
the  remains  of  ancient  sculptures  and  build- 
ings have  been  found.  The  mound  of  Nim- 
rud contains  the  ruins  of  several  distinct 
edifices,  erected  at  different  times,  materials 
for  the  construction  of  the  latest  having  been 
taken  from  an  earlier  building.  In  general 
plan  the  ruins  consist  of  a  number  of  halls, 
chambers,  and  galleries,  panelled  with  sculp- 
tured and  inscribed  slabs,  and  opening  one 
into  another  by  doorways,  generally  formed 
by  pairs  of  colossal  human-headed  and  winged 


bulls  or  lions.  The  exterior  architecture  could 
not  be  traced.  The  pyramidal  N.  W.  corner 
of  the  mound  rises  above  the  ruins  of  a  base- 
ment 165  ft.  square,  walled  to  the  height  of 
20  ft.  with  sun-dried  bricks,  and  faced  on  the 
four  sides  by  blocks  of  stone  carefully  squared, 
bevelled,  and  fitted  together.  This  stone  plinth 
corresponds  exactly  with  the  description  by 
Xenophon  of  the  deserted  city  on  the  Tigris, 
which  he  calls  Larissa  ("  Anabasis,"  iii.  4),  and 
is  surmounted  by  a  superstructure  of  bricks, 
as  he  describes,  the  burnt  bricks  being  gen- 
erally inscribed.  Above  this  base  a  succession 
of  platforms  probably  rose,  each  smaller  than 
the  one  below,  and  the  topmost  crowned  with 
a  shrine  or  altar.  A  vaulted  gallery,  100  ft. 
long,  6  broad,  and  12  high,  crossed  the  summit 
of  the  mound  at  the  level  of  the  top  of  the 
stone  plinth.  This  building  is  identified  with 
the  tower  described  by  Xenophon  at  Larissa. 
Its  builder  also  erected  in  the  centre  of  the 
great  mound  a  second  palace,  the  materials  of 
which  have  been  used  for  later  structures.  In 
its  ruins  was  found  a  black  obelisk,  now  in 
the  British  museum.  A  third  stood  on  the 
W.  face  of  the  mound,  and  was  built  by  Iva- 
lush,  identified  with  the  Pul  of  the  Hebrew 
Scriptures.  A  fourth  palace  was  built  mainly 
with  materials  taken  from  older  structures  by 
Esarhaddon,  about  680  B.  C.,  at  the  S.  W. 
corner  of  the  platform.  A  fifth  was  built  at 
the  S.  E.  corner  by  his  grandson  Asshur-emit- 
ilin,  but  much  smaller  than  the  rest,  its  cham- 
bers being  panelled  with  plain  unsculptured 
slabs ;  but  some  detached  figures  were  found 
here.  The  largest  palace  hitherto  explored 
stood  at  the  S.  W.  corner  of  the  mound  of 
Koyunjik.  It  was  built  by  Sennacherib  about 
700  B.  0.,  and  had  an  extent  of  nearly  100  acres. 
About  60  courts,  halls,  rooms,  and  passages 
have  been  discovered ;  some  of  the  halls  are  150 
ft.  square,  and  one  passage  is  200  ft.  long  ;  all  are 
panelled  with  sculptured  slabs  of  alabaster. 
The  winged  human-headed  lions  and  bulls  at 
the  principal  entrances  are  20  ft.  in  height. 
Layard  discovered  27  such  doorways.  In  the 
same  mound  are  the  ruins  of  a  second  palace, 
erected  by  his  son  Esarhaddon,  in  which  were 
discovered  a  series  of  sculptures  represent- 
ing a  lion  hunt,  now  in  the  British  museum. 
Somewhat  similar  remains  have  been  found  in 
the  other  mounds.  The  Assyrian  edifices  were 
generally  alike  in  plan,  construction,  and  dec- 
oration. They  were  built  upon  enormous 
platforms  raised  about  40  ft.  above  the  level 
of  the  plain,  either  by  heaping  up  earth  and 
rubbish  or  by  masonry  of  sun-dried  bricks. 
The  platforms  were  faced  with  stone,  and 
were  ascended  by  broad  flights  of  steps.  The 
palaces  themselves  were  constructed  princi- 
pally of  sun-dried  bricks,  though  kiln-burnt 
bricks  were  used  for  the  solider  parts,  and  a 
coarse  alabaster  quarried  near  the  city  was 
used  for  ornament.  The  walls  of  these  build- 
ings were  generally  about  15  ft.  thick,  and 
were  lined  with  sculptured  alabaster  slabs 


4:58 


NINEVEH 


from  8  to  10  ft.  high,  from  3  to  4  ft.  broad, 
and  about  18  in.  thick.      On  the  sculptured 
figures  were  inscriptions    recording  the   ex- 
ploits of  the   king  by  whom 
the  building  was  erected.    The 
apartments  were  high,  and  the 
spaces  above  the  slabs  were 


plastered  and  painted,  or  were  faced  with 
bricks  coated  with  enamel  of  elegant  de- 
signs and  brilliant  colors.  Ivory,  bronze, 
and  cedar  from  Mt.  Lebanon  were  also  used 
for  decoration,  which  was  heightened  by  gild- 
ing and  painting.  The  principle  of  the  arch 
was  understood  by  the  Assyrians.  In  some 


31ft. 
From  Entrance  of  Palace  at  Koyunjik. 


of  the  palaces  that  have  been  discovered  the 
panelling  of  sculptured  slabs  is  nearly  a  mile 
in  length.  The  principal  and  favorite  sub- 
jects of  these  representations  are  war  abroad 
and  state  at  home.  There  are  separate  sculp- 
tured histories  of  each  campaign  of  the  king, 
and  delineations  of  the  taking  of  all  the  con- 
siderable cities  that  resisted  him.  These  sieges 
and  the  treatment  of  the  captives,  which 
was  barbarous  in  the  extreme,  as  they  were 
sometimes  flayed  alive,  and  representations  of 
the  king  or  his  officers  receiving  tribute  or 
homage  from  the  conquered  people,  form  the 
most  common  scenes  of  the  bass  reliefs.  Many 
of  the  sculptures,  however,  are  of  a  purely 
religious  nature ;  some  are  wholly  occupied  by 
scenes  of  the  chase ;  some  are  actually  land- 
scapes ;  and  many  represent  thrones,  chariots, 
or  domestic  furniture  and  utensils.  No  Assy- 
rian women  ever  appear  in  the  sculptures, 
though  women  are  sometimes  represented  as 
captives  or  as  begging  for  mercy  from  the  walls 
of  a  falling  city.  As  only  the  lower  parts  of 
the  walls  of  the  palaces  of  Nineveh  have  been 
found,  it  is  uncertain  what  was  the  nature  and 
arrangement  of  the  upper  parts.  The  absence 
of  windows  makes  it  difficult  to  comprehend 
how  the  apartments  could  have  been  lighted. 
Mr.  Layard  at  first  supposed  them  to  have  con- 
sisted of  only  a  single  story  with  apertures  in 
the  ceiling  to  admit  light ;  but  he  afterward 
inclined  to  a  plausible  theory  advanced  with 
great  ability  and  ingenuity  by  Mr.  Fergusson, 
who  maintains  that  there  was  an  upper  story 
supported  by  columns  and  open  at  the  sides  to 
admit  light  to  the  rooms  below,  from  which 
the  sunshine  could  be  excluded  at  pleasure  by 
means  of  curtains.  This  open  upper  story 
was  used  in  fine  weather,  and  as  a  balcony 
from  which  the  king  could  show  himself  to  his 
subjects  or  review  his  troops.  The  columns 


which  supported  its  roof  stood  some  of  them 
on  the  floor  of  the  lower  story,  and  other 
shorter  ones  on  the  walls  of  the  lower  story, 
whose  immense  thickness  is  thus  accounted 
for.  These  edifices,  though  not  equalling  those 
of  the  Greeks  in  elegance  and  artistic  taste, 
nor  those  of  the  Egyptians  in  solid  magnificence 
and  strength,  must  have  been  exceedingly  gor- 
geous and  beautiful  structures.  They  were  in 
part  temples  as  well  as  palaces,  the  king  being 
not  only  political  chief  but  high  priest  of  the 
nation,  as  was  the  case  at  one  period  in  Egypt. 
uThe  interior  of  the  Assyrian  palace,"  says 
Mr.  Layard,  "  must  have  been  as  magnificent 
as  imposing.  I  have  led  the  reader  through 
its  ruins,  and  he  may  judge  of  the  impression 
its  halls  were  calculated  to  make  upon  the 
stranger  who,  in  the  days  of  old,  entered  for 
the  first  time  the  abode  of  the  Assyrian  kings. 
He  was  ushered  in  through  the  portal  guarded 
by  the  colossal  lions  or  bulls  of  white  alabas- 
ter. In  the  first  hall  he  found  himself  sur- 
rounded by  the  sculptured  records  of  the  em- 
pire. Battles,  sieges,  triumphs,  the  exploits 
of  the  chase,  the  ceremonies  of  religion,  were 
portrayed  on  the  walls,  sculptured  in  alabaster 
and  painted  in  gorgeous  colors.  Under  each 
picture  were  engraved,  in  characters  filled 
up  with  bright  copper,  inscriptions  describing 
the  scenes  represented.  Above  the  sculptures 
were  painted  other  events — the  king,  attend- 
ed by  his  eunuchs  and  warriors,  receiving  his 
prisoners,  entering  into  alliances  with  other 
monarchs,  or  performing  some  sacred  duty. 
These  representations  were  enclosed  in  col- 
ored borders  of  elaborate  and  elegant  design. 
The  emblematic  tree,  winged  bulls,  and  mon- 
strous animals  were  conspicuous  among  the 
ornaments.  At  the  upper  end  of  the  hall 
was  the  colossal  figure  of  the  king  in  adora- 
tion before  the  supreme  deity,  or  receiving 


NINEVEH 


NIORT 


459 


from  his  eunuch  the  holy  cup.  He  was  at- 
tended by  warriors  bearing  his  arms,  and  by 
the  priests  or  presiding  divinities.  His  robes 
and  those  of  his  followers  were  adorned  with 
groups  of  figures,  animals,  and  flowers,  all 
painted  with  brilliant  colors.  The  stranger 
trod  upon  alabaster  slabs,  each  bearing  an  in- 
scription recording  the  titles,  genealogy,  and 
achievements  of  the  great  king.  Several  door- 
ways, formed  by  gigantic  winged  lions  or 
bulls,  or  by  the  figures  of  guardian  deities,  led 
into  other  apartments  which  again  opened  into 
more  distant  halls.  On  the  walls  of  some 
were  processions  of  colossal  figures — armed 
men  and  eunuchs  following  the  king,  warriors 
laden  with  spoil,  leading  prisoners,  or  bearing 
presents  and  offerings  to  the  gods.  On  the 
walls  of  others  were  portrayed  the  winged 
priests,  or  presiding  divinities  standing  before 
the  sacred  trees.  These  edifices  were  great 
national  monuments,  upon  the  walls  of  which 
were  represented  in  sculpture  or  inscribed  in 
alphabetical  characters  the  chronicles  of  the 
empire.  He  who  entered  them  might  thus 
read  the  history  and  learn  the  glories  and  tri- 
umphs of  the  nation.  They  served  at  the  same 
time  to  bring  continually  to  the  remembrance 
of  those  who  assembled  within  them  on  fes- 
tive occasions,  or  for  the  celebration  of  reli- 
gious ceremonies,  the  deeds  of  their  ancestors 
and  the  power  and  majesty  of  their  gods." 
The  palaces  of  Nineveh  appear  generally  to 
have  been  destroyed  by  fire,  which  however 
could  not  injure  the  incombustible  and  mas- 
sive walls  of 'the  lower  part  of  the  first  story. 
These  with  their  sculptures  were  probably  at 
once  buried  by  the  falling  in  of  the  upper 
stories  and  of  the  higher  part  of  their  own 
structure,  and  the  ruins  were  in  time  wholly 
concealed  by  the  accumulation  of  rubbish  from 
the  villages  subsequently  built  on  them  and 
by  the  mould  of  decaying  vegetation,  through 
the  course  of  3,000  years.  Vases,  jars,  bronzes, 
glass  bottles,  carved  ivory  and  mother-of- 
pearl  ornaments,  engraved  gems,  bells,  dishes, 
ear  rings,  arms,  and  working  implements  have 
been  found  among  the  ruins,  generally  of  ele- 
gant form,  and  indicating  knowledge  of  the 
arts  and  a  refined  taste.  The  latest  explorer 
of  Nineveh,  George  Smith  of  the  British  mu- 
seum, was  probably  the  first  visitor  to  the  ruins 
who  could  read  the  inscriptions.  His  research- 
es resulted  in  the  collection  of  nearly  3,000 
tablets  or  fragments  of  tablets  of  inscriptions, 
including  among  the  fragments  those  of  the 
Chaldean  account  of  the  deluge  deciphered  by 
him  in  1872  from  broken  tablets  in  the  British 
museum.  He  describes  the  mounds  as  remain- 
ing nearly  in  the  state  they  were  left  by  Lay- 
ard. — The  history  of  Nineveh  and  its  sover- 
eigns, as  established  by  the  latest  researches, 
will  be  found  in  the  article  ASSYRIA.  See  Lay- 
ard,  "Nineveh  and  its  Remains,"  "Nineveh 
and  Babylon,"  and  "Monuments  of  Nineveh," 
first  and  second  series  (1849-'53);  Botta,  J/0- 
numentdeNinive(184Q-5Q);  Fergusson,  "Pal- 


aces of  Nineveh  and  Persepolis  Restored" 
(1851)  ;  Fresnel,  Expedition  scientifique  en 
Hesopotamie  (1858);  George  Smith,  "Assy- 
rian Discoveries  "  (1875) ;  and  the  articles  AS- 
SYRIA and  CUNEIFORM  INSCRIPTIONS,  and  the 
references  there  given. 

NINGPO,  a  city  of  China,  in  the  province  of 
Chekiang,  on  the  Takia  or  Ningpo  river,  near 
its  mouth  in  the  harbor  of  Chusan,  100  m.  S. 
of  Shanghai ;  lat.  29°  51'  N.,  Ion.  121°  32'  E. ; 
pop.  in  1869  estimated  at  500,000.  It  is  sur- 
rounded by  a  dilapidated  wall  about  6  m.  in 
circumference,  25  ft.  high,  and  15  ft.  broad  at 
the  top,  with  five  gates.  The  streets  are  long 
and  broad,  and  the  town  is  intersected  by  ca- 
nals and  connected  with  its  suburbs  by  a  bridge 
of  bo'ats.  There  are  several  temples,  the  most 
remarkable  of  which  is  a  brick  tower  160  ft. 
high,  said  to  have  been  erected  1,100  years 
ago.  There  are  government  warehouses  and 
public  buildings.  The  houses  are  mostly  one 
story  high,  but  the  shops  are  superior  to  those 
of  Canton.  In  1843  a  missionary  hospital  was 
established  at  Ningpo,  and  all  classes  have  re- 
sorted to  it  for  surgical  assistance.  The  ground 
in  the  neighborhood  is  flat  and  exceedingly 
fertile,  but  a  range  of  barren  hills  runs  along 
the  seashore.  The  principal  manufactures  are 
silk,  cotton,  and  woollen  goods ;  and  there 
are  very  extensive  salt  works.  Vessels  of 
about  300  tons  can  come  up  to  the  town,  while 
those  of  greater  size  load  and  unload  at  the 
mouth  of  the  river.  The  foreign  imports  are 
small. — Ningpo  was  taken  by  the  British  in 
1841,  and  occupied  for  some  months.  It  is 
one  of  the  five  ports  opened  to  general  inter- 
course by  the  treaty  of  Aug.  26,  1842.  The 
Roman  Catholics  and  several  Protestant  sects 
have  flourishing  missions  here.  In  1869  the 
various  Protestant  missions  in  Ningpo  and 
Hangchow  had  19'  missionaries,  965  communi- 
cants, and  284  pupils. 

NINON  DE  L'ENCLOS.     See  L'ENCLOS. 

NIOBE,  in  Grecian  mythology,  a  daughter  of 
Tantalus,  king  of  Lydia,  by  a  nymph.  She 
had  six  sons  and  six  daughters,  and  boasting 
herself  superior  to  Latona,  who  had  borne 
only  two  children,  Apollo  and  Diana,  to  avenge 
their  mother,  slew  all  the  children  of  Niobe, 
who  in  her  grief  wept  herself  to  stone. 

NIOBIUM.     See  COLUMBIUM. 

NIORT,  a  town  of  France,  in  Poitou,  capital 
of  the  department  of  Deux-Sevres,  on  the 
S6vre  Niortaise,  and  on  the  Orleans  and  La 
Rochelle  railway,  212  m.  S.  W.  of  Paris;  pop. 
in  1872,  21,344,  among  whom  are  about  6,000 
Protestants.  It  is  the  seat  of  a  tribunal  of 
the  first  grade,  of  a  court  of  assizes,  a  com- 
mercial court,  and  a  conseil  de  prud'hommes. 
It  has  a  lyceum,  a  public  library  of  30,000 
volumes,  a  museum  for  antiquities,  several 
learned  societies,  and  public  baths.  What  re- 
mains of  the  former  castle  is  now  used  as  a 
prison.  The  town  carries  on  a  brisk  trade,  es- 
pecially in  cotton  and  woollen  goods,  leather, 
and  gloves.  It  ia  celebrated  for  its  flowers 


460 


NIPHON 


NISARD 


and  vegetables,  and  the  public  gardens  are 
among  the  finest  in  France. 

NIPHON.     See  NIPPON. 

NIPIGON,  or  Nepigon,  a  lake  of  Ontario, 
Canada,  intersected  by  the  50th  parallel  and 
the  88th  meridian.  It  is  elliptical  in  shape, 
being  about  TO  m.  long  from  N.  to  S.  and  50 
m.  from  E.  to  W.,  though  the  shores  are  much 
indented  by  bays  and  the  coast  line  measures 
580  m.  It  is  thickly  studded  with  islands,  is 
very  deep,  and  abounds  in  fish.  Its  surface  is 
813  ft.  above  that  of  Lake  Superior.  It  receives 
numerous  streams,  and  discharges  through  Ni- 
pigon  river  (40  m.  long)  into  Nipigon  bay,  the 
most  northerly  point  of  Lake  Superior.  The 
river  contains  falls  and  rapids,  and  expands  in 
its  course  into  four  small  lakes. 

NIPISSING,  a  judicial  district  in  the  N.  part  of 
Ontario,  Canada,  lying  along  the  W.  bank  of  the 
Ottawa  river ;  area,  14,650  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1871, 
1,791.  It  contains  Nipissing  and  various  other 
lakes,  and  is  watered  by  numerous  streams. 

NIPISSING,  or  Nepissing,  a  lake  of  Ontario, 
Canada,  nearly  midway  between  Lake  Huron 
and  the  Ottawa  river.  It  is  about  50  m.  long 
from  E.  to  W.  and  15  m.  in  greatest  breadth, 
and  discharges  through  French  river  (55  m. 
long)  into  Georgian  bay.  This  river  contains 
numerous  islands  and  rapids.  The  lake  re- 
ceives several  streams,  the  largest  of  which  is 
Sturgeon  river  from  the  north. 

NIPISSINGS,  one  of  the  Algonquin  tribes  of 
Canada,  who  came  down  with  the  Hurons  to 
trade  soon  after  the  first  French  settlers  arrived. 
They  were  then  on  Lake  Nipissing  and  quite 
numerous;  they  were  industrious,  raising  a 
little  corn,  catching  and  drying  fish,  and  tra- 
ding it  with  northern  tribes  for  furs,  becoming 
rich  and  comfortable.  They  were  called  sor- 
cerers by  the  French  from  the  number  and  in- 
fluence of  the  medicine  men.  Europeans  in- 
troduced diseases  which  thinned  their  numbers, 
and  the  Iroquois  after  destroying  the  Hurons 
compelled  the  Nipissings  to  take  flight.  They 
retired  to  Lake  Alimipegon,  which  empties 
into  Lake  Superior  from  the  north.  Missions 
had  been  begun  among  them  by  Pijart,  Me- 
nard,  and  Garreau  at  Lake  Nipissing,  and  were 
revived  by  Allouez  after  their  removal.  As 
peace  was  restored  they  moved  east,  and  most 
of  the  survivors  finally  joined  the  Iroquois 
and  Algonquin  mission  formed  by  the  Sulpi- 
cians  at  the  lake  of  the  Two  Mountains,  where 
a  remnant  still  reside,  the  three  tribes  at  the 
mission  numbering  515  in  1873.  The  Nipissings 
had  a  feast  of  the  dead,  with  curious  rites,  dif- 
fering somewhat  from  that  of  the  Hurons. 

NIPPON,  or  Niphon,  the  name  improperly 
given  by  Europeans  to  the  principal  island  of 
the  Japanese  empire.  The  Japanese  call  the 
whole  empire  Dai  Nippon,  but  had  no  separate 
name  for  the  main  island  till  1873,  when  in  a 
military  geography  published  by  the  war  de- 
partment it  was  called  Hondo.  So  long  as 
Japan  was  an  isolated  country,  the  govern- 
ment dual,  the  land  divided  into  hundreds  of 


principalities,  her  best  ship  a  junk,  and  travel 
uncommon,  there  was  no  need  to  make  the 
discriminations  which  modern  geography  de- 
mands. Nippon  extends  from  lat.  33°  26'  to 
41°  35'  N.,  and  is  separated  on  the  north  from 
the  island  of  Yezo  or  Yesso  by  the  strait  of 
Tsugaru ;  on  the  south  and  southeast  from  the 
islands  of  Kiushiu  and  Shikoku  by  narrow 
straits ;  and  on  the  southwest  from  Corea  by 
the  Corea  strait,  120  m.  wide.  It  stretches 
from  N.  E.  to  S.  W.  in  a  curved  form,  being 
about  800  m.  long,  with  an  average  breadth 
of  100  m.,  the  greatest  breadth  being  250  m. ; 
the  total  area  is  about  80,000  sq.  m. ;  pop. 
25,000,000.  It  is  divided  into  53  provinces, 
and,  besides  several  other  large  cities,  contains 
Tokio  (formerly  Yedo),  the  present  capital, 
Kioto,  the  former  capital,  Ozaka,  and  Nagoya. 
The  coasts  are  deeply  indented,  have  many 
good  harbors,  on  which  are  the  large  cities,  and 
are  bordered  by  numerous  islets  and  detached 
rocks.  There  are  no  large  rivers.  The  moun- 
tain ranges  have  a  general  trend  from  N.  to  S., 
usually  presenting  a  steep  face  to  the  east,  and 
sloping  on  the  W.  side.  The  principal  peak  is 
the  volcanic  cone  of  Fusiyama.  (See  JAPAN.) 
NISARD.  I.  Jean  Marie  Napoleon  Desire,  a  French 
author,  born  in  Chatillon-sur-Seine,  March  20, 
1806.  At  the  age  of  20  he  became  a  regular 
contributor  to  the  Journal  des  Debats,  but  af- 
ter the  revolution  of  1830  he  broke  off  his 
connection  with  it  and  wrote  literary  articles 
for  the  National.  He  opposed  the  new  school 
of  literature,  and  in  his  first  publication,  Les 
poetes  latins  de  la  decadence  (1834),  drew  criti- 
cal parallels  between  the  minor  Latin  poets 
of  the  imperial  period  and  the  new  French 
poets.  His  Manifeste  centre  la  litterature  facile 
was  answered  by  Jules  Janin,  and  the  contro- 
versy became  one  of  the  chief  literary  events 
in  Louis  Philippe's  reign.  In  1835  Nisard  was 
appointed  by  M.  Guizot  maitre  de  conferences 
on  French  literature  in  the  normal  school ;  in 
1836  chief  secretary  to  the  minister  of  public 
instruction  and  master  of  requests  in  the  coun- 
cil of  state;  and  finally  in  1837  chief  of  the 
department  of  science  and  literature.  In  1842 
he  was  elected  to  the.  chamber  of  deputies,  and 
attached  himself  to  the  conservative  party.  ID 
1843  he  became  professor  of  Latin  eloquence 
in  the  college  de  France.  In  1850  he  was 
elected  to  the  French  academy.  In  1852  he 
was  appointed  general  inspector  of  superior 
instruction,  and  succeeded  Villemain  in  the 
chair  of  French  eloquence  at  the  Sorbonne. 
Here  M.  Nisard  was  at  first  coldly  received, 
and  in  1855  he  was  hissed  from  his  chair  by 
the  students;  but  with  the  assistance  of  the 
police  he  continued  his  lectures.  In  1857  he 
became  director  of  the  high  normal  school,  his 
appointment  being  made  the  occasion  of  a  re- 
organization of  the  school.  He  retired  from 
this  post  in  1867,  when  he  was  made  a  sena- 
tor, and  he  was  also  a  member  of  the  impe- 
rial council  of  public  instruction.  Besides  the 
works  above  alluded  to,  he  has  published  His- 


NISIBIS 

toire  et  description  de  la  mile  de  Nimes  (8vo, 
1835);  Melanges  (2  vols.  8vo,  1838);  Precis  de 
Vhistoire  de  la  litterature  francaise  depuis  ses 
premiers  monuments  jusqu*d  nos  jours  (18mo, 
1840),  a  valuable  sketch,  which  was  first  printed 
in  the  Dictionnaire  de  la  conversation;  and 
Histoire  de  la  litterature  francaise  (4  vols.  8vo, 
1844-'61 ;  new  ed.,  4  vols.  12mo,  1863),  a  re- 
modelling of  his  lectures  at  the  normal  school. 
His  most  important  essays  published  in  the 
reviews  have  been  reprinted  under  the  titles 
of  Etudes  sur  les  grands  hommes  de  la  renais- 
sance (1856),  and  Etudes  de  critique  litteraire 
(1858),  containing  his  essays  Les  deux  morales, 
and  Nouvelles  etudes  d'histoire  et  de  litterature 
(1864).  He  has  also  superintended  the  publi- 
cation of  the  Collection  des  classiques  latins, 
with  a  French  translation  (27  vols.  8vo,  1839 
et  seq.).  II.  Marie  Edouard  Charles,  a  French  au- 
thor, brother  of  the  preceding,  born  in  Chatil- 
lon-sur-Seine,  Jan.  10, 1808.  He  left  commer- 
cial for  literary  life,  was  from  1831  to  1848 
a  journalist  attached  to  the  service  of  Louis 
Philippe,  and  subsequently  became  connected 
with  the  ministry  of  the  interior.  Among  his 
principal  works  are :  Histoire  des  litres  popu- 
laires  depuis  le  XV*  siecle  jusqu'en  1852  (2 
vols.,  1854;  2d  ed.,  1864);  Les  gladiateurs  de 
la  republique  des  lettres  aux  XVe,  XVIe  et 
XVII*  siecles  (2  vols.,  1860);  and  Histoire  de 
la  langue  populaire  de  Paris  et  de  sa  lanlieue 
(1873).  In  1874  he  proposed  to  publish,  with 
notes,  about  200  letters  recently  discovered  by 
him  in  the  library  of  Parma,  including  152 
from  the  count  de  Caylus  and  48  from  the 
abbe  Barthelemy. 

NISIBIS,  in  ancient  geography,  the  capital  of 
Mygdonia,  a  district  of  Mesopotamia,  on  the 
river  Mygdonius.  It  was  important  as  a  com- 
mercial city  and  a  military  post,  being  fre- 
quently conspicuous  during  the  wars  of  the 
Romans  against  Armenia,  Parthia,  and  Persia. 
From  the  latter  part  of  the  4th  century  it  re- 
mained in  the  hands  of  the  Persians.  Its  ruins 
are  now  visible  near  Nizibin  in  the  Turkish 
vilayet  of  Diarbekir.  Some  critics  identify 
the  district  in  which  it  was  situated  with  the 
Aram  Zoba  of  Scripture;  while  others  place 
the  latter  near  Nizib  on  the  Euphrates,  a  place 
known  by  the  victory  of  Ibrahim  Pasha  over 
the  Turkish  army  in  June,  1839. 

NISI  PRIUS,  a  law  term,  which  originated  as 
follows.  Anciently,  nearly  all  actions  in  Eng- 
land of  any  importance  were  begun  and  tried 
before  the  courts  of  Westminster.  But  when 
the  custom  began  of  bringing  actions  of  less 
value  before  these  courts,  and  these  grew  to  be 
numerous,  the  burden  of  coming  from  differ- 
ent and  distant  parts  of  England  to  London 
became  very  great ;  and  a  practice  was  intro- 
duced some  centuries  since  of  beginning  a  case 
in  Westminster,  as  the  law  required,  but  con- 
tinuing it  from  term  to  term,  "  unless  before  " 
the  next  term  a  court  which  could  try  the  case 
should  be  held  in  the  county  where  the  cause 
of  action  arose  or  existed.  The  record  was  in 


NITRATES 


461 


Latin ;  and  the  words  nisi  prius  (unless  before), 
being  the  essential  part,  gave  name  to  the 
whole  procedure.  A  court  of  eyre  or  of  assize 
always  did  sit  in  the  county  in  the  vacation, 
and  so  the  case  was  sure  to  be  tried  at  home. 
Practically  the  phrase  "  nisi  prius  court,"  both 
in  England  and  the  United  States,  now  signi- 
fies a  court  held  by  one  of  the  judges,  or  less 
than  a  whole  bench,  usually  with  a  jury,  be- 
cause such  was  the  constitution  of  the  assize 
courts  before  mentioned.  Hence  the  deter- 
mination of  a  law  question  at  nisi  prius  is  com- 
monly made  by  one  judge  only,  and  on  the 
spur  of  the  moment.  Many  volumes  have  been 

Eublished,  both  in  England  and  the  United 
tates,  of  the  decisions  made  at  nisi  prius ;  but 
they  have  not  the  authority  of  decisions  made 
by  the  court  sitting  in  ~banco,  both  because  they 
are  usually  the  decisions  of  one  judge  only, 
and  also  because  the  judges  have  not  had  the 
aid  of  full  argument  by  counsel. 

NISSA,  or  Nish  (anc.  Naissus),  a  town  of  Eu- 
ropean Turkey,  in  the  vilayet  of  Prisrend,  on 
the  Nissava,  an  affluent  of  the  Morava,  70  m. 
S.  W.  of  Widdin;  pop.  recently  estimated  at 
from  6,000  to  16,000,  including  many  Chris- 
tians. It  is  the  residence  of  a  Turkish  pasha 
and  of  a  Greek  bishop,  and  has  famous  ther- 
mal springs.  It  is  chiefly  remarkable  for  its 
fortifications,  and  for  commanding  military 
communications  between  Thrace,  Bulgaria,  and 
Servia.  The  plain  of  Nissa  is  very  fertile.  The 
town  was  formerly  the  capital  of  Servia.  The 
ancient  Naissus  was  an  important  city,  and  the 
birthplace  of  Constantine  the  Great. 

NITRATES,  salts  formed  by  the  combination 
of  nitric  acid  with  bases.  Some  of  these  are 
natural  products,  as  the  nitrates  of  potash, 
soda,  lime,  and  magnesia ;  and  others  are  arti- 
ficially formed,  as  the  nitrates  of  the  metals. 
Several  of  both  kinds  are  sufficiently  important 
to  require  particular  mention.  None  of  these 
salts  possess  acid  reaction;  they  are  distin- 
guished for  their  solubility  in  water,  and  hence, 
the  acid  not  forming  a  precipitate  with  any 
base,  its  presence,  free  or  combined,  can  be 
determined  only  by  other  methods,  several  of 
which  are  described  in  works  on  chemistry. 
At  a  high  heat  the  nitrates  undergo  decomposi- 
tion, sometimes  being  converted  into  free  nitric 
acid  and  the  oxidized  base,  and  sometimes  into 
oxygen,  which  escapes,  and  nitrous  acid,  which 
remains  in  combination  with  the  base,  forming 
a  nitrite.— 1.  Nitrate  of  Potash,  Nitre,  or  Salt- 
petre. First  in  importance  among  these  salts 
is  the  nitrate  of  potash,  or  potassic  nitrate, 
represented  by  the  formula  KNO3.  It  is  an 
anhydrous,  dimorphous  white  salt,  having  a 
specific  gravity  of  2 -07,  crystallizing  in  long 
six-sided  prisms  with  dihedral  summits,  be- 
longing to  the  rhombic  system,  and  also  in 
rhombohedral  forms  resembling  ordinary  calc 
spar.  Frankenheim  observed  that  when  a  solu- 
tion of  saltpetre  is  left  to  evaporate  under  the 
microscope,  both  kinds  of  crystals  make  their 
appearance  together.  When  the  evaporation 


462 


NITRATES 


takes  place  slowly,  the  crystals  are  almost  all 
rhombohedrons ;  but  if  these  are  touched  with 
a  prismatic  crystal,  the  solution  becomes  tur- 
bid with  formation  of  prismatic  crystals.  These 
prismatic  crystals  may  be  again  converted  into 
rhombohedrons  by  heating  to  near  the  fusing 
point.  Nitrate  of  potash  dissolves  in  3£  parts 
of  water  at  64°  F.,  and  in  one  third  its  weight 
of  boiling  water.  It  is  insoluble  in  absolute 
alcohol,  is  not  subject  to  deliquesce,  has  a  sharp 
biting  taste,  and  is  without  action  on  vegeta- 
ble colors.  It  fuses  without  decomposition  at 
674*4°,  and  when  cast  into  moulds  solidifies  to 
a  white  fibrous  radiated  mass  known  as  sal 
prunelle.  At  a  red  heat  it  decomposes  with 
formation  of  nitrite  and  evolution  of  oxygen, 
and  at  a  higher  heat  the  nitrite  is  also  decom- 
posed, with  evolution  of  oxygen  and  nitro- 
gen and  formation  of  potassic  oxide  and  per- 
oxide. In  large  crystals  it  is  apt  to  contain 
water  mechanically  held,  which  retains  in  solu- 
tion some  of  the  foreign  salts  derived  from 
the  mother  liquor,  as  sulphate  of  soda  and 
the  chlorides  of  potassium  and  sodium.  Small- 
er crystals  are  commonly  purer ;  but  common 
salt  is  almost  always  present  to  some  extent, 
and  is  particularly  injurious  to  saltpetre  de- 
signed for  the  manufacture  of  gunpowder.  A 
mixture  of  saltpetre  with  carbonaceous  mat- 
ters is  explosive  when  highly  heated;  and 
when  this  mixture  is  intimately  made,  the  pro- 
duct is  gunpowder;  sulphur,  which  is  com- 
monly introduced,  not  being  essential  for  this 
property.  (See  GUNPOWDER.)  Saltpetre  is  ob- 
tained both  as  a  natural  and  artificial  product. 
It  is  generated  wherever  nitrogenous  animal 
and  vegetable  matters  undergo  decomposition 
in  the  presence  of  moist  calcareous  earth  con- 
taining potash,  the  temperature  being  generally 
above  60°  F.  Ammonia  is  produced,  which  is 
decomposed,  its  nitrogen  forming  with  oxygen 
nitric  acid,  which  combines  with  the  alkaline 
earths  present.  Nitre  forms  naturally  upon 
the  walls  of  cellars  and  of  caves  as  an  efflores- 
cence. On  the  surface  of  some  soils  in  warm 
countries  it  also  appears  in  this  form  after  the 
rainy  season,  and  in  sufficient  quantity  to  ren- 
der its  collection  profitable.  In  Hindostan  it  is 
thus  produced  so  abundantly  and  cheaply,  that 
our  own  market  is  largely  supplied  from  Cal- 
cutta. To  separate  the  nitre  from  the  earth 
which  contains  it,  this  is  lixiviated  with  water, 
which  dissolves  out  the  soluble  salts ;  and  in  the 
large  vats  into  which  the  liquid  is  conveyed  the 
salts  crystallize  as  the  water  is  evaporated  by 
solar  or  artificial  heat.  The  first  crystals  that 
form  are  crude  saltpetre ;  nitrates  of  lime  and 
magnesia  mostly  remain  in  the  mother  liquor, 
and  are  either  thrown  away  with  it,  or  in  some 
cases  are  decomposed  by  treatment  with  car- 
bonate of  potash,  and  their  nitric  acid  is  thus 
recovered  in  new  quantities  of  nitre.  Natural 
saltpetre  beds  are  also  worked  in  Hungary, 
Egypt,  Spain,  and  in  various  warm  countries. 
In  hot  countries  it  does  not  appear  that  the  im- 
mediate presence  of  decomposing  animal  mat- 


ters is  essential  to  the  production  of  saltpetre ; 
but  ammonia  thus  derived  and  existing  in  the 
atmosphere  is  no  doubt  brought  to  the  potash. 
In  temperate  climates  the  salt  is  artificially  pro- 
duced in  what  are  called  in  Europe  saltpetre 
plantations.  These  are  compost  heaps  of  ani- 
mal and  vegetable  matters  intermixed  with 
earth,  and  with  potash,  lime,  and  magnesia, 
presented  in  porous  form,  as  in  ashes,  marl, 
chalk,  and  old  mortar.  The  heaps  are  exposed 
to  the  air,  but  it  is  better  to  protect  them  from 
the  rain.  Gutters  are  excavated  around  them, 
and  in  these  are  kept  liquids  from  the  cattle 
stalls  and  other  similar  fluids  rich  in  nitrogen, 
with  which  the  materials  are  occasionally  moist- 
ened. In  Sweden,  the  heaps  are  worked  over 
once  a  week  in  summer  and  once  a  month  in 
winter,  and  twigs  are  introduced  to  keep  them 
open.  The  work  is  generally  continued  three 
years,  until  the  product  of  saltpetre  amounts  to 
about  5  oz.  in  1,000  cubic  inches.  For  an  an- 
nual product  of  10  cwt.  it  is  necessary  to  work 
over  full  120  cubic  fathoms  of  earth,  of  which 
one  third  becomes  ripe  each  year,  and  is  re- 
moved from  time  to  time  from  the  outermost 
layers  to  be  lixiviated.  The  crude  product  ob- 
tained is  afterward  purified  by  repeated  solu- 
tions and  crystallizations.  Saltpetre  is  now 
extensively  manufactured  by  the  double  de- 
composition of  the  nitrate  of  soda  from  Chili 
and  the  chloride  of  potassium  from  the  salt 
mines  of  Stassfurt,  Germany.  Besides  its  use 
for  making  gunpowder,  nitre  is  employed  in 
the  manufacture  of  nitric  acid.  It  is  also  a 
useful  oxidizing  flux  in  metallurgical  opera- 
tions, and  in  medicine  is  much  used  for  its 
cooling  properties  in  inflammatory  affections, 
and  also  as  a  promoter  of  perspiration  and  the 
secretions  of  the  liver.  In  acute  rheumatism 
it  is  sometimes  administered  in  doses,  largely 
diluted  with  water,  to  the  extent  of  from  one 
to  two  ounces,  though  half  an  ounce  in  con- 
centrated solution  causes  heat  and  pain  in  the 
stomach,  which  may  be  followed  by  convul- 
sions and  death.  When  taken  in  poisonous 
quantities  there  is  no  antidote  known,  and  the 
only  relief  is  by  the  use  of  the  stomach  pump, 
laudanum  to  allay  the  pain,  and  mucilaginous 
drinks  and  cordials.  Nitre  is  also  a  powerful 
antiseptic,  and  is  used  in  the  preservation  of 
meats,  as  for  curing  hams. — 2.  Nitrate  of  Soda.. 
Another  variety  of  nitre,  called  cubic  nitre,  is 
the  salt  nitrate  of  soda  or  sodic  nitrate  (Na 
NO3).  It  crystallizes  in  obtuse  rhombohedrons 
of  specific  gravity  2*26.  It  is  deliquescent,  sol- 
uble in  about  twice  its  weight  of  cold  water, 
and  has  a  cooling  saline  taste.  It  fuses  at  591°, 
and  is  decomposed  at  a  higher  temperature. 
It  is  found  in  beds  among  the  hills  in  the 
province  of  Tarapaca  which  skirt  the  coast  of 
Peru,  and  at  their  base  on  the  W.  side  of  the 
pampa  over  an  extent  of  not  less  than  150  m. 
Under  the  nitrate  of  soda  is  marl  impregnated 
with  saline  matter  and  mixed  with  fragments 
of  shells.  The  nitrate  of  soda,  as  quarried, 
is  very  variable  in  quality,  some  yielding  not 


NITRATES 


463 


more  than  25  per  cent,  and  some  three  times 
as  much  of  the  genuine  salt.  It  is  mostly 
worked  with  the  pick  and  shovel,  but  is  some- 
times so  compact  that  the  beds  have  to  be 
blasted.  Portions  of  the  salt  are  pure  white 
like  loaf  sugar,  and  others  are  colored  reddish 
brown,  lemon  yellow,  and  gray.  Its  average 
composition  was  found  by  Dr.  A.  A.  Hayes  to 
be  as  follows :  nitrate  of  soda,  64*98 ;  sulphate 
of  soda,  3-00;  chloride  of  sodium,  28*69;  iodic 
salts,  0-63 ;  shells  and  marl,  2*60 ;  total,  99*90. 
The  extraction  and  refining  of  the  salt  afford 
employment  to  a  large  part  of  the  inhabitants 
of  the  province.  It  is  taken  to  Iquique  for 
shipment  to  all  parts  of  the  world.  It  is  used 
in  the  manufacture  of  nitric  acid,  of  saltpetre, 
and  of  iodine,  but  its  tendency  to  deliquesce 
renders  it  unfit  for  that  of  gunpowder ;  it  is, 
however,  a  valuable  fertilizer.  The  salt  is  re- 
ported to  occur  in  large  quantities  in  Pernam- 
buco,  west  of  Ipu,  the  formation  extending  15 
to  20  m. — 3.  Nitrate  of  Silver,  or  Lunar  Caus- 
tic. Among  other  nitrates  the  most  important 
is  the  nitrate  of  silver,  or  argentic  nitrate  (Ag 
NO3).  It  may  be  prepared  by  dissolving  pure 
silver  in  nitric  acid,  evaporating  to  dryness, 
and  fusing  to  expel  nitrous  acid,  and  to  de- 
stroy impurities  which  may  have  been  received 
during  the  operation,  dissolving  in  water,  and 
crystallizing.  The  salt  crystallizes  in  square 
tables,  which  are  colorless  and  anhydrous,  hav- 
ing a  specific  gravity  of  4*336.  At  426°  it 
fuses,  and  may  then  be  cast  into  the  crystal- 
line sticks  which  pass  under  the  names  of 
lunar  caustic  and  lapis  wfernalis,  and  are  em- 
ployed in  surgery.  At  higher  temperatures  it 
is  reduced  to  a  metallic  state.  Nitrate  of  silver 
acts  powerfully  but  superficially  as  a  caustic, 
giving  rise  to  a  white  slough,  which  blackens 
on  exposure  to  the  light.  It  may  be  used  in 
solutions  of  all  strengths,  and  also  solid.  In 
the  latter  form  it  is  sometimes  diluted  with 
alum  or  sulphate  of  copper.  The  sticks  of  ni- 
trate of  silver  are  occasionally  made  to  contain 
chloride  of  silver  in  order  to  render  them  less 
brittle.  Its  solution  in  pure  water  remains 
colorless ;  but  if  the  smallest  quantity  of  organ- 
ic matter  be  present,  it  is  soon  discolored  when 
exposed  to  the  light.  It  is  thus  a  delicate 
test  of  the  presence  of  organic  matter.  With 
albumen  and  fibrine  it  forms  insoluble  com- 
pounds, and  may  be  employed  to  remove  them 
from  solution.  The  property  of  the  solution  to 
turn  black  by  the  reduction  of  the  oxide  of  the 
silver,  when  the  fluid  is  applied  to  organic  sub- 
stances and  exposed  to  the  light,  renders  it  of 
important  use  for  marking  linen.  The  so-called 
indelible  ink  is  prepared  for  this  purpose  by 
dissolving  one  part  of  the  salt  and  four  parts 
of  gum  arabic  in  four  parts  of  water,  and  add- 
ing a  small  quantity  of  India  ink.  The  spot 
to  be  marked  is  first  wetted  with  a  solution  of 
carbonate  of  soda  and  dried,  and  when  writ- 
ten upon  it  is  exposed  to  the  sunlight.  The 
spots  may  be  removed  by  converting  the  silver 
with  a  few  drops  of  iodine  into  the  iodide, 
607"  VOL.  xn.— 30 


and  dissolving  this  by  a  solution  of  hyposul- 
phite of  soda,  or  a  dilute  solution  of  caustic 
potash.  A  hair  dye  is  also  prepared  with  ni- 
trate of  silver  by  dissolving  it  in  ether.  The 
nitrate  is  extensively  used  in  photography  on 
account  of  the  action  of  light  upon  it.  (See 
PHOTOGRAPHY.) — 4.  Nitrate  of  Ammonium,  or 
Ammonic  Nitrate  (nitrum  flammans,  N03NH4, 
or  according  to  the  old  formula  NH4O,NO5). 
Nitrate  of  ammonium  is  formed  by  the  action 
of  the  electric  current  on  a  mixture  of  nitrogen 
and  oxygen  with  an  excess  of  hydrogen ;  also  by 
passing  sulphuretted  hydrogen  gas  through  di- 
lute nitric  acid ;  but  the  common  method  is  to 
add  a  slight  excess  of  aqua  ammonia  to  nitric 
acid.  It  ordinarily  crystallizes  in  long  flexible 
needles,  or  deposits  as  an  amorphous  mass;  but 
if  the  crystallization  takes  place  slowly,  six- 
sided  prisms  like  those  of  nitrate  of  potash  may 
be  obtained,  of  specific  gravity  1*635.  When 
this  salt  is  dissolved  in  water,  there  is  a  consid- 
erable disappearance  of  heat,  and  it  is  often 
used  in  f  rigorific  mixtures.  It  melts  at  226°  F., 
and  at  482°  is  completely  decomposed,  with 
conversion  into  nitrous  oxide  or  laughing  gas 
and  water  (N03NH4=N20  +  2H20).  It  is  the 
material  universally  used  for  the  production 
of  laughing  gas.  (See  NITKOUS  OXIDE.) — 5. 
Nitrate  of  Barium,  Baric  Nitrate,  or  Ba- 
ryta Saltpetre  (Ba2NO3),  is  commonly  pro- 
duced by  treating  a  solution  of  sulphide  of  ba- 
rium, or  of  the  carbonate  of  barium,  which  is 
found  native  as  a  mineral,  with  nitric  acid.  It 
crystallizes  in  anhydrous  regular  octahedral 
crystals,  of  specific  gravity  3*184  (Karsten). 
Unless  the  solution  is  dilute,  nitric  acid  will 
cause  precipitation  without  evaporation.  When 
heated  it  decrepitates  strongly,  then  fuses, 
and  at  a  high  temperature  all  the  acid  is  ex- 
pelled, with  evolution  of  oxygen  and  nitrogen, 
the  residue  being  pure  baric  oxide,  or  barytes. 
(See  SULPHATE  OF  BAEIUM,  under  SULPHATES.) 
— 6.  Nitrate  of  Bismuth,  or  Bismuthous  Ni- 
trate (Bi  3NO3,  5H2O ;  sp.  gr.  2*376),  is  easily 
formed  by  dissolving  the  metal  or  the  oxide  or 
carbonate  in  nitric  acid  of  moderate  strength. 
The  concentrated  solution  must  be  filtered 
through  asbestus,  as  it  corrodes  paper  from 
its  readiness  to  part  with  a  portion  of  its  acid. 
When  the  salt  is  largely  diluted  with  water,  an 
acid  salt  remains  in  solution,  while  an  insolu- 
ble basic  subnitrate  (Bi2O3,2HN03)  falls,  called 
by  the  older  writers  magistery  of  bismuth. 
Another  basic  nitrate  (Bi2O3,HN03)  is  known, 
which  like  the  other  loses  acid  by  washing. 
The  subnitrate  is  a  heavy  white  powder  of 
faintly  sour  taste,  and  reddens  litmus  paper. 
It  is  used  in  medicine  as  an  antispasmodic,  ab- 
sorbent, sedative,  and  astringent.  When  long 
used  it  produces  scorbutic  symptoms,  a  proof 
that  it  is  absorbed.  It  is  principally  employed 
in  painful  affections  of  the  stomach,  in  spas- 
modic diseases,  and  in  dysentery  and  diarrjioaa. 
Rayer  employed  it  with  advantage  in  diarrhoea 
of  phthisis  and  typhus.  M.  Monneret  recom- 
mends it  as  a  drying  application.  Dr.  W.  E. 


464: 


NITRATES 


NITRIC  ACID 


Hamilton  of  St.  Augustine,  111.  ("American 
Journal  of  Medical  Sciences,"  Oct.  1,  1865), 
recommends  it  to  prevent  pitting  in  smallpox. 
— 7.  Nitrate  of  Cobalt,  or  Gobaltous  Nitrate 
(Co2NO3,6H2O),  is  prepared  by  dissolving  the 
oxide  in  nitric  acid.  It  forms  pinkish  red, 
prismatic,  deliquescent  crystals  of  specific  grav- 
ity 1*83.  It  is  often  employed  as  a  reagent  for 
the  blowpipe,  magnesium  compounds  yielding 
a  pink-colored  mass,  those  of  zinc  green,  and 
those  of  aluminum  blue.  Adding  a  concen- 
trated solution  of  potassic  nitrate  to  a  solution 
of  cobaltous  nitrate,  acidulated  with  nitric  or 
acetic  acid,  throws  down  a  beautiful  orange- 
yellow  precipitate,  consisting  of  microscopic 
four-sided  prisms,  with  pyramidal  summits. 
Cobalt  in  nickel  may  be  discovered  by  its 
means. — 8.  Nitrate  of  Copper,  or  Cupric  Ni- 
trate (Cu2NO3,6H3O),  is  made  by  dissolving 
copper  in  slightly  diluted  nitric  acid.  During 
the  operation  nitric  oxide  gas  (NO)  is  copiously 
given  off,  3Cu  +  8HNO3,  yielding  3(Cu2N03)  + 
2NO+4HaO.  Concentrated  acid  yields  perox- 
ide of  nitrogen  (NO2).  Cupric  nitrate  is  a  beau- 
tiful blue,  highly  deliquescent  salt,  crystallizing 
in  rhomboidal  prisms.  At  temperatures  above 
59°  F.,  it  crystallizes  with  3HaO  in  needles  of 
specific  gravity  2 '047,  which  are  very  soluble 
in  alcohol.  Moderate  heat  converts  it  into 
insoluble  basic  nitrate,  Cu2No3,3CuH3Oa.  A 
further  heat  expels  all  the  acid,  leaving  black 
oxide.  Cnpric  nitrate  is  used  in  medicine  as 
an  application  to  sloughing  ulcers.  If  the 
crystals  are  folded  in  tin  foil,  they  will  act  so 
powerfully  upon  the  metal  as  to  emit  sparks, 
the  tin  being  converted  into  stannic  oxide. — 9. 
Nitrates  of  Iron.  These  are  commonly  known 
as  the  protonitrate  and  the  pernitrate ;  in  the 
new  nomenclature  they  are  known  respectively 
as  ferrous  nitrate  and  ferric  nitrate.  The  fer- 
rous nitrate  may  be  formed  by  digesting  iron 
turnings  in  very  dilute  nitric  acid,  and  also  by 
dissolving  protosulphide  of  iron  in  cold  dilute 
nitric  acid  of  specific  gravity  less  than  1'12. 
It  crystallizes  in  pale  green  rhombohedrons, 
having  the  formula  Fe2NO3,6H,O.  This  salt 
is  used  in  dyeing.  The  pernitrate  or  ferric 
nitrate  is  prepared  by  digesting  metallic  iron 
in  nitric  acid  of  specific  gravity  from  ri2  to 
1'3.  A  solution  of  it  is  used  as  an  astringent 
and  tonic  in  medicine,  and  as  a  lotion  in  sur- 
gery, under  the  name  of  liquor  ferri  nitratis 
(United  States  Pharmacopoeia). — 10.  Nitrates 
of  Lead.  Lead  forms  several  salts  with  nitric 
acid,  the  principal  of  which  are  plumbic  ni- 
trate (Pb2N03)  and  dibasic  plumbic  nitrate 
(Pb2N03,PbH202).  The  first  is  formed  by 
dissolving  metallic  lead  or  plumbic  oxide  (lith- 
arge, PbO)  in  an  excess  of  slightly  diluted  nitric 
acid.  It  crystallizes  in  regular  anhydrous  octa- 
hedra,  generally  opaque.  A  dull  red  heat  re- 
duces it  to  protoxide,  with  evolution  of  oxygen 
and  nitric  peroxide.  Caustic  ammonia  added 
to  eicess  of  the  nitrate  forms  the  dibasic  salt. 
The  nitrate  of  lead  is  used  in  chemistry  in  pre- 
paring other  lead  compounds,  as  for  instance 


the  iodide,  which  is  done  by  the  double  decom- 
position of  this  salt  with  iodide  of  potassium. 
It  is  also  used  as  a  reagent  in  the  laboratory. 
In  medicine  it  is  employed  as  an  application 
to  excoriated  surfaces,  and  its  solution  forms 
Ledoyen's  disinfecting  fluid.— 11.  Nitrates  of 
Mercury.  Mercury  forms  a  greater  number  of 
nitrates  than  any  other  metal.  Among  them 
are  the  normal  subnitrate,  or  mercurous  ni- 
trate, and  the  normal  mercuric  nitrate,  the 
latter  of  which  is  used  in  medicine.  The  liquor 
Jiydrargyri  nitratis  is  extensively  used  in  the 
London  hospitals  for  cutaneous  diseases,  and  it 
has  been  employed  as  an  application  in  boils, 
carbuncles,  acne,  lupus,  and  sloughing  ulcers. 
In  treating  boils  a  full-sized  drop  of  the  liquor 
is  applied  to  the  apex  of  the  furuncle.  The 
unguentum  hydrargyri  nitratis  forms  the  cit- 
rine ointment  of  the  pharmacopeias,  and  is 
used  as  a  stimulant  and  alterative  application 
in  various  cutaneous  affections,  particularly  of 
the  scalp. — All  the  other  inorganic  as  well  as 
organic  nitrates  of  importance  will  be  found 
under  the  heads  of  their  bases. — 12.  Alcoholic 
Nitrates,  or  Nitric  Ethers.  When  nitric  acid  is 
heated  with  alcohol,  part  of  the  alcohol  is  ox- 
idized, and  the  nitric  acid  is  reduced  to  nitrous 
acid,  which  acting  on  the  remainder  of  the 
alcohol  produces  nitrous  ether  and  other  bodies ; 
but  if  urea  is  added  to  the  liquid,  it  immediately 
decomposes  the  nitrous  acid,  and  nitrate  of 
ethyl  is  formed.  The  other  alcohol  radicles 
may  also  be  transformed  by  the  action  of  nitric 
acid  in  the  presence  of  urea  into  corresponding 
nitric  ethers,  as  amyl  nitric  ether,  methyl 
nitric  ether,  &c.  They  have  some  resemblance 
to  the  nitrous  ethers.  (See  NITKITES.) 

NITRE.     See  NITRATES. 

NITRIC  ACID,  or  Hydric  Nitrate,  the  most  im- 
portant compound  of  oxygen  and  nitrogen, 
formed  by  the  union  of  nitric  anhydride  or 
anhydrous  nitric  acid  (see  NITEOGEN)  and  wa- 
ter. It  was  formerly  called  aqua  fortis,  and 
was  known  to  the  alchemists ;  but  its  compo- 
sition was  first  determined  by  Cavendish  in 
1785.  When  nitrogen  is  mixed  with  about  12 
times  its  volume  of  hydrogen,  and  a  jet  of  the 
mixed  gases  is  burned  in  the  air  or  in  oxy- 
gen, the  water  produced  will  be  found  to  con- 
tain a  small  quantity  of  nitric  acid ;  and  it  was 
his  experiments  on  the  formation  of  water 
that  led  Cavendish  to  the  discovery  of  the  acid. 
If  a  number  of  electric  sparks  are  passed  be- 
tween two  points  over  moistened  litmus  pa- 
per, a  red  spot  will  be  produced  on  the  paper 
from  the  action  of  nitric  acid  which  has  been 
formed  by  the  combination  of  atmospheric  ni- 
trogen and  oxygen  in  the  presence  of  watery 
vapor;  and  during  a  thunder  storm  the  acid 
is  produced  in  a  similar  manner  in  quantity 
sufficient  to  be  detected  by  delicate  tests.  The 
formula  of  nitric  acid  is  HNO3,  and  accord- 
ing to  modern  theory  it  is  a  compound  of  hy- 
drogen with  a  radicle  called  nitrion  (NOS),  and 
is  regarded  as  a  salt  of  hydrogen.  The  nitrion 
is  produced  by  the  union  of  water  with  nitric 


NITEIO  ACID 


465 


anhydride  (H,q  +  NaO.=HaN9O.  or  HNO3), 
and  is  the  form  in  which  nitric  acid  is  convert- 
ed when  it  unites  with  a  metal  to  form  a  ni- 
trate. The  production  of  nitric  anhydride  (N2 
O6)  was  effected  by  Deville  by  passing  a  current 
of  dry  chlorine  gas  slowly  over  crystals  of  dry 
nitrate  of  silver,  the  salt  being  first  raised  to 
about  203°  F.  till  decomposition  commences, 
and  then  lowered  to  about  140°,  the  operation 
being  conducted  with  the  greatest  care.  The 
chlorine  displaces  the  nitrion  of  the  nitrate 
of  silver  (AgNO3),  chloride  of  silver  (AgCl)  is 
formed,  and  the  nitrion  breaks  up  into  nitric 
anhydride  and  oxygen,  the  latter  escaping 
(2NO3=N2O6  +  O).  The  receiver  being  sur- 
rounded by  a  freezing  mixture,  the  anhy- 
dride condenses  into  brilliant  colorless  crys- 
tals derived  from  the  right  rhombic  prism, 
melting  at  85°  and  boiling  at  113°,  with  de- 
composition. This  theory  of  nitric  acid  has 
not  the  apparent  simplicity  of  the  older  views, 
which  regarded  the  acid  as  a  monohydrate  of 
pentoxide  of  nitrogen,  or  HO,NO6,  and  the 
metallic  nitrate  as  a  compound  of  NO6,  with 
the  oxide  of  the  metal. — Manufacture.  Nitric 
acid  is  obtained  for  chemical  purposes  from 
one  of  the  alkaline  nitrates.  When  potassic 
nitrate  is  heated  in  a  retort  with  strong  sul- 
phuric acid  (H2S04),  double  decomposition 
takes  place,  bisulphate  of  potash  (hydric  po- 
tassic sulphate)  and  nitric  acid  being  formed, 


Laboratory  Apparatus  for  Nitric  Acid. 

as  shown  in  the  following  equation :  KN03  + 
H2SO4=HN03+KH,SO4.  The  bisulphate  re- 
mains in  the  retort,  while  the  nitric  acid  dis- 
tils over  and  may  be  condensed  in  a  receiver. 
In  preparing  small  quantities,  equal  weights 
of  nitre  and  oil  of  vitriol  are  placed  in  a  glass 
retort,  and  the  distillation  takes  place  as  rep- 
resented in  the  figure  ;  the  retort,  a,  con- 
taining the  materials,  and  the  Liebig's  con- 
denser, 5,  effecting  the  cooling  while  the  pro- 
duct is  on  its  way  to  the  receiver,  c,  which  is 
placed  in  a  shallow  vessel  containing  cold 
water  or  ice.  During  the  process  red  fumes 
appear  in  the  retort,  in  consequence  of  the 
conversion  of  a  part  of  the  acid  into  some  of 
the  lower  oxides  of  nitrogen,  and  a  powerfully 
corrosive  yellow  liquid  condenses  in  the  re- 
ceiver. On  the  large  scale,  large  cylindrical 
iron  retorts,  lined  with  fire  clay  above  the 
level  of  the  fluid  mass,  and  placed  horizon- 


tally, are  employed,  instead  of  the  small  glass 
ones,  and  a  series  of  large  earthen  Woulf's 
bottles  replace  the  ordinary  receiver,  conve- 
nient arrangements  being  provided  for  the  in- 
troduction of  the  materials.  It  is  usual  to  em- 
ploy nitrate  of  soda  in  place  of  nitrate  of  pot- 
ash on  account  of  its  cheapness,  and  also  to 
use  a  smaller  proportion  of  sulphuric  acid.  In 
this  case,  instead  of  bisulphate  (KH,SO4),  there 
remains  in  the  retort  the  normal  sulphate  (K2 
SO4),  but  a  greater  degree  of  heat  is  required 
to  expel  the  last  portions  of  acid. — Properties. 
The  acid  obtained  in  the  manner  described 
has  a  reddish  yellow  color,  in  consequence  of 
the.  presence  of  some  of  the  lower  oxides  of 
nitrogen.  It  may  be  freed  of  these  by  redistil- 
lation with  an  equal  bulk  of  oil  of  vitriol,  and 
passing  a  current  of  dry  air  through  the  liquid, 
which  should  be  gently  warmed  and  protected 
from  the  light.  But  the  acid  is  so  unstable, 
from  its  disposition  to  part  with  its  oxygen, 
that  it  soon  becomes  partially  decomposed. 
When  pure  it  is  a  limpid,  fuming,  colorless, 
powerfully  corrosive  liquid,  having  a  specific 
gravity  of  1'53  at  59°,  of  1-559  at  32°,  freez- 
ing at  —67°  F.,  and  boiling  at  187°.  The  boil- 
ing point  from  its  commencement  rises,  ow- 
ing to  decomposition,  until  it  reaches  250°,  at 
which  point  the  distillation  goes  on.  The  acid 
contains  a  larger  proportion  of  water,  the  com- 
position being  2HNO3,3H2O,  but  appears  to  be 
a  hydrate  of  considerable  stability,  having  a 
specific  gravity  of  1  '424.  A  weaker  acid  when 
distilled  parts  with  a  portion  of  its  water  till 
it  arrives  at  this  density,  and  a  stronger  acid 
becomes  reduced  to  the  same,  so  that  an  acid 
of  the  above  density  can  be  continuously  distil- 
led for  an  indefinite  time ;  but  by  varying  the 
pressure  Roscoe  found  that  the  density  and 
consequently  the  proportion  of  water  varied. 
The  following  table,  abbreviated  from  Kolb, 
shows  the  specific  gravity  and  percentage  of 
hydric  nitrate  (HNO)s  contained  in  acids  of 
different  strength,  at  32°  and  59°  F. : 


HNO3  in  100  parts  by 
weight. 

SPECIFIC  GRAVITY. 

At  32°. 

At  59°. 

100-00 

1-559 

1-530 

90-00 

1-522 

1-495 

80*00 

1-484 

1-460 

69-20 

1-441 

1-419 

59-59 

1-891 

1-872 

49-97 

1-884 

1-817 

40-00 

1-26T 

1-251 

80-00 

1-200 

1-185 

20-00 

1-182 

1-120 

4-00 

1-026 

1-022 

The  nitric  acid  of  commerce  is  generally  con- 
taminated with  a  variety  of  foreign  matters, 
such  as  sulphuric  acid,  chlorine,  and  oxide  of 
iron,  which  are  easily  detected  by  the  usual 
tests.  It  varies  in  strength,  often  containing 
more  than  50  per  cent,  of  water.  In  conse- 
quence of  its  disposition  to  part  with  oxygen, 
nitric  acid  is  extensively  employed  as  an  oxi- 
dizing agent.  If  the  strong  acid  is  dropped  on 


466 


NITRITES 


NITROGEN 


hot  pulverized  charcoal,  combustion  will  be 
produced.  If  it  is  mixed  with  oil  of  vitriol 
and  poured  upon  oil  of  turpentine,  the  latter 
will  burst  into  a  flame.  It  parts  with  its  oxy- 
gen to  phosphorus  with  explosive  violence.  It 
rapidly  corrodes  organic  substances,  particu- 
larly animal  tissues,  and  when  slightly  diluted 
stains  the  skin,  wool,  feathers,  and  albuminous 
bodies  a  bright  yellow.  It  acts  with  great  en- 
ergy upon  the  more  oxidizable  metals ;  gold, 
platinum,  rhodium,  and  iridium  alone  resist 
its  oxidizing  power.  Its  action  is  most  ener- 
getic when  its  specific  gravity  is  between  1  '35 
and  1-25,  and  the  presence  of  nitrous  acid  in- 
creases its  power.  The  action  of  nitric  acid 
upon  metals  is  not  so  simple  as  that  of  sul- 
phuric acid,  whose  components  are  held  to- 
gether with  stronger  affinities.  According  to 
one  view,  when  sulphuric  acid  unites  with  a 
metal,  the  latter  first  becomes  oxidized  by  com- 
bining with  the  oxygen  of  the  water,  while  the 
hydrogen  is  set  free.  Another  and  later  opin- 
ion is  that  the  metal  simply  displaces  the  hy- 
drogen from  its  union  with  the  sulphion,  SC>4, 
thus  :  HSO4  +  M  =  MSO4  +  H.  When  nitric 
acid  is  employed,  the  metal  in  the  same  way 
displaces  the  hydrogen  from  its  union  with  the 
nitrion  (NO3),  but  hydrogen  is  not  evolved, 
because  it  instantly  unites  with  oxygen  derived 
from  decomposing  acid  or  its  lower  oxides. 
The  mode  of  action  varies  with  the  metal  acted 
upon  and  other  circumstances.  When  silver  is 
dissolved  in  the  cold  in  an  excess  of  diluted 
nitric  acid,  nitrous  acid  (HNO2)  is  formed,  and 
there  is  no  evolution  of  gas.  If  the  solution  is 
warm,  the  action  is  more  violent,  and  nitric 
oxide  (N02)  is  disengaged,  or  a  similar  effect 
may  be  obtained  by  employing  a  more  oxi- 
dizable metal,  as  copper  or  mercury.  When 
the  acid  is  pretty  strong  (sp.  gr.  1-4),  peroxide 
of  nitrogen  is  disengaged,  and  by  raising  the 
temperature  free  nitrogen  is  also  evolved,  the 
acid  undergoing  complete  deoxidation.  A 
metal  having  a  stronger  affinity  for  oxygen,  as 
zinc,  will  cause  the  evolution  of  nitrous  oxide; 
and  when  the  acid  is  concentrated  ammonia  is 
one  of  the  products,  and  may  be  found  combined 
with  the  excess  of  acid.  The  principal  uses  of 
nitric  acid  are  in  the  manufacture  of  nitrates 
of  the  metals  and  of  sulphuric  acid,  where  it 
completes  the  process  of  oxidation  by  furnish- 
ing an  addition  equivalent  to  the  sulphurous 
acid.  (See  SULPHURIC  ACID.) 

NITRITES,  salts  produced  by  the  union  of 
nitrous  acid  with  bases;  general  formula, 
MNO2.  The  principal  metallic  salts  are  those 
of  potassium,  sodium,  barium,  ammonium,  cop- 
per, lead,  and  nickel.  The  nitrites  of  lead 
form  an  interesting  series,  but  are  of  more 
professional  than  general  interest;  and  the 
same  remark  applies  to  the  double  potassium 
nitrites  with  other  metals.  The  nitrites  are 
usually  prepared  by  reducing  the  nitrates.  Ni- 
trite of  potassium  and  of  soda  may  be  ob- 
tained by  decomposing  potassic  nitrate  at  a  red 
heat,  dissolving  the  residue  in  water,  crystalli- 


zing out  the  remaining  nitrate,  and  evaporating. 
— The  alcoholic  nitrites,  or  nitrous  ethers,  are 
bodies  of  great  interest,  to  the  physiologist  as 
well  as  chemist.  The  principal  are  the  nitrites 
of  amyl,  ethyl,  methyl,  and  butyl.  The  ni- 
trite of  amyl  (C6HiiNO2)  is  an  inflammable 
liquid,  of  a  fruity  pear-like  odor,  reddish  yel- 
low color,  and  specific  gravity  0-877,  boiling 
at  196°.  It  may  be  prepared  by  passing  ni- 
trous vapors  into  amylic  alcohol  in  a  gently 
heated  retort,  rectifying  the  distillate,  and  col- 
lecting those  portions  going  over  at  196°.  When 
inhaled  it  acts  as  a  powerful  stimulant  to  the 
heart,  the  excitement  being  followed  by  greatly 
diminished  power  of  the  organ  and  contrac- 
tion of  the  external  vessels.  It  suspends  the 
respiration  of  animals,  but  the  effect  may  be 
stopped  short  of  death,  the  result  being  a  state 
resembling  trance.  The  appearance  after  death 
differs  with  the  mode  of  administration.  If 
the  nitrite  is  given  rapidly,  the  lungs  and  brain 
are  found  free  from  congestion,  and  the  left 
side  of  the  heart  empty,  but  the  right  cavities 
will  be  engorged.  When  administered  slowly, 
the  lungs  and  brain  are  congested  and  both 
sides  of  the  heart  contain  blood.  Nitrite  of 
ethyl,  or  nitrous  ether,  CaHsNOa  (formerly- 
called  nitric  ether,  saltpetre,  and  naphtha), 
was  first  observed  by  Rumkel  in  1681,  but  its 
composition  was  first  exactly  determined  by 
Dumas  and  Boullay.  It  is  prepared  by  distil- 
ling a  mixture  of  equal  parts  of  alcohol  and 
nitric  acid,  a  gentle  heat  being  applied  at  the 
commencement.  The  distillate  is  received  in 
a  series  of  Woulf's  bottles  half  filled  with 
salt  water.  The  nitrous  ether  collects  on  the 
surface  of  the  brine.  It  is  a  yellowish  liquid, 
having  the  odor  of  apples,  sparingly  soluble 
in  water,  but  perfectly  so  in  all  proportions 
in  alcohol.  It  boils  at  62°,  and  has  a  specific 
gravity  of  0-947.  It  is  decomposed  by  the 
action  of  caustic  potash  into  nitrite  of  po- 
tassium and  alcohol.  The  sweet  spirits  of 
nitre  of  pharmacy  is  a  solution  of  nitrous 
ether,  aldehyde,  and  several  other  substances, 
prepared  by  distilling  3  Ibs.  of  alcohol  with  4 
Ibs.  of  nitric  acid.  Nitrite  of  methyl  (CH3NO2) 
is  prepared  by  treating  wood  spirit  with  nitric 
acid  and  copper  turnings.  When  a  liquid,  it  has 
a  specific  gravity  of  0*991,  and  boils  at  11°  F. 
Its  smell  resembles  that  of  nitrous  ether.  Ni- 
trite of  butyl  (C4H9NO2)  has  been  employed  by 
Tyndall  with  advantage  in  experiments  upon 
polarized  light. 

NITROGEN  (Gr.  virpov,  nitre,  and  yevvaeiv,  to 
generate),  an  elementary  gaseous  body,  form- 
ing about  four  fifths  of  the  bulk  of  the  atmos- 
phere. It  derives  its  name  from  being  also 
an  essential  constituent  of  nitre.  It  was  dis- 
covered by  Rutherford  in  1772,  but  its  prop- 
erties were  more  particularly  investigated  by 
Lavoisier  in  1775,  and  also  by  Scheele  about 
the  same  time.  Lavoisier  estimated  the  pro- 
portion contained  in  the  atmosphere,  and  gave 
it  the  name  of  azote  (Gr.  a  privative  and. 
£w#,  life),  because  it  is  incapable  of  supporting 


NITROGEN 


467 


life  when  breathed.  The  name  nitrogen  was 
afterward  given  by  Chaptal.  It  is  most  con- 
veniently obtained  by  removing  the  oxygen 
and  carbonic  acid  gases  from  the  atmosphere. 
The  readiest  mode  is  to  burn  phosphorus  in  a 
shallow  vessel  floating  on  water,  in  a  bell  jar 
of  air.  The  phosphorus  combines  with  the 
oxygen,  forming  phosphoric  acid,  which  with 
the  small  amount  of  carbonic  acid  is  absorbed 
by  the  water.  A  simple  method  is  to  place  a 
stick  under  a  jar  of  air  over  water,  and  let  it 
remain  three  or  four  days,  when  nearly  pure 
nitrogen  will  be  found,  occupying  about  four 
fifths  of  the  previous  volume.  Other  easily 
oxidizable  substances,  as  moistened  iron  filings, 
will  effect  the  same  result.  Nitrogen  may  also 
be  obtained  by  the  action  of  chlorine  on  an  ex- 
cess of  aqua  ammonia,  and  also,  in  a  state  of 
purity,  by  decomposing  nitrite  of  ammonia  by 
heat. — The  symbol  of  nitrogen  is  N,  its  atomic 
weight  14,  and  its  specific  gravity  0-9713.  It 
is  colorless,  tasteless,  and  inodorous,  and  has 
thus  far  resisted  all  efforts  to  liquefy  it.  Water 
dissolves  about  ^  of  its  volume  at  ordinary 
temperatures.  It  is  remarkable  for  its  weak 
affinity  for  other  bodies,  presenting  a  great 
contrast  to  oxygen  in  this  respect.  It  does  not 
combine  with  any  element  with  sufficient  en- 
ergy to  produce  much  elevation  of  tempera- 
ture, and  therefore  is  not  a  supporter  of  com- 
bustion. A  taper  placed  in  it  is  immediately 
extinguished.  An  animal  placed  in  the  un- 
diluted gas  soon  dies,  and  an  attempt  to  breathe 
it  will  produce  a  sense  of  suffocation,  not  from 
any  poisonous  property,  but  simply  because  it 
prevents  the  access  of  oxygen,  which  is  neces- 
sary to  fit  the  blood  to  perform  its  functions. 
It  is  therefore  to  be  regarded  as  a  diluter  of 
the  atmosphere.  Nitrogen  is  an  extensively 
distributed  element,  entering  into  the  com- 
position of  a  great  number  of  bodies.  It  is 
an  essential  constituent  of  many  valuable  and 
powerful  medicines,  such  as  quinine  and  mor- 
phine, and  dangerous  poisons,  such  as  cyano- 
gen and  its  compounds  and  strychnia.  It  is  an 
important  constituent  of  those  tissues  and  fluids 
of  plants  and  animals  which  contain  albumen 
and  fibrine,  commonly  known  as  azotized  or 
nitrogenous  tissues.  The  most  important  in- 
organic compounds  are  with  hydrogen,  forming' 
ammonia;  with  chlorine,  forming  a  chloride; 
with  carbon,  forming  cyanogen ;  and  with  oxy- 
gen, forming  a  remarkable  series  of  compounds 
possessing  the  greatest  interest  to  the  chemist 
and  physiologist,  which  are  called  the  oxides  of 
nitrogen.  They  are  nitrous  oxide  or  laughing 
gas,  N20;  nitric  oxide,  NO;  nitrous  anhy- 
dride, N-jOa,  forming  nitrous  acid  with  water ; 
peroxide  of  nitrogen,  NO2  or  N2O4 ;  and  nitric 
anhydride  or  anhydrous  nitric  acid,  N2O5, 
which  in  combination  with  water  forms  nitric 
acid. — Nitrous  oxide  will  be  treated  in  a  sepa- 
rate article,  and  the  other  principal  oxides  in 
this  place.  1.  Nitric  oxide,  formerly  called 
deutoxide  of  nitrogen,  is  a  gaseous  body  pro- 
duced by  the  partial  deoxidation  of  nitric  acid. 


The  direct  union  of  nitrogen  with  oxygen 
is  indeed  difficult,  and  therefore  it  is  usually 
effected  indirectly.  The  common  method  is 
to  dilute  the  acid  with  about  twice  its  bulk 
of  water  and  pour  it  upon  copper  turnings  or 
metallic  mercury  in  a  retort  or  flask.  A  gentle 
heat  assists  the  process.  Red  fumes  appear  in 
the  retort  in  consequence  of  the  production  of 
peroxide  of  nitrogen ;  these  may  be  absorbed 
by  collecting  the  gas  over  water.  The  reaction 
consists  in  the  displacement  of  hydrogen,  the 
formation  of  a  nitrate,  and  the  abstraction  of 
oxygen  from  the  remaining  acid  sufficient  to 
reduce  it  to  NO.  Nitric  oxide  is  a  colorless  gas 
having  a  specific  gravity  of  1-039.  It  is  irre- 
spirable,  possessing  a  strong  disagreeable  odor, 
and  has  thus  far  never  been  liquefied.  It  dis- 
solves in  about  20  times  its  bulk  of  water,  and  is 
more  stable  than  the  other  oxides  of  nitrogen, 
resisting  the  decomposing  power  of  a  red  heat; 
but  when  electric  sparks  are  passed  through  a 
mixture  of  the  gas  with  vapor  of  water,  it  is 
decomposed  into  nitrogen  and  nitric  acid.  In 
contact  with  moist  iron  filings  or  a  sulphide  of 
sodium  or  potassium,  it  is  converted  into  ni- 
trous oxide.  A  lighted  taper  plunged  into  it  is 
extinguished,  and  also  phosphorus  when  first 
kindled;  but  if  it  is  burning  strongly,  the  heat 
will  decompose  the  gas  when  the  phosphorus 
will  continue  to  burn,  and  with  a  brilliancy 
rivalling  that  afforded  by  pure  oxygen.  2.  Ni- 
trous anhydride  (N2O3)  was  formed  by  Dulong, 
by  mixing  in  an  exhausted  flask  one  volume  of 
oxygen  with  four  volumes  of  nitric  oxide,  both 
in  a  dry  state.  Brownish  red  fumes  of  nitrous 
anhydride  are  condensed  into  a  volatile  blue 
liquid  having  a  red  vapor.  Liebig  obtained  it 
by  the  action  of  eight  parts  of  nitric  acid  on 
one  of  starch.  A  small  quantity  of  water  con- 
verts nitrous  anhydride  into  nitrous  acid,  the 
liquid  changing  from  a  blue  to  a  dark  green 
(N2O3  +  2HO=2HNO2).  An  excess  of  water 
converts  it  into  nitric  acid  and  nitric  oxide. 
The  body  NO2  which  is  united  to  hydrogen  in 
nitrous  acid  is  called  nitrosion,  a  radicle,  and  it 
is  this  which  unites  with  bases  to  form  nitrites. 
(See  NITEITES.)  3.  Nitric  peroxide,  or  perox- 
ide of  nitrogen  (N2O4  or  NO2),  is  seen  in  the 
red  fumes  which  appear  when  air  is  admitted 
into  a  vessel  containing  nitric  oxide.  When 
one  volume  of  oxygen  and  two  of  nitric  oxide, 
well  dried,  are  passed  through  a  dry  tube  im- 
mersed in  a  freezing  mixture,  it  may  be  ob- 
tained in  crystals.  They  melt  at  14°  F.,  and 
form  an  orange-colored  liquid  till  the  tempera- 
ture reaches  Tl'6°,  when  it  boils  and  passes  into 
a  brownish  red  vapor.  This  body  possesses 
the  remarkable  property  of  not  freezing  at 
—6°  after  it  has  once  been  melted.  Peroxide 
of  nitrogen  was  long  thought  to  be  an  anhy- 
dride, and  was  called  hyponitric  acid ;  but  it 
does  not  form  salts  having  a  corresponding 
radicle,  and  is  decomposed  by  bases  with  the 
formation  of  a  nitrate  and  a  nitrite.  It  is 
readily  decomposed  by  water,  a  trace  of  mois- 
ture being  sufficient  to  prevent  the  formation 


468 


NITRO-GLYCERINE 


NITZSCH 


of  the  crystalline  compound,  but  causing  in- 
stead the  production  of  a  green  liquid,  proba- 
bly composed  of  nitrous  and  nitric  anhydride, 
which  with  water  forms  nitrous  and  nitric  acids. 
The  investigations  of  Playfair  and  Wanklyn  in- 
dicate that  the  molecular  constitution  of  per- 
oxide of  nitrogen  at  low  temperatures  is  N2O4, 
while  at  high  temperatures  it  is  N02 ;  an  opin- 
ion founded  principally  upon  the  great  change 
in  the  specific  gravity. — Nitrides  are  combina- 
tions of  nitrogen  with  the  metals,  and  with 
phosphorus,  boron,  and  silicon,  without  the 
intervention  of  another  element.  The  binary 
combinations  of  nitrogen  with  the  non-metallic 
elements  or  radicles  might  be  considered  as  ni- 
trides, but  the  term  is  restricted  as  above  stated. 
The  metallic  nitrides  have  the  general  formulas 
RN,  R2N,  R3N,  the  last  being  analogous  to 
ammonia,  and  are  all  easily  decomposed  by  heat, 
sometimes  with  explosion.  They  are  usually 
formed  by  the  action  of  ammonia  on  metallic 
oxides  or  chlorides,  but  may  be  obtained  by 
the  direct  action  of  atmospheric  nitrogen  on 
the  metals  at  the  moment  of  their  separation 
from  their  oxides  by  charcoal.  Nitride  of  cop- 
per is  formed  by  passing  dry  ammonia  over 
cupric  oxide  at  a  temperature  not  higher  than 
482°  F.,  and  other  metallic  nitrides  may  be 
obtained  in  a  similar  way.  Nitride  of  boron 
was  discovered  by  Balmain,  who  obtained  it 
by  heating  boric  anhydride  with  cyanide  of 
potassium  or  cyanide  of  zinc.  The  nitrides 
of  phosphorus  and  silicon  will  be  mentioned 
under  those  heads. 

NITRO-GLYCERINE.     See  EXPLOSIVES. 

NITRO-MURIATIC  ACID,  a  mixture  of  nitric 
and  hydrochloric  acids,  called  by  the  alche- 
mists aqua  regia,  because  it  possesses  the 
power  of  dissolving  the  "king  of  metals," 
gold.  Both  platinum  and  gold  are  insoluble 
in  either  acid  separately,  but  are  readily  at- 
tacked by  the  mixture,  forming  chlorides. 
Chlorine  is  liberated,  the  action  being  assisted 
by  the  presence  of  the  metal,  and  polarization 
of  the  molecules  of  the  acid  is  produced,  the 
chlorine  in  its  nascent  state  combining  with 
the  metal.  Red  fumes  also  appear,  which 
were  at  one  time  mistaken  for  peroxide  of 
nitrogen,  it  being  supposed  that  the  liberated 
hydrogen  simply  deoxidized  the  nitric  acid; 
but  it  has  been  found  that  two  gases,  nitric 
oxychloride  (NO012)  and  nitrous  oxychloride 
(N001),  are  formed  instead,  the  former  in  the 
earlier  and  the  latter  in  the  later  stages  of  the 
process.  The  action  of  aqua  regia  on  metals 
produces  perchlorides,  and  the  oxides  which 
may  be  formed  by  the  addition  of  an  alkali  to 
their  solutions  are  corresponding  peroxides. 

NITROUS  ACID.     See  NITROGEN. 

NITROUS  OXIDE  (N2O),  formerly  called  pro- 
toxide of  nitrogen  or  laughing  gas,  a  chemical 
compound  which  may  be  prepared  by  the  ac- 
tion of  equal  parts  of  nitric  and  sulphuric  acid, 
diluted  with  ten  parts  of  water,  upon  metallic 
zinc.  Sulphion  of  the  sulphuric  acid  unites 
with  the  metal,  and  the  nascent  hydrogen  de- 


oxidizes the  nitric  acid.  The  reaction  is  rep- 
resented in  the  following  equation  :  8HS04  + 
2HNO3  +  8Zn=8ZnSO4  +  5H2O+NiO.  The  gas 
obtained  in  this  way  is  impure,  and  it  is  better 
to  procure  it  by  decomposing  nitrate  of  am- 
monia. The  salt  being  placed  in  a  retort  and 
a  gentle  heat  applied,  it  melts  at  226°,  and  at 
482°  or  500°  is  converted  into  nitrous  oxide 
and  water  (H4N,  NO3=2H2O  +  N2O).  Nitrous 
oxide  is  a  colorless  transparent  gas,  having  a 
specific  gravity  of  1*527.  According  to  Bun- 
sen,  100  volumes  of  water  at  32°  dissolve  130 
of  the  gas,  at  59°  77  volumes,  and  at  75°  60 
volumes.  It  should  therefore  be  collected 
over  warm  water.  It  has  a  faint  sweetish 
taste  and  smell.  At  a  temperature  of  45°  a 
pressure  of  50  atmospheres  reduces  it  to  a 
colorless  liquid  of  specific  gravity  0-9004, 
having  a  boiling  point  of  — 133°.  The  liquid 
nitrous  oxide  mixed  with  sulphide  of  carbon 
and  placed  in  vacuo  caused,  according  to  Nat- 
terer,  a  reduction  of  temperature  to  —220°, 
the  greatest  degree  of  cold  that  has  yet  been 
attained.  It  supports  combustion  with  a  pow- 
er approaching  that  of  oxygen.  When  respired 
it  produces  an  exhilaration  of  the  whole  sys- 
tem, with  a  disposition  to  muscular  exertion ; 
and  there  is  often  a  state  of  great  mental 
exaltation,  and  a  disposition  to  uncontrol- 
lable laughter,  from  which  it  has  received 
the  name  of  laughing  gas.  It  has  the  power 
of  diminishing  and  destroying  the  sense  of 
pain,  a  fact  known  to  Sir  Humphry  Davy 
(see  ANESTHETICS),  and  if  its  administration 
is  continued  of  producing  a  state  of  uncon- 
sciousness. It  is  used  for  this  purpose  in 
the  extraction  of  teeth,  and  also  in  surgical- 
operations,  although  sulphuric  ether  or  chloro- 
form is  usually  preferred. 

NITZSCH,  FTiedrich  Angnst  Berthold,  a  German 
theologian,  born  in  Bonn,  Feb.  19,  1832.  He 
taught  at  a  gymnasium  in  Berlin  from  1857  to 
1868,  when  he  became  professor  of  theology  in 
the  university  of  Giessen.  His  principal  works 
are :  Das  System  des  BoetJiius  (I860) ;  Augus- 
tin's  Lelire  vom  Wunder  (1865) ;  and  Grund- 
riss  der  christlichen  DogmengescMchte  (3  vols., 
1870  et  seq.}. 

NITZSCH.  I.  Karl  Lndwig,  a  German  theo- 
logian, born  in  Wittenberg,  Aug.  6,  1751,  died 
there,  Dec.  5,  1831.  In  1781  he  became 
preacher  at  Beucha,  and  in  1790  superinten- 
dent general  and  professor  of  theology  in  the 
university  of  Wittenberg.  He  resigned  in  1813, 
and  in  1817  was  made  director  of  the  semina- 
ry for  preachers  in  that  city.  He  published 
De  Itevelatione  Religionis  Externa  eademque 
Publica  (1808) ;  De  Discrimine  Itevelationis 
Imperatorm  et  Didactica  (2  vols.,  1830) ;  and 
Ueber  das  Heil  der  TJieologie  (1830).  II.  Karl 
Inimaiuiel,  a  German  theologian,  son  of  the  pre- 
ceding, born  at  Borna,  Sept.  21,  1787,  died  in 
Berlin,  Aug.  21,  1868.  He  received  his  first 
education  at  Wittenberg,  studied  theology  un- 
der Schleiermacher,  in  1817  became  professor 
invthe  new  theological  seminary  at  Berlin,  and 


NIVELLES 


NIZHNI  NOVGOROD 


469 


in  1822  professor  and  university  preacher  at 
Bonn.  In  1847  lie  returned  to  Berlin,  where  he 
was  made  professor,  university  preacher,  and 
member  of  the  high  consistory.  Besides  many 
minor  treatises,  he  published  System  der  christ- 
lichen  LeJire  (1829 ;  6th  ed.,  1851 ;  English 
translation,  Edinburgh,  1849),  and  PraTctische 
Theologie  (3  vols.,  1847-'67).  A  volume  of 
his  Gesammelte  AbJiandlungen  was  published 
at  Gotha  in  1870.  III.  Gregor  Wilhelm,  a  Ger- 
man philologist,  brother  of  the  preceding, 
born  in  Wittenberg,  Nov.  22,  1790,  died  in 
Leipsic,  July  22,  1861.  He  was  professor  at 
Kiel  from  1827  to  1852,  and  afterward  until 
his  death  at  Leipsic.  He  was  a  leading  op- 
ponent of  F.  A.  Wolf's  theories  in  regard  to 
the  Homeric  poems.  Among  his  works  are  : 
Erklarende  Anmerlcungen  zu  Homer's  Odyssee 
(3  vols.,  1826-'40)  ;  Prceparatio  Indagandw 
per  Homeri  Odysseam  Interpolations  (1828) ; 
Meletemata  de  Historia  Homeri  (2  vols.,  1830- 
'37) ;  Die  Sagenpoesie  der  Griechen  (1852) ;  and 
Beitrdge  zur  GescJiichte  der  epischen  Poesie  der 
Griechen  (1862).  IV.  Karl  Wilhelm,  a  German 
historian,  son  of  the  preceding,  born  in  Zerbst, 
Dec.  22,  1818.  He  graduated  at  the  university 
of  Kiel  in  1844,  became  professor  there  in 
1858,  and  at  Konigsberg  in  1862.  His  principal 
works  are:  PolyMus :  zur  GescTiicJite  antiker 
Politik  und  Historiographie  (Kiel,  1842) ;  Die 
Gracchen  und  ihre  ndchsten  Vorgdnger  (Berlin, 
1846) ;  Vorarbeiten  zur  Geschichte  der  Stauf- 
ischen  Periode  (Leipsic,  1860);  and  Die  ro- 
mische  Annalistik  von  ihren  ersten  Anfdngen 
lis  auf  Valerius  Antias  (1873). 

NIVELLES,  or  Nivelle  (Flem.  Nyvel),  a  town 
of  Belgium,  in  the  province  of  Brabant,  17  m. 
S.  of  Brussels ;  pop.  in  1866,  9,050.  The  place 
is  irregularly  and  poorly  built,  but  there  are 
two  pleasant  public  squares,  and  several  fine 


churches  and  public  edifices.  The  church  of 
St.  Gertrude,  the  crypt  of  which  is  noteworthy 
for  its  architectural  beauty,  is  a  relic  of  the 
Benedictine  abbey  founded  here  by  St.  Ger- 
trude, daughter  of  Pepin  of  Landen,  in  645, 
around  which  the  town  grew  up.  Its  abbess 
was  a  princess  of  the  empire  till  the  French 
revolution,  and  named  the  magistrates  of  the 
town,  which  at  the  beginning  of  the  15th  cen- 
tury had  30,000  inhabitants.  On  the  tower 
of  the  church  a  bronze  statue,  commonly  called 
"Jean  de  Nivelle,"  strikes  the  hours  upon  a 
large  bell.  This  Jean  de  Nivelle  (1422-'77), 
son  of  Jean  II.  de  Montmorency,  was  outlawed 
in  France  for  joining  the  duke  of  Burgundy 
against  Louis  XI.,  and  afterward  lived  here  on 
estates  inherited  from  his  mother.  He  was 
the  progenitor  of  the  line  of  Montmorency- 
Nivelle,  which,  after  intermarriage  with  the 
counts  Horn,  succeeded  to  their  estates  and 
name,  and  included  the  ancestors  of  the  count 
Horn  afterward  famous  in  the  history  of  the 
Netherlands.  The  town  has  important  educa- 
tional and  charitable  institutions,  and  consid- 
erable trade  in  cattle  and  grain.  The  French 
defeated  the  Austrians  at  Nivelles  in  1794. 

NIVERNAIS,  an  ancient  province  of  France, 
now  comprised  in  the  department  of  Ni&vre. 
It  was  situated  near  the  centre  of  the  kingdom, 
and  surrounded  by  Burgundy,  Bourbonnais, 
Berry,  and  Orl6anais.  Its  ancient  inhabitants 
were  the  ^Edui  and  Sequani,  and  it  was  after- 
ward subject  to  the  Franks.  In  the  9th  cen- 
tury it  became  a  county,  and  some  of  the 
counts  of  Nevers  bore  the  title  of  dukes  of 
Nivernais.  The  capital  was  Nevers. 

NIZAM,  and  Nizam's  Dominions.  See  HYDER- 
ABAD. 

NIZHNI  NOVGOROD,  or  Lower  Novgorod.  I.  A 
government  of  central  Russia  (called  also  Nizhe- 


Nizhni  Novgorod. 


gorod),  bordering  on  Kostroma,  Viatka,  Ka- 
zan, Simbirsk,  Penza,  Tambov,  and  Vladimir ; 
area,  19,631  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1867,  1,262,913, 


of  whom  nearly  one  third  were  Tartars,  and 
the  remainder  chiefly  Russians.  It  is  trav- 
ersed by  the  Volga,  and  by  its  affluents  the 


470 


NOAH 


NOAILLES 


Vetluga,  Sura,  and  Oka,  and  has  direct  com- 
munication by  water  both  with  Moscow  and 
St.  Petersburg.  Steamers  proceed  by  the  Vol- 
ga to  Astrakhan,  and  by  the  Kama  to  Perm. 
The  surface  is  generally  level,  with  a  few  low 
hills,  nowhere  more  than  500  ft.  high,  and 
composed  chiefly  of  limestone.  The  3N.  E. 
portion,  enclosed  by  the  Volga  and  Vetluga,  is 
covered  with  forests  mostly  of  fir  and  birch, 
and  has  a  sandy  and  in  some  places  marshy 
soil.  The  climate  is  10°  colder  than  that  of 
the  surrounding  country.  The  habitations  are 
almost  wholly  confined  to  a  few  scattered 
hamlets.  The  rest  of  the  government  is  ex- 
tremely fertile,  and,  having  a  mild  climate, 
produces  abundance  of  grain,  hemp,  flax,  and 
fruit.  The  forests  yield  excellent  timber. 
The  mineral  productions  are  iron  and  gypsum. 
The  principal  manufactures  are  coarse  cloth, 
canvas,  cordage,  leather,  and  soap.  II.  A  city, 
capital  of  the  government,  on  the  Volga,  where 
it  is  joined  by  the  Oka,  250  m.  E.  by  N.  of 
Moscow ;  pop.  in  1867,  40,742.  The  principal 
part  of  the  town  is  built  on  a  steep  triangular 
promontory,  about  400  ft.  high,  between  the 
Volga  and  Oka,  and  consists  mainly  of  three 
handsome  streets  which  radiate  from  an  open 
space  in  the  centre.  At  the  point  of  the  prom- 
ontory stands  the  Kremlin  or  citadel,  defend- 
ed by  a  wall  30  ft.  high  flanked  with  towers. 
The  chief  public  buildings,  including  two  cathe- 
drals, a  Protestant  church,  and  the  governor's 
palace,  are  situated  within  the  walls.  There  are 
about  60  churches,  of  which  the  two  cathedrals 
and  the  church  of  the  Nativity  of  the  Holy 
Virgin  are  the  most  noteworthy.  The  houses 
are  mostly  of  wood,  but  the  shops  and  ware- 
houses are  generally  of  more  substantial  mate- 
rials. The  trade,  which  is  at  all  seasons  very 
extensive,  reaches  an  extraordinary  height  du- 
ring the  three  annual  fairs.  (See  FAIE,  vol. 
vii.,  p.  59.)  A  particular  quarter  is  set  apart 
for  these  great  gatherings,  and  at  all  other 
times  remains  unoccupied. 

NOAH,  a  patriarch  in  Biblical  history,  son  of 
the  second  Lamech,  and  the  tenth  in  descent 
from  Adam.  It  is  related  that  he  was  chosen 
by  the  Lord  on  account  of  his  piety  to  be  the 
father  of  the  new  race  of  men  that  should  peo- 
ple the  earth  after  the  flood.  He  was  warned 
of  the  approaching  deluge,  and  built  an  ark 
into  which  he  entered,  with  his  family  and 
all  kinds  of  animals.  The  flood  came,  and  all 
living  things  perished  save  those  preserved  in 
the  ark.  After  the  waters  had  subsided  and 
the  dry  land  began  to  appear,  the  ark  rested  on 
the  mountains  of  Ararat,  in  Armenia,  where 
Noah  offered  a  sacrifice  to  the  Lord,  who  ac- 
cepted it  and  made  a  covenant  with  him,  rati- 
fying it  by  the  sign  of  a  rainbow  in  the  clouds. 
Noah  then  "began  to  be  a  husbandman;"  he 
planted  a  vineyard,  "  and  he  drank  of  the  wine 
and  was  drunken,  and  was  uncovered  within 
his  tent."  His  son  Ham  ridiculed  the  exposure 
of  his  father,  but  his  two  other  sons,  Shem 
and  Japheth,  covered  him  with  a  garment. 


When  Noah  awoke  and  knew  what  had  hap- 
pened to  him,  he  blessed  Shem  and  Japheth, 
but  cursed  Canaan,  the  son  of  Ham,  prophe- 
sying of  him  that  he  would  be  a  servant  of  ser- 
vants to  his  brethren.  There  are  coincidences 
between  the  Biblical  history  of  Noah  and  the 
traditions  of  other  nations.  (See  DELUGE.) 

NOAH,  Mordecai  Manuel,  an  American  journal- 
ist, born  of  Jewish  parents  in  Philadelphia, 
July  19,  1785,  died  in  New  York,  March  22, 
1851.  After  attempting  some  mechanical  busi- 
ness, he  studied  law,  and  when  quite  young 
went  to  Charleston,  S.  C.,  where  he  soon  be- 
came known  as  a  local  politician.  In  1811  he 
was  appointed  consul  at  Riga,  and  in  1813  con- 
sul at  Tunis,  with  a  mission  to  Algiers.  The 
vessel  in  which  he  sailed  was  captured  by  a 
British  man-of-war,  and  he  was  kept  a  prison- 
er for  several  weeks.  At  length  returning  to 
America,  he  published  "  Travels  in  England, 
France,  Spain,  and  the  Barbary  States  "  (New 
York,  1819).  Taking  up  his  residence  in  New 
York,  he  became  editor  of  several  newspapers 
successively  established.  About  1820  he  formed 
a  scheme  for  a  Jewish  settlement  on  Grand  isl- 
and in  the  Niagara  river,  where  he  erected  a 
monument  with  the  inscription:  "Ararat,  a 
City  of  Refuge  for  the  Jews,  founded  by  Mor- 
decai M.  Noah  in  the  month  of  Tishri,  5586 
(September,  1825),  and  in  the  50th  year  of  the 
American  independence."  This  monument, 
all  that  ever  existed  of  the  city,  has  disap- 
peared. Mr.  Noah  held  various  offices  in 
New  York,  among  which  were  those  of  sheriff, 
judge  of  the  court  of  sessions,  and  surveyor 
of  the  port.  In  1840  a  translation  of  the  so- 
called  "  Book  of  Jasher  "  was  published  under 
his  direction ;  and  in  1845  he  issued  a  collec- 
tion of  his  newspaper  essays  under  the  title, 
"Gleanings  from  a  Gathered  Harvest."  He 
also  wrote  several  dramas,  which  were  pro- 
duced upon  the  stage  with  moderate  success. 

NOAILLES,  a  French  family,  called  after  a  vil- 
lage of  that  name  in  the  ancient  province  of 
Limousin  and  the  present  department  of  Cor- 
reze,  and  which  traces  its  origin  to  the  10th 
century.  The  following  are  its  most  celebrated 
members.  I.  Antoine  de,  born  Sept.  4,  1504, 
died  in  Bordeaux,  March  11,  1562.  He  distin- 
guished himself  at  the  battle  of  Ceresole  in 
1544,  was  appointed  grand  admiral  by  Henry 
II.  in  1547,  and  negotiated  the  truce  of  Vau- 
celles  in  1556,  after  having  been  for  three 
years  ambassador  in  London,  where  he  was 
succeeded  by  his  brother  Francois  (1519-'85). 
Their  joint  work,  Negotiations  en  Angleterre, 
was  published  by  the  abb6  Vertot  (3  vols., 
1763).  n.  Anne  Jules,  duke  de,  a  descendant  of 
the  preceding,  and  a  son  of  Anne,  count  and 
afterward  duke  de  Noailles,  born  in  Paris,  Feb. 
5,  1650,  died  in  Versailles,  Oct.  2,  1708.  He 
was  actively  employed  in  the  campaigns  against 
Spain  (1668)  and  Holland  (16 72),  where  he  was 
aide-de-camp  of  Louis  XIV.  He  was  made 
governor  of  Languedoc  in  1682,  and  showed 
great  leniency  toward  the  Calvinists  after  the 


NOAILLES 


NOBLE 


471 


revocation  of  the  edict  of  Nantes  in  1685.  In 
1689  he  commanded  the  French  army  in  sup- 
port of  the  revolted  Catalans,  and  in  1694  de- 
feated the  Spanish  royalists.  III.  Adrien  Mau- 
rice, duke  de,  and  marshal  of  France,  son  of 
the  preceding,  born  in  Paris,  Sept.  29,  1678, 
died  there,  June  24,  1766,  He  married  a  niece 
of  Mme.  de  Maintenon,  served  for  many  years 
in  the  army  in  Spain,  and  in  1715,  on  the 
death  of  Louis  XIV.,  became  a  member  of 
the  council  of  regency.  As  president  of  the 
council  of  finance,  he  introduced  great  reforms, 
compelled  the  farmers  of  the  public  revenue 
to  make  restitution  of  dishonestly  acquired 
funds,  and  opposed  the  schemes  of  John  Law, 
in  consequence  of  which  he  lost  his  financial 
office ;  and  in  1722,  through  the  enmity  of 
Cardinal  Dubois,  he  was  dismissed  from  the 
council  of  regency.  He  resumed  military  ser- 
vice in  1733,  captured  Worms,  and  won  the  rank 
of  marshal  at  the  siege  of  Philippsburg  (1734). 
During  the  war  of  the  Austrian  succession  he 
was  defeated  at  Dettingen,  in  1743,  by  George 
II.  of  England.  As  ambassador  to  Spain  in  1746 
he  effected  a  reconciliation  between  the  two 
courts,  and  subsequently  he  was  a  member 
of  the  cabinet.  His  Memoires  were  published 
by  the  abbe  Millot  in  1777  (6  vols.  12mo). 

IV.  Louis  Marie,  viscount  de,  grandson  of  the 
preceding,  born  in  Paris,  April  17,  1756,  died 
in  Havana  in  January,  1804.     His  father  was 
Philippe  de  Noailles  (1715-'94),  who  became 
marshal  under  the  title  of  duke  de  Mouchy. 
He  fought  gallantly  in  several  engagements 
during  the  American  war   of  independence, 
and  subsequently  espoused  the  cause  of  the 
French  revolution  of  1789,  proposing  the  re- 
nunciation by  the  nobles  of  all  their  feudal 
privileges.     After  the  flight  of  Louis  XVI.  to 
Varennes  he  served  on  the   northern  fron- 
tier, but  on  the  imprisonment  of  the  king  he 
resigned  his  commission  and  retired  to  Eng- 
land.    Returning  to  France  after  the  18th  Bru- 
maire,  he  was  sent  as  brigadier  general  to  San- 
to Domingo,  and  was  mortally  wounded  in  cap- 
turing an  English  sloop  of  war  near  Havana. 

V.  Paul,  duke  de,  born  in  Paris,  Jan.  4,  1802. 
The  offspring  of  a  younger  branch  of  the  fam- 
ily, he  inherited  the  title  of  duke  from  his 
great-uncle,  who  died  in  1823.     He  took  his 
seat  in  the  chamber  of  peers  in  1827,  and  kept 
it  after  the  revolution  of  1830,  though  an  ad- 
herent of  the  exiled  Bourbons.     In  1848  he 
retired  to  private  life.     In  1849  he  was  elected 
to  the  French  academy  as  successor  of  Cha- 
teaubriand.    His  principal  work  is  Histoire 
de  Madame  de  Maintenon  (4  vols.,  1848-'58). 

VI.  Emmanuel  Yietnrnien  Henri,  marquis  de,  son 
of  the  preceding,  born  at  the  chateau  of  Main- 
tenon,  department  of  Eure-et-Loir,  in   1830. 
He  married  a  Polish  lady,  and  published  La 
Pologne  et  ses  frontieres  (1863),  and  Henri  de 
Valois  et  la  Pologne  en  1572  (3  vols.,  1867),  for 
which  the  academy  gave  a  prize.     He  was  min- 
ister at  Washington  from  July,  1872,  to  Febru- 
ary, 1874,  when  he  was  transferred  to  Rome. 


NOBLE.  I.  A  S.  E.  county  of  Ohio,  drained 
by  Wills,  Seneca,  and  Duck  creeks ;  area,  about 
400  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  19,949.  It  has  an 
undulating  and  hilly  surface,  and  is  well  tim- 
bered and  fertile.  It  contains  quarries  of  build- 
ing stone  and  extensive  coal  mines.  The  chief 
productions  in  1870  were  179,715  bushels  of 
wheat,  853,950  of  Indian  corn,  172,210  of  oats, 
61,771  of  potatoes,  19,667  tons  of  hay,  2,304,- 
557  Ibs.  of  tobacco,  247,534  of  wool,  510,963 
of  butter,  and  69,643  gallons  of  sorghum  mo- 
lasses. There  were  7,023  horses,  5,822  milch 
cows,  9,999  other  cattle,  64,229  sheep,  and 
18,167  swine;  4  flour  mills,  6  saw  mills,  and 
6  woollen  mills.  Capital,  Sarahsville.  II.  A 
N.  E.  county  of  Indiana,  drained  by  Elkhart 
and  Tippecanoe  rivers ;  area,  430  sq.  m. ;  pop. 
in  1870,  20,389.  The  Grand  Rapids  and  Indi- 
ana railroad  passes  through  it.  The  chief  pro- 
ductions in  1870  were  438,075  bushels  of  wheat, 
224,958  of  Indian  corn,  139,624  of  oats,  77,264 
of  potatoes,  19,171  tons  of  hay,  107,236  Ibs.  of 
wool,  430,240  of  butter,  and  39,578  of  maple 
sugar.  There  were  6,067  horses,  5,456  milch 
cows,  6,625  other  cattle,  30,464  sheep,  and 
14,259  swine;  17  manufactories  of  carriages 
and  wagons,  7  of  furniture,  3  of  iron  castings, 
4  of  curried  leather,  9  of  saddlery  and  harness, 
9  flour  mills,  21  saw  mills,  and  2  woollen  mills. 
Capital,  Albion. 

NOBLE,  Louis  Legrand,  an  American  clergy- 
man, born  in  Otsego  co.,  N".  Y.,  Sept.  26, 1811. 
He  graduated  at  the  Episcopal  theological  sem- 
inary in  New  York  in  1840,  and  was  rector  of 
a  parish  in  North  Carolina  till  1844,  and  after- 
ward at  Catskill,  N.  Y.  As  literary  executor 
of  Thomas  Cole,  he  published  a  memoir,  of  that 
artist,  with  selections  from  his  writings  (12mo, 
New  York,  1853).  In  1854  he  took  charge  of 
a  church  in  Chicago,  in  1858  of  one  in  Jersey 
City,  and  in  1874  became  professor  of  the 
English  language  and  literature  at  St.  Stephen's 
college  on  the  Hudson,  Annandale,  N.  Y.  In 
1860  he  made  an  arctic  journey  with  the  paint- 
er Church,  and  published  "After  Icebergs  with 
a  Painter"  (12mo,  1861).  He  has  also  pub- 
lished a  number  of  poems,  including  "Home," 
delivered  at  Trinity  college,  Hartford,  in  1857. 
Some  of  his  poems  have  been  collected  in 
"The  Hours,  and  other  Poems"  (1857). 

NOBLE,  Mark,  an  English  clergyman,  born 
about  the  middle  of  the  18th  century,  died  at 
Banning  in  Kent,  May  26,  1827.  In  1784 
George  III.  gave  him  the  living  of  Banning. 
He  published  "Memoirs  of  the  Protectorate 
House  of  Cromwell "  (Birmingham,  1784;  2d 
ed.,  London,  1787) ;  "  A  Genealogical  History 
of  the  Royal  Families  of  Europe  "  (1781) ;  "  An 
Historical  Genealogy  of  the  Royal  House  of 
Stuart"  (1795);  "Lives  of  the  English  Regi- 
cides" (1798) ;  and  a  continuation  of  Granger's 
"  Biographical  History  of  England,"  bringing 
it  down  from  the  revolution  to  the  close  of 
the  reign  of  George  I. 

NOBLE,  Samuel,  an  English  clergyman,  born 
in  London,  March  4, 1779,  died  there,  Aug.  27, 


472 


NOBLES 


NODDY 


1853.  While  an  apprentice  to  an  engraver  he 
became  acquainted  with  the  writings  of  Swe- 
denborg,  and  in  1810  was  one  of  the  found- 
ers of  the  London  society  for  printing  and 
publishing  them.  For  28  years  he  edited  the 
"Intellectual  Repository"  while  he  pursued 
his  profession  of  engraver.  In  1820  he  was  or- 
dained a  minister  of  the  New  Jerusalem  church, 
and  in  1824  delivered  a  course  of  lectures,  pub- 
lished under  the  title  of  "  Plenary  Inspiration 
of  the  Scriptures"  (1828),  and  subsequently 
another  course  of  lectures,  published  as  "  An 
Appeal  in  behalf  of  the  Doctrines  of  the  New 
Church  "  (2d  ed.,  1 838).  He  also  published  two 
other  volumes  of  lectures  and  sermons,  and 
translated  Swedenborg's  "  Heaven  and  Hell." 

NOBLES,  a  S.  W.  county  of  Minnesota,  bor- 
dering on  Iowa,  and  drained  by  the  head  waters 
of  Des  Moines,  Rock,  and  Little  Sioux  rivers ; 
area,  720  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  117.  The  sur- 
face is  rolling  and  the  soil  fertile. 

NOBUNAGA,  a  Japanese  warrior  and  legis- 
lator, often  mentioned  in  the  letters  of  the 
Jesuit  fathers  from  Japan,  born  in  1533,  died 
in  1582.  His  family  name  was  Ota.  He  was 
the  lineal  descendant  of  the  premier  Kiyomori 
(11 17- '81),  the  head  of  the  Taira  clan.  No- 
bunaga's  father  at  his  death  left  him  large  land- 
ed possessions  in  central  Japan.  In  that  pe- 
riod of  civil  war  his  ability  and  vigor  quickly 
gave  him  preeminence  over  all  other  leaders. 
He  first  fought  on  the  side  of  the  shogun  (of  the 
Ashikaga  family),  but  about  1573  turned  his 
arms  against  him,  captured  and  deposed  him, 
and  thus  brought  to  an  end  the  third  line  of 
hereditary  military  usurpers  who  had  seized  the 
mikado'e  prerogative  and  authority.  He  then 
governed  Japan  in  the  name  of  the  mikado, 
holding  the  high  office  of  naidaijin.  During 
his  lifetime  the  Portuguese  missionaries  first 
entered  Japan.  Nobunaga,  being  the  fierce 
enemy  of  the  Buddhist  priesthood,  encouraged 
the  Jesuits  in  every  possible  manner,  using 
them  as  a  counterpoise  to  the  native  bonzes, 
though  in  his  heart  he  hated  both.  The  Jesuits 
and  native  biographers  extol  his  justice  and 
his  ability  as  a  statesman  and  general;  but 
his  memory  is  execrated  by  the  bonzes  and 
Buddhist  people.  Japanese  Buddhism  had  in 
his  time  reached  its  culmination  of  power, 
and  the  great  sects  were  immensely  wealthy, 
frequently  turning  the  scale  of  victory  by  their 
influence  among  the  people,  and  the  armies 
they  kept  in  their  pay.  To  destroy  their  pow- 
er, and  to  root  up  an  ever  threatening  element 
of  disorder  and  danger,  Nobunaga  in  1571  at- 
tacked the  fortified  monastery  of  Hiyeizan, 
near  Kioto,  burning  the  temples,  numbering 
several  hundreds,  and  slaying  all  the  bonzes, 
with  their  retainers,  concubines,  and  children 
by  the  thousand.  For  these  acts  he  was  laud- 
ed by  the  Portuguese  missionaries.  He  also 
laid  siege  to  the  fortified  monastery  of  Ozaka, 
which  he  would  have  stormed  and  burned  had 
not  the  besieged  surrendered.  Japanese  Buddh- 
ism has  never  recovered  from  this  persecu- 


tion. A  Japanese  embassy  visited  Philip  II. 
and  Pope  Gregory  XIII.  during  Nobunaga's 
lifetime.  The  statement  of  the  Jesuit  fathers 
that  he  made  an  image  of  himself,  and  caused 
the  people  to  worship  it,  is  a  mistake.  In 
1582,  in  the  fulness  of  his  power  and  fame, 
one  of  his  captains  attacked  the  temple  of 
Honnoji,  his  residence;  and  Nobunaga,  being 
wounded,  set  it  on  fire,  and  died  by  his  own 
hand.  He  was  succeeded  by  Hideyoshi.  (See 
JAPAN,  vol.  ix.,  p.  542.) 

NODAWAY,  a  N.  W.  county  of  Missouri,  bound^ 
ed  N.  by  Iowa  and  W.  by  the  Nodaway  river, 
and  drained  by  the  Little  Platte  and  the  One 
Hundred  and  Two  river ;  area,  710  sq.  m. ; 
pop.  in  1870,  14,751,  of  whom  87  were  colored. 
It  is  intersected  by  the  Kansas  City,  St.  Joseph, 
and  Council  Bluffs  railroad.  The  chief  pro- 
ductions in  1870  were  46, 824  bushels  of  wheat, 
1,276,460  of  Indian  corn,  122,491  of  oats,  66,- 
061  of  potatoes,  34,972  Ibs.  of  wool,  203,347  of 
butter,  15,335  of  honey,  22,190  gallons  of  sor- 
ghum molasses,  and  18,189  tons  of  hay.  There 
were  6,715  horses,  1,070  mules  and  asses,  5,964 
milch  cows,  10,364  other  cattle,  15,661  sheep, 
and  36,434  swine;  11  manufactories  of  sad- 
dlery and  harness,  3  of  tin,  copper,  and  sheet- 
iron  ware,  3  of  brick  and  stone,  and  11  saw 
mills.  Capital,  Maryville. 

NODDY,  the  common  name  of  the  birds  of 
the  tern  family  included  in  the  genus  anous 
(Leach).  The  bill  is  longer  than  the  head, 
strong,  with  the  culm  en  curved  gradually  to 
the  acute  tip,  and  a  distinct  angle  to  the  lower 
mandible;  wings  long  and  pointed,  the  first 
quill  the  longest;  tail  long  and  graduated; 
tarsi  rather  short  and  slender ;  toes  long  and 
united  by  a  full  web  ;  hind  toe  long  and  slen- 
der ;  claws  curved  and  sharp.  The  only  spe- 
cies on  our  coast  is  the  A.  stolidus  (Leach),  16 


Noddy  (Anous  stolidus). 

in.  long,  with  an  extent  of  wings  of  32  in., 
the  bill  If,  and  the  weight  4f  oz. ;  the  front  of 
the  head  is  grayish  white,  with  a  black  spot 
over  and  before  the  eyes  ;  the  rest  of  the  plu- 
mage sooty  brown,  except  the  primaries  and 
tail,  which  are  brownish  black ;  the  bill  is 
black,  the  iris  brown,  and  the  legs  and  feet  dull 
brownish  red.  They  are  found  in  the  gulf  of 
Mexico,  and  are  esteemed  as  food.  They  are 
excellent  swimmers  and  rapid  fliers. 


NODIER 


NOLLEKENS 


473 


NODIER,  Charles,  a  French  author,  born  in 
Besancon  about  1782,  died  in  Paris,  Jan.  26, 
1844.  He  published  novels  and  poetry,  and 
was  known  as  a  grammarian  and  a  bibliog- 
rapher. Arrested  for  a  short  time  on  account 
of  a  satirical  effusion  against  the  first  consul,  he 
was  afterward  professor  of  literature  at  Dole, 
and  at  a  later  period  went  to  Laybach  as  a  libra- 
rian of  the  Bourbon  family.  In  1824  he  be- 
came librarian  of  the  Paris  arsenal.  He  pub- 
lished his  autobiography  (Souvenirs)  in  1831, 
and  his  complete  works  in  12  vols.,  1832-'4. 

NOE,  Amadee.    See  CHAM. 

NOEL,  Baptist  Wriothestey,  an  English  clergy- 
man, born  in  July,  1799,  died  in  London,  Jan. 
20,  1873.  He  was  a  younger  brother  of  the 
earl  of  Gainsborough.  He  was  educated  at 
Trinity  college,  Cambridge,  and  was  one  of 
the  chaplains  of  the  queen,  and  occupied  the 
pulpit  of  St.  John's,  Bedford  row,  London,  a 
proprietary  chapel.  In  1849  he  seceded  from 
the  established  church,  joined  the  Baptists,  and 
became  pastor  of  John  street  chapel,  where 
his  eloquence  attracted  large  audiences.  His 
"Union  of  the  Church  and  State"  (1849)  and 
writings  on  baptism  have  a  wide  circulation. 

NOETIANS,  a  heretical  sect  which  originated 
in  the  earlier  part  of  the  3d  century.'  Its 
founder,  Noetus,  was  a  native  of  Asia  Minor, 
and  had  embraced  the  Monarchian  doctrine 
that  there  is  no  distinction  between  the  per- 
sons of  the  Godhead.  This  he  made  the 
starting  point  of  his  system,  saying :  "  There 
is  one  God,  the  Father,  who  is  invisible  when 
he  pleases,  and  visible  when  he  pleases ;  but 
the  same,  whether  visible  or  invisible,  begot- 
ten or  unbegotten."  The  Monarchian  Praxeas 
had  held  that  the  suffering  of  the  Lord  was 
confined  to  the  human  nature,  and  made  a 
distinction  between  Christ  and  Jesus.  But 
Noetus  boldly  avowed  the  doctrine  of  the  Pa- 
tripassians,  that  the  Father  suffered  in  his  own 
person  and  nature.  He  was  a  presbyter  at 
Smyrna,  and  there  declared  his  doctrine.  Be- 
ing summoned  before  the  synod,  he  denied  or 
evaded;  but  afterward,  having  gained  a  few 
adherents,  he  openly  avowed  his  belief  before 
a  second  meeting  of  the  synod,  and  was  ex- 
communicated, about  the  year  230.  He  then 
gathered  a  body  of  followers,  and  formed  a 
school  for  the  propagation  of  his  views.  Epi- 
gonus  disseminated  the  heresy  in  Rome,  where 
one  of  his  disciples  named  Cleomenes  suc- 
ceeded in  making  a  convert  of  the  bishop 
Zephyrinus,  who  gave  a  wavering  adhesion  to 
the  heresy  during  his  long  episcopate.  The 
sect  had  a  good  number  of  members,  and  its 
doctrines  prepared  the  way  for  Sabellianism. 
There  seems  to  have  been  no  attempt  to  main- 
tain a  separate  episcopal  succession  after  the 
death  of  Zephyrinus. 

NOGGERATH,  Jakob,  a  German  geologist,  born 
in  Bonn,  Oct.  10,  1788.  In  1814  he  became 
professor  of  mineralogy  and  geology  in  the 
university  of  Bonn.  His  chief  works  are: 
Das  Gelirge  in  BJieinland-  Westphalen  (7  vols., 


Bonn,  1821-'6) ;  Der  Ban  der  Erdrinde  nach 
demheutigen  Standpunlcteder  Creognosie(1838); 
Die  Entstehung  der  Erde  (1843) ;  Die  Entste- 
hung und  Ausbildung  der  Erde  (Stuttgart, 
1847) ;  and  Die  Erdbeben  im  Rheingebiet  in 
denJahren  1868-'70  (Bonn,  1870). 

NOGRAD,  a  county  of  N.  W.  Hungary,  bor- 
dering on  Zolyom,  Gomor,  Heves,  Pesth,  and 
Hont;  area,  1,685  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  198,- 
269,  consisting  of  Magyars,  Slovaks,  and  Ger- 
mans. The  N.  portion  is  mountainous  and 
sterile,  the  S.  very  fertile.  Sheep  breeding,  the 
lumber  trade,  and  woollen  manufactures  are  the 
chief  industries.  The  principal  rivers  are  the 
Eipel,  a  tributary  of  the  Danube,  and  the  Zagy- 
va,  of  the  Theiss.  Capital,  Balassa-Gyarmath. 

NOIR,  Victor,  a  French  journalist,  whose  real 
name  was  Yvan  Salmon,  born  at  Attigny,  July 
27,  1848,  killed  at  Auteuil,  Jan.  10,  1870. 
After  having  been  a  mechanic  and  a  florist,  he 
became  connected  with  Rochefort's  journal, 
La  Marseillaise,  and  was  deputed  by  Paschal 
Grousset  to  call  upon  Prince  Pierre  Bonaparte 
to  demand  reparation  for  an  offensive  news- 
paper article.  An  altercation  ensued,  and  the 
prince  shot  Noir,  who  died  almost  instantly. 
(See  BONAPARTE,  PIERRE,  vol.  iii.,  p.  36.) 

NOLA,  a  city  of  Italy,  in  the  province  of 
Caserta,  15  m.  E.  K  E.  of  Naples,  and  7  m.  N. 
of  Mt.  Vesuvius  ;  pop.  about  12,000.  It  is  one 
of  the  oldest  cities  of  Campania,  and  in  327 
B.  0.  sent  2,000  soldiers  to  the  aid  of  Palseopolis 
and  Neapolis  against  the  Romans,  to  whom  it 
became  subject  in  313.  Hannibal  made  three 
unsuccessful  attacks  on  Nola.  It  has  a  museum 
of  antiquities,  and  the  sepulchres  here  have 
supplied  Etruscan  vases  to  the  museums  of  Eu- 
rope. The  emperor  Augustus  and  his  general 
Marcus  Agrippa  both  died  in  the  town;  and 
it  was  the  birthplace  of  Giordano  Bruno.  St. 
Paulmus  was  bishop  of  Nola  in  the  5th  century. 

MOLDEKE,  Theodor,  a  German  orientalist, 
born  in  Harburg,  March  2,  1836,  died  in  Janu- 
ary, 1875.  He  graduated  at  Gottingen  in  1861, 
and  was  professor  at  Kiel  from  1864  to  1872, 
when  he  was  transferred  to  Strasburg.  His 
principal  works  are:  Geschichte  des  Korans 
(Gottingen,  1860)  ;  Das  Leben  Mohammeds 
(Hanover,  1863) ;  Beitrage  zur  Eenntniss  der 
Poesie  der  alien  Araber  (1864)  ;  Die  alttesta- 
mentliche  Literatur  (Leipsic,  1868) ;  Gram- 
matik  der  neusyrischen  Sprache  (1868)  ;  Uh- 
tersuchungen  zur  Kritik  des  Alien  Testaments 
(Kiel,  1869);  and  Die  Inschrift  des  Konigs 
Mesa  von  Moal  (1870). 

NOLLEKENS,  John,  an  English  sculptor,  born 
in  London,  Aug.  11,  1737,  died  there,  April 
23,  1832.  He  was  the  son  of  an  Antwerp 
painter  who  settled  in  London;  and  he  ac- 
quired his  art  in  the  studio  of  the  sculptor 
Scheemakers.  In  1759-'60  he  obtained  several 
prizes  from  the  society  of  arts,  and  afterward 
spent  ten  years  in  Rome,  returning  to  London 
in  1770.  He  executed  portrait  busts  of  many 
eminent  men,  several  monumental  works,  and 
a  number  of  statues  of  classical  subjects,  the 


474 


NOLLE  PROSEQUI 


NOMENCLATURE 


best  of  which  is  the  "Venus  combing  her 
Hair."  His  best  known  work  is  the  statue  of 
William  Pitt  at  Cambridge.  He  amassed  a 
fortune  of  £200,000,  and,  being  childless,  be- 
queathed the  greater  part  of  it  to  his  friends 
Francis  Palmer  and  Francis  Douce  the  anti- 
quary. His  life  has  been  written  by  Allan 
Cunningham  in  the  "  Lives  of  British  Painters, 
Sculptors,  and  Architects,"  and  by  his  pupil 
J.  T.  Smith  (2  vols.,  London,  1828). 

NOLLE  PROSEQUI  (Lat.,  to  be  unwilling  to 
prosecute),  a  law  term  derived,  as  most  law 
terms  are,  from  those  ancient  days  when  all 
law  proceedings  and  records  were  in  Latin.  It 
meant  that  the  plaintiff  declared  in  court  and 
entered  upon  the  record  that  he  would  no 
longer  prosecute  his  suit.  In  civil  cases,  this 
is  superseded  in  modern  times  by  a  nonsuit ; 
but  when  a  plaintiff  enters  a  nonsuit,  especially 
if  he  does  this  by  order  of  court,  he  is  still 
sometimes  said  to  be  "nol  pros'd."  Nolle 
prosequi  is  very  common  in  criminal  cases.  It 
is  entered  by  the  officer  who  acts  for  the  gov- 
ernment, when,  from  insufficiency  of  evidence 
or  for  other  reasons,  he  is  unwilling  to  press  the 
trial  any  further.  He  may  do  this,  generally, 
at  any 'stage  of  the  proceedings.  But  it  puts 
the  defendant,  or  accused  party,  to  this  disad- 
vantage :  if  he  has  a  verdict  in  his  favor,  he 
cannot  be  tried  again  for  that  offence ;  but  if 
nolle  prosequi  is  entered,  he  may  be  indicted 
and  tried  again  at  any  time  for  the  same  of- 
fence. He  would  prefer  therefore  a  verdict  in 
his  favor ;  but  this  he  ought  not  to  have,  if  he 
would  escape  now  by  a  merely  accidental  ab- 
sence of  testimony.  On  the  contrary,  if  it  be 
obvious  that  he  could  be  fairly  tried  now,  and 
would  probably  be  acquitted,  it  would  not  be 
just  to  permit  the  government  to  hold  this 
power  of  accusation  and  trial  over  him  indefi- 
nitely. In  some  of  the  states  there  are  stat- 
utes, or  rules  of  court,  intended  to  meet  this 
difficulty ;  and  practical  mischief  seldom  arises 
from  it,  as  a  nolle  prosequi  would  not  be  en- 
tered by  government  against  the  wishes  of  a 
defendant,  without  unquestionable  reasons. 

NOMENCLATURE,  Chemical,  the  vocabulary  of 
terms  used  in  chemistry.  Being  the  instrument 
of  thought  upon  chemical  subjects,  it  has  ne- 
cessarily at  every  period  in  the  history  of  the 
science  reflected  the  general  intellectual  char- 
acter of  the  time,  as  well  as  the  stage  of  devel- 
opment which  chemistry  had  attained.  The 
crude  notion  of  ancient  writers  that  the  heaven- 
ly bodies  exercised  an  influence  upon  terrestrial 
affairs  is  expressed  in  the  language  of  the  peri- 
od by  such  names  as  Sol  for  gold,  Luna  for 
silver,  Jupiter  for  tin,  Mars  for  iron,  Venus  for 
copper,  Saturn  for  lead;  and. the  progress  of 
the  study  was  greatly  retarded  by  the  confused 
terms  then  employed.  In  truth,'  few  events 
are  recorded  in  the  history  of  chemical  science 
which  have  exerted  a  more  beneficial  influence 
upon  its  progress  than  the  adoption  of  the  ad- 
mirable method  of  nomenclature  brought  for- 
ward by  Guyton  de  Morveau  in  1782,  modified 


by  a  committee  of  the  French  academy,  of 
which  Lavoisier  was  chairman,  in  1787,  and 
published  under  their  auspices  in  a  volume  en- 
titled Methode  de  nomenclature  chimique  (Paris, 
1787).  Several  chemists  had  previously  per- 
ceived the  importance  of  designating  compound 
bodies  by  the  names  of  their  components,  and 
had  endeavored  to  improve  upon  the  indefinite 
and  irrational  names  adopted  by  the  alchemists ; 
but  no  satisfactory  general  system  had  till  then 
been  devised.  It  should  be  mentioned  at  start- 
ing that  the  system  of  nomenclature  here  to  be 
described  is  so  intimately  connected  with  cer- 
tain theoretical  views  of  the  constitution  of 
compound  bodies,  that  any  treatise  upon  it 
must  become  also  in  a  measure  a  description 
of  the  methods  of  classification  upon  which  it 
depends.  The  main  feature  of  the  system  con- 
sists in  forming  in  a  simple  and  uniform  man- 
ner the  name  of  any  and  every  compound  from 
the  names  of  the  substances  of  which  it  is  com- 
posed. The  elements  alone  are  subject  to  no 
rule,  their  names  depending  entirely  upon  the 
choice  of  the  discoverer.  It  is  true  that  the 
framers  of  the  nomenclature  sought  in  several 
instances  to  express  some  one  prominent  prop- 
erty of  the  element  by  means  of  its  name,  as  in 
the  case  of  oxygen  (Gr.  6fi>f,  acid,  and  yewfaiv, 
to  generate),  which  was  thought  to  be  "  a  prin- 
ciple necessary  to  acidity,"  and  hydrogen  (Gr. 
vdup,  water,  and  -yewdeiv).  But  these  attempts 
were  confined  to  the  elements  which  at  that 
time  had  been  recently  discovered ;  the  com- 
mon names  of  all  the  well  known  metals,  al- 
kalies, &c.,  having  been  retained.  Of  the  ele- 
ments which  have  since  been  discovered,  some 
have  been  named  in  allusion  to  striking  pecu- 
liarities, as  chlorine  (xkupds,  green),  iodine 
(l&tiw,  violet),  &c.  For  the  most  part,  how- 
ever, names  devoid  of  any  chemical  significance 
have  been  chosen,  the  propriety  of  which  course 
is  now  very  generally  admitted  by  chemists. 
In  choosing  the  name  of  an  element,  it  is  im- 
portant only  that  it  shall  be  well  adapted  to 
the  formation  of  compound  names.  In  accord- 
ance with  Davy's  suggestion,  the  names  of  the 
more  recently  discovered  metals  have  received 
a  common  termination  urn,  as  potassium,  pla- 
tinum, &c.  The  idea  of  applying  some  one 
uniform  termination  to  each  of  the  members 
of  a  natural  group  had  previously  been  sug- 
gested by  Bergman,  from  whom  it  was  adopted 
also  by  the  French  nomenclaturists,  who  pro- 
posed that  the  names  of  metals  should  all  ter- 
minate in  e,  as  platine,  cuivre,  &c.  The  names 
of  another  class  of  elements  terminate  in  ine, 
as  chlorine,  iodine,  &c. — The  elements  are  di- 
vided into  two  classes,  metals  and  non-metallic 
bodies  (metalloids).  The  metals  all  possess 
certain  analogous  characteristic  properties.  The 
class  of  metalloids,  however,  includes  several 
quite  distinct  groups  of  elements. — When  two 
elements  of  unlike  properties  combine  with 
each  other,  the  product  is  termed  a  binary 
compound.  Binary  compounds  are  divided 
into  three  great  classes,  acids,  bases,  and  indif- 


NOMENCLATURE 


475 


ferent  bodies.  The  last  have  but  little  chemi- 
cal activity.  Acids  and  bases,  however,  pos- 
sess unlike  properties,  and,  although  they  do 
not  combine  with  the  elements,  still  manifest  a 
great  disposition  to  unite  one  with  the  other. 
Ternary  compounds,  or  salts,  are  thus  formed. 
The  resulting  salt  possesses  new  properties  un- 
like those  of  its  components,  having  usually 
but  little  affinity  for  other  substances;  but 
some  salts  can  unite  with  others  to  form  qua- 
ternary bodies  (double  salts).  The  distinctive 
properties  of  these  several  classes  are  by  no 
means  absolute.  Indeed,  there  are  many  bodies 
which,  according  to  circumstances,  act  either 
as  acids  or  as  bases:  as  acids  when  brought 
in  contact  with  strong  bases,  and  as  bases 
toward  strong  acids.  Those  acids  which  are 
soluble  in  water  are  distinguished  by  their 
power  of  changing  the  blue  color  of  a  solu- 
tion of  litmus  to  red.  Bases,  on  the  con- 
trary, reproduce  the  blue  color  of  litmus  which 
has  been  reddened  by  an  acid.  The  most 
characteristic  salts  have  but  little  or  no  action 
on  red  or  blue  litmus,  the  acid  and  basic  quali- 
ties of  their  components  having  been  entirely 
neutralized  by  combination.  There  are,  how- 
ever, many  exceptions  to  this,  as  will  be  seen 
further  on.  When  a  solution  of  a  salt  is  sub- 
jected to  a  weak  galvanic  current,  the  acid  and 
base  of  which  it  consists  are  separated  from 
each  other;  the  acid  collects  at  the  positive 
pole  of  the  battery,  the  base  at  the  negative 
pole.  On  the  theory  that  like  electricities 
repel,  while  unlike  attract  each  other,  it  is  evi- 
dent that  the  particles  of  matter  which  are 
attracted  to  the  positive  pole  ought  to  possess 
negative  electricity,  while  those  attracted  to 
the  negative  pole  should  be  positively  electri- 
fied. The  base  is  therefore  often  called  the 
electro-positive  and  the  acid  the  electro-nega- 
tive constituent  of  the  salt.  The  character  of 
the  respective  constituents  of  a  salt  may  hence 
be  exhibited  by  submitting  the  latter  to  the 
action  of  galvanism.  The  same  rule  applies 
also  to  all  binary  compounds  which  can  be 
electrolyzed. — In  view  of  the  great  prominence 
which  oxygen  had  attained  in  consequence  of 
the  experiments  of  Lavoisier,  and  of  the  fact 
that  most  of  the  acids  and  bases  known  to  the 
founders  of  the  chemical  nomenclature  con- 
tained it,  or  were  thought  to  contain  it,  as  one 
of  their  constituents,  it  is  not  surprising  that 
especial  importance  was  attached  to  this  ele- 
ment. Indeed,  its  compounds  form  the  basis 
of  the  system.  The  binary  compounds  of  oxy- 
gen are,  with  the  exception  of  a  few  indifferent 
substances,  either  bases  or  acids.  They  are 
called  oxides,  the  termination  ide,  which  is 
indicative  of  combination,  being  added  to  the 
first  syllable  of  oxygen.  Although  the  term 
oxide  is  generic,  and  would,  strictly  speaking, 
apply  with  equal  force  to  any  compound  of 
oxygen  with  an  element,  it  is  nevertheless 
usually  restricted  to  those  compounds  which 
are  destitute  of  acid  properties,  viz.,  to  the 
bases  and  indifferent  bodies.  Its  acids  are 


often  called  oxy-acids.  The  name  of  any  par- 
ticular oxide  is  formed  by  adding  the  name  of 
its  other  element  to  this  generic  term.;  thus, 
the  base  formed  by  the  union  of  oxygen  and 
lead  is  called  oxide  of  lead,  that  containing 
oxygen  and  potassium,  oxide  of  potassium,  &c. 
Lead  and  potassium  are  in  these  instances 
electro-positive  elements,  oxygen  being  electro- 
negative in  regard  to  them.  As  a  general  rule, 
the  name  of  the  electro-negative  constituent  of 
a  compound  determines  its  genus,  while  that 
of  the  electro-positive  constituent  defines  the 
species.  The  names  of  the  basic  compounds 
which  oxygen  forms  with  metals  whose  names 
end  in  um  are  often  made  to  terminate  in  a  ; 
thus,  instead  of  oxide  of  sodium  and  oxide  of 
barium,  the  terms  soda  and  baryta  are  used. 
Oxide  of  calcium  furnishes  the  most  striking 
exception  to  this  rule,  the  common  name  lime 
being  used  instead  of  calcia.  Oxygen  usually 
combines  with  an  element  in  more  than  one 
proportion,  forming  several  bases.  To  distin- 
guish these,  the  prefix  proto  (Gr.  Trpwro?,  first) 
is  applied  to  the  oxide  in  which  one  equivalent 
of  oxygen  is  united  with  one  equivalent  of  the 
element.  An  oxide  containing  less  than  one 
equivalent  of  oxygen  to  one  of  the  other  ele- 
ment is  called  a  sub-oxide  (Lat.  sub,  under). 
The  prefix  sesqui  (one  and  a  half)  denotes  a 
compound  in  which  the  oxygen  is  to  the  other 
element  in  the  ratio  of  3  to  2 ;  deuto  (Gr. 
devrepos,  second)  or  lin  (Lat.  lini,  two),  an 
oxide  containing  two  equivalents  of  oxygen; 
and  trito  (TP'ITO?,  third)  or  ter  (terni,  three),  an 
oxide  containing  three  equivalents  of  oxygen 
to  one  of  the  other  element.  The  base  con- 
taining the  largest  amount  of  oxygen  is  often 
called  the  peroxide  (per,  thorough).  Thus, 
three  compounds  of  the  metal  manganese  and 
oxygen  are  distinguished  as  follows  : 


Protoxide  of  manganese  contains -J  }  e<^' 

Sesquioxide  of       " 

Bin-,    1 

it       J  1  eq.  of  manganese, 
1  2  eqs.  of  oxygen. 


ti       j  2  eqs.  of  manganese, 
I  3  eqs.  of  oxygen. 


or 
per- 


j 


At  the  time  when  the  nomenclature  was 
framed,  it  was  believed  that  only  two  acid 
compounds  could  be  formed  by  the  combina- 
tion of  oxygen  with  another  element.  These 
were  distinguished  from  each  other  by  causing 
the  name  of  the  other  element  to  terminate  in 
ic  for  the  combination  containing  the  larger 
proportion  of  oxygen,  and  in  ous  for  the  com- 
pound containing  less  oxygen,  the  word  acid 
being  added  in  each  case  to  the  words  thus 
formed.  For  example,  two  compounds  of  sul- 
phur and  oxygen  are  respectively  : 


Sulphurous  .eld,  composed  of  f  \  ^ 
Su.ph^eacid,  "          » 


Of  the  compounds  which  an  element  may  form 
with  oxygen,  those  containing  the  larger  num- 


476 


NOMENCLATURE 


ber  of  equivalents  of  the  latter  are  usually 
acids  ;  those  containing  but  few  equivalents  of 
oxygen,  are  bases ;  while  not  unfrequently  the 
intermediate  degrees  of  oxidation  are  indif- 
ferent bodies.  Thus,  of  the  oxides  of  manga- 
nese just  referred  to,  the  proto-  and  sesqui- 
oxides  are  bases,  and  the  bin-  (or  per-)  oxide 
is  an  indifferent  body  ;  there  are  also  two  com- 
pounds containing  more  oxygen  which  are 
acids,  viz. : 


Manganic  acid,  containing 
Permanganic  acid,      " 


1  eq.  of  manganese, 
3  eqs.  of  oxygen. 

2  eqs.  of  manganese, 
7  eqs.  of  oxygen. 


The  compounds  which  oxygen  forms  with  the 
metals  are,  however,  for  the  most  part  bases, 
those  with  the  metalloids  acids. — Many  of  the 
binary  compounds  of  sulphur  are  analogous  to 
those  of  oxygen.  They  are  termed  sulphides, 
and  as  a  rule  correspond  with  the  oxides. 
Like  the  latter,  they  may  be  classed  as  acids, 
bases,  and  indifferent  bodies.  Members  of  the 
first  two  classes,  like  the  oxyacids  and  bases, 
unite  with  each  other  to  form  sulpho-salts. 
They  have,  however,  comparatively  little  affini- 
ty for  the  other  elements,  or  for  compounds 
not  containing  sulphur.  The  sulphur  bases  and 
the  indifferent  sulphides  are  distinguished  by 
the  same  prefixes  as  the  oxides.  Thus,  the 
three  sulphides  of  iron  are  termed  respective- 
ly :  protosulphide  of  iron,  symbol  FeS  ;  sesqui- 
sulphide  of  iron,  Fe2S3 ;  and  persulphide  of  iron, 
FeS2.  The  sulphur  acids  are  named  by  prefix- 
ing the  term  sulpha  to  the  name  of  the  corre- 
sponding oxygen  acid ;  thus,  the  compound  of 
carbon  and  sulphur  analogous  to  carbonic  acid 
is  called  sulpho-carbonic  acid.  The  binary 
compounds  of  chlorine  and  of  several  other 
elements  are  named  in  a  similar  manner.  Thus, 
with  the  other  elements,  oxygen  forms  oxides ; 
sulphur,  sulphides  (sulphurets)  ;  chlorine,  chlo- 
rides; bromine,  bromides;  iodine,  iodides; 
fluorine,  fluorides ;  phosphorus,  phosphides 
(phosphurets)  ;  carbon,  carbides  (carburets)  ; 
nitrogen,  nitrides,  &c.  When  several  chlo- 
rides, bromides,  iodides,  or  fluorides  of  any 
one  metal  occur,  they  are  distinguished  by  the 
same  prefixes  as  the  oxides.  The  binary  com- 
pounds of  these  elements  are,  however,  usually 
regarded,  not  as  acids  and  bases,  but,  like  the 
ternary  oxygen  compounds,  as  salts.  This  ex- 
ception is  one  of  the  fruits  of  the  too  hasty  as- 
sumption by  the  founders  of  the  nomenclature, 
that  oxygen  was  the  universal  acidifying  prin- 
ciple ;  an  error  which  lies  at  the  basis  of  their 
system,  and  constitutes  one  of  its  greatest 
faults.  It  has  since  been  ascertained  that  the 
metalloids  in  question,  as  well  as  some  others, 
by  uniting  with  hydrogen,  form  acids  as  ener- 
getic and  as  well  characterized  in  every  respect 
as  the  oxy-acids ;  for  example,  chloride  of  hy- 
drogen, fluoride  of  hydrogen,  &c.  These  are 
called  hydracids.  Instead  of  being  written  out 
in  full,  as  they  have  just  been  given,  the  names 
of  these  compounds  are  formed  by  fusing  to- 


gether those  of  their  constituents,  as  chlorhy- 
dric  acid,  fluorhydric  acid,  &c.  The  synony- 
mous names,  as  hydrochloric  and  hdyrofluoric 
acids,  are  still  often  used,  but  are  not  in  ac- 
cordance with  the  general  principle  that  the 
name  of  a  compound  must  commence  with 
that  of  its  electro-negative  component;  their 
inaccuracy  was  pointed  out  simultaneously  by 
Thenard  and  Dr.  Hare  of  Philadelphia.  The 
hydracids  are  capable  of  uniting  directly  with 
basic  oxides  or  with  metals,  with  separation 
of  hydrogen  in  either  case;  in  the  first  in- 
stance the  hydrogen  unites  with  the  oxygen 
of  the  metallic  oxide  to  form  water,  in  the 
latter  it  is  evolved  as  gas.  The  compounds 
thus  formed  were  at  first  thought  to  contain 
oxygen,  the  hydracids  being  supposed  to  be 
oxygenated,  and  were  admitted  as  salts  without 
question ;  indeed,  one  of  them,  common  sea 
salt,  is  that  from  which  the  very  idea  of  a  salt 
was  originally  derived.  An  attempt  has  since 
been  made  to  refer  them  to  the  oxygen  class 
by  supposing  that  they  constitute  when  in  so- 
lution, not  simple  binaries,  but  compounds  of 
the  original  undivided  hydracid  with  an  oxide. 
Thus  the  compound  of  chlorine  and  sodium 
(common  salt)  was  at  one  time  often  called 
chlorhydrate  (or  hydrochlorate)  of  soda;  it 
being  claimed  that  the  elements  of  an  equiva- 
lent of  water  had  united  with  its  constituents 
to  form  chlorhydric  acid  and  oxide  of  sodium 
(soda).  From  this  (conventionally  admitted) 
property  of  chlorine,  and  the  metalloids  allied 
to  it,  to  form  salts  by  direct  combination  with 
metals,  they  have  been  termed  halogens  (salt 
producers;  Gr.  aAf,  [sea]  salt,  and  yevvaeiv), 
and  their  salts  have  been  called  haloid  (from 
a/If  and  eldoc,  in  the  likeness  of)  to  distinguish 
them  from  the  oxygen  salts. — The  names  of 
ternary  compounds  or  salts,  in  the  original  ac- 
ceptation of  the  term,  are  formed  by  combining 
the  names  of  the  acid  and  base  of  which  they 
are  composed,  the  name  of  the  acid  or  electro- 
negative component  supplying  the  generic,  the 
base  or  electro-positive  compound  the  specific 
name.  If  the  name  of  the  acid  terminates  in 
ic,  this  termination  is  changed  into  ate  ;  if  in 
ous,  into  ite ;  and  to  the  words  thus  formed 
the  name  of  the  base  is  added.  For  example, 
sulphuric  acid  and  oxide  of  lead  form  sulphate 
of  the  oxide  of  lead ;  sulphurous  acid  forms  a 
sulphite  of  the  same  oxide ;  while  hyposulphu- 
rous  acid  produces  a  hyposulphite,  and  hypo- 
sulphuric  acid  a  hyposulphate.  In  like  manner 
the  compounds  of  nitric  acid  are  nitrates,  and 
those  of  nitrous  acid  nitrites  of  the  bases  with 
which  they  may  be  combined.  When  a  salt 
contains  as  its  base  the  oxide  of  a  metal  which 
forms  but  one  well  defined  base  with  oxygen, 
its  name  is  usually  shortened  by  leaving  out  the 
words  "  of  the  oxide,"  which  are  always  under- 
stood. Thus,  it  is  customary  to  say  sulphate 
of  lead,  instead  of  sulphate  of  the  oxide  of 
lead ;  nitrate  of  potassa,  instead  of  nitrate  of 
the  oxide  of  potassium.  In  case  more  than  one 
basic  oxide  of  the  same  element  is  capable  of 


NOMENCLATURE 


477 


combining  with  acids,  the  distinguishing  prefix 
of  each  is  retained  in  the  name  of  its  salts ; 
as  sulphate  of  protoxide  of  iron,  and  sulphate 
of  sesquioxide  of  iron.  These  salts  are  also 
often  called  respectively  protosulphate  and 
persulphate  of  iron,  the  prefixes  being  under- 
stood to  refer  to  the  degrees  of  oxidation  of 
the  metal.  As  the  number  of  salifiable  oxides 
of  any  element  is  rarely  if  ever  greater  than 
two,  it  was  proposed  by  Berzelius  to  distin- 
guish them  in  some  cases,  like  the  acids,  by  the 
terminations  OKS  and  ic.  The  two  oxides  of 
iron  he  called  ferrous  oxide  and  ferric  oxide 
respectively,  and  the  salts  just  mentioned  fer- 
rous and  ferric  sulphate  ;  and  so  with  the  ox- 
ides of  various  other  metals.  These  changes 
are  very  convenient  in  certain  cases,  and  for 
these  they  have  been  extensively  adopted. — 
It  often  happens  that  an  acid  can  combine 
with  the  same  base  in  several  different  propor- 
tions. Of  the  salts  thus  formed,  one  is  called 
neutral,  or  more  properly  normal,  since  the 
definition  now  depends  upon  some  one  constant 
relation  in  which  the  oxygen  of  the  acid  stands 
to  that  of  the  base  for  the  salts  of  each  indi- 
vidual acid ;  those  containing  more  base  than 
this  are  termed  basic,  and  those  containing  less, 
acid  salts.  The  term  neutral  or  normal  is  not 
usually  expressed,  being  understood  to  belong 
to  any  salt  which  is  characterized  neither  as 
basic  nor  as  acid.  When  several  acid  salts  of 
any  one  base  occur,  they  are  distinguished  from 
each  other  by  the  Latin  prefixes  bi,  ter,  &c., 
which  are  attached  to  the  name  of  the  acid ; 
thus,  monochromate  (or  simply  chromate),  bi- 
chromate, and  terchromate  of  potassa.  When 
several  basic  or  sub-salts  occur,  they  are  usual- 
ly distinguished  by  prefixing  the  terms  bibasic, 
sesquibasic,  terbasic,  &c.,  to  the  name  of  the  salt. 
Thus,  five  acetates  of  lead  are  known  :  mono- 
basic (or  normal)  acetate  of  lead,  symbol  PbO  A  ; 
bibasic  do.,  (PbO)2A~;  sesquibasic  do.,  (PbO)3 
Aa;  terbasic  do.,  (PbO)3  A;  sexbasic  do.,  (PbO)6 
A.  It  has  also  been  proposed  to  denote  the 
amount  of  base  in  a  sub-salt  by  prefixing  to 
its  name  the  Greek  numerals  dis  (twice),  trie 
(thrice),  tetraMs  (four  times),  &c.,  in  contra- 
distinction to  the  Latin  ones  used  for  acid 
salts.  Thus,  instead  of  bibasic  acetate  of  lead, 
the  term  diacetate  of  lead  would  be  used ;  in- 
stead of  terbasic  acetate  of  lead,  trisacetate 
of  lead,  and  so  on.  Many  oxides  act  as  bases 
under  certain  circumstances,  and  as  acids  un- 
der others ;  they  may  have  therefore  two  dif- 
ferent names.  Thus,  the  oxide  of  aluminum 
when  acting  as  a  base  is  called  sesquioxide  of 
aluminum  (or  alumina) ;  but  when  playing 
the  part  of  an  acid,  it  is  termed  aluminic 
acid.  Water  (protoxide  of  hydrogen)  is  an- 
other oxide  which  is  either  acid  or  basic  ac- 
cording to  circumstances ;  when  it  plays  the 
part  of  an  acid  its  salts  are  termed  hydrates,  as 
hydrate  of  potassa,  &c.  The  principles  of  the 
nomenclature  have  not  been  carried  out,  how- 
ever, in  regard  to  the  compounds  in  which  it 
acts  as  a  base.  Several  of  our  most  common 


acids  are  such  compounds ;  but  instead  of  say- 
ing sulphate  of  water,  nitrate  of  water,  &c., 
they  are  termed  hydrated  sulphuric  acid,  hy- 
drated  nitric  acid,  &c. ;  or,  oftener,  simply  sul- 
phuric or  nitric  acid,  terms  which  ought,  strict- 
ly speaking,  to  be  applied  only  to  the  anhy- 
drous compounds.  In  like  manner  certain 
salts,  which  contain  two  equivalents  of  acid 
united  with  one  equivalent  of  a  metallic  base 
and  one  equivalent  of  water,  which  ought  to 
be  regarded  as  double  salts,  are  named  as  if 
they  were  bisalts,  containing  two  equivalents 
of  acid  to  only  one  of  base,  the  water  being 
left  out  of  account.  Thus  the  compound  of 
one  equivalent  of  water,  one  equivalent  of  po- 
tassa, and  two  equivalents  of  sulphuric  acid, 
is  commonly  called  bisulphate  of  potassa. — 
The  names  of  some  of  the  ternary  sulphur  com- 
pounds (sulphur  salts)  are  formed  in  a  similar 
manner  to  those  of  the  corresponding  com- 
pounds of  oxygen  ;  thus  the  compound  of  sul- 
phide of  sodium  and  sulphantimonic  acid  is 
called  sulphantimoniate  of  the  sulphide  of  sodi- 
um. Like  the  names  of  the  oxygen  salts,  these 
are  usually  abbreviated.  In  the  instance  cited, 
the  salt  is  commonly  termed  sulphantimoniate 
of  sodium,  it  being  understood  that  the  latter 
element  is  united  with  sulphur.  But  this  system 
is  limited  to  only  a  few  of  the  sulphur  acids ; 
the  terms  sulpharseniate,  sulphantimoniate,  and 
sulphomolybdate  are  well  understood  ;  but  the 
sulphophosphates,  for  example,  of  Berzelius 
(MS,  PS&)  have  never  been  generally  so  called. 
— So  long  as  the  attention  of  chemists  was 
principally  directed  to  the  consideration  of 
inorganic  compounds,  the  system  of  nomen- 
clature just  described,  in  spite  of  its  numer- 
ous faults  and  inconsistencies,  was  found  to 
be  sufficiently  expansive  to  meet  all  require- 
ments. It  has,  however,  failed  to  furnish 
suitable  names  for  many  new  classes  of  com- 
pounds which  have  recently  been  discovered. 
This  is  especially  true  of  the  great  variety  of 
organic  substances,  with  the  study  of  which 
chemists  of  the  present  day  are  chiefly  occu- 
pied. But  the  radical  fault  of  the  system  is 
its  intimate  connection  with  the  so-called  du- 
alistic  theory  as  just  developed,  which  sup- 
poses all  compounds  to  be  capable  of  division 
into  two  prime  factors,  as  salts  into  acids  and 
bases,  and  these  into  still  simpler  antagonistic 
components ;  a  view  which  is  at  present  gen- 
erally discarded.  The  system  of  nomenclature 
in  question  has  moreover  been  found  to  be 
incapable  of  expressing  innumerable  decompo- 
sitions and  changes  which  occur  among  com- 
plex substances.  But  this  difficulty  has  been 
in  a  measure  obviated  by  the  introduction  of 
certain  written  abbreviations  (see  SYMBOLS, 
CHEMICAL)  and  formulas,  which  exhibit  at 
once  to  the  eye  the  composition  of  bodies  and 
the  alterations  to  which  they  are  subject.  In- 
deed, since  the  adoption  of  these  symbols  the 
name  of  a  substance  is  of  comparatively  little 
scientific  importance.  The  introduction  of 
many  names  synonymous  with  those  now  used 


478 


NOMENCLATURE 


has  thus  been  unquestionably  prevented,  and 
numerous  other  alterations  obviated.  There  is 
a  numerous  class  of  compounds  termed  com- 
pound radicles  which,  though  they  contain  sev- 
eral elements,  nevertheless  comport  themselves 
like  simple  substances  toward  the  elements. 
For  example,  cyanogen,  a  compound  of  two 
equivalents  of  carbon  and  one  equivalent  of  ni- 
trogen, exhibits  properties  closely  analogous  to 
those  of  the  element  chlorine.  In  general  the 
term  radicle  is  applied  to  any  substance  which 
by  uniting  with  an  element  can  give  rise  to  an 
acid  or  a  base.  Many  of  the  more  simple  com- 
pounds formed  by  the  union  of  compound  rad- 
icles with  elements  or  with  other  compound 
radicles  are  classed  with  the  chlorine  salts ;  as 
cyanide  of  potassium,  chloride  of  ethyl,  &c.,  the 
radicle  ethyl  being  composed  of  four  equiva- 
lents of  carbon  and  five  of  hydrogen.  Some  of 
the  compound  radicles  acting  as  metals  can 
unite  with  oxygen  to  form  bases  or  acids, 
which,  when  combined  with  each  other,  pro- 
duce salts  which  are  completely  analogous  to 
the  oxygen  salts  of  inorganic  chemistry.  Thus 
the  radicles  ethyl  and  benzoyl,  after  combina- 
tion with  oxygen,  are  respectively  a  base  and 
an  acid,  which  by  uniting  form  benzoate  of 
the  oxide  of  ethyl  (benzoate  of  ethyl).  In 
general  terms  it  may  be  said  that  the  nomen- 
clature of  organic  acids,  bases,  and  salts  is 
similar  to  that  of  analogous  inorganic  sub- 
stances. It  is  among  the  radicles  themselves, 
and  the  numerous  neutral  or  indifferent  com- 
plex bodies  of  organic  chemistry,  that  the  sys- 
tem is  at  fault.  Organic  compounds  are  usu- 
ally divided  into  natural  families  or  groups, 
the  generic  names  of  which  are  furnished  in 
each  case  by  the  name  of  some  one  substance 
which  happens  to  be  familiarly  known,  and  to 
which  each  member  of  the  group  is  in  some 
way  allied.  Thus  the  term  alcohol  is  applied 
to  a  large  class  of  bodies  analogous  to  com- 
mon alcohol,  each  separate  member  of  the 
class  being  designated  by  prefixing  its  specific 
name ;  as  methyl  alcohol  (wood  spirit),  ethyl 
alcohol  (common  alcohol),  &c.  In  like  manner 
ether  is  the  generic  name  of  a  large  class  of 
bodies  of  which  common  ether  is  the  type.  In 
compounds  produced  by  substitution  (see  CHEM- 
ISTRY), that  is,  in  those  cases  where  one  or 
more  of  the  equivalents  of  an  element  are  re- 
placed in  a  compound  by  equivalents  of  other 
elements  or  of  compound  radicles,  names  are 
formed  by  prefixing  to  the  name  of  the  origi- 
nal compound  that  of  the  element  or  elements 
which  have  been  newly  introduced.  The  pre- 
fixes fo',  ter,  &c.,  or  di,  tris,  tetra,  &c.,  if 
the  replacing  substances  possess  basic  prop- 
erties, are  used  to  denote  those  cases  where  two 
or  more  equivalents  of  any  one  element  are 
substituted.  Thus,  acetic  acid  in  which  one 
equivalent  of  hydrogen  has  been  replaced 
by  an  equivalent  of  chlorine  is  called  chlor- 
acetic  acid  (or  monochloracetic  acid) ;  when 
three  equivalents  of  hydrogen  are  thus  re- 
placed, it  is  called  terchloracetic  acid.  When 


one  equivalent  of  hydrogen  in  ammonia 
is  replaced  by  ethyl,  the  resulting  compound  is 
called  ethyl-ammonia,  or  shortly,  ethylamine; 
when  two  equivalents  of  hydrogen  are  thus  re- 
placed, it  becomes  diethyl-ammonia  (diethyl- 
amine),  and  so  on.  But  each  of  the  three 
equivalents  of  hydrogen  in  ammonia  may  be 
replaced  by  separate  radicles,  as  in  ethyl- 
methyl-amyl-ammonia.  In  similar  cases  ex- 
ceedingly complicated  names  are  often  un- 
avoidable ;  but  such  are  rarely  expressed  with- 
out their  written  formulas. — Two  or  three 
common  prefixes,  besides  those  already  men- 
tioned, occur.  Thus,  pyro  (abbreviated  by 
Guyton  de  Morveau  from  the  term  empyreu- 
matic,  much  used  by  the  alchemists)  is  a  dis- 
tinguishing appellation  of  many  acids  obtained 
by  means  of  dry  distillation,  as  pyrogallic  acid, 
&c.  Para  (Gr.  napa,  near  to)  was  proposed 
by  Berzelius  to  indicate  a  strong  resemblance 
between  two  compounds,  as  tartaric  and  para- 
tartaric  acids,  which,  though  very  much  alike, 
must  nevertheless  be  regarded  as  distinct  sub- 
stances. Meta  (Gr.  //er<i,  signifying  change)  is 
also  used  in  a  somewhat  similar  manner.  Thus, 
when  aldehyde  is  kept  for  a  long  time  in  a 
close  tube,  it  gradually  changes  into  two  com- 
pounds, both  isomeric  with  the  original  sub- 
stance ;  one  of  these  is  called  metaldehyde, 
and  the  other  paraldehyde. — Many  chemists 
have  sought  to  apply  names  terminating  alike 
to  all  the  members  of  a  given  class.  Although 
it  is  not  easy  to  carry  out  this  principle  in  de- 
tail, it  has  nevertheless  been  successfully  ap- 
plied to  the  names  of  several  classes  of  com- 
pound radicles  which  terminate  in  yle,  or  sim- 
ply yl,  as  ethyl,  methyl,  &c.  The  names  of  the 
alkaloids  also,  and  in  general  of  bases  which 
are  not  radicles  like  ethyl,  terminate  in  ine,  as 
strychnine,  morphine,  and  the  like. — In  the 
above  sketch  we  have  given  the  nomenclature 
employed  during  the  last  75  years  in  the  best 
treatises  on  technology,  and  analytical,  physio- 
logical, pharmaceutical,  and  general  chemistry. 
But  as  language  is  the  instrument  used  to  ex- 
press the  existing  knowledge  on  any  subject, 
and  as  the  domain  of  science  has  been  im- 
mensely increased  and  the  theoretical  views 
entertained  by  chemists  have  been  materially 
modified,  a  new  nomenclature  has  been  found 
necessary.  It  would  be  impossible  to  notice 
in  this  place  the  various  systems  of  nomencla- 
ture devised  as  substitutes  for  the  language  in- 
vented by  Lavoisier.  One  of  them,  proposed 
by  Prof.  Samuel  D.  Tillman  of  New  York,  dis- 
played great  ingenuity  and  a  rare  adaptation  to 
the  progress  of  chemical  science ;  but  as  it  has 
not  been  generally  adopted,  an  analysis  of  it 
would  be  out  of  place.  A  greater  change  has 
taken  place  in  the  notation  than  in  the  nomen- 
clature of  modern  chemistry.  Many  of  the 
atomic  weights  have  been  doubled;  graphic 
formulas  for  the  expression  of  the  molecular 
constitution  and  of  the  doctrine  of  substitu- 
tion in  organic  chemistry  have  been  found  ne- 
cessary ;  and  the  student  of  the  present  day  is 


NOMINALISM 


NONSUIT 


479 


compelled  to  learn  two  sets  of  figures,  the 
dualistic  of  Berzelius  and  the  unitary  of  mod- 
ern times.  The  departures  from  traditional 
English  usage  in  the  names  of  compounds  are 
made  to  correspond  with  the  changes  in  nota- 
tion, and  are  chiefly  verbal.  A  few  illustra- 
tions will  suffice  to  make  this  point  clear  : 


Carbonate  of  potash. 
Bicarbonate  of  potash. 
Sulphate  of  zinc. 
Protosulphate  of  iron. 
Persulphate  of  iron. 
Anhydrous  sulphuric  acid. 
Carbonic  acid. 


Potassium  carbonate. 
Hydrogen  potassium  carb'ate. 
Zinc  sulphate. 
Ferrous  sulphate. 
Ferric  sulphate. 
Sulphuric  anhydride. 
Carbon  dioxide. 


In  the  case  of  the  complicated  bodies  belonging 
to  organic  chemistry,  the  assumption  of  com- 
pound radicles  and  other  peculiar  views  of  ra- 
tional constitution  have  led  chemistry  to  con- 
struct various  new  names,  which  are  to  be 
learned  in  the  writings  where  they  are  pro- 
pounded. Atomicity  is  a  term  much  em- 
ployed by  modern  chemists  to  denote  the 
equivalent  value  or  combining  capacity  of  an 
element.  It  is  measured  by  the  number  of 
atoms  of  hydrogen  or  other  monatomic  or 
univalent  element  with  which  the  element  in 
question  can  combine.  When  an  element  does 
not  unite  with  hydrogen,  as  in  the  case  of 
many  of  the  metals,  its  atomicity  may  be 
measured  by  the  number  of  atoms  of  chlorine, 
bromine,  or  iodine  with  which  it  can  combine, 
since  the  atomicity  of  the  elements  is  equal  to 
that  of  hydrogen.  The  atomicity  or  combining 
capacity  is  in  most  cases  a  variable  quality; 
and  chemists  have  found  it  convenient  to 
divide  the  elements  into  two  classes,  one  of 
odd,  the  other  of  even  equivalence.  Those  of 
odd  equivalence  are  called  perissads,  those  of 
even  equivalence  artiads  ;  e.  g. :  perissads — 
nitrogen,  phosphorus,  arsenic,  antimony,  gold ; 
artiads — oxygen,  sulphur,  selenium,  tellurium, 
barium,  calcium,  magnesium,  tin,  &c.  The 
fact  that  the  older  nomenclature  has  been  so 
long  in  use  among  chemists,  pharmacists,  phy- 
sicians, and  manufacturers,  and  that  so  vast  a 
mass  of  literature  has  been  written  in  accord- 
ance with  it,  has  made  scientific  men  very  re- 
luctant to  abandon  it.  But  the  new  facts  and 
theories  continually  brought  forward  as  the  sci- 
ence advances  require  a  change  in  classification 
and  language;  and  the  greater  truth  of  modern 
chemistry  must  ultimately  compel  the  adoption 
of  the  new  notation  and  nomenclature. 

NOMINALISM.     See  PHILOSOPHY. 

NONCONFORMISTS,  a  name  sometimes  given 
to  dissenters  from  the  church  of  England,  but 
more  particularly  applied  to  the  clergymen  who 
gave  up  their  livings  on  the  passage  of  the  act 
of  uniformity  in  1662.  An  act  of  uniformity 
was  passed  in  1558,  but  was  only  partially 
enforced  for  seven  years,  most  of  those  who 
refused  to  conform  to  the  ceremonies  of  the 
church  still  remaining  within  it.  At  the  first 
convocation  of  the  clergy  in  1561,  a  motion  to 
608  VOL.  xii.— 31 


do  away  with  the  ceremonies  objectionable  to 
the  Puritans  was  lost  by  a  majority  of  one  only ; 
and  this  rejection  was  due  to  the  strong  influ- 
ence of  Queen  Elizabeth  and  the  primate,  and 
to  the  fear  that  the  change  would  relieve  Eoman 
Catholic  nonconformists  as  well  as  Protestants. 
In  1565  the  law  began  to  be  more  rigidly  en- 
forced, and  many  nonconformists  were  deprived 
of  their  preferments,  and  many  were  impris- 
oned. In  1593  an  act  was  passed  to  enforce 
conformity  of  the  laity,  requiring  attendance  at 
the  parish  church  of  all  persons  over  16  years 
of  age,  upon  pain  of  banishment,  and  of  death 
for  continued  disobedience.  James  I.,  though 
educated  a  Presbyterian,  enforced  the  laws 
against  nonconformity  with  great  severity,  and 
his  policy  was  adhered  to  by  Charles  I.  Under 
the  protectorate  the  nonconformists  enjoyed 
the  right  of  worship  without  molestation,  and 
Episcopacy  in  its  turn  was  proscribed.  The 
restoration  witnessed  the  reestablishment  of 
the  old  church  polity,  and  the  revival  of  the 
penal  laws  against  the  dissenters.  A  new  act 
of  uniformity  was  passed  in  1662,  restoring  all 
the  ancient  forms  and  ceremonies  of  the  estab- 
lished church,  and  requiring  that  every  bene- 
ficed  minister,  every  fellow  of  a  college,  and 
even  every  schoolmaster,  should  declare  his 
assent  to  all  and  everything  contained  in  the 
u  Book  of  Common  Prayer,"  and  that  no  one 
should  hold  any  preferment  without  episcopal 
ordination.  For  their  unwillingness  to  con- 
form to  the  requirements  of  this  act,  2,000  cler- 
gymen were  obliged  to  give  up  their  livings, 
and  it  was  at  this  time  that  the  title  of  noncon- 
formists came  into  use.  The  "Declaration  of 
Indulgence  "  of  James  II.  afforded  a  temporary 
relief  to  the  nonconformists;  but  it  was  not 
until  the  reign  of  William  and  Mary  that  they 
enjoyed  real  toleration,  and  even  from  this 
those  who  denied  the  Trinity  were  excepted. 
(See  DISSENTERS.) 

NONSUIT  (L.  Fr.  nonsue,  non  suist,  modern 
Fr.  non  suit,  Lat.  non  sequitur,  he  does  not 
pursue),  in  law,  a  judgment  given  against  a 
plaintiff  in  default  of  evidence,  or  for  neglect 
to  proceed  with  a  cause  after  it  has  been  put 
at  issue.  A  plaintiff  may  find  after  commen- 
cing his  action  that  he  cannot  maintain  it  for 
want  of  evidence.  In  order  therefore  to  pre- 
vent a  verdict  and  judgment  which  will  be  not 
only  probably  unfavorable  to  him,  but  also  a 
bar  to  further  process  upon  the  same  cause  of 
action,  he  may  abandon  his  suit  and  defer  its 
complete  prosecution  until  he  is  prepared  with 
fuller  testimony ;  in  other  words,  he  becomes 
nonsuit.  This  he  may  do  at  any  time  before 
verdict,  unless  an  exercise  of  his  right  will 
wrong  the  defendant.  If  he  fails  to  appear  for 
the  trial  of  his  cause,  the  crier  usually  in  open 
court  calls  upon  him  to  come  in  and  prosecute 
it;  and  if  he  does  not,  he  is  noted  upon  the 
docket  as  nonsuit,  the  action  is  at  an  end,  and 
the  defendant  recovers  his  costs  against  him. 
If  the  plaintiff  has  once  appeared,  it  seems  to 
be  the  English  rule,  and  that  of  many  of  the 


480 


NOOTKA  SOUND 


NORDHAUSEN 


United  States,  that  he  cannot  be  nonsuited 
except  by  his  own  consent,  provided  he  has 
offered  pertinent,  even  though  it  was  the  slight- 
est, evidence  in  support  of  his  claims.  In 
some  of  the  states,  however,  where  this  rule 
is  maintained,  the  presiding  judge  recommends 
a  nonsuit  subject  to  the  opinion  of  the  full 
court.  But  in  New  York  and  other  states,  it 
is  held  to  be  within  the  power,  and  even  duty, 
of  the  court  to  nonsuit  the  plaintiff,  if  in  its 
opinion  the  testimony  which  he  has  offered 
will  not  authorize  the  jury  to  find  a  verdict  for 
him,  or  if  the  court  would  set  aside  such  a  ver- 
dict as  being  contrary  to  the  evidence.  Yet  in 
such  a  case  of  involuntary  nonsuit  the  plaintiff 
may,  upon  a  case  made  or  upon  a  bill  of  excep- 
tions, move  to  have  the  nonsuit  set  aside. — A 
nonsuit  is  a  mere  default.  It  does  not,  like 
judgment  following  upon  a  verdict,  change  the 
face  of  the  matter  in  controversy.  It  leaves 
the  parties  in  the  same  position  toward  each 
other  as  if  no  action  had  been  brought.  In 
submitting  to  it,  the  plaintiff  does  not  admit 
that  he  has  no  cause  of  action;  and,  subject 
only  to  the  probable  order1  of  court  that  further 
proceedings  be  stayed  until  the  costs  of  the 
former  suit  are  paid,  the  plaintiff  is  entitled  to 
institute  a  new  action  at  his  pleasure. 

NOOTKA  SOUND,  an  inlet  on  the  W.  coast  of 
Vancouver  island,  British  North  America,  in 
lat.  49°  85'  N.,  Ion.  126°  35'  W.  It  extends 
10  m.  in  a  N.  N.  E.  direction,  and  forms  a 
number  of  smaller  bays  and  coves.  In  the  mid- 
dle is  a  large  wooded  island,  and  the  greatest 
breadth  of  water  is  not  more  than  500  yards. 
The  shores  are  rocky,  and  the  anchorage  good. 
The  sound  was  discovered  by  Oapt.  Cook  in 
1778,  and  in  1780  a  British  fur  station  was  es- 
tablished there.  In  1789  the  Spanish  captured 
two  British  vessels  and  took  possession  of  the 
settlement;  but  in  1791  the  British  right  to 
the  sound  and  territory  was  recognized,  and  in 
April,  1792,  Vancouver  was  sent  there  to  re- 
ceive the  restitution. 

NOOTKAS,  or  Ahts,  a  family  of  tribes  on  Van- 
couver island  and  the  mainland  near  it,  embra- 
cing the  Ahts  proper  (of  whom  the  Moouchaht 
are  the  tribe  called  Nootkas  by  Oapt.  Cook  and 
others  since),  on  the  W.  side  of  the  island,  num- 
bering 3,500;  the  Quackewlth,  embracing  16 
or  17  tribes  on  the  W.  and  E.  sides  of  the  island 
and  on  the  mainland,  also  estimated  at  3,500 ; 
and  the  Cowichans  on  the  E.  side  of  the  island, 
numbering  7,000.  The  Ahts  proper  revere 
Quawteaht  as  their  deity  and  progenitor,  wor- 
ship the  sun  and  moon,  and  believe  in  a  mighty 
supernatural  bird,  Totooch.  They  are  divided 
into  clans,  and  a  man  cannot  marry  in  his  own, 
or  invite  men  of  his  own  clan  to  a  feast ;  chil- 
dren belong  to  the  mother's  clan.  They  build 
houses  40  by  100  ft.,  having  a  row  of  posts  in 
the  middle  and  at  each  side  with  string  pieces 
on  them.  These  are  permanent,  but  the  cedar 
slabs  and  mats  covering  the  sides  and  roof  are 
carried  as  they  move  from  one  fishing  station 
to  another,  laid  across  two  canoes.  Their  ca- 


noes are  long  dugouts,  and  they  are  expert  fish- 
ers, taking  salmon,  herring,  halibut,  and  whales; 
they  also  hunt,  and  gather  for  food  shell  fish, 
seaweed,  and  camash  roots.  They  make  blank- 
ets of  cypress  bark,  rain  capes  of  white  pine 
bark,  curious  hats  of  cedar  and  pine  bark,  and 
wooden  dishes,  dippers,  and  boxes ;  they  carve 
the  posts  of  their  houses,  and  wooden  masks 
used  in  war  and  in  their  dances.  They  hang 
up  their  dead  chiefs  and  children  in  boxes  or 
canoes  in  trees,  or  sometimes  lay  them  on  the 
ground  and  heap  sticks  and  stones  over  them. 
Burial  is  more  rare.  The  Ahts  are  cruel  and 
treacherous,  and  have  frequently  destroyed 
vessels,  besides  constantly  killing  traders,  thus 
provoking  repeated  chastisements  from  the 
whites.  The  Cowichans,  though  allied  to  the 
Ahts,  are  semi-civilized,  readily  adopt  the  ways 
of  the  whites,  and  both  men  and  women  prove 
useful  to  the  settlers  as  servants  and  laborers ; 
and  they  have  made  some  progress  in  agri- 
culture. Among  these  tribes  Protestant  and 
Catholic  missionaries  have  found  encourage- 
ment. The  most  extended  Aht  vocabulary  is 
in  Sproat's  "  Scenes  and  Studies  of  Savage 
Life  "(London,  1868). 

NORD,  Le,  the  northernmost  department  of 
France,  formed  chiefly  from  the  old  province 
of  Flanders,  bordering  on  the  North  sea,  Bel- 
gium, and  the  departments  of  Ardennes,  Aisne, 
Somme,  and  Pas-de-Calais ;  area,  2,193  sq.  m. ; 
pop.  in  1872,  1,447,764.  The  coast  line  is 
formed  by  a  ridge  of  sand  hillocks,  and  has  two 
harbors,  Dunkirk  and  Gravelines.  The  prin- 
cipal rivers  are  the  Sambre,  Scheldt,  Scarpe, 
Lys,  and  Yser,  which  have  been  rendered  nav- 
igable, and  are  connected  with  one  another  by 
25  canals.  The  surface  is  flat,  except  in  the 
south,  where  there  are  some  low  detached 
hills.  The  greater  part  of  the  soil  is  a  rich 
alluvium.  Coal  is  found  in  several  places. 
Linen,  woollen  goods,  and  cottons  are  manu- 
factured ;  and  there  are  iron  works,  f  ounderies, 
and  glass  works.  The  climate  is  damp,  and 
not  considered  healthy.  It  is  divided  into  the 
arrondissements  of  Avesnes,  Cambrai,  Douai, 
Dunkirk,  Hazebrouck,  Lille,  and  Valenciennes. 
Capital,  Lille. 

NORDENSKjftLD,  Adolf  Erik,  a  Swedish  ex- 
plorer, born  in  Helsingfors,  Nov.  18, 1832.  In 
1858  he  became  professor  of  mineralogy  in 
Stockholm,  and  between  1859  and  1868  took 
part  in  four  arctic  expeditions,  the  most  im- 
portant of  which,  in  1868,  resulted  in  thor- 
oughly ascertaining  the  situation  of  Spitz- 
bergen.  From  1870  to  1872  he  was  a  member 
of  the  second  Swedish  chamber,  and  during 
the  summer  of  1870  he  explored  Greenland, 
going  further  into  the  interior  than  any  pre- 
vious scientific  traveller.  He  has  written  nar- 
ratives of  his  third  arctic  expedition  of  1864, 
and  of  his  Greenland  expedition  of  1870.  In 
July,  1872,  he  was  placed  in  command  of  an 
antarctic  expedition. 

NORDHAUSEN,  a  town  of  Prussia,  in  the 
province  of  Saxony,  38  m.  N.  W.  of  Erfurt,  at 


NORDHOFF 

the  S.  extremity  of  the  Hartz  mountains ;  pop. 
in  1871,  21,273.  It  consists  of  an  old  or  upper 
town,  a  new  or  lower  town,  and  several  sub- 
urbs. The  first  is  situated  on  a  hill,  and  con- 
tains the  town  hall,  the  market,  and  the  prin- 
cipal churches.  There  are  seven  Protestant 
churches  and  a  Roman  Catholic  cathedral.  In 
the  church  of  St.  Blasius  are  two  famous  paint- 
ings by  Lucas  Oranach.  Nordhausen  contains 
over  50  brandy  distilleries  and  many  breweries. 
The  fattening  of  cattle  is  a  prominent  industry, 
and  the  town  is  the  centre  of  the  corn  trade  of 
the  region.  Near  it  are  the  castles  of  Hohen- 
stein  and  Ebersburg. — The  wife  of  the  emperor 
Otho  I.  founded  a  monastery  here  in  the  10th 
century.  Several  diets  were  held  here  in  the 
llth  and  12th  centuries,  and  in  the  13th  Nord- 
hausen  became  an  imperial  city,  belonging  to 
the  circle  of  Lower  Saxony.  In  1802  it  was 
allotted  to  Prussia;  in  1807  it  formed  part  of 
the  kingdom  of  Westphalia,  but  was  restored 
to  Prussia  in  1813. 

NORDHOFF,  Charles,  an  American  author,  born 
at  Erwitte,  Westphalia,  Prussia,  Aug.  31, 1830. 
In  1835  he  came  with  his  parents  to  the  United 
States,  and  went  to  school  in  Cincinnati,  where 
at  the  age  of  13  he  was  apprenticed  to  a  printer. 
In  1844  he  went  to  Philadelphia,  where,  after 
working  in  a  newspaper  office,  he  shipped  in 
the  United  States  navy,  and  served  three  years, 
making  a  voyage  around  the  world.  He  re- 
mained at  sea  in  the  merchant,  whaling,  and 
mackerel  fishery  service  till  1853,  when  he 
again  found  employment  in  a  Philadelphia 
newspaper  office,  and  afterward  in  Indian- 
apolis. From  1857  to  1861  he  was  editorially 
employed  by  Harper  and  brothers  in  New 
York;  from  1861  to  1871  he  was  on  the  staff 
of  the  New  York  "  Evening  Post."  He  visited 
California  in  1871-%  and  again  in  1872-'3, 
when  he  extended  his  travels  to  the  Hawaiian 
islands.  He  has  published  "  Man-of-War  Life," 
"The  Merchant  Vessel,"  and  "Whaling  and 
Fishing"  (Cincinnati,  1856) ;  "Stories  of  the 
Island  World"  (New  York,  1858) ;  "  Secession 
is  Rebellion:  the  Union  Indissoluble"  (1860); 
" The  Freedmen  of  South  Carolina:  some  Ac- 
count of  their  Appearance,  Character,  Condi- 
tion, and  Customs"  (1863);  "America  for 
Free  Working  Men"  (1865);  "Cape  Cod  and 
All  Along  Shore :  a  Collection  of  Stories " 
(1868) ;  "  California  for  Health,  Pleasure,  and 
Residence"  (1872);  "Northern  California, 
Oregon,  and  the  Sandwich  Islands"  (1874); 
"Politics  for  Young  Americans"  (1875)  ;  and 
"  The  Communistic  Societies  of  the  United 
States  "(1875). 

NORDLINGEN,  a  fortified  town  of  Bavaria,  in, 
the  district  of  Swabia  and  Neuburg,  38  m.  N. 
W.  of  Augsburg;  pop.  in  1871,  7,081.  It  is 
surrounded  by  walls  with  towers  at  intervals, 
contains  a  handsome  Gothic  church  of  the  16th 
century,  a  Latin  school,  an  orphan  asylum,  and 
manufactories  of  linens,  woollens,  carpets,  and 
leather.  On  Sept.  6,  1634,  a  Swedish  army 
under  Gen.  Horn  and  Bernard  of  Weimar  was 


NORFOLK 


481 


totally  defeated  here  by  the  imperialists,  com- 
manded by  Ferdinand,  the  emperor's  son,  and 
the  generals  Gallas  and  Piccolomini.  Horn 
was  among  the  captives.  In  1645  the  impe- 
rialists were  in  their  turn  defeated  here  by  the 
French  under  Turenne.  In  1647  the  town  was 
bombarded  and  partly  burned  by  the  Bava- 
rians. Battles  between  the  French  and  Aus- 
trians  were  also  fought  here  in  1796  and  1800. 
Nordlingen  was  a  free  imperial  city  till  1802, 
when  it  was  annexed  to  Bavaria. 

NORE.     See  THAMES. 

NORFOLK.  I.  An  E.  county  of  Massachusetts, 
having  Massachusetts  bay  on  the  N.  E.  and 
Rhode  Island  on  the  S.  W. ;  area  estimated  at  450 
sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  89,444.  It  is  watered  by 
the  Charles,  Neponset,  and  other  rivers.  The 
surface  is  rough,  and  in  some  places  hilly,  and 
the  soil  is  strong  and  rocky  and  highly  culti- 
vated. Granite  of  an  excellent  quality  is  quar- 
ried at  Quincy.  It  is  traversed  by  several 
railroads  terminating  in  Boston.  The  chief 
productions  in  1870  were  6,717  bushels  of 
wheat,  46,136  of  Indian  corn,  7,734  of  oats, 
6,728  of  barley,  132,734  of  potatoes,  24,920 
tons  of  hay,  and  170,295  Ibs.  of  butter.  There 
were  2,070  horses,  5,289  milch  cows,  2,303 
other  cattle,  508  sheep,  and  3,233  swine.  The 
number  of  manufacturing  establishments  was 
658,  with  a  capital  of  $9,548,750;  annual  pro- 
ducts, $25,836,394.  The  principal  manufacto- 
ries were  14  of  boot  and  shoe  findings,  11  of 
packing  boxes,  16  of  carriages  and  wagons,  1 
of  chocolate,  1  of  copper  bolts  and  sheathing, 
10  of  cotton  goods,  1  of  fertilizers,  1  of  flax 
and  linen  goods,  8  of  furniture,  7  of  hardware, 
17  of  hosiery,  4  of  India-rubber  and  elastic 
goods,  4  of  forged  and  rolled  iron,  6  of  cast- 
ings, 18  of  leather,  7  of  machinery,  9  of  paper, 
19  of  saddlery  and  harness,  2  of  sewing  and 
twist  silk,  14  of  straw  goods,  15  of  tin,  copper, 
and  sheet-iron  ware,  11  of  woollen  goods,  9 
flour  mills,  and  9  saw  mills.  Capital,  Dedham. 
II.  A  S.  E.  county  of  Virginia,  bordering  on 
North  Carolina,  having  the  mouth  of  James 
river  or  Hampton  roads  on  the  N.  and  Chesa- 
peake bay  on  the  N.  E.  corner,  and  drained  by 
Elizabeth  and  North  rivers;  area,  about  500 
sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  46,702,  of  whom  22,320 
were  colored.  It  has  a  level  surface,  and  com- 
prises a  large  portion  of  the  Dismal  swamp. 
The  Atlantic,  Mississippi,  and  Ohio  railroad 
terminates  at  Norfolk ;  and  it  is  traversed  by 
the  Seaboard  and  Roanoke  railroad  and  the  . 
Dismal  Swamp  canal.  The  chief  productions 
in  1870  were  348,821  bushels  of  Indian  corn, 
13,614  of  peas  and  beans,  69,212  of  Irish  and 
43,913  of  sweet  potatoes.  There  were  1,028 
horses,  1,144  milch  cows,  1,678  other  cattle, 
619  sheep,  and  7,643  swine;  4  manufactories 
of  carriages  and  wagons,  1  of  railroad  cars,  1 
of  iron  castings,  4  of  machinery,  8  of  tin,  cop- 
per, and  sheet-iron  ware,  3  flour  mills,  4  saw 
mills,  and  3  ship  yards.  Capital,  Portsmouth. 
NORFOLK,  a  S.  county  of  Ontario,  Canada, 
on  the  N.  shore  of  Lake  Erie ;  area,  635  sq. 


482 


NORFOLK 


m. ;  pop.  in  1871,  30,760,  of  whom  13,039 
were  of  English,  5,384  of  German,  5,280  of 
Irish,  3,779  of  Scotch,  1,781  of  Dutch,  and  687 
of  French  origin  or  descent.  It  is  watered  by 
several  streams,  and  is  traversed  by  the  Can- 
ada Southern  and  Canada  Air  Line  railroads. 
The  surface  is  undulating  and  the  soil  fertile. 
Capital,  Simcoe. 

NORFOLK,  a  maritime  county  of  England,  bor- 
dering on  the  North  sea,  the  counties  of  Suf- 
folk, Cambridge,  and  Lincoln,  and  the  Wash ; 
area,  2,116  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1871,  438,511.  The 
coast  consists  of  cliffs,  partly  chalk,  which  the 
sea  is  gradually  undermining,  and  several  vil- 
lages have  been  swept  away.  The  surface  is 
flat,  except  in  the  north.  The  soil  is  light,  and 
there  is  little  woodland,  but  agriculture  is  very 
advanced.  The  principal  rivers  are  the  Great 
and  Little  Ouse,  Nen,  and  Yare.  The  climate 
on  the  E.  coast  is  dry,  and  in  winter  and  early 
spring  cold  penetrating  winds  prevail.  The 
best  crop  is  barley,  which  is  made  into  malt 
and  exported.  Turnips  are  extensively  raised. 
The  stock  of  sheep  is  considerable,  much  poul- 
try is  raised  for  the  London  market,  and  game 
abounds.  There  are  valuable  fisheries  of  her- 
rings and  to  some  extent  of  mackerel.  "Wool- 
len manufactures  are  largely  carried  on.  The 
principal  towns  are  Norwich,  the  capital,  Lynn 
Regis,  Thetford,  and  Yarmouth. 

NORFOLK,  a  city  and  port  of  entry  of  Nor- 
folk co.,  Virginia,  on  the  N.  bank  of  Elizabeth 
river,  8  m.  from  Hampton  roads,  32  m.  from  the 
Atlantic  ocean,  and  at  the  terminus  of  the  At- 


lantic, Mississippi,  and  Ohio  railroad,  88  m.  in  a 
direct  line  and  160  by  water  S.  E.  of  Richmond  • 
pop.  in  1850,  14,326;  in  1860,  14,620;  in  1870, 
19,229,  of  whom  8,766  were  colored.  Its  situ- 
ation is  low.  The  streets  are  generally  wide, 
but  irregularly  laid  out,  and  the  houses  well 
built  of  brick  and  stone.  Among  the  princi- 
pal buildings  are  the  city  hall,  having  a  granite 
front  and  a  cupola  110  ft.  high,  the  Norfolk 
academy,  mechanics'  hall,  and  masonic  temple. 
There  are  two  cemeteries  handsomely  laid  out 
and  adorned  with  cypress  trees.  The  city  con- 
tains a  court  house,  jail,  and  custom  house. 
The  custom  house  and  the  buildings  of  several 
of  the  banks  are  elegant  structures.  It  has  a 
fine  harbor,  easily  accessible  and  safe,  admit- 
ting the  largest  vessels.  The  entrance  is  de- 
fended by  Forts  Calhoun  and  Monroe.  In  the 
vicinity,  at  Gosport,  is  a  United  States  navy 
yard  with  a  marine  hospital.  The  yard  con- 
tains a  dry  dock,  constructed  of  granite,  at  a 
cost  of  $974,536.  The  trade  of  Norfolk  is 
facilitated  by  three  canals:  the  Norfolk  and 
Princess  Anne  canal;  the  Dismal  Swamp  canal, 
passing  through  Dismal  swamp  from  Elizabeth 
river  to  Pasquotank  river ;  and  the  Albemarle 
and  Chesapeake  canal,  connecting  Chesapeake 
bay  with  Currituck,  Albemarle,  and  Pamlico 
sounds.  The  last  is  navigable  by  vessels  of 
500  tons,  and  steam  is  exclusively  used  for 
towing  and  transportation.  The  receipts  of 
cotton  in  1872-'3  were  405,412  bales;  in  1873- 
'4,  467,571.  The  value  of  imports  into  the  cus- 
toms district,  which  includes  Portsmouth,  for 


Norfolk. 


the  year  1874,  was  $45,209 ;  of  exports,  $3,906,- 
318;  clearances  for  foreign  ports,  96,  tonnage 
50,698;  coastwise  clearances,  1,183,  tonnage 
1,119,029;  belonging  in  the  district  on  June 
30,  376  vessels,  of  12,029  tons,  viz. :  313  sail- 
ing vessels,  6,236  tons;  51  steamers,  4,826  tons; 
and  12  barges,  967  tons.  The  port  is  connected 
with  Richmond,  Baltimore,  Philadelphia,  and 
New  York  by  regular  lines  of  steamers.  Large 
quantities  of  oysters  and  early  fruits  and  vege- 
tables are  shipped  to  northern  ports.  There 
are  two  national  banks,  with  an  aggregate  capi- 
tal of  $400,000 ;  seven  state  and  savings  banks, 
with  an  aggregate  capital  of  $400,000 ;  and  a 


number  of  manufactories.  The  city  is  gov- 
erned by  a  mayor,  a  select  council,  and  a  com- 
mon council.  It  has  water  and  gas  works,  sev- 
eral charitable  institutions,  26  churches  and 
chapels  (5  colored),  three  daily,  one  tri-weekly, 
and  two  weekly  newspapers,  and  six  public  and 
several  private  schools  and  academies,  among 
which  is  St.  John's  theological  seminary  (Ro- 
man Catholic). — Norfolk  was  founded  in  1705, 
incorporated  as  a  borough  in  1736,  and  as  a  city 
in  1845.  It  was  burned  by  the  British  in  1776, 
and  severely  visited  by  yellow  fever  in  1855. 
It  was  prominent  during  the  first  year  of  the 
civil  war.  At  the  commencement  of  1861  there 


NORFOLK 

were  in  the  navy  yard  12  vessels  of  war  under- 
going repairs.  Among  these  were  the  Penn- 
sylvania, of  120  guns,  one  of  the  largest  war 
vessels  then  afloat,  the  sailing  frigate  Cumber- 
land, and  the  steam  frigate  Merrimack.  The 
repairs  of  the  last  two  were  nearly  completed, 
and  Commodore  McCauley,  the  commander  of 
the  navy  yard,  was  directed,  April  16,  to  get 
them  ready  for  sea.  In  the  mean  while  a  body 
of  Virginia  troops  under  Gen.  Taliaferro  had 
entered  the  city,  and  an  agreement  was  entered 
into  between  him  and  McCauley  to  the  effect 
that  none  of  the  vessels  should  be  removed 
from  the  navy  yard,  and  no  shot  fired  except 
in  self-defence.  But  McCauley  decided  to  de- 
stroy what  he  could  not  remove,  and  gave 
orders  to  burn  or  scuttle  all  the  vessels  except 
the  Cumberland.  He  was  soon  superseded  by 
Capt.  Paulding,  who  undertook  to  complete 
what  McCauley  had  begun.  Fire  was  set  to 
the  navy  yard ;  the  Pennsylvania  was  burned 
to  the  water's  edge,  the  Merrimack  was  scut- 
tled, and  the  Cumberland  sailed  away.  But 
the  workshops  and  founderies  were  little  in- 
jured ;  the  Merrimack  was  soon  raised,  and  con- 
verted into  an  iron-clad,  which  was  named  the 
Virginia ;  and  Norfolk  became  the  chief  naval 
depot  of  the  confederacy.  The  necessity  of 
concentrating  all  the  forces  in  Virginia  for  the 
defence  of  Richmond  compelled  the  abandon- 
ment of  Norfolk,  May  3,  1862,  and  on  the  10th 
formal  possession  was  taken  by  the  federals, 
who  retained  undisputed  hold  of  it  until  the 
close  of  the  war. 

NORFOLK,  Duke  of.     See  HOWAED,  THOMAS. 

NORFOLK  ISLAND,  a  dependency  of  New 
South  Wales,  in  the  S.  Pacific  ocean,  about 
1,000  m.  N.  E.  of  Sydney,  in  lat.  28°  58'  S.,  and 
Ion.  167°  46'  E.  It  is  the  largest  and  most  de- 
lightful of  a  small  cluster  consisting  of  Nor- 
folk, Nepean,  and  Philip  islands,  together  with 
several  islets,  or  rocks,  called  the  Bird  islands. 
It  is  about  5  m.  long,  with  an  average  breadth 
of  nearly  3  m. ;  area,  about  14  sq.  m.  Its  gen- 
eral elevation  is  400  ft.  above  the  sea,  except 
on  the  N.  W.  corner,  where  Mt.  Pitt  rises  to 
the  height  of  1,050  ft.  The  surface  is  very 
uneven,  and  the  coast  high  and  precipitous. 
The  principal  tree  is  the  Norfolk  island  pine, 
which  grows  to  a  very  great  size,  but  the  wood 
is  of  little  use  except  for  building.  Maple, 
ironwood,  a  small  species  of  palm,  a  gigantic 
fern  having  fronds  11  ft.  in  length,  the  lemon, 
guava,  banana,  yam,  sweet  potato,  and  arrow- 
root grow  luxuriantly;  and  oranges,  coffee, 
maize,  and  wheat  may  be  raised.  The  climate 
is  healthy  and  very  agreeable.  Horses,  horned 
cattle,  sheep,  and  other  domestic  animals  have 
been  introduced. — Norfolk  island  was  discov- 
ered by  Capt.  Cook  in  1774,  and  in  1787  was 
settled  by  convicts  and  freedmen  from  New 
South  Wales;  but  it  was  abandoned  in  1810, 
and  the  buildings  were  destroyed.  In  1825  it 
was  made  a  penal  establishment  for  incorrigi- 
ble offenders  among  the  convicts  of  New  South 
Wales,  for  which,  as  there  are  only  two  spots 


NORMAL  SCHOOLS 


483 


where  a  landing  can  be  effected,  and  there 
even  with  danger,  it  was  thought  peculiarly 
well  adapted.  At  one  time  the  number  of 
prisoners  exceeded  2,000;  large  prisons  and 
other  buildings  were  erected,  various  improve- 
ments made,  and  a  strong  force  kept  order 
and  prevented  escape ;  notwithstanding  which 
many  convicts  made  their  way  to  various 
South  sea  islands.  The  transportation  of 
convicts  to  New  South  Wales  having  ceased, 
Norfolk  island  was  abandoned  in  1855.  In 
1857  the  island  was  given  by  the  British  gov- 
ernment to  the  descendants  of  the  mutineers 
of  the  Bounty,  194  in  number;  and  though 
some  have  since  returned  to  Pitcairn,  a  num- 
ber of  them  remain  at  Norfolk  island. 

NORICliM,  a  province  of  the  Roman  empire, 
in  S.  E.  Germany,  bounded  N.  by  the  Danube, 
E.  by  Mt.  Cetius  (now  Wiener  Wald),  which 
separated  it  from  Pannonia,  S.  by  the  Savus 
(Save)  and  the  Carnic  Alps,  and  W.  by  the 
(Enus  (Inn),  which  separated  it  from  Vinde- 
licia  and  Rhastia.  It  thus  comprised  most  of 
the  modern  provinces  of  Upper  and  Lower 
Austria  and  Styria,  the  whole  of  Carinthia,  and 
parts  of  Carniola,  Salzburg,  and  Bavaria.  The 
most  important  range  of  mountains  was  the 
Noric  Alps,  in  the  neighborhood  of  Salzburg, 
where  excellent  iron  was  mined ;  gold  is  also 
said  to  have  been  found.  The  chief  towns 
were  :  Noreia  or  Noreja  (Neumarkt  in  Styria), 
the  capital  of  the  Taurisci  or  Norici  before  the 
Roman  conquest,  and  the  place  where  Carbo 
was  routed  by  the  Cimbri  in  113  B.  C. ;  Juva- 
vum  or  Juvavia  (Salzburg),  a  colony  of  Ha- 
drian, on  the  Juvavus  (Salzach) ;  Lentia  (Linz), 
on  the  Danube  ;  and  Lauriacum  (Lorch),  at  the 
mouth  of  the  Anisus  (Enns).  Noricum  was 
conquered  by  the  Romans  toward  the  close  of 
the  reign  of  Augustus,  and  at  a  later  period 
was  divided  into  two  provinces :  Noricum 
Ripense,  adjoining  the  Danube,  and  Noricum 
Mediterraneum,  S.  of  the  former. 

NORMAL  SCHOOLS  (Lat.  norma,  a  carpenter's 
square ;  hence,  a  rule  or  pattern),  establish- 
ments for  the  education  of  teachers.  The  first 
normal  school  was  'organized  in  Stettin,  Prus- 
sia, in  1735.  Frederick  the  Great  established 
a  second  in  Berlin  in  1748.  One  was  opened 
in  Hanover  in  1757,  and  others  soon  afterward 
in  various  parts  of  Germany.  Since  the  be- 
ginning of  the  present  century,  training  schools 
for  teachers  have  been  rapidly  multiplying. 
The  course  of  instruction  is  now  generally  ex- 
tended to  three  or  four  years.  In  some  of  the 
German  states  the  great  majority  of  the  teach- 
ers are  graduates  of  the  normal  schools.  The 
first  seminary  for  teachers  in  France  was  es- 
tablished in  1810,  and  the  first  in  the  Nether- 
lands in  1816 ;  and  since  that  time  they  have 
been  introduced  into  the  other  principal  coun- 
tries of  Europe.  In  Great  Britain  they  are  com- 
monly called  training  colleges.  The  first  sug- 
gestion for  the  establishment  of  normal  schools 
in  the  United  States  was  made  by  Prof.  Deni- 
son  Olmsted,  in  an  oration  delivered  in  New 


484 


NORMANBY 


NORRIS 


Haven,  in  1816.  Gov.  Be  Witt  Clinton,  in  his 
message  to  the  legislature  of  New  York  in  1825, 
recommended  a  seminary  for  teachers,  and  re- 
peated the  recommendation  the  next  year. 
During  the  next  ten  years  the  subject  was  agi- 
tated by  well  known  writers  and  educators,  in 
various  periodicals.  In  1838  Edmund  D wight 
offered  the  sum  of  $10,000  for  the  purpose  of 
establishing  a  normal  school  in  Massachusetts, 
on  condition  that  the  state  should  appropriate 
an  equal  amount  for  the  same  purpose.  Ac- 
cordingly the  first  normal  school  in  America, 
that  now  established  at  Framingham,  was 
opened  at  Lexington,  July  3,  1839.  Two  oth- 
ers were  soon  opened,  and  five  are  now  sup- 
ported by  the  state  of  Massachusetts.  Near- 
ly every  state  in  the  Union  now  has  one  or 
more  normal  schools,  chartered  by  the  legis- 
lature, and  generally  sustained  wholly  or  in 
part  by  annual  appropriations.  A  few  of  them 
exist  only  as  departments  of  the  state  uni- 
versities; most  of  them  have  model  schools 
attached.  Accounts  of  them  will  be  found  in 
the  articles  on  the  respective  states.  Normal 
schools  under  municipal  management  are  also 
established  in  several  of  the  larger  cities  of 
the  United  States.  In  1873  there  were  in  the 
United  States  119  normal  schools,  with  about 
900  instructors  and  17,000.  students  in  course. 
There  are  also  several  in  British  America. 

NORMANBY,  Constantine  Henry  Phipps,  mar- 
quis of,  an  English  statesman,  born  at  Mul- 
grave  castle,  Yorkshire,  May  15,  1797,  died  in 
South  Kensington,  July  28,  1863.  He  gradua- 
ted at  Cambridge  in  1818,  and  at  once  enter- 
ed parliament,  where  he  advocated  the  Ro- 
man Catholic  claims  and  seconded  the  reform 
bill.  In  1831  he  succeeded  his  father  as  earl 
of  Mulgrave.  In  183  2-' 3  he  was  governor  of 
Jamaica,  where  he  suppressed  without  blood- 
shed a  dangerous  insurrection  of  the  soldiery, 
and  carried  out  the  emancipation  act.  He  was 
made  lord  privy  seal  in  1834,  and  from  1835 
to  1839  was  lord  lieutenant  of  Ireland.  In 
1838  he  was  created  marquis  of  Normanby. 
After  being  for  a  few  months  in  1839  secretary 
of  state  for  the  colonies,  hB  was  till  1841  sec- 
retary for  the  home  department.  From  1846 
to  1852  he  was  ambassador  at  Paris,  and  from 
1854  to  1858  at  Florence.  He  published  "A 
Year  of  Revolution,"  from  his  journal  in 
Paris  (2  vols.,  1857),  and  several  novels,  among 
which  are  "Matilda"  (1825)  and  "Yes  and 
No  "  (1827). 

NORMANDY,  an  ancient  N.  W.  province  of 
France,  extending  along  the  English  channel, 
from  a  point  S.  of  the  mouth  of  the  Somme 
to  the  bay  of  Cancale,  bounded  N.  and  W.  by 
the  English  channel,  E.  by  Picardy  and  Isle- 
de-France  (from  which  it  was  partly  divided 
by  the  Bresle,  the  Epte,  and  the  Eure),  and  S. 
by  Perche,  Maine,  and  Brittany,  the  upper 
Sarthe  and  the  lower  Couesnon  forming  a  part 
of  the  dividing  line.  The  province  is  mostly 
level  and  fertile,  producing  grain,  flax,  and 
fruit,  and  an  excellent  breed  of  horses ;  the 


bays  and  rivers  abound  in  fish.  Rouen  was 
the  capital  of  the  province  and  the  chief  town 
of  the  division  of  Upper  Normandy,  and  Caen 
was  the  chief  town  of  Lower  Normandy.  The 
early  Gallic  inhabitants  were  subdued  by  the 
Romans,  who  included  the  territory  in  the 
province  of  Gallia  Lugdunensis  Secunda.  It 
was  comprised  within  the  limits  of  Neustria 
under  the  domination  of  the  Merovingian  kings, 
and  received  the  name  of  Normandy  from  the 
Northmen,  who  occupied  it  in  the  beginning 
of  the  10th  century.  In  912  Charles  the 
Simple  gave  his  sanction  to  the  conquests 
made  by  the  Northmen,  and  Rollo,  their  chief, 
received  the  title  of  duke  of  Normandy.  The 
new  duchy  soon  rose  to  be  one  of  the  most 
prosperous  provinces  of  France.  William  the 
Bastard,  son  of  Robert  the  Devil,  sixth  suc- 
cessor of  Rollo,  became  in  1066  the  conqueror 
and  first  Norman  king  of  England.  On  his 
death  (1087)  England  and  Normandy  were 
separated,  the  latter  reverting  to  Robert 
Courteheuse,  while  William  Ruf  us  seized  upon 
the  former.  Henry  I.  Beauclerc  ruled  over 
both,  but  his  daughter  Matilda  was  only  duchess 
of  Normandy.  Her  son,  Henry  II.,  accomplished 
another  reunion,  which  lasted  until  the  reign 
of  King  John.  This  prince  was  summoned 
before  the  court  of  peers  at  Paris,  as  a  vassal 
of  the  French  king,  on  the  charge  of  having 
murdered  his  nephew  Arthur  of  Brittany,  and 
sentenced  to  forfeit  his  duchy,  which  was 
seized  immediately  by  King  Philip  Augustus  ; 
but  it  was  twice  again  held  by  the  English, 
first  under  Edward  III.,  and  a  second  time, 
from  141 T  to  1450,  under  Henry  V.  and  Hen- 
ry VI.  Under  Charles  VII.  of  France  it  was 
finally  rescued  from  the  English  by  Dunois ; 
and  although  the  title  of  duke  of  Normandy 
was  still  occasionally  used,  the  duchy  thence- 
forth was  an  integral  portion  of  the  kingdom 
of  France,  and  one  of  its  most  prosperous  and 
enterprising  provinces.  In  1790  it  was  divided 
into  the  departments  of  Seine-Inf  erieure,  Eure, 
Calvados,  Orne,  and  Manche. — See  "  History 
of  Normandy  and  of  England,"  by  Sir  Francis 
Palgrave  (4  vols.,  1851-'64).  Pugin,  Turner, 
and  other  artists  and  writers  have  treated  of 
the  archaeological  and  architectural  treasures 
of  Normandy;  while  the  picturesque  charac- 
teristics of  nature  and  of  popular  custom  and 
life  have  been  described  by  many  writers,  in- 
cluding Jules  Janin,  La  Normandie  (Paris, 
1864)  ;  George  Musgrave,  "  A  Ramble  through 
Normandy  "  (London,  1855) ;  and  J.  F.  Camp- 
bell, "  Life  in  Normandy  "  (London,  1872). 

NORMANS.     See  NORTHMEN. 

NORRIS,  John,  an  English  clergyman,  born 
at  Collingborne-Kingston,  Wiltshire,  in  1657, 
died  at  Bemerton  in  1711.  He  graduated  at 
Exeter  college,  Oxford,  in  1680,  and  became  a 
disciple  of  Malebranche.  His  first  original 
work,  entitled  "An  Idea  of  Happiness"  (1683), 
at  once  gave  him  a  position  in  the  ranks  of  the 
Platonic  divines  of  the  17th  century.  The  Rye 
house  plot  of  1683  led  him  to  attack  the  whigs 


NORRBOTTEN 


NORTH 


485 


in  a  treatise  entitled  "  A  Murnival  of  Knaves, 
or  Whiggism  Displayed  and  Burlesqued  out  of 
Countenance."  Soon  afterward  he  published 
a  Latin  work  against  the  theology  of  the  Gene- 
van divines,  and  in  1691  a  treatise  against  the 
nonconformists.  In  1684  he  took  orders,  and 
in  the  same  year  published  a  volume  entitled 
"Poems  and  Discourses,"  which  was  followed 
in  1687  by  his  "  Miscellanies ".  in  prose  and 
verse,  which  reached  a  ninth  edition  in  1730. 
In  1684  he  began  a  correspondence  with  Dr. 
Henry  More  in  regard  to  some  speculative  diffi- 
culties, which  lasted  three  years,  and  was  pub- 
lished in  1688.  In  that  year  he  published  "The 
Theory  and  Regulation  of  Love."  In  1689  he 
published  a  treatise  on  "Reason  and  Religion," 
and  in  1690  four  volumes  of  "Practical  Dis- 
courses on  the  Beatitudes,"  of  which  a  tenth 
edition  was  published  in  1724,  under  the  title 
"  Christian  Blessedness."  In  1692  he  attacked 
the  views  of  the  Quakers,  and  shortly  after 
was  made  rector  of  Bemerton  near  Salisbury. 
In  1695  he  published  "Letters  concerning  the 
Love  of  God."  The  deist  John  Toland  having 
written  a  treatise  entitled  "  Christianity  not 
Mysterious,"  Norris  published  in  1697  in  an- 
swer, "An  Account  of  Reason  and  Faith  in 
relation  to  the  Mysteries  of  Christianity."  In 
1701  he  published  "An  Essay  toward  the 
Theory  of  the  Ideal  or  Intelligible  World,"  of 
which  the  second  part  appeared  in  1704;  and 
in  1708  the  "Natural  Immortality  of  the  Soul." 

NORRBOTTEN,  the  northernmost  Ian  or  prov- 
ince of  Sweden,  divided  from  Lapland  by  the 
Tornea  and  Muonio  rivers;  area,  39,797  sq. 
m.;  pop.  in  1872,  78,659.  It  is  traversed  by 
the  Kiolen  mountains,  and  has  many  lakes 
and  rivers,  among  the  latter  the  Kalix,  Lulea, 
and  Pitea.  The  summers  are  exceedingly  hot, 
though  the  climate  is  not  regarded  as  un- 
healthy. Timber  is  the  chief  production,  and 
some  grain  and  cattle  are  raised.  Capital,  Pitea. 

NORRISTOWN,  a  borough  and  the  capital  of 
Montgomery  co.,  Pennsylvania,  on  the  N.  bank 
of  the  Schuylkill  river,  and  on  the  Philadelphia, 
Germantown,  and  Norristown  railroad,  16  m. 
N.  W.  of  Philadelphia;  pop.  in  1850,  6,024; 
in  1860,  8,848;  in  1870,  10,753.  It  has  a 
healthy  and  beautiful  situation,  and  the  neigh- 
borhood abounds  in  excellent  marble,  iron,  and 
limestone.  The  streets  are  laid  out  at  right 
angles  and  are  well  paved  and  finely  shaded, 
and  the  houses  are  built  in  a  neat,  substantial 
manner,  of  brick  and  marble.  The  main  street 
is  sewered,  and  water  and  gas  are  conveyed 
through  it  in  pipes.  The  principal  buildings 
are  the  court  house,  the  jail,  and  music  hall. 
The  court  house,  finished  in  1855,  is  built  of 
the  light  gray  native  marble,  and  cost  over. 
$200,000.  The  Schuylkill  river  is  crossed  by 
two  substantial  covered  bridges,  about  800  ft. 
long,  leading  into  Bridgeport  on  the  opposite 
bank.  The  improved  navigation  of  the  Schuyl- 
kill affords  facilities  for  the  trade  of  the  town, 
which  is  active  and  increasing.  Among  the 
manufactories  are  two  blast  furnaces,  six  wool- 


len and  cotton  mills,  four  machine  works,  tack 
works,  glass  works,  an  oil  refinery,  and  three 
rolling  mills.  There  are  three  banks,  a  semi- 
nary, five  public  schools  (number  of  pupils 
enrolled  Jan.  1,  1875,  1,810),  three  daily  and 
five  weekly  (one'German)  newspapers,  and  13 
churches.  T^he  borough  was  incorporated  in 
1812,  and  enlarged  in  1853. 

NORRLAND,  Wester.     See  WESTER  NOBBLAND. 

NORRKOPING,  a  town  of  Sweden,  in  the 
province  of  Linkoping,  at  the  mouth  of  the 
Motala  in  the  Braviken,  an  inlet  of  the  Baltic, 
85  m.  S.  W.  of  Stockholm,  with  which  it  is 
connected  by  railway;  pop.  in  1869,  22,997. 
It  is  one  of  the  oldest  and  finest  towns  of  Swe- 
den, is  regularly  built,  and  has  wide  and  well 
paved  streets,  and  six  public  squares.  It  con- 
tains three  churches,  a  synagogue,  a  college, 
and  a  hospital.  The  Motala,  flowing  through 
the  town,  forms  two  islands,  is  crossed  by  four 
bridges,  and  furnishes  in  several  cascades  the 
motive  power  which  renders  Norrkoping  the 
most  important  manufacturing  town  in  Sweden. 
Cloth,  hosiery,  paper,  playing  cards,  tobacco, 
sugar,  soap,  and  starch  are  manufactured. 
There  are  several  ship  yards.  The  registered 
shipping  includes  11  steamers  and  19  sailing 
vessels;  about  200  foreign  and  1,100  Swedish 
vessels  enter  and  leave  the  port  annually. — The 
town  was  founded  in  the  12th  century.  In 
1719  it  was  totally  destroyed  by  the  Russians, 
and  four  times  in  the  early  part  of  the  present 
century  it  suffered  severely  by  fire. 

NORSE  LANGUAGES.  See  the  articles  on  the 
languages  and  literatures  of  Iceland,  Denmark, 
Sweden,  and  Norway. 

NORTH,  Christopher.     See  WILSON,  JOHN. 

NORTH.  I.  Francis,  Lord  Guilford,  an  Eng- 
lish jurist,  son  of  the  fourth  Baron  North,  born 
Oct.  22,  1637,  died  Sept.  5,  1685.  He  studied 
at  St.  John's  college,  Cambridge,  and  was 
called  to  the  bar  at  the  Middle  Temple  in  1661. 
Indefatigable  in  his  law  studies,  he  abstained 
from  the  ordinary  pleasures  of  youth,  and  left 
untried  no  artifice  and  scrupled  at  no  humilia- 
tion which  would  advance  his  interests.  Sir 
Jeffrey  Palmer,  the  first  attorney  general  under 
the  restoration,  early  assisted  him  in  getting 
into  practice  ;  and  he  became  one  of  the  lead- 
ers of  the  Norfolk  circuit,  and  was  soon  rer 
tained  in  every  important  cause.  Gaining  the 
favor  of  the  court  by  pleading  against  the  priv- 
ileges of  parliament  in  the  case  of  the  prose- 
cution of  the  five  members,  which  had  been 
brought  into  the  house  of  lords  on  a  writ  of 
error  from  the  court  of  king's  bench,  he  was 
in  1671  appointed  solicitor  general  and  knight- 
ed ;  and  in  November,  1673,  he  succeeded  Sir 
Heneage  Finch  as  attorney  general.  In  Janu- 
ary, 1675,  he  was  made  chief  justice  of  the 
court  of  common  pleas,  in  which  office  he  con- 
ducted to  a  successful  issue  a  dispute  with  the 
court  of  king's  bench  as  to  their  respective  ju- 
risdiction. In  1679  he  was  admitted  a  mem- 
ber of  the  new  council  established  by  the 
king;  and  upon  the  death  of  the  earl  of  Not- 


486 


NORTH 


NORTHAMPTON 


tingham  in  1682,  he  was  made  lord  keeper  of 
the  great  seal.  In  September,  1683,  he  was 
created  Baron  Guilford,  of  Guilford,  Surrey. 
Throughout  his  judicial  career  he  favored  the 
prerogatives  of  the  crown  in  accordance  with 
the  strong  tory  leanings  of  his  family.  At  the 
close  of  his  life  he  suffered  in  political  influ- 
ence from  the  ambition  and  insolence  of  Jef- 
freys, and  died  broken  down  in  spirit.  His 
character  and  professional  attainments  are 
highly  extolled  by  his  brother  Roger  North ; 
but  according  to  Macaulay,  this  biographer, 
though  under  the  influence  of  the  strongest 
fraternal  partiality,  "  was  unable  to  portray 
the  lord  keeper  otherwise  than  as  the  most 
ignoble  of  mankind."  The  same  writer  adds : 
"  The  intellect  of  Guilford  was  clear,  his 
industry  great,  his  proficiency  in  letters  and 
science  respectable,  and  his  legal  learning 
more  than  respectable.  His  faults  were  sel- 
fishness, cowardice,  and  meanness."  Yet  he 
had  the  courage  shortly  before  his  death  to  re- 
monstrate with  the  king  upon  the  dangers  in- 
separable from  his  violent  and  arbitrary  mea- 
sures. He  was  the  author  of  some  scientific 
and  miscellaneous  papers,  and  of  a  few  political 
essays. — See  "Lives  of  the  Right  Hon.  Francis 
North,  Baron  of  Guilford,  Sir  Dudley  North, 
and  the  Hon.  and  Rev.  Dr.  John  North,"  by 
Roger  North  (2  vols.  4to,  1742-'4 ;  new  ed.,  3 
vols.  8vo,  1826).  II.  Frederick,  second  earl  of 
Guilford  and  eighth  Baron  North,  generally 
known  as  Lord  North,  an  English  statesman, 
great-grandson  of  the  preceding,  born  April  13, 
1733,  died  Aug.  5,  1792.  He  was  educated  at 
Eton  and  at  Trinity  college,  Cambridge,  and 
made  a  lengthened  tour  on  the  continent.  He 
entered  parliament  in  1754  from  the  family 
borough  of  Banbury,  which  he  represented 
continuously  for  nearly  30  years,  and  in  1759 
was  appointed  a  commissioner  of  the  trea- 
sury in  the  Pitt  ministry.  In  1763  he  directed 
the  proceedings  which  led  to  the  expulsion  of 
Wilkes,  and  in  1764-'5  supported  the  stamp 
act  and  the  right  of  the  mother  country  to  tax 
the  colonies.  Upon  the  formation  of  Lord 
Chatham's  second  ministry  in  1766  he  was  ap- 
pointed, jointly  with  Mr.  George  Cooke,  pay- 
master of  the  forces,  having  refused  to  accept 
office  under  the  preceding  Rockingham  ad- 
ministration. In  1767  he  was  appointed  chan- 
cellor of  the  exchequer,  succeeding  Charles 
Townshend  as  leader  in  the  house  of  com- 
mons, and  continuing  in  that  office  in  the 
duke  of  Grafton's  ministry.  On  the  resigna- 
tion of  the  latter  in  January,  1770,  he  became 
prime  minister.  His  administration,  extend- 
ing to  March,  1782,  in  the  language  of  an  Eng- 
lish writer,  "teemed  with  calamitous  events 
beyond  any  of  the  same  duration  to  be  found 
in  our  annals;"  the  American  war  being  its 
great  feature,  and  the  efforts  of  Lord  North 
being  directed  principally  to  measures  for  the 
coercion  of  the  revolted  colonies.  With  the 
popular  feeling  against  him,  and  a  powerful 
opposition  in  the  house  of  commons,  Lord 


North  nevertheless  for  upward  of  six  years  con- 
tended almost  single-handed  with  his  adver- 
saries. Although  he  never  wavered  in  his 
opinion  of  the  right  of  parliament  to  tax  the 
colonies,  it  appears  from  the  statement  of 
his  daughter,  Lady  Charlotte  Lindsay  (who 
died  in  1849),  that  during  the  last  three  years 
of  his  administration  he  entertained  serious 
doubts  as  to  the  expediency  of  continuing  the 
war,  and  was  induced  to  persevere  by  the 
wishes  of  George  III.  Defeated  in  the  house 
of  commons  on  the  question  of  the  continu- 
ance of  the  war,  he  resigned  office,  and  after 
the  short-lived  Rockingham  administration  he 
joined  his  old  antagonist  Fox  in  breaking 
down  the  succeeding  Shelburne  cabinet.  In 
April,  1783,  he  returned  to  office  as  a  joint 
secretary  of  state  with  Fox  in  the  "  coalition 
ministry  "  formed  by  the  duke  of  Portland, 
the  unpopularity  of  which  caused  its  dissolu- 
tion in  the  succeeding  December.  Soon  after- 
ward he  retired  definitively  from  public  life. 
During  his  last  five  years  he  was  afflicted  with 
total  blindness,  which  he  endured  with  unvary- 
ing cheerfulness.  He  succeeded  to  the  title  of 
earl  of  Guilford  in  1790. 

NORTH  ADAMS.     See  ADAMS,  Mass. 

NORTH  AMERICA.     See  AMEEICA. 

NORTHAMPTON.  I.  An  E.  county  of  Penn- 
sylvania, bounded  E.  by  the  Delaware  river, 
which  separates  it  from  New  Jersey,  and  in- 
tersected toward  the  south  by  the  Lehigh  river; 
area,  370  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  61,432.  The 
Kittatinny  or  Blue  mountains  form  the  N.  "W. 
boundary,  and  the  South  mountain  is  on  the 
S.  E.  In  the  valley  between  them  are  beds  of 
valuable  limestone,  quarries  of  slate,  and  sev- 
eral iron  mines.  Several  railroads  and  three 
canals  meet  at  Easton.  The  chief  productions 
in  1870  were  473,295  bushels  of  wheat,  122,584 
of  rye,  707,494  of  Indian  corn,  539,067  of  oats, 
23,838  of  buckwheat,  232,038  of  potatoes,  36,240 
tons  of  hay,  14,271  Ibs.  of  wool,  843,541  of 
butter,  and  3,134  gallons  of  wine.  There  were 
7,999  horses,  10,841  milch  cows,  4,060  other 
cattle,  5,562  sheep,  and  17,073  swine.  The 
total  number  of  manufacturing  establishments 
was  655,  with  $7,099,285  capital;  value  of 
annual  products,  $12,530,834.  The  principal 
were  9  manufactories  of  agricultural  imple- 
ments, 4  of  boats,  17  of  brick,  19  of  carriages 
and  wagons,  2  of  railroad  cars,  31  of  men's 
clothing,  2  of  cotton  and  4  of  woollen  goods,  9 
of  furniture,  4  of  pig  iron,  3  of  forged  and 
rolled  iron,  13  of  castings,  16  of  tanned  and  9 
of  curried  leather,  19  of  lime,  8  of  machinery, 
4  of  paints,  14  of  roofing  materials,  16  of  sad- 
dlery and  harness,  11  of  school  slates,  26  of 
tin,  copper,  and  sheet-iron  ware,  26  of  cigars, 
1  of  wire,  2  of  zinc,  7  breweries,  33  flour  mills, 
and  20  saw  mills.  Capital,  Easton.  II.  A  S. 
E.  county  of  Virginia,  forming  the  S.  extremity 
of  the  peninsula  lying  between  Chesapeake  bay 
and  the  Atlantic  ocean ;  area,  320  sq.  m. ;  pop. 
in  1870,  8,046,  of  whom  4,848  were  colored. 
The  coast  line  on  the  west  is  indented  by  nu- 


NORTHAMPTON 

merous  inlets,  and  on  the  east,  in  the  Atlantic, 
are  several  small  islands.  The  surface  is  level 
and  the  soil  light  and  sandy.  The  chief  pro- 
ductions in  1870  were  2,747  bushels  of  wheat, 
266,594  of  Indian  corn,  139,668  of  oats,  61,616 
of  Irish  and  79,689  of  sweet  potatoes,  and  2,372 
Ibs.  of  wool.  There  were  1,238  horses,  1,217 
milch  cows,  1,715  other  cattle,  1,171  sheep,  and 
6,773  swine.  Capital,  Eastville.  III.  A  N.  E. 
county  of  North  Carolina,  bounded  N.  by  Vir- 
ginia, and  S.  W.  by  the  Roanoke  river ;  area, 
about  350  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870, 14,749,  of  whom 
8,510  were  colored.  It  has  a  diversified  sur- 
face and  generally  fertile  soil.  It  is  traversed 
by  the  Seaboard  and  Roanoke,  the  Raleigh  and 
Gaston,  and  the  Petersburg  and  Weldon  rail- 
roads, and  the  Gaston  branch  of  the  last  named 
line.  The  chief  productions  in  1870  were  13,- 
680  bushels  of  wheat,  320,924  of  Indian  corn, 
36,860  of  oats,  11,861  of  Irish  and  45,435  of 
sweet  potatoes,  7,320  bales  of  cotton,  8,300  Ibs. 
of  tobacco,  3,348  of  wool,  24,039  of  butter,  and 
3,701  gallons  of  molasses.  There  were  1,317 
horses,  896  mules  and  asses,  1,622  milch  cows, 
913  working  oxen,  2,917  other  cattle,  2,955 
sheep,  and  13,854  swine.  Capital,  Jackson. 

NORTHAMPTON,  the  shire  town  of  Hamp- 
shire co.,  Massachusetts,  on  the*  W.  bank  of 
the  Connecticut  river,  and  on  the  New  Haven 
and  Northampton  and  the  Connecticut  River 
railroads,  80  m.  W.  of  Boston  and  15  m.  N. 
of  Springfield ;  pop.  in  1850,  5,278 ;  in  1860, 
6,788;  in  1870,  10,160.  It  contains  four  post 
villages,  Florence,  Leeds,  Loudville,  and  North- 
ampton. The  last,  the  principal  village,  is  no- 
ted for  its  beauty.  It  is  situated  on  elevated 
ground  about  a  mile  W.  of  the  river,  has  broad 
and  well  shaded  streets,  and  commands  a  splen- 
did view  of  the  Connecticut  valley  and  of  Mts. 
Tom  and  Holyoke.  It  has  water  works,  a  fire 
department,  and  a  street  railroad,  is  lighted 
with  gas,  and  is  connected  with  Hadley  on  the 
opposite  bank  of  the  Connecticut  by  a  bridge 
1,230  ft.  long  and  26  ft.  wide.  Just  W.  of  the 
village,  on  an  eminence,  surrounded  with  groves 
of  forest  trees,  are  the  Round  Hill  water-cure 
establishment,  with  accommodations  for  200 
patients,  and  the  Clarke  institute  for  deaf  mutes, 
founded  by  the  late  John  Clarke  in  1867,  and 
endowed  with  $300,000.  In  the  same  vicinity 
is  the  state  lunatic  asylum  established  in  1858, 
with  imposing  buildings  capable  of  accommo- 
dating 350  patients.  Loudville  is  in  the  S. 
W.  part  of  the  town.  Florence  and  Leeds  are 
manufacturing  villages,  respectively  3  m.  and 
5  m.  N.  "W.  of  Northampton.  The  former  is 
the  seat  of  the  Florence  sewing  machine  com- 
pany's works.  The  principal  articles  of  manu- 
facture are  sewing  machines,  skates,  brooms, 
machinery,  foundery  products,  paper,  agricul- 
tural implements,  silk,  cotton  cloth,  cutlery, 
carriages  and  wagons,  emery  wheels,  files, 
furniture,  mirrors,  pencils,  tape,  wire,  screws, 
turbine  water  wheels,  and  rubber  goods.  The 
town  contains  three  national  banks,  with  a  joint 
capital  of  $1,150,000,  three  savings  banks,  a 


NORTH  CAROLINA 


487 


loan  and  trust  company,  a  fire  insurance  com- 
pany, five  hotels,  graded  public  schools,  inclu- 
ding a  high  school,  a  public  library  with  12,000 
volumes,  a  female  college,  three  weekly  news- 
papers, and  11  churches,  viz. :  2  Baptist,  4  Con- 
gregational, 1  Episcopal,  2  Methodist,  1  Roman 
Catholic,  and  1  Unitarian. — Northampton  was 
settled  in  1654. 

NORTHAMPTON,  a  municipal  and  parliamen- 
tary borough  and  market  town  of  England, 
capital  of  Northamptonshire,  on  the  left  bank 
of  the  Nen,  60  m.  N.  W.  of  London ;  pop.  in 
1871,  41,040.  It  occupies  the  summit  of  an 
eminence  rising  from  the  river,  over  which 
there  are  several  bridges.  The  principal  manu- 
factures are  boots  and  shoes.  There  are  also 
iron  and  brass  f  ounderies,  flour  mills,  breweries, 
and  coach  factories.  In  1872  it  had  38  places 
of  worship,  of  which  12  belonged  to  the  church 
of  England. 

NORTHAMPTONSHIRE,  an  inland  county  of 
England,  bordering  on  the  counties  of  Lincoln, 
Cambridge,  Huntingdon,  Bedford,  Bucking- 
ham, Oxford,  Warwick,  Leicester,  and  Rut- 
land; area,  984  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1871,  243,8'96. 
The  principal  rivers  are  the  Nen,  Welland,  and 
Avon.  The  surface  is  undulating,  belonging 
to  the  basin  of  the  Nen  and  watered  by  nu- 
merous rivulets.  The  N.  E.  extremity  of  the 
county  belongs  to  the  great  fen  district,  and  is 
only  a  few  feet  above  the  sea.  The  county  is 
well  wooded  with  oak,  ash,  beech,  and  elm. 
The  climate  is  mild  and  healthy.  The  chief 
agricultural  pursuit  is  stock  raising.  There 
are  no  manufactures  of  any  importance,  except 
boots  and  shoes.  The  county  has  railway  com- 
munication with  all  parts  of  the  country.  There 
are  two  principal  canals,  the  Grand  Junction 
canal  and  the  Grand  Union  canal.  The  princi- 
pal towns  are  Northampton,  the  capital,  Peter- 
borough, Daventry,  Kettering,  and  Oundle. 

NORTH  BRIDGEWATER.     See  BRIDGEWATEE. 

NORTHBROOK,  Barons.    See  BARING. 

NORTH  CAPE.    See  CAPE' NORTH. 

NORTH  CAROLINA,  one  of  the  original  states 
of  the  American  Union,  situated  between  lat. 
33°  53'  and  36°  33'  N.,  and  Ion.  75°  25'  and  84° 
30'  W. ;  extreme  length  490  m.  from  E.  to  W., 
extreme  breadth  185  m.  from  N.  to  S. ;  area, 
50,704  sq.  m.  It  is  bounded  N.  by  Virginia, 
on  the  line  of  36°  33',  E.  and  S.  E.  by  the  At- 
lantic ocean,  S.  by  South  Carolina  and  Georgia, 
and  W.  by  Tennessee.  It  is  divided  into  94 
counties,  as  follows:  Alamance,  Alexander, 
Alleghany,  Anson,  Ashe,  Beaufort,  Bertie, 
Bladen,  Brunswick,  Buncombe,  Burke,  Cabar- 
rus,  Caldwell,  Camden,  Carteret,  Caswell,  Ca- 
tawba,  Chatham,  Cherokee,  Chowan,  Clay, 
Cleaveland,  Columbus,  Craven,  Cumberland, 
Currituck,  Dare,  Davidson,  Davie,  Duplin, 
Edgecombe,  Forsyth,  Franklin,  Gaston,  Gates, 
Graham,  Granville,  Greene,  Guilford,  Halifax, 
Harnett,  Haywood,  Henderson,  Hertford, 
Hyde,  Iredell,  Jackson,  Johnston,  Jones,  Lenoir, 
Lincoln,  McDowell',  Macon,  Madison,  Martin, 
Mecklenburg,  Mitchell,  Montgomery,  Moore, 


488 


NORTH  CAROLINA 


Nash,  New  Hanover,  Northampton,  Onslow, 
Orange,  Pamlico,  Pasquotank,  Fender,  Perqui- 
mans,  Person,  Pitt,  Polk,  Randolph,  Richmond, 
Robeson,  Rockingham,  Rowan,  Rutherford, 
Sampson,  Stanley,  Stokes,  Surry,  Swain,  Tran- 
sylvania, Tyrrel,  Union,  Wake,  Warren,  Wash- 
ington, Watauga,  Wayne,  Wilkes,  Wilson,  Yad- 
kin,  and  Yancey.  North  Carolina  has  no  very 
populous  towns.  Wilmington,  the  chief  sea- 
port and  largest  city  in  the  state,  had  13,446 
inhabitants  in  1870,  and  Raleigh,  the  capital, 
7,790.  The  other  cities  are  New  Berne,  5,849 ; 
Fayetteville,  4,660 ;  and  Charlotte,  4,473.  The 
following  are  towns  having  in  1870  from  1,000 


State  Seal  of  North  Carolina.       , 

to  2,500  inhabitants :  Beaufort,  Washington, 
Asheville,  Plymouth,  Tarboro,  Edenton,  Golds- 
boro,  Kinston,  and  Wilson.  Other  towns  are 
Concord,  Elizabeth  City,  Greensboro,  Green- 
ville, Hillsboro,  Louisburg,  Lumberton,  Mur- 
f  reesboro,  Oxford,  Salisbury,  Smithville,  States- 
ville,  and  Winston.  The  population  of  North 
Carolin'a  and  its  rank  in  the  Union  at  decen- 
nial periods,  according  to  the  federal  census, 
have  been  as  follows : 


CENSUS. 

Whites. 

Slaves. 

Free  colored/ 

Total  pop- 
ulation. 

Rank. 

1790 
1800 
1810 
1820 
1830 
1840 
1850 
1860 
1S70 

288,204 
337,764 
876,410 
419,200 
472,843 
484,870 
553,028 
629,942 
678,470 

100,572 
133,296 
168,824 
204,917 
245,601 
245,817 
288,548 
881,059 

4,975 
7,048 
10,266 
14,712 
19,543 
22,732 
27,463 
80,463 
891,650 

393,751 
487,103 
555,500 
638,829 
787,987 
753,419 
869,039 
992,622 
1,071,861 

3 

4 
4 
4 
5 
7 
10 
12 
14 

Included  in  the  population  of  1860  were  1,158 
Indians.  Of  the  total  population  in  1870, 518,- 
704  were  males  and  552,657  females;  1,068,- 
832  were  of  native  and  3,029  of  foreign  birth ; 
and  there  were  1,241  Indians.  Of  the  natives, 
1,028,678  were  born  in  the  state,  15,425  in 
Virginia  and  West  Virginia,  13,537  in  South 
Carolina,  3,505  in  Tennessee,  2,052  in  Georgia, 
786  in  New  York,  and  674  in  Pennsylvania; 
and  307,362  persons  born  in  the  state  were 
living  in  other  parts  of  the  Union.  Of  the 


foreigners,  904  were  born  in  Germany,  677  in 
Ireland,  490  in  England,  and  420  in  Scotland. 
The  density  of  population  was  21*13  to  a  square 
mile.  There  were  205,970  families,  with  an 
average  of  5 -20  persons  to  each,  and  202,504 
dwellings,  with  an  average  of  5*29  to  each.  The 
increase  of  population  from  1860  to  1870  was 
7'93  per  cent.  There  were  182,421  persons  from 
5  to  18  years  of  age,  94,238  males  from  18  to  45, 
and  75,274  male  citizens  21  years  old  and  up- 
ward. There  were  339,789  persons  10  years 
old  and  over  who  could  not  read,  and  396,993 
unable  to  write;  of  the  latter,  191,961  were 
white  and  205,032  colored,  195,692  males  and 
201,301  females;  174,834  were  21  years  old 
and  over,  and  222,159  were  from  10  to  21 
years.  In  1874  there  were  92,043  white  and 
48,277  colored  polls.  The  number  of  paupers 
supported  during  the  year  ending  June  1, 
1870,  was  1,706,  at  a  cost  of  $136,470.  Of 
the  number  (1,652)  receiving  support  at  that 
date,  1,124  were  white  and  528  colored.  The 
number  of  persons  convicted  of  crime  during 
the  year  was  1,311.  Of  the  number  (468)  in 
prison  June  1,  1870,  138  were  white  and  330 
colored.  The  state  contained  835  blind,  619 
deaf  and  dumb,  779  insane,  and  976  idiotic. 
Of  the  total  population  10  years  old  and  over 
(769,629),  there  were  engaged  in  all  occupa- 
tions 351,299;  in  agriculture,  269,238,  inclu- 
ding 168,978  laborers,  98,290  farmers  and 
planters,  336  turpentine  farmers,  and  1,332 
turpentine  laborers;  in  professional  and  per- 
sonal services,  51,290,  of  whom  861  were 
clergymen,  26,659  domestic  servants,  16,830 
laborers  not  specified,  574  lawyers,  1,143  physi- 
cians and  surgeons,  and  1,798  traders  not  speci- 
fied; in  trade  and  transportation,  10,179;  and 
in  manufactures  and  mechanical  and  mining 
industries,  20,592.  The  total  number  of  deaths 
from  all  causes  was  10,588,  being  0'98  per  cent, 
of  the  entire  population;  from  consumption 
1,236,  there  being  8-6  deaths  from  all  causes  to 
one  from  this  disease.  There  were  741  deaths 
from  pneumonia,  436  from  intermittent  and 
remittent  fevers,  862  from  enteric  fever,  and 
418  from  diarrhea. — The  state  may  be  physi- 
cally divided  into  the  coast  and  swamp  land 
section,  extending  from  80  to  100  m.  inland; 
the  middle  section,  extending  to  the  foot  of 
the  mountains ;  and  the  mountain  section,  em- 
bracing the  W.  part  of  the  state.  The  first 
section  abounds  in  valuable  timber,  and  in- 
cludes the  turpentine  region.  The  country  is 
level,  with  many  swamps  and  marshes;  the 
streams  are  sluggish  and  muddy.  Much  of  the 
land  is  sandy,  but  a  large  portion  of  this  region 
is  very  fertile,  the  swamps  being  generally  so. 
Rice,  cotton,  tobacco,  and  maize  flourish.  The 
Great  Dismal  swamp  extends  N.  from  Albe- 
marle  sound  into  Virginia,  covering  an  area 
of  about  150,000  acres.  (See  BOG,  and  DISMAL 
SWAMP.)  Between  Albemarle  and  Pamlico 
sounds  is  Alligator  or  Little  Dismal  swamp, 
which  is  about  as  large  as  the  other.  It  is 
estimated  that  the  swamps  of  the  state  alto- 


NORTH  CAROLINA 


489 


gether  cover  3,000,000  acres.  Parts  of  the 
Little  Dismal  swamp  have  been  drained  so 
as  to  make  valuable  rice  and  grain  lands; 
and  a  considerable  quantity  of  the  swamp 
land  may  be  drained  or  reclaimed  by  em- 
bankment. The  middle  section  is  adapted  to 
the  production  of  the  cereals,  tobacco,  and 
cotton.  It  possesses  great  mineral  wealth,  and 
abounds  in  streams  affording  extensive  water 
power.  About  100  m.  from  the  coast  the  land 
begins  to  rise  into  small  hills,  and  a  little 
further  westward  is  every  variety  of  hills  and 
dales  consistent  with  a  fertile  country  fit  for 
cultivation.  West  of  the  Yadkin  and  Catawba 
rivers  is  an  elevated  region  from  1,000  to  2,000 
ft.  above  the  sea ;  and  still  beyond  this  plateau 
the  main  range  of  •  the  Appalachian  mountains 
traverses  the  state  from  N.  E.  to  S.  W.,  reach- 
ing here  its  greatest  altitude.  (See  APPALA- 
CHIAN MOUNTAINS,  and  BLACK  MOUNTAINS.) 
The  Iron  or  Smoky  mountains  separate  the 
state  from  Tennessee.  Between  these  two 
ridges  is  a  plateau  whose  altitude  ranges  from 
3,500  to  4,000  ft.,  being  the  highest  plateau  of 
the  same  extent  east  of  the  Rocky  mountains. 
In  the  centre  stands  the  symmetrical  forest- 
crowned  summit  of  the  Sugar  mountain  (5,312 
ft.),  and  on  its  margin  rises  the  Grandfather, 
5,897  ft.,  the  highest  summit  of  the  Blue  Ridge, 
though  inferior  in  altitude  to  the  peaks  of  the 
Black  mountains.  The  mountain  region  pre- 
sents much  beautiful  scenery,  and  affords  rich 
grazing  lands  and  abundant  water  power. 
The  coast  line,  beginning  at  Little  River  inlet, 
on  the  borders  of  South  Carolina,  runs  nearly 
E.  to  Cape  Fear,  thence  N.  E.  to  Cape  Look- 
out, thence  in  the  same  general  direction  to 
Cape  Hatteras,  and  thence  N.  to  the  Virginia 
line,  a  distance  in  all  of  nearly  400  m.  Cape 
Lookout  is  about  midway  between  Cape  Fear 
and  Cape  Hatteras.  Two  open  bays,  Onslow 
and  Raleigh,  are  formed  by  these  capes.  Along 
the  whole  length  of  the  coast  are  sandy,  bar- 
ren desert  islands,  from  £  to  2  m.  wide,  sep- 
arated by  numerous  inlets,  few  of  which  are 
navigable.  From  these  islands  shoals  extend 
far  into  the  sea,  which  render  the  navigation 
of  this  coast  exceedingly  dangerous.  Cape  Hat- 
teras forms  the  headland  of  the  dangerous 
triangular  island  beach  which  separates  Parali- 
co  sound  from  the  ocean.  Narrow,  shallow 
lagoons,  filled  with  constantly  changing  sand 
bars,  extend  all  along  the  coast  S.  of  Cape 
Lookout  between  the  mainland  and  the  sand 
islands.  In  the  N.  E.  part  of  the  state,  above 
Cape  Lookout,  are  two  extensive  sounds,  Pam- 
lico  and  Albemarle,  and  a  smaller  one,  Curri- 
tuck,  which  are  cut  off  from  the  ocean  by  the 
islands  or  sand  banks  before  referred  to.  Pam- 
lico  sound,  which  is  the  most  southern,  extends 
from  S.  W.  to  N.  E.  about  80  m.,  and  is  from 
10  to  30  m.  wide,  with  a  depth  of  20  ft.,  and 
terminates  westwardly  in  the  wide  bays  of  the 
Neuse  and  Pamlico  rivers.  There  are  several 
shoals  within  this  sound..  On  the  north  it  con- 
nects with  Albemarle  and  Currituck  sounds^ 


and  on  the  southeast  with  Raleigh  bay  by 
Ocracoke  inlet,  the  only  navigable  inlet  N.  of 
Cape  Lookout.  Albemarle  sound,  which  is  60 
m.  long  and  from  4  to  15  broad,  extends  W. 
into  the  mainland,  and  is  not  connected  with 
the  ocean  except  through  Pamlico  sound.  Its 
waters  are  nearly  fresh  and  not  affected  by  the 
tides.  Currituck  sound  extends  N.  from  the 
mouth  of  Albemarle  50  m.,  passing  beyond  the 
limits  of  North  Carolina.  It  is  from  2  to  10  m. 
wide,  and  runs  parallel  with  the  coast,  from 
which  it  is  cut  off,  like  Pamlico,  by  narrow 
sand  islands.  It  connects  with  the  ocean  only 
through  Pamlico  sound.  There  are  spacious 
harbors  at  Edenton,  New  Berne,  Beaufort,  and 
Wilmington. — The  rivers  of  North  Carolina 
are  numerous,  but  have  shifting  sand  bars  at 
their  mouths,  and  rapids  in  their  descent  from 
the  hilly  regions.  Cape  Fear  river  is  formed 
by  the  junction  of  the  Haw  and  Deep  rivers, 
which  rise  in  the  N.  part  of  the  state,  and  unite 
in  the  S.  E.  corner  of  Chatham  co.  The  Cape 
Fear  follows  a  zigzag  course,  the  general  direc- 
tion being  E.  S.  E.,  for  about  300  m.,  inclu- 
ding one  of  the  head  branches,  and  empties 
into  the  Atlantic  near  Cape  Fear.  It  is  navi- 
gable for  vessels  drawing  12  ft.  of  water  to 
Wilmington,  34  m.,  and  for  sloops  and  small 
boats  to  Fayetteville,  120  m.  The  Roanoke  has 
its  source  in  the  S.  part  of  Virginia,  where  it 
is  formed  by  the  confluence  of  the  Dan  and 
Staunton  rivers,  passes  into  North  Carolina  in 
Warren  co.,  and,  taking  a  serpentine  course 
with  a  general  S.  E.  direction,  empties  into 
Albemarle  sound.  It  is  250  m.  long,  navigable 
for  small  sea  vessels  for  30  m.  and  for  steam- 
boats 120  m.  to  Halifax.  By  means  of  a  canal 
round  the  falls,  very  small  boats  are  able  to  as- 
cend to  the  Dan  and  Staunton.  The  Neuse 
river  rises  in  the  N.  part  of  the  state,  takes  a 
circuitous  course  in  a  general  S.  E.  direction, 
and  empties  into  Pamlico  sound.  Beginning  a 
short  distance  above  New  Berne,  it  gradually 
spreads  out  into  a  lagoon.  It  is  navigable  for 
boats  to  Waynesborough,  120  m.  from  the 
sound.  The  Tar  river  also  rises  in  the  N.  part 
of  the  state,  between  the  Neuse  and  Roanoke, 
and,  after  a  course  generally  similar  to  those 
rivers,  with  Tranter's  creek  forms  at  Wash- 
ington an  estuary  called  Pamlico  river,  and 
is  navigable  for  steamboats  to  Tarborough, 
nearly  100  m.,  including  the  estuary.  The 
Chowan  rises  in  Virginia,  flows  a  little  E.  of 
S.,  and  empties  into  Albemarle  sound.  It  is 
navigable  for  75  m.  Among  the  other  rivers 
worthy  of  mention  are  the  Yadkin  and  Cataw- 
ba,  which  rise  in  the  W.  part  of  the  state,  run 
S.,  and  reach  the  Atlantic  through  South  Caro- 
lina, the  former  as  the  Great  Pedee,  and  the 
latter  through  the  Santee  river.  From  the  W. 
slope  of  the  Blue  Ridge  flow  New  river,  the 
Little  Tennessee,  and  several  other  streams,  the 
waters  of  which,  breaking  through  the  Iron  or 
Smoky  mountains,  join  those  of  the  Ohio  and 
Mississippi. — North  Carolina  is  geologically  di- 
vided into  three  nearly  parallel  belts  or  zones. 


490 


NORTH  CAROLINA 


The  first  or  eastern  comprises  the  level  sandy 
country  along  the  coast,  and  extends  back  to  the 
falls  of  Roanoke  at  Weldon,  and  to  the  first  or 
Ip west  falls  of  all  the  other  rivers.  The  midland 
zone  is  bounded  W.  by  the  line  which  skirts 
the  outliers  of  the  Blue  Ridge.  The  third  com- 
prehends the  western  and  mountainous  part  of 
the  state.  The  systems  of  rocks  are  primary, 
and  belong  to  the  most  ancient  of  the  geologi- 
cal series,  called  azoic,  metamorphic,  &c.  They 
are  granitoid,  gneissic,  and  schistose.  The 
rocks  of  the  lower  belt  are  tertiary  or  cretace- 
ous, and  contain  no  metals,  except  the  earthy 
ores  of  iron  and  manganese.  The  metamor- 
phic rocks  associated  with  granitic  occupy  the 
midland  counties  in  part,  and  the  extreme 
western  border,  and  contain  the  most  impor- 
tant repositories  of  the  ores.  The  granite 
formations  compose  two  continuous  belts, 
which  traverse  the  state  in  a  N.  E.  and  S.  W. 
direction.  Raleigh  is  situated  on  the  easterly 
belt,  which  is  .from  20  to  25  m.  wide.  The 
granite  in  this  belt  is  generally  light  gray,  and 
composed  of  quartz,  feldspar,  and  a  small  quan- 
tity of  mica,  feldspar  prevailing.  It  furnishes 
very  good  building  stone,  but  no  metallic  veins. 
The  western  belt  is  from  10  to  14  m.  wide,  and 
differs  from  the  eastern  by  hornblende  taking 
the  place  of  mica.  The  rock  is  frequently  soft 
and  entirely  decomposed,  but  portions  of  it 
contain  good  building  material,  and  unlike  the 
eastern  belt  it  is  traversed  by  numerous  metal- 
lic veins  and  trap  dikes.  Here  are  gold  mines, 
some  of  which  produce  copper.  Buhrstone  of 
good  quality  abounds  in  the  midland  counties, 
particularly  in  Montgomery.  Agalmatolite, 
known  as  the  figure  stone  of  the  Chinese,  is 
found  on  Deep  river,  also  near  Troy,  Montgom- 
ery co.,  and  in  some  other  places.  Gold  is 
extensively  distributed  through  the  hilly  and 
mountainous  portions  of  the  state,  and  be- 
longs chiefly  to  four  geological  positions,  viz. : 
loose  quartz  grits  beneath  the  surface  soil; 
stratified  layers  contemporaneous  with  the 
rock ;  in  connection  with  seams  and  joints  of 
the  rocks;  and  in  regular  veins,  associated 
with  quartz  and  the  sulphur ets  of  iron  and 
copper.  The  gold-mining  business  has  been 
carried  on  to  a  considerable  extent  in  the 
state  for  nearly  half  a  century,  the  regular 
veins  proving  the  most  productive  and  perma- 
nent; the  most  celebrated  of  these  are  the 
Gold  Hill  mines  in  Rowan  co.,  which  were  dis- 
covered in  1842.  Other  regular  veins  have 
been  worked  in  Davidson,  Cabarrus,  Stanley, 
Montgomery,  and  Mecklenburg  cos.  Irregular 
veins  and  surface  gold  are  also  found  in  the 
same  counties  to  some  extent,  and  in  Catawba, 
Randolph,  Union,  and  Franklin  cos.  Many 
remarkable  specimens  were  found  in  the  vicin- 
ity of  the  Reed  mine  in  Cabarrus  co.  long  be- 
fore the  vein  was  opened,  one  weighing  28  Ibs. 
Gold  is  also  found  in  Anson,  Burke,  Clay, 
Cleaveland,  Gaston,  Guilford,  Jackson,  Lin- 
coln, McDowell,  Moore,  Nash,  Polk,  and  Yan- 
cey  cos.  Many  of  the  mines  that  were  once 


productive  have  been  abandoned.  The  prin- 
cipal counties  producing  gold  are  MecklenJLmrg, 
Lincoln,  Montgomery,  and  Rowan.  There  was 
formerly  a  branch  of  the  United  States  mint  at 
Charlotte  in  Mecklenburg  co.  It  is  now  an  as- 
say office.  (See  CHARLOTTE.)  The  whole  amount 
of  gold  from  North  Carolina  deposited  at  the 
United  States  mint  and  assay  offices  to  June 
30,  1874,  was  valued  at  $10,090,656;  silver, 
$44,628 ;  total,  $10,135,284.  Silver  and  lead  are 
associated  in  their  ores  in  this  state.  Silver  is 
found  in  Davidson  and  Clay  cos.,  but  the  mines 
have  been  little  worked.  Copper  is  found  in 
Guilford,  Clay,  Davidson,  Jackson,  and  Meck- 
lenburg cos.  Iron  is  found  on  Deep  and  Dan 
rivers,  and  in  other  parts  of  the  state ;  the  ores 
embrace  the  hematites,  and  the  specular  and 
magnetic  ores.  There  are  mines  in  Clay  and 
Yancey  cos.  Lead  is  found  in  Davidson  co., 
copperas  in  Yancey,  and  black  lead  in  Wake, 
Stokes,  Yadkin,  Yancey,  &c.  In  Davidson  co. 
is  an  important  zinc  mine,  containing  also  gold 
and  silver  quartz.  Bituminous  and  semi-bitu- 
minous coal  is  mined  extensively  on  Deep  riv- 
er in  Chatham  co. ;  it  is  also  abundant  on  the 
Dan.  A  belt  of  beautiful  porphyry  extends  7 
or  8  m.  N.  E.  from  Jones  Falls.  Steatite,  or 
soapstone,  is  common  in  the  middle  region  of 
the  state,  and  is  quarried  in  Moore  co.  Lime- 
stone, grindstone,  and  whetstone  exist  in  the 
W.  part  of  the  state.  Alum  and  copperas 
slates  are  found  in  Cleaveland  and  Rutherford 
cos.  One  of  the  most  extensive  deposits  in 
the  United  States  of  corundum  containing  em- 
ery occurs  in  North  Carolina ;  the  beds  lie  on 
the  N.  W.  side  of  the  Blue  Ridge,  chiefly  in 
Mitchell  co.  and  the  neighboring  region.  (See 
EMERY.)  •  Extensive  mica  mines  were  discov- 
ered in  Mitchell  co.  in  1867,  and  have  since 
been  worked  with  great  profit ;  there  are  also 
mines  in  the  adjoining  county  of  Yancey.  In 
the  western  section  mineral  springs  (sulphur, 
chalybeate,  and  alum)  abound,  and  have  become 
places  of  public  resort.  Among  the  curiosities 
of  the  state  are  the  Swannanoa  gap,  a  deep 
.pass  in  the  mountains  between  Morgantown 
and  Asheville ;  the  Catawba  Falls  near  by ; 
the  warm  springs,  Painted  rock,  and  a  curious 
rock  called  "  the  Chimneys,"  all  in  Buncombe 
co. ;  and  the  Gingercake  rock  in  Burke  co.,  a 
curious  pile  of  stone  on  a  rocky  eminence,  in 
the  form  of  an  inverted  pyramid,  commanding 
a  fine  view  of  a  ravine  from  800  to  1,200  ft. 
deep.  Recent  freshets  in  the  Catawba,  the 
Yadkin,  and  the  Dan  have  exhumed  from  the 
"  bottoms  "  relics  of  curious  interest,  skeletons, 
burial  urns,  various  implements  and  utensils  of 
stone,  pottery,  and  copper,  and  weapons  and 
personal  ornaments.  In  different  parts  of  the 
mountain  regions  are  ancient  mines  of  un- 
known date  and  origin.  The  most  important 
one  is  in  Cherokee  co.,  and  consists  of  a  ver- 
tical shaft  100  ft.  deep,  lined  with  skilfully 
worked  timber,  with  a  tunnel  extending  in  to 
meet  it  from  the  foot  of  the  hill.  These  mines 
are  supposed  to  be  of  Spanish  origin. — The 


NORTH  CAROLINA 


491 


climate  of  the  state  is  as  varied  as  its  surface 
and  products.  In  the  low  country  the  atmos- 
phere is  warm  and  humid,  and  in  the  moun- 
tainous region  it  is  cool  and  dry.  In  the  inte- 
rior it  partakes  somewhat  of  each  extreme,  ac- 
cording to  locality.  The  mean  annual  temper- 
ature at  Raleigh,  lat.  35°  47',  is  60°.  At 
Asheville,  Buncombe  co.,  lat.  35°  35',  Ion.  82° 
30',  the  mean  temperature  of  spring  is  53'1°, 
summer  71 '7°,  autumn  54-8°,  winter  38-2°,  year 
54*45°  ;  the  rainfall  in  spring  is  14-05  inches, 
summer  16*7,  autumn  6*5,  winter  8*4,  year 
45-65.— The  soil  of  North  Carolina  differs 
greatly  in  different  parts  of  the  state.  In  the 
coast  region  the  swamp  lands  when  drained 
and  the  river  bottoms  are  fertile,  and  rice 
grows  well.  The  pine  region  is  barren  for  the 
most  part,  while  further  inland  the  soil  im- 
proves, and  is  well  adapted  to  wheat,  rye,  bar- 
ley, oats,  and  flax.  Cotton  is  chiefly  raised  in 
the  counties  along  the  S.  border.  The  western 
and  mountainous  portion  of  the  state  is  best 
adapted  to  grazing.  Among  the  chief  pro- 
ducts are  sweet  potatoes  (of  which  North  Caro- 
lina produced  more  in  1870  than  any  other 
state),  tobacco,  and  Indian  corn.  The  forest 
trees  of  the  upland  are  oak,  hickory,  ash,  wal- 
nut, and  lime  ;  in  the  low  country,  pine ;  and  in 
the  swamps,  cedar,  cypress,  maple,  oak,  poplar, 
with  an  undergrowth  of  vines.  Among  the 
fruits  are  apples,  pears,  peaches,  plums,  cher- 
ries, grapes,  and  strawberries.  Grapes  are 
abundant  in  the  coast  region.  The  scupper- 
nong,  which  is  a  native  of  and  peculiar  to  North 
Carolina,  has  attracted  attention  for  its  large 
size,  luscious  flavor,  and  excellent  wine-making 
qualities.  Cranberries  are  produced  in  abun- 
dance, and  are  exported.  The  ginseng,  wild 
ginger,  snakeroot,  hellebore,  spikenard,  and 
other  medicinal  herbs  are  exported  to  the  value 
of  about  $250,000  annually.  In  Albemarle  and 
Pamlico  sounds  immense  quantities  of  herring 
and  shad  in  season  are  taken.  The  estuaries 
and  bays  are  favorite  resorts  of  wild  fowl  of 
every  species.  In  the  forest  country  in  the 
eastern  part  of  the  state,  quail,  partridges,  and 
other  game  birds  abound ;  while  in  the  moun- 
tainous region  of  the  western  portion  deer  are 
plenty,  and  bears  and  other  wild  animals  are 
found.— In  1870  the  state  contained  5,258,742 
acres  of  improved  land,  12,026,894  of  wood- 
land, and  2.549,774  of  other  unimproved  land. 
The  total  number  of  farms  was  93,565 ;  aver- 
age size,  212  acres.  There  were  6,744  con- 
taining from  3  to  10  acres,  14,257  from  10  to 
20,  35,280  from  20  to  50,  22,167  from  50  to 
100,  13,819  from  100  to  500,  889  from  500  to 
1,000,  and  116  of  1,000  and  over.  The  cash 
value  of  farms  was  $78,211,083 ;  of  farming 
implements  and  machinery,  $4,082,111;  total 
amount  of  wages  paid  during  the  year,  inclu- 
ding value  of  board,  $8,342,856;  total  (esti- 
mated) value  of  all  farm  productions,  inclu- 
ding betterments  and  additions  to  stock,  $57,- 
845,940;  orchard  products,  $394,749 ;  produce 
of  market  gardens,  $48,499 ;  forest  products, 


$1,089,145;  home  manufactures,  $1,603,513; 
value  of  animals  slaughtered  or  sold  for  slaugh- 
ter, $7,983,132  ;  of  all  live  stock,  $21,993,967. 
There  were  102,763  horses,  50,684  mules  and 
asses,  196,731  milch  cows,  45,408  working  oxen, 
279,023  other  cattle,  463,435  sheep,  and  1,075,- 
215  swine.  The  productions  were  405,238 
bushels  of  spring  and  2,454,641  of  winter  wheat, 
352,006  of  rye,  18,454,215  of  Indian  corn, 
3,220,105  of  oats,  3,186  of  barley,  20,109  of  buck- 
wheat, 532,749  of  peas  and  beans,  738,803  of 
Irish  and  3,071,840  of  sweet  potatoes,  83,540 
tons  of  hay,  144,935  bales  of  cotton,  2,059,281 
Ibs.  of  rice,  11,150,087  of  tobacco,  799,667  of 
wool,  4,297,834  of  butter,  75J185  of  cheese, 
59,552  of  flax,  21,257  of  maple  sugar,  1,404,040 
of  honey,  109,054  of  wax,  35  hogsheads  of  cane 
sugar,  62,348  gallons  of  wine,  and  33,888  of 
cane,  621,855  of  sorghum,  and  418  of  maple 
molasses. — The  most  important  branch  of  manu- 
facturing is  that  of  spirits  of  turpentine,  which 
is  produced  by  distillation  from  crude  turpen- 
tine, or  the  sap  of  a  long-leaved  pine  (pinus 
palustris).  There  is  an  immense  extent  of 
territory  in  North  Carolina  covered  by  this 
species  of  pine,  extending  from  a  point  near 
the  line  of  Virginia  across  the  entire  state,  and 
indeed  beyond  the  state  to  the  gulf  of  Mexico, 
and  varying  in  width  from  30  to  80  m.  This 
belt  of  land  is  between  the  swampy  country 
along  the  coast  and  the  hilly  region  of  the  in- 
terior, and  consists  mainly  of  a  level,  sandy 
barren.  Although  the  "  piney  woods,"  as  the 
natives  call  the  turpentine  forests,  have  been 
settled  by  Anglo-Saxons  about  as  long  as  any 
portion  of  the  United  States,  yet  the  roads 
are  very  poor,  being  the  merest  openings 
through  the  woods,  and  generally  without 
bridges  across  the  streams..  The  pine  trees 
which  cover  this  tract  are  from  8  to  18  in.  in 
diameter,  with  straight  trunks  which  run  up 
25  to  30  ft.  without  a  limb,  at  which  height 
their  evergreen  foliage  forms  a  canopy  so  dense 
as  to  nearly  shut  out  the  light  of  the  sky.  (See 
TUKPENTINE.)  According  to  the  census  of  1870, 
there  were  147  establishments  engaged  in  the 
production  of  tar  and  turpentine,  with  a  capi- 
tal of  $472,100.  The  products  of  that  year 
were  valued  at  $2,338,309,  and  included  456,- 
131  barrels  of  rosin,  valued  at  $861,222 ;  300  of 
tar,  worth  $820;  and  3,799,449  of  turpentine, 
valued  at  $1,428,567.  North  Carolina  is  the 
great  seat  of  this  industry  in  the  United  States. 
The  entire  products  of  the  latter  in  1870  were 
valued  at  $3,585,225.  Of  the  6,784,173  gal- 
lons of  spirits  of  turpentine,  valued  at  $2,- 
753,933,  exported  from  the  United  States  du- 
ring the  year  ending  June  30,  1874,  4,532,388 
gallons,  worth  $1,793,244,  were  exported  di- 
rectly from  North  Carolina.  A  large  portion 
of  the  rosin  and  turpentine  exported  from  the 
United  States  is  also  from  North  Carolina  ports, 
chiefly  "Wilmington.  During  the  same  year 
the  shipments  of  rosin  and  turpentine  amount- 
ed to  426,395  barrels,  valued  at  $1,159,022; 
tar  and  pitch,  17,660  barrels,  worth  $42,824. 


492 


NORTH  CAROLINA 


The  total  number  of  manufacturing  establish- 
ments in  1870  was  3,642,  having  306  steam 
engines  of  6,941  horse  power,  and  1,825  water 
wheels  of  26,211  horse  power,  and  employing 
13,822  hands,  of  whom  11,339  were  males  above 
16,  1,422  females  above  15,  and  861  youth.  The 
capital  invested  amounted  to  $8,140,473 ;  wages 
paid  during  the  year,  $2,195,711 ;  value  of  ma- 
terials used,  $12,824,693;  of  products,  $19,021,- 
327.  The  leading  industries  are  shown  in  the 
following  table : 


INDUSTRIES. 


Blacksmithing....'.. 

Boots  and  shoes. . . . 

Carpentering  and 
building 

Carriages  and  wag- 
ons  

Cotton  goods 

"  thread,  twine, 
and  yarn 

Flouring  and  grist- 
mill products 

Lumber,  planed 

"  sawed — 

Tar  and  turpentine . 

Tobacco,  chewing, 
smoking,  and  snuff- 
ing  

Woollen  goods 

Zinc,  smelted  and 
rolled... 


Number 
of  estab- 
lishments. 


121 


130 


1,415 

10 

523 

14T 


110 
2 


Hands 
employed. 


519 
818 


272 


1,351 

102 

2,660 
60 

2,361 
959 


1,464 
150 

17 


Capital. 


$98,185 
118,979 

80,765 

141,785 
968,500 

62,400 

2,584,520 

53,500 

1,175,950 

472,100 


191,000 
4,500 


Value  of 

products. 

$257,802 
804,502 

208,601 

840,284 
1,280,035 

65,017 

7,583,183 

107,070 

2,000,243 


717,765 
183,129 

522,000 


The  production  of  smelted  and  rolled  zinc  in 
North  Carolina  was  nearly  half  that  of  the 
United  States.  The  value  of  zinc  mined  in 
the  United  States  was  $788,880,  and  in  North 
Carolina  $435,000.  The  products  of  fisheries 
were  valued  at  $265,839.  The  production  of 
cotton  during  1873-'4  was  57,895  bales ;  14,726 
bales  were  consumed  in  the  30  mills  of  the 
state,  which  had  1,055  looms  and  55,498  spin- 
dles,— North  Carolina  contains  four  United 
States  customs  districts,  which  are  indicated 
in  the  following  statement  of  foreign  com- 
merce for  the  year  ending  June  30,  1874,  with 
the  number  of  vessels  registered,  enrolled,  and 
licensed : 


REGISTEl 

IED,  AC. 

Vessels. 

Tons. 

Albemarle  
Beaufort  . 

$274 
8862 

$81  965 

60 
98 

1,462 

O  -I(\A 

Pamlico  

8,569 

8'643 

67 

1  412 

Wilmington  

186,812 

8,541,010 

67 

4,617 

Total 

$144,01  T 

$3  581  618 

OQO 

Edenton  is  the  port  of  entry  of  the  Albemarle 
district,  and  New  Berne  of  the  Pamlico.  The 
leading  foreign  exports  are  turpentine,  tar, 
pitch,  and  rosin ;  cotton,  tobacco,  fish,  lumber, 
and  flour  are  shipped  to  domestic  ports.  The 
entrances  and  clearances  in  1874  were: 


FOKEIGN   PORTS. 


DISTRICTS. 

ENTERED. 

CLEARED. 

Vessel*. 

Tons. 

Vessels. 

Tons. 

Albemarle 

1 
2 
5 
211 

99 
440 
889 
57,729 

"8 

8 
278 

V,io9 

632 
74,913 

Beaufort  

Pamlico.  

Wilmington  

Total... 

219 

68,657 

289 

75.654 

COASTWISE. 


Albemarle.. . 
Beaufort. . . . 

Pamlico 

Wilmington. 


Total... 


185 
19 
179 


82,617 


155,861 


7 

12 

80 

201 


478 

5,531 

17,992 

115,427 


Fishing  is  carried  on  in  the  sounds  and  rivers 
of  the  coast.  The  kinds  of  fish  taken  are  chief- 
ly the  herring,  shad,  bluefish,  mullet,  and  rock. 
The  number  of  barrels  annually  packed  for 
market  on  the  sounds  is  about  100,000. — The 
state  had  87  m.  of  railroads  in  1841,  283  in 
1851,  937  in  1861,  1,190  in  1871,  and  1,447  in 
1874.  A  large  portion  of  the  state  debt  has 
been  created  in  aid  of  railroads.  The  follow- 
ing table  shows  the  railroads  lying  wholly  or 
partly  within  the  state,  with  the  termini,  the 
length  of  the  entire  road,  and  the  number  of 
miles  in  operation  within  the  state  in  1874 : 


NAME  OF  CORPORATIONS. 

TERJ 

•DO. 

£6 
§*fc 
a  efg 

•5  a&  a 

Ij'l 

From 

To 

III 

pi! 

Atlantic  and  North  Carolina  

Goldsboro  

Morehead  City  

95 

Atlanta  and  Richmond  Air  Line  

Atlanta,  Ga 

Charlotte  . 

85 

265 

Atlantic,  Tennessee,  and  Ohio               

Charlotte 

Statesville 

47 

Carolina  Central 

Wilmington 

Rutherford 

218 

272 

Charlotte,  Columbia,  and  Augusta  

Charlotte    

Augusta,  Ga  .  .        

12 

195 

Petersburg  

Petersburg  Va. 

Weldon. 

17 

63 

Branch. 

Hicksford  Va 

Gaston 

5 

21 

Raleigh  and  Augusta  Air  Line  

Raleigh 

Columbia,  S.  C  .  . 

44 

Raleigh  and  Gaston. 

Raleigh  

Weldon    ... 

97 

Richmond  and  Danville 

Richmond,  Va. 

Greensboro 

143 

46 

Leased:  Roanoke  Valley 

Keysville  Va 

82 

58 

Northwestern  

Greensboro  

Salem  

25 

North  Carolina  

Goldsboro  

Charlotte 

223 

Seaboard  and  Roanoke 

Portsmouth  Va 

Weldon 

20 

80 

Western  . 

Fayetteville 

Egypt 

43 

Western  North  Carolina,  Eastern  Division  .  . 

Salisbury  

Asheviiie   

114 

142 

Wilmington,  Columbia  and  Augusta 

Wilmington  

Columbia  S.  C                .... 

65 

189 

Leased,  Wilmington  and  Weldon 

Wilmington    .... 

Weldon 

162 

Branch.... 

Tarboro.... 

Rockv  Mount.  .  . 

19 

NORTH  CAROLINA 


493 


The  Dismal  Swamp  canal,  lying  in  North  Caro- 
lina and  Virginia,  affords  communication  be- 
tween Albeinarle  sound  and  Chesapeake  bay. 
Important  improvements  have  been  made  by 
the  Roanoke  navigation  company  in  the  Roa- 
noke,  Dan,  and  Staunton  rivers.  A  part  of 
these  is  the  Weldon  canal,  12  m.  long.  Im- 
provements in  Cape  Fear  and  Deep  rivers  are 
also  owned  by  companies.  At  the  beginning 
of  1875  there  were  11  national  banks  in  opera- 
tion, with  a  paid-in  capital  of  $2,200,000; 
circulation  issued,  $2,130,320 ;  outstanding,  $1,- 
824,545.  The  latter  amount  was  $1  70  per 
capita  of  the  population;  ratio  of  circulation 
to  the  wealth  of  the  state,  ^  per  cent. ;  to  bank 
capital,  82 '9  per  cent. — The  government  is  ad- 
ministered under  the  constitution  adopted  in 
1868,  which  declares  that  the  state  shall  ever 
remain  a  member  of  the  American  Union,  and 
that  there  is  no  right  on  the  part  of  the  state 
to  secede  therefrom ;  that  every  citizen  owes 
paramount  allegiance  to  the  constitution  and 
government  of  the  United  States ;  that  the  state 
shall  never  assume  or  pay  any  debt  incurred 
in  aid  of  insurrection  or  rebellion  against  the 
United  States,  or  any  claim  for  the  loss  or 
emancipation  of  any  slave ;  that  slavery  and 
involuntary  servitude,  otherwise  than  for  crime 
whereof  the  parties  shall  have  been  duly  con- 
victed, shall  be  and  are  for  ever  prohibited ; 
and  that  no  property  qualification  shall  be 
required  as  a  condition  of  voting  or  holding 
office.  The  legislative  power  is  vested  in  a 
general  assembly  consisting  of  a  senate  of  50 
and  a  house  of  representatives  of  120  mem- 
bers, who  are  elected  by  the  people  for  two 
years.  The  sessions  are  biennial,  beginning  on 
the  third  Monday  of  November  in  even  years. 
In  and  after  1876  the  state  election  will  be 
held  on  the  Tuesday  after  the  first  Monday  in 
November.  The  president  of  the  senate  and 
speaker  of  the  house  receive  each  $7  a  day 
during  the  session  of  the  legislature,  and  20 
cents  for  each  mile  travelled  in  going  to  and 
returning  from  the  capital.  Members  receive 
$5  a  day  and  mileage.  The  executive  officers 
are  elected  for  a  term  of  four  years,  and  are 
as  follows:  governor,  salary  $4,000;  lieuten- 
ant governor,  who  is  president  of  the  senate ; 
secretary  of  state,  $1,000  and  fees ;  auditor, 
$1,250  and  fees;  treasurer,  $3,000;  super- 
intendent of  public  instruction,  $1,500 ;  attor- 
ney general,  $1,500  and  fees.  The  governor 
may  grant  reprieves  and  pardons  after  convic- 
tion, but  has  no  veto.  The  executive  officers 
enter  upon  their  duties  on  the  first  day  of  Jan- 
uary succeeding  their  election.  The  governor 
and  lieutenant  governor  are  ineligible  for  two 
successive  terms.  The  secretary  of  state,  audi- 
tor, treasurer,  and  superintendent  of  public  in- 
struction constitute  the  council  of  state,  which 
advises  the  governor  in  the  execution  of  his 
duties.  The  judicial  power  is  vested  in  a  su- 
preme court  consisting  of  a  chief  justice  and 
four  associate  justices,  a  superior  court  with 
one  judge  in  each  of  the  12  judicial  districts 


into  which  the  state  is  divided,  and  courts  of 
justices  of  the  peace.  The  supreme  court  has 
in  general  only  appellate  jurisdiction;  the 
superior  courts  have  general  original  jurisdic- 
tion both  civil  and  criminal,  and  hear  appeals 
from  justices  of  the  peace  and  probate  judges ; 
justices  of  the  peace  have  jurisdiction  in  civil 
'cases  wherein  the  amount  involved  does  not 
exceed  $200,  provided  the  title  to  real  estate 
does  not  come  in  question,  and  of  criminal  pro- 
ceedings for  minor  offences.  The  clerks  of  the 
superior  courts  act  in  most  matters  as  probate 
judges.  The  judges  of  the  supreme  and  supe- 
rior courts  are  elected  by  the  people  for  eight 
years,  and  receive  a  salary  of  $2,500  each.  The 
elective  franchise  is  conferred  upon  every  male 
citizen  of  the  United  States,  21  years  of  age 
and  upward,  who  shall  have  resided  in  the  state 
one  year  next  preceding  the  election,  and  30 
days  in  the  county  in  which  he  offers  to  vote. 
A  registration  of  voters  is  made  compulsory. 
All  qualified  electors  are  eligible  to  office,  except 
persons  who  shall  deny  the  being  of  Almighty 
God,  and  those  who  shall  have  been  convicted 
of  treason,  perjury,  or  any  other  infamous 
crime,  since  becoming  citizens  of  the  United 
States,  or  of  corruption  or  malpractice  ih  office. 
The  property  of  a  married  woman  remains  her 
own,  free  from  liability  for  the  debts  of  her 
husband,  and  may  be  devised  and  bequeathed 
by  her,  and  with  the  written  consent  of  her 
husband  conveyed,  as  if  she  were  single.  The 
grounds  for  divorce  are  impotence,  abandon- 
ment, and  living  in  adultery,  "or  any  other 
just  cause  for  divorce."  North  Carolina  has 
two  senators  and  eight  representatives  in  con- 
gress, and  is  therefore  entitled  to  ten  votes  in 
the  electoral  college. — The  state  debt,  on  Oct. 
1,  1874,  including  unpaid  interest,  was : 

"  Old  bonds,"  issued  before  the  war $11,379,015 

Bonds  issued  since  the  war  under  acts  passed 

before  the  war 8,088,910 

Bonds  issued  during  the  war  for  internal  im- 
provements.-   1,714,590 

Funding  bonds  issued  since  the  war 5,604,140 

Bonds  not  special  tax  issued  under  acts  passed 

since  the  war 2,199,208 

Bonds  commonly  called  "  special  tax  " 14,935,980 

Total $38,921,848 

Of  the  above,  $23,985,918  are  not  special  tax. 
During  the  year  ending  Sept.  30,  1874,  the  re- 
ceipts of  the  public  fund  amounted  to  $667,114, 
and  the  disbursements  to  $451,339.  The  re- 
ceipts of  the  educational  fund  were  $44,384; 
disbursements,  $56,030.  The  valuation  of 
property  as  reported  by  the  federal  census 
has  been  as  follows : 


Assessed  value 
of  real  estate. 

Personal 

estate. 

Total  assessed 
value. 

True  value  of 
real  and  per- 
sonal estate. 

1850.. 
I860.. 
1870.. 

$226,800,472 
358,789,899 
260,757,244 

$116,866,573 
83,822,012 

$175,931,029 
47,056,610 

$292.297,602 
130,878,622 

In  1874  the  total  property  of  the  state  was 
reported  by  the  auditor  at  $143,723,813,  in- 

494 


NORTH  CAROLINA 


eluding  land  valued  at  $76.959,193 ;  town  prop- 
erty, $16,652,131;  horses,  mules,  cattle,  &c., 
$18,214,692;  farming  utensils,  money  on  hand 
or  deposit,  solvent  credits,  &c.,  $31,897,797. — 
The  North  Carolina  institution  for  the  deaf 
and  dumb  and  the  blind,  in  Raleigh,  receives 
an  annual  appropriation  from  the  state  of  about 
$40,000.  There  is  an  excellent  department  for 
colored  persons.  In  1874  there  were  13  in- 
structors, 138  deaf  and  dumb  pupils,  including 
50  colored,  and  77  blind,  of  whom  14  were  col- 
ored. The  state  insane  asylum  in  Raleigh  was 
opened  in  1856,  and  to  Nov.  1,  1874,  had  re- 
ceived 1,087  patients,  of  whom  247  remained 
in  the  asylum  at  that  date.  Of  those  discharg- 
ed, 275  were  cured,  103  improved,  172  unim- 
proved, and  290  died.  In  1874  the  state  con- 
tained upward  of  600  insane  not  in  any  asylum. 
The  capacity  of  the  asylum  (245  inmates)  is 
greatly  inadequate  to  the  needs  of  the  state. 
The  state  penitentiary  is  also  in  Raleigh,  and 
contained  on  Nov.  1, 1874,  445  convicts.  They 
are  employed  in  making  brick,  clothes,  and 
shoes,  but  the  institution  is  not  self-sustaining. 
— A  fund  for  the  support  of  common  schools 
was  provided  for  by  the  legislature  in  1825 ;  in 
1836  $1,433,757  was  received  as  a  deposit  from 
the  general  government,  and  in  1840  the  com- 
mon school  system  went  into  operation.  In 
the  latter  year  the  general  assembly  provided 
for  the  apportionment  of  the  income  of  the 
common  school  fund,  the  principal  of  which 
amounted  to  about  $2,000,000,  among  the  sever- 
al counties  according  to  the  white  population. 
The  public  schools  were  suspended  in  1865 
through  loss  of  school  funds,  and  remained 
closed  till  about  1870.  The  constitution  of  1 868 
requires  the  general  assembly  to  provide  for  a 
uniform  system  of  free  public  schools  for  all 
children  between  6  and  21  years  of  age.  Each 
county  must  be  divided  into  districts  in  which 
one  or  more  public  schools  shall  be  maintained 
at  least  four  months  in  every  year ;  and  if  the 
county  commissioners  fail  to  comply  with  this 
provision,  they  shall  be  liable  to  indictment. 
The  general  assembly  is  empowered  to  enact 
that  every  child  of  sufficient  mental  and  phys- 
ical ability  shall  attend  the  public  schools, 
during  the  period  between  the  ages  of  6  and  18 
years,  not  less  than  16  months,  unless  educa- 
ted by  other  means.  The  constitution  provides 
for  a  permanent  school  fund,  and  appropriates 
75  per  cent,  of  the  entire  state  and  county  capi- 
tation tax  to  the  maintenance  of  free  public 
schools.  Their  general  supervision  is  vested  in 
a  state  superintendent  of  public  instruction, 
who  is  elected  by  the  people  for  four  years. 
County  commissioners  have  control  of  the  pub- 
lic schools  in  the  county,  and  a  school  commit- 
tee of  three  is  elected  biennially  in  each  town- 
ship. The  state  board  of  education  comprises 
the  governor  as  president,  the  superintendent 
of  public  instruction  as  secretary,  the  secretary 
of  state,  treasurer,  auditor,  and  attorney  gen- 
eral. The  permanent  school  fund  in  1874  was 
$2,190,564.  The  entire  revenue  for  school 


purposes  amounts  to  about  $300,000  a  year. 
Whenever  this  is  insufficient  to  maintain  the 
public  schools  four  months  a  year  in  each  dis- 
trict in  any  county,  provision  is  made  for  the 
levy  of  a  county  tax  with  the  approval  of  the 
voters  of  the  county.  Substantial  aid  is  also 
derived  from  the  Peabody  educational  fund. 
No  distinction  is  made  between  white  and 
colored  children  in  the  apportionment  of  school 
funds,  but  separate  schools  are  provided.  Du- 
ring the  year  ending  June  30,  1873,  there  were 
in  the  state  348,603  children  between  the  ages 
of  6  and  21  years,  of  whom  114,852  were  col- 
ored. Of  the  whole  number,  146,737,  including 
40,428  colored,  attended  the  public  schools  an 
average  of  2£  months.  The  daily  average  was : 
white,  70,872 ;  colored,  26,958;  total,  97,830. 
There  were  2,565  public  schools  for  white  and 
746  for  colored  children.  According  to  the 
census  of  1870,  the  whole  number  of  persons 
between  the  ages  of  5  and  18  years  was 
359,930,  of  whom  135,845  were  colored.  The 
number  attending  school  was  65,3,01,  of  whom 
11,419  were  colored.  The  number  of  schools 
of  all  classes  was  2,161,  having  1,739  male  and 
953  female  teachers,  and  32,664  male  and 
32,294  female  pupils.  The  total  income  for 
the  year  ending  June  1,  1870r  was  $635,892, 
being  $9,160  from  endowment,  $232,104  from 
taxation  and  public  funds,  and  $394,628  from 
other  sources,  including  tuition.  North  Caro- 
lina has  no  state  normal  schools ;  but  the  Ellen- 
dale  teachers'  institute  at  Ellendale  Springs, 
and  the  Williston  academy  and  normal  school 
in  Wilmington,  afford  professional  instruction 
to  teachers. — The  university  of  North  Carolina, 
chartered  in  1789,  is  at  Chapel  Hill,  28  m.  W. 
of  Raleigh,  where  it  has  valuable  property  and 
a  library  containing  about  25,000  volumes. 
Its  alumni  number  upward  of  1,700.  Since 
1871  the  institution  has  been  suspended  for 
financial  reasons.  In  1873  a  constitutional 
amendment  was  adopted  providing  for  its  re- 
organization. Trinity  college,  at  Trinity,  about 
100  m.  W.  of  Raleigh,  is  under  the  control  of 
the  Methodist  Episcopal  church,  South,  but  is 
not  sectarian.  The  system  of  instruction  com- 
prises 13  courses,  viz. :  Latin,  Greek,  mathe- 
matics, English  literature,  natural  science,  men- 
tal and  moral  philosophy,  modern  languages, 
theology,  engineering  and  architecture,  ana- 
lytical chemistry,  and  law.  Theology  or  law 
may  be  studied  exclusively ;  of  the  other 
courses  the  student  may  take  any  three.  In 
1873-'4  there  were  6  instructors  and  122  stu- 
dents, of  whom  71  were  pursuing  academic,  18 
theological,  16  law,  23  scientific,  and  18  pre- 
paratory studies.  The  library  contained  9,000 
volumes.  Davidson  college  (Presbyterian),  at 
Davidson,  Mecklenburg  co.,  23  m.  N.  of  Char- 
lotte, was  organized  in  1837,  and  in  1873-'4 
had  7  instructors  and  117  students.  There  is  a 
classical  course  of  four  and  a  scientific  course 
of  three  years,  besides  an  eclectic  course.  The 
institution  has  a  library  of  7,000  volumes,  and 
valuable  cabinets  and  apparatus.  North  Caro- 


NORTH  CAROLINA 


495 


lina  college  (Lutheran),  at  Mt.  Pleasant,  or- 
ganized in  1859,  has  collegiate,  preparatory, 
and  theological  departments.  In  1873-'4  there 
were  6  instructors  and  a  total  of  115  students. 
Wake  Forest  college  (Baptist),  at  Forestville, 
Wake  co.,  has  preparatory,  collegiate,  and  com- 
mercial departments.  In  1873-'4  there  were 
in  all  departments  7  instructors  and  80  pupils. 
The  institution  is  well  endowed,  and  has  a  libra- 
ry of  8,000  volumes.  Eutherf ord  male  and  fe- 
male college  (non-sectarian),  opened  in  1871  at 
Excelsior,  in  1873-'4hadll  instructors  and  21 6 
pupils,  of  whom  42  were  females.  Indigent 
orphans  and  children  of  ministers  may  receive 
instruction  free  of  charge.  The  state  contains 
11  institutions  for  the  superior  instruction  of 
women,  which  in  1873-'4  had  about  100  in- 
structors and  upward  of  1,000  pupils. — The 
total  number  of  libraries  reported  by  the  census 
of  1870  was  1,746,  with  541,915  volumes.  Of 
these,  1,090,  containing  339,264  volumes,  were 
private,  and  656,  with  202,651  volumes,  other 
than  private;  among  the  latter  were  3  state 
libraries,  with  16,303  volumes;  3  town,  city, 
&c.,  2,316 ;  24  court  and  law,  4,119;  14  school, 
college,  &c.,  77,050;  500  Sabbath  school, 
74,160;  109  church,  26,951 ;  and  3  circulating, 
1,752.  The  total  number  of  newspapers  and 
periodicals  was  64,  having  an  aggregate  circu- 
lation of  64,820,  and  issuing  6,684,950  copies 
annually.  Of  these,  8  were  daily,  with  a  cir- 
culation of  11,795 ;  3  tri-weekly,  800  ;  5  semi- 
weekly,  5,750;  44  weekly,  43,325;  1  semi- 
monthly, 1,250;  and  3  monthly,  1,900.  In 
1874  there  were  reported  10  daily,  3  tri-week- 
ly, 3  semi- weekly,  80  weekly,  2  semi-monthly, 
and  4  monthly ;  total,  102.  The  total  number 
of  religious  organizations  in  1870  was  2,683, 
having  2,497  edifices,  with  718,310  sittings  and 
property  valued  at  $2,487,877.  The  denomina- 
tions were  represented  as  follows : 


DENOMINATIONS. 

Organi- 
zations. 

Edifices. 

Sittings. 

Property. 

Baptist,  regular  

951 

910 

243,920 

$578,050 

"       other 

84 

28 

5845 

5285 

Christian  

66 

60 

16,200 

24,377 

Congregational  
Episcopal,  Protestant..   .. 
Friends  

1 

77 
28 

1 

68 
27 

150 
22,955 
11,250 

1,500 
403,450 
21,485 

Jewish  

1 

1 

200 

500 

Lutheran 

78 

70 

28290 

96,550 

Methodist  
Moravian(UnitasFratrum) 
Presbyterian,  regular  
other  
Eeformed  church  in   the 
United  States  (late  Ger- 
man Eeformed)  
Eoman  Catholic  
Universalist. 

1,193 
10 
186 
19 

31 
10 
2 

1,078 
10 
182 
19 

29 
9 
2 

800.045 
3,300 
69,205 
7,950 

9,300 
3,300 
COO 

775,805 
81,000 
875,200 
20,275 

23,400 
64,100 
700 

Unknown  (local  missions) 
Unknown  (union)  

Vj 

1 

2 

300 
500 

15,000 

1,250 

— The  first  attempt  at  settlement  in  North 
Carolina  was  made  on  Roanoke  island  in  1585 
by  a  party  of  108  persons  under  Ralph  Lane, 
sent  out  by  Sir  Walter  Raleigh.  They  quar- 
relled with  the  Indians,  and  returned  the  f ol- 
•  lowing  year  with  Sir  Francis  Drake's  fleet. 
The  year  previous  to  this  settlement  (1584) 
609  VOL.  xii.— 32 


Raleigh,  having  received  from  Queen  Elizabeth 
a  grant  for  such  lands  as  he  might  discover 
in  America,  "not  possessed  by  any  Christian 
people,"  sent  out  two  small  vessels,  which 
made  the  land  at  Cape  Fear,  coasted  north  for 
a  harbor,  and  finally,  early  in  July,  ran  into 
Ocracoke  inlet,  and  landed  on  an  island  called 
by  the  natives  Wococon,  where  they  were  hos- 
pitably received.  After  slight  explorations 
they  bestowed  the  name  of  Virginia  upon  the 
region,  and  returned  to  England  with  a  highly 
favorable  account  of  the  country,  which  in- 
duced the  expedition  of  1585.  Other  colonists 
were  sent  out  by  Raleigh  the  same  year,  and 
the  year  following,  who  are  supposed  to  have 
fallen  victims  to  the  Indians ;  and  no  further 
attempts  were  made  to  colonize  the  country 
till  about  the  middle  of  the  17th  century.  In 
1663  Charles  II.  formed  the  province  of  Caro- 
lina, which  he  granted  to  eight  noblemen. 
This  grant  was  bounded  S.  by  lat.  29°,  W.  by 
the  Pacific  ocean,  N.  by  lat.  36°  30',  and  E.  by 
the  Atlantic.  The  grantees  were  made  joint 
proprietors  and  vested  with  jurisdiction  over 
the  colonists.  Previous  to  this  grant  a  few 
settlements  had  been  made  in  the  N.  part  of 
the  province,  near  Albemarle  sound,  by  dis- 
senters from  Virginia,  and  a  little  colony  had 
been  planted  near  the  mouth  of  Cape  Fear 
river  by  New  Englanders,  which  was  subse- 
quently abandoned.  The  philosopher  John 
Locke  wrote  a  scheme  of  government  for  the 
whole  province,  which  was  nominally  its  fun- 
damental law  for  about  25  years,  but  which 
was  so  complicated  and  cumbersome  as  never 
to  be  completely  carried  out.  Albemarle,  the 
name  then  given  to  what  now  constitutes 
North  Carolina,  was  augmented  by  settlement 
from  Virginia,  New  England,  and  Bermuda. 
In  1674  the  population  was  about  4,000,  and 
the  annual  product  of  tobacco  800,000  Ibs. 
Thomas  Gary  was  appointed  governor  in  1705, 
but  was  removed  to  give  place  to  Edward 
Hyde ;  whereupon  Gary,  to  retain  his  position, 
incited  a  rebellion,  and  at  the  head  of  an  arm- 
ed force  attacked  Edenton,  but  was  repulsed, 
and  finally,  by  the  aid  of  regular  troops  from 
Virginia  (1711),  the  rebellion  was  suppressed. 
Meanwhile  the  province  was  involved  in  a  war 
with  the  savages.  The  Tuscaroras  began  a 
war  of  extermination ;  but  by  the  assistance  of 
neighboring  colonies  this  tribe  was  subdued 
(1713),  and  finally  emigrated  to  the  north. 
Other  hostile  tribes  were  also  reduced  to  sub- 
jection. In  1717  the  number  of  taxable  in- 
habitants did  not  exceed  2,000,  having  gained 
no  more  than  600  since  1676.  In  July,  1729, 
during  the  administration  of  Gov.  Everard, 
Carolina  became  a  royal  government,  the  king 
having  purchased  from  the  proprietors  seven 
eighths  of  their  domain ;  the  remaining  eighth 
was  retained  by  Lord  Carteret,  who  surren- 
dered his  right  of  jurisdiction,  but  not  of  soil. 
North  and  South  Carolina  now  became  dis- 
tinct provinces.  In  1765  North  Carolina  had 
gained  considerable  accessions  to  its  popula- 


496 


NORTH  CAROLINA 


tion  from  a  colony  of  Presbyterians  from  the 
north  of  Ireland,  who  settled  in  the  N.  W.  part 
of  the  state,  a  party  of  Moravians  who  settled 
between  the  Yadkin  and  Dan  rivers,  and  a 
party  of  highlanders  who  located  near  Fayette- 
ville.  In  1769  the  assembly  declared  against 
the  right  of  Britain  to  tax  North  Carolina 
while  unrepresented  in  parliament,  and  was 
accordingly  dissolved  by  Gov.  Tryon.  North 
Carolina  sent  representatives  to  the  first  con- 
tinental congress,  September,  1774,  and  united 
in  adopting  the  declaration  of  colonial  rights. 
An  association  for  the  defence  of  those  rights 
was  formed  in  Mecklenburg  co.,  which  in 
May,  1775,  formally  renounced  allegiance  to 
the  crown,  and  published  a  declaration  of  in- 
dependence; but  this  feeling  was  not  general, 
and  counter-combinations  were  formed  to  sus- 
tain the  royal  authority.  Alarmed  at  the 
threatening  state  of  affairs,  Gov.  Martin  re- 
tired on  board  a  man-of-war  in  Cape  Fear 
river,  July  17,  1775.  A  convention  was  held, 
Aug.  20,  which  authorized  the  raising  of  three 
regiments  of  troops,  which  were  subsequently 
increased  to  five,  and  taken  into  pay  by  con- 
gress. A  proclamation  was  issued  by  Gov. 
Martin  from  on  board  ship  forbidding  their 
meeting,  which  the  convention  denounced  as 
scandalous  and  scurrilous,  and  ordered  it  to  be 
burned  by  the  hangman.  The  loyalists  were 
quite  strong,  especially  among  the  "regulators" 
and  higfilanders.  A  body  of  1,500  loyalists, 
under  McDonald  and  McLeod,  who  had  been 
commissioned  by  Martin,  attempted  to  reach 
the  coast  and  join  Gen.  Clinton,  but  were  met 
by  the  patriots  under  Caswell  and  Moore,  and 
routed  with  the  loss  of  McLeod  and  850  pris- 
oners, including  McDonald.  In  April,  1776, 
the  North  Carolina  convention  authorized 
their  delegates  to  unite  with  the  other  colonies 
in  a  declaration  of  independence.  North  Caro- 
lina ordered  four  more  regiments  to  be  raised, 
and  the  loyal  highlanders  and  regulators  to  be 
disarmed.  In  December,  1776,  the  province 
adopted  a  state  constitution,  and  elected  Rich- 
ard Caswell  as  governor.  The  colony  fur- 
nished her  quota  of  men,  but,  beyond  the  par- 
tisan warfare  between  the  patriots  and  loyal- 
ists, was  not  the  scene  of  important  military 
operations  till  1780.  The  battle  of  Guilford 
Court  House,  fought  March  15,  1781,  between 
Gen.  Greene  and  Cornwallis,  was  the  chief 
event  of  the  war  within  this  state.  The  con- 
stitution of  the  United  States,  formed  in  1787, 
was  rejected  by  North  Carolina  in  1788,  but 
finally  adopted  in  1789. — The  popular  senti- 
ment in  North  Carolina  at  the  beginning  of 
1861  was  in  favor  of  the  Union,  and  at  an 
election  held  Feb.  28  the  people  voted  by  a 
small  majority  not  to  call  a  convention  for 
considering  the  question  of  secession.  But 
after  the  attack  on  Fort  Sumter,  Gov.  Ellis 
raised  troops,  seized  Forts  Caswell  and  John- 
son, which  formed  the  defences  of  Wilming- 
ton, and  Fort  Macon  in  the  harbor  of  Beaufort, 
and  took  possession  of  the  mint  at  Charlotte 


and  the  arsenal  at  Fayetteville.  A  conven- 
tion having  been  called  by  the  legislature, 
which  had  convened  in  extra  session  on  May 
1,  an  election  of  delegates  was  held  on  May  13, 
and  on  the  20th,  the  86th  anniversary  of  the 
Mecklenburg  declaration  of  independence,  the 
convention  assembled  in  Raleigh.  On  the  fol- 
lowing day  the  ordinance  of  secession  was 
passed  and  the  confederate  constitution  was 
ratified.  These  measures  were  not  submitted 
to  the  people.  Delegates  were  also  chosen  to 
the  confederate  congress.  On  Aug.  29,  1861, 
an  expedition  under  Commodore  S.  H.  String- 
ham  and  Gen.  B.  F.  Butler,  consisting  of  three 
50-gun  frigates  with  four  smaller  vessels  and  two 
steam  transports,  carrying  800  soldiers,  captured 
Forts  Hatteras  and  Clark,  which  commanded 
the  entrance  to  Pamlico  sound.  On  Feb.  8, 
1862,  an  expedition  under  Commodore  Golds- 
borough  and  Gen.  Burnside,  consisting  of  more 
than  100  vessels  and  11,500  troops,  captured 
Roanoke  island,  with  6  forts,  40  guns,  and 
2,000  prisoners;  and  thence  operations  were 
directed  against  other  important  points.  Be- 
fore the  close  of  the  month,  Elizabeth  City, 
Edenton,  and  Winton  were  taken.  New  Berne 
was  captured  on  March  14,  and  Morehead  City 
and  Beaufort  were  next  occupied  without  re- 
sistance. Fort  Macon,  guarding  Beaufort  har- 
bor, surrendered  on  April  26  after  a  bombard- 
ment, and  Washington,  Plymouth,  and  other 
towns  on  the  coast  were  occupied  by  the  Union 
forces.  Plymouth  was  recaptured  by  the  con- 
federates in  April,  1864,  with  1,600  men  and 
25  guns,  but  was  recovered  by  the  Unionists 
on  Oct.  31.  Wilmington,  a  favorite  resort  of 
the  blockade  runners,  was  the  next  point  of 
attack.  In  15  months  (October,  1863,  to  De- 
cember, 1864)  397  vessels  ran  the  blockade  at 
this  port ;  the  amount  of  cotton  exported  from 
January,  1863,  to  October,  1864,  was  137,937 
bales ;  and  the  export  and  import  trade  during 
the  year  ending  June  30,  1864,  was  $65,185,- 
000.  Fort  Fisher,  the  chief  defence  of  the 
city,  was  bombarded  by  Admiral  Porter,  Dec. 
24,  1864,  but  the  land  forces  under  Gen.  But- 
ler being  unable  to  cooperate,  the  attack  failed. 
Another  attempt  by  Porter  and  Gen.  Terry, 
Jan.  15,  1865,  resulted  in  the  surrender  of  the 
fort  and  the  other  defences  of  Cape  Fear  river. 
Wilmington  was  taken  by  Gen.  Schofield,  Feb. 
22,  and  Goldsboro  on  March  21,  Kingston  hav- 
ing been  occupied  on  the  14th.  At  Goldsboro 
Schofield  was  soon  joined  by  the  army  of  Gen. 
Sherman,  which  had  defeated  the  confederates 
under  Hardee  at  Averysboro  and  those  under 
J.  E.  Johnston  at  Bentonville.  Raleigh  was 
occupied  on  April  13,  and  on  the  26th  hos- 
tilities were  ended  by  the  surrender  of  Gen. 
Johnston's  army.  On  May  29,  1865,  Presi- 
dent Johnson  appointed  W.  W.  Holden  provi- 
sional governor.  Delegates  to  a  convention 
were  elected  on  Sept.  12,  and  having  assem- 
bled in  Raleigh,  Oct.  2,  adopted  resolutions 
declaring  the  ordinance  of  secession  null,  abol- 
ishing slavery,  and  repudiating  the  state  debt 


NORTH  CAROLINA 

created  in  aid  of  the  rebellion.  An  election 
for  governor  and  members  of  congress  and  the 
state  legislature  was  held  on  Nov.  9,  when  also 
the  resolution  declaring  the  secession  ordi- 
nance void,  and  that  abolishing  slavery,  were 
ratified  by  the  people.  The  legislature  assem- 
bled on  Nov.  13,  and  subsequently  ratified,  with 
six  dissenting  voices,  the  amendment  to  the 
federal  constitution  abolishing  slavery.  On 
Dec.  23  the  provisional  governor  was  succeed- 
ed by  the  newly  elected  governor  Worth.  Ac- 
cording to  adjournment,  the  convention  reas- 
sembled on  May  24,  1866,  and  adopted  amend- 
ments to  the  constitution,  which  were  rejected 
by  the  people  at  an  election  held  Aug.  2.  The 
government  of  North  Carolina  as  thus  reor- 
ganized did  not  meet  the  approval  of  congress, 
nor  were  the  representatives  of  the  state  ad- 
mitted to  that  body.  Pursuant  to  the  recon- 
struction act  of  congress,  passed  March  2, 1867, 
providing  a  military  government  for  the  south- 
ern states,  North  and  South  Carolina  were 
constituted  the  second  military  district,  under 
command  of  Gen.  D.  E.  Sickles,  who  was  in- 
structed to  take  the  necessary  measures  for  as- 
sembling a  convention  to  reorganize  the  state 
government.  Gen.  Sickles  entered  upon  his 
duties  on  March  21,  with  his  headquarters  in 
Columbia,  S.  0.,  but  was  superseded  by  Gen. 
Canby,  who  assumed  command  on  Sept.  5.  A 
registration  of  those  persons  qualified  to  vote 
under  the  reconstruction  acts  of  congress  was 
begun  in  August  and  completed  before  the 
middle  of  October,  when  103,060  white  and 
71 ,  65  7  colored  voters  had  been  registered.  The 
election  was  held  on  Nov.  19  and  20,  when  a 
vote  was  taken  on  the  question  of  "  convention" 
or  "  no  convention,"  and  also  for  delegates  to 
the  convention  in  case  of  holding  one.  The 
total  number  of  votes  cast  was  about  130,000, 
of  which  60,000  were  those  of  colored  persons ; 
about  90,000  votes  were  cast  for  the  conven- 
tion. That  body  having  assembled  on  Jan. 
14,  1868,  the  present  constitution  was  framed; 
and  it  was  ratified  by  the  people  on  April 
21-23.  The  whole  number  of  votes  registered 
was  196,876,  of  whom  117,431  were  white  and 
79,445  colored ;  93,118  votes  were  cast  in  favor 
of  the  constitution,  and  74,009  against  it.  At 
the  same  election  state  officers,  members  of 
the  legislature,  and  representatives  to  congress 
were  chosen.  The  new  constitution  having 
been  approved  by  congress,  a  law  was  passed, 
June  25,  1868,  entitling  North  Carolina  with 
other  states  to  representation  in  congress  upon 
the  ratification  by  their  legislatures  of  the  four- 
teenth amendment  to  "the  federal  constitution. 
The  legislature  assembled  on  July  1,  and  on 
the  following  day  ratified  the  amendment.  On 
the  4th  Gov.  Holden  was  formally  inaugurated, 
and  on  the  llth  a  proclamation  was  issued  by 
the  president  announcing  that  North  Carolina 
had  complied  with  the  condition  prescribed  by 
congress  for  her  restoration  to  the  Union.  The 
fifteenth  amendment  to  the  federal  constitu- 
tion was  ratified  March  4, 1869,  by  a  vote  of 


NORTHERN  LIGHTS 


497 


40  to  8  in  the  senate  and  87  to  20  in  the  house. 
During  1869  and  1870  the  peace  of  the  state 
was  seriously  disturbed  by  outrages  alleged  to 
have  been  committed  by  masked  outlaws  be- 
longing to  a  secret  organization  known  as  the 
Ku-Klux  Elan.  On  March  7  Gov.  Holden  de- 
clared martial  law  in  Alamance  county,  and 
subsequently  in  Caswell  county,  which  con- 
tinued in  both  counties  until  Nov.  10.  For 
these  acts  articles  of  impeachment  were  pre- 
ferred against  him  on  Dec.  14,  which  resulted 
in  his  conviction  and  removal  from  office. 

NORTHCOTE,  James,  an  English  painter,  born 
in  Plymouth,  Oct.  22,  1746,  died  July  13, 1831. 
He  was  the  son  of  a  watchmaker,  with  whom 
he  served  an  apprenticeship,  and  subsequently 
devoted  himself  to  painting.  In  1771  he  be- 
came a  pupil  of  Sir  Joshua  Reynolds,  and  from 
1777  to  1780  he  studied  in  Italy.  After  his 
return  he  was  occupied  in  portrait  painting 
until  the  establishment  of  Alderman  Boydell's 
"  Shakespeare  Gallery,"  for  which  he  executed 
various  pictures,  the  best  of  which  are  "  Prince 
Arthur  and  Hubert,"  "The  Murder  of  the 
Princes  in  the  Tower,"  "The  Death  of  Wat 
Tyler,"  and  "  The  Entry  of  Bolingbroke  and 
Richard  II.  into  London."  In  1787  he  was 
elected  an  academician.  He  was  subsequently 
eclipsed  in  portraiture  by  Lawrence  and  other 
artists,  and  his  harsh  criticisms  of  the  works  of 
his  contemporaries  made  him  exceedingly  un- 
popular. He  published  "  Life  of  Sir  Joshua  Rey- 
nolds" (4to,  London,  1813;  with  supplement, 
1815;  8vo,  enlarged,  1819),  valuable  chiefly 
for  the  sayings  and  anecdotes  of  Reynolds ; 
"Life  of  Titian"  (2  vols.,  1830),  the  joint 
production  of  himself  and  Hazlitt;  and  two 
volumes  of  fables,  of  which  the  first,  entitled 
"  One  Hundred  Fables  "  (1828),  contained  ori- 
ginal and  selected  pieces,  with  illustrations  of 
his  own,  and  the  second,  also  illustrated  by 
himself,  was  published  after  his  decease  under 
the  title  of  "The  Artist's  Book  of  Fables." 

NORTHCOTE,  Sir  Stafford  Henry,  an  English 
statesman,  born  in  London,  Oct.  27, 1818.  He 
graduated  at  Oxford  in  1842,  and  was  called 
to  the  bar  in  1847.  He  succeeded  as  eighth 
baronet  on  the  death  of  his  grandfather  in  1851, 
and  in  the  same  year  was  made  a  0.  B.  for  his 
services  as  a  secretary  of  the  crystal  palace 
exhibition.  He  became  a  member  of  parlia- 
ment in  1855 ;  was  private  secretary  of  Mr. 
Gladstone  when  the  latter  was  president  of 
the  board  of  trade ;  financial  secretary  to  the 
treasury  from  January  to  June,  1859 ;  president 
of  the  board  of  trade  from  July,  1866,  to  March, 
1867,  and  afterward  secretary  of  state  and 
president  of  the  council  for  India  till  Decem- 
ber, 1868 ;  governor  of  the  Hudson  Bay  com- 
pany in  186-9 ;  and  a  member  of  the  high  joint 
commission  at  Washington  on  the  Alabama 
claims  in  1871.  In  March,  1874,  he  joined 
Mr.  Disraeli's  cabinet  as  chancellor  of  the  ex- 
chequer. He  has  published  "Twenty  Years 
of  Financial  Policy,  1842-'61 "  (London,  1862). 

NORTHERN  LIGHTS.    See  AUEOEA  BOREALIS. 


498 


NORTHMEN 


NORTHMEN,  and  Normans,  names  usually  giv- 
en, the  former  especially  to  the  ancient  and 
mediaeval  inhabitants  of  Scandinavia,  or  Den- 
mark, Norway,  and  Sweden,  and  the  latter 
to  that  portion  of  them  who  conquered  and 
settled  in  Normandy.  From  the  year  787 
the  Danes  made  incursions  along  the  English 
coast.  In  851  they  wintered  in  England,  and 
in  the  reign  of  Etlielred  a  footing  was  estab- 
lished ;  and  they  finally  ruled  England  for  more 
than  30  years.  As  early  as  852  the  Scandi- 
navians had  a  king  in  Dublin,  and  there  were 
princes  of  the  same  race  governing  petty  sov- 
ereignties at  Waterford  and  Limerick.  The 
Shetland  isles,  the  Orkneys,  and  the  Hebrides 
were  early  conquests  of  the  Northmen.  Scot- 
land was  visited  by  them  at  different  times 
between  the  8th  and  llth  centuries.  Iceland 
was  discovered  by  the  Northmen  in  860,  and 
settled  in  874.  In  876  or  877  Greenland  was 
discovered,  and  a  colony  was  planted  there  by 
Eric  the  Red  in  983-'5.  (See  ICELAND,  and 
GREENLAND.)  This  led,  according  to  the  Ice- 
landic sagas,  to  the  discovery  of  the  mainland 
of  America  by  Bjarni,  son  of  Herjulf,  in  the 
year  986.  About  1001  Leif,  son  of  Eric  the 
Red,  set  sail  with  35  men  to  pursue  the  dis- 
covery of  Bjarni.  He  visited  first  an  island 
seen  by  Bjarni,  and  named  it  Helluland  (Flat- 
stone  Land),  supposed  to  be  Newfoundland; 
next  Markland  (Wood  Land),  supposed  to  be 
Nova  Scotia ;  and  last  Vinland  (Vine  Land), 
supposed  to  be  the  coast  of  New  England.  Leif 
built  houses  and  wintered  in  Yinland,  and  in 
the  spring  loaded  his  vessel  with  timber  and 
returned  to  Greenland.  About  1002  Leif's 
brother  Thorvald  went  to  Vinland  with  30 
men,  and  wintered  at  the  same  place,  which  is 
supposed  to  have  been  on  Mount  Hope  bay, 
Rhode  Island.  In  the  succeeding  year  he  sent 
a  party  to  examine  the  coast,  who  were  gone 
all  summer.  In  1004  he  himself  explored  the 
coast  eastward,  and  was  killed  in  a  skirmish 
with  the  natives ;  and  in  1005  his  companions 
returned  to  Greenland.  In  the  spring  of  1007 
Thorfinn  Karlsefni,  a  rich  Icelander,  set  sail 
for  Vinland  with  three  ships,  160  men,  and  some 
cattle.  He  passed  three  winters  on  the  coast 
of  Massachusetts,  where  his  wife  bore  a  son, 
Snorro ;  but  finally,  finding  the  natives  hostile, 
he  went  back.  The  old  Icelandic  manuscripts 
make  mention  of  visits  to  Vinland  or  to  Mark- 
land  in  1121,  1285,  and  1347.  The  truthful- 
ness of  the  sagas  is  confirmed  by  Adam  of 
Bremen,  almost  contemporary  with  the  voyage 
of  Thorfinn,  who  states,  on  the  authority  of 
Sweyn  Estrithson,  king  of  Denmark,  that  Vin- 
land received  its  name  from  the  vines  which 
grew  wild  there.  The  latest  documentary  evi- 
dence in  relation  to  the  intercourse  between 
Greenland  and  America  is  the  Venetian  narra- 
tive of  the  visit  of  Nicol6  Zeno,  about  1390, 
to  Greenland,  where  he  met  with  fishermen 
who  had  been  on  the  coast  of  America.  (See 
ZENO.) — In  Russia  the  Northmen  were  called 
Varangians,  or  sea  rovers.  Rurik,  a  Northman, 


occupied  Novgorod  in  862,  and  founded  the 
dynasty  which  gave  sovereigns  to  Russia  until 
1598.  About  865  the  Varangians  appeared 
with  a  fleet  before  Constantinople ;  and  it  was 
not  until  an  alliance  made  between  Vladimir 
the  Great,  who  adopted  Christianity,  and  the 
Greek  emperor  (988)  that  the  incursions  ceased. 
Soon  afterward  a  Varangian  body  guard  was 
adopted  at  Constantinople,  and  from  this  time 
until  the  fall  of  the  eastern  empire  the  Byzan- 
tine sovereigns  trusted  their  lives  to  no  other 
household  troops.  The  Codex  Flateyemis  of 
Iceland  gives  the  number  of  the  Varangian 
guard  in  the  llth  century  at  300.  Among  the 
antiquities  in  the  museum  of  Christiania  are 
Byzantine  coins  of  842-'67,  found  in  ploughing 
the  fields  of  Aggerhuus  in  Norway. — A  Danish 
invasion  penetrated  to  the  Meuse  in  515,  and 
was  repelled.  Gottfried,  king  of  Jutland,  rav- 
aged the  French  and  Spanish  coasts,  even 
within  the  strait  of  Gibraltar.  Their  great  in- 
vasion of  France,  however,  was  delayed  until 
after  841 ;  from  which  period  the  whole  coast 
of  western  Europe  from  the  Elbe  to  the  Gua- 
dalquivir was  a  prey  to  the  Northmen.  In  837 
they  had  sacked  Utrecht  and  Antwerp,  and 
fortified  themselves  on  the  island  of  Walcheren. 
Rollo  devastated  Holland,  and  appeared  upon 
the  Seine,  while  Gottfried  ravaged  the  valleys 
of  the  Meuse  and  Scheldt.  They  burned  and 
sacked  Cologne,  Bonn,  Treves,  Metz,  and  other 
cities,  stabling  their  horses  at  Aix-la-Chapelle 
in  the  cathedral  church  of  Charlemagne.  A 
furore  Normannorum  libera  nos,  Domine, 
came  to  be  part  of  the  Catholic  litany.  Hasting, 
at  the  head  of  a  band  of  Northmen,  sacked 
Bordeaux,  Lisbon,  and  Seville;  defeated  the 
Moorish  conquerors  of  Spain  at  Cordova; 
crossed  the  straits  into  Morocco  ;  overran 
Tuscany;  returned  to  France,  and  embraced 
Christianity.  With  safe  winter  quarters  in 
Spain,  they  extended  their  ravages  to  Naples, 
Sicily,  and  the  coasts  of  the  Greek  empire,  and 
in  the  autumn  of  885  laid  siege  to  Paris.  At 
last  King  Charles  the  Fat  bought  off  the  North- 
men with  700  pounds  of  silver,  and  a  free  pas- 
sage to  the  upper  Seine  and  Burgundy.  The 
most  redoubtable  of  the  Northmen  afterward 
was  Hrolf,  better  known  as  Rollo,  first  duke 
of  Normandy,  and  direct  ancestor  in  the  sixth 
generation  of  William  the  Conqueror.  From 
Charles  the  Simple  he  accepted  the  hand  of 
a  daughter,  together  with  a  tract  of  Neus- 
trian  territory  N.  of  the  Seine  from  Les  An- 
delys  to  the  sea  (the  N.  E.  portion  of  mod- 
ern Normandy),  in  exchange  for  Christian  bap- 
tism and  an  oath  of  fealty  (912).  Rollo  dis- 
tributed among  his  followers  the  lands  of  Neus- 
tria,  to  be  held  of  him  as  duke  of  Normandy. 
Thus  were  laid  the  foundations  of  the  feudal 
system  which  William  transplanted  into  Eng- 
land (1066-'87).  The  Normans  adopted  the 
language  of  the  vanquished  province,  but  great- 
ly modified  it.  It  was  the  langue  d'oil  (the 
langue  d'oc  being  south  of  the  Loire),  which  be- 
came the  peculiar  medium  of  romantic  poetry. 


NORTH  RIVER 

NORTH  RIVER.     See  HUDSON  RIVEB. 

NORTH  SEA,  or  German  Ocean  (called  the  West 
sea  by  the  Danes),  an  extensive  arm  of  the 
Atlantic,  which  lies  between  Great  Britain 
and  the  continent  of  Europe,  extending  from 
lat.  51°  to  62°  N.,  and  Ion.  4°  W.  to  8°  E. ; 
greatest  length  about  700  m.,  breadth  400  m. 
It  has  the  Atlantic  ocean  on  the  north ;  Nor- 
way, Denmark,  Germany,  the  Netherlands, 
Belgium,  and  the  N.  extremity  of  France  on 
the  east  and  southeast;  the  strait  of  Dover  on 
the  southwest,  by  which  it  communicates  with 
the  English  channel;  England,  Scotland,  and 
the  Orkney  islands  on  the  west ;  and  the  Shet- 
land islands  on  the  northwest.  The  shores  are 
indented  by  numerous  bays,  inlets,  and  estua- 
ries, the  chief  of  which  are  the  fiords  of  Bom- 
mel,  Bukke,  and  Flekke  on  the  coast  of  Nor- 
way; the  Skager  Back,  which  communicates 
through  the  Cattegat  with  the  Baltic ;  the  fiords 
of  Liim,  Nissum,  and  Rinkiobing  or  Stavning, 
and  the  estuary  of  the  Yarde  river  in  Denmark ; 
the  estuaries  of  the  Eider,  Elbe,  and  Weser  in 
Germany ;  the  Zuyder  Zee  and  the  mouths  of 
the  Maas  and  Scheldt  in  Holland ;  the  estua- 
ries of  the  Thames,  Humber,  and  the  Wash  in 
England;  and  the  friths  of  Forth,  Tay,  and 
Moray  in  Scotland.  Besides  the  Orkneys  and 
the  Shetlands  there  are  many  other  islands,  all 
on  the  coasts  of  Norway,  Denmark,  Germany, 
and  Holland.  The  most  important  are  Great 
Sartoro,  Bommelo,  and  Karmo,  in  Norway; 
Fano  and  Mano  in  Denmark;  Romo,  Sylt, 
Fohr,  Amrum,  Nordmarsch,  Hooge,  Pellworm, 
Nordstrand,  Neuwerk,  Wangeroog,  Spiekeroog, 
Langeroog,  Baltrum,  Nordeney,  Juist,  Borkum, 
and  several  smaller  in  Germany;  Heligoland, 
which  belongs  to  England,  opposite  the  mouth 
of  the  Elbe ;  Rottum,  Schiermonnikoog,  Ame- 
land,  Ter  Schelling,  Ylieland,  Texel,  and  the 
islands  formed  by  the  deltas  of  the  Maas  and 
Scheldt,  in  Holland.  The  Bell  rock  and  May 
rock,  on  each  of  which  there  is  a  lighthouse, 
are  the  only  islands  of  the  North  sea  on  the 
coast  of  Great  Britain.  Floating  lights  have 
been  established  on  several  banks,  and  there 
are  lighthouses  at  all  the  principal  points  and 
ports  on  its  coasts.  The  average  depth  of  the 
sea  is  about  30  fathoms,  but  toward  the  Nor- 
wegian side  the  soundings  increase  to  190 
fathoms.  The  North  sea  is  traversed  by  seve- 
ral extensive  banks.  The  Dogger  bank,  which 
is  the  principal,  lies  near  the  middle,  between 
lat.  54°  and  55°;  the  Fisher  bank  is  its  N.  ex- 
tension, between  lat.  56°  and  58°;  another 
bank  extends  110  m.  in  a  N.  E.  direction  from 
the  frith  of  Forth,  and  one  runs  105  m.  N.  W. 
from  Denmark.  The  tidal  wave  which  comes 
from  the  Atlantic  passes  along  the  W.  coasts  of 
Great  Britain  and  Ireland,  and  enters  the  North 
sea  by  its  N.  extremity,  continuing  to  rule  the 
tides  as  far  S.  as  the  N.  end  of  the  strait  of 
Dover,  and,  through  this  strait,  to  be  felt  in 
some  degree  in  the  English  channel.  On  the 
N.  coast  of  Scotland  the  rise  is  about  12  ft., 
and  it  increases,  according  to  the  figure  of  the 


NORTHUMBERLAND 


499 


shore,  to  20  ft.  at  the  Humber  and  18  at  Dover. 
The  portion  of  the  tidal  wave  which  is  inter- 
cepted by  the  English  channel  as  it  comes  from 
the  south  passes  directly  through  that  channel, 
and  meets  the  tide  of  the  North  sea  about  the 
N.  extremity  of  the  strait  of  Dover ;  anJ  \fhen 
the  two  floods  meet,  the  southern  is  half  a  day 
earlier  than  the  northern  ;  or,  in  other  words, 
the  north  wave  is  part  of  the  tide  preceding 
the  one  from  the  south  which  it  meets ;  that 
time,  and  the  interval  taken  by  the  tide  in 
passing  through  the  English  channel,  in  all 
about  18  hours,  being  occupied  by  the  tidal 
wave  in  making  the  complete  circuit  of  Great 
Britain. — Several  thousand  people  are  occupied 
in  the  fisheries  in  the  North  sea,  and  the  qual- 
ity of  the  fish  has  long  been  celebrated.  The 
chief  kinds  taken  are  cod,  ling,  hake,  turbots, 
soles,  different  sorts  of  flat  fish,  lobsters,  and 
immense  quantities  of  mackerel  and  herrings. 

NORTHUMBERLAND.  I.  An  E.  central  county 
of  Pennsylvania,  bounded  W.  by  the  Susque- 
hanna  river  and  its  W.  branch,  and  intersected 
by  the  N.  branch;  area,  about  500  sq.  m. ; 
pop.  in  1870,  41,444.  The  surface  is  moun- 
tainous, but  between  the  ranges  lie  broad  and 
fertile  valleys.  Canals  run  along  the  N.  and 
W.  branches,  and  the  county  is  intersected  by 
the  Philadelphia  and  Erie,  Northern  Central, 
Philadelphia  and  Reading,  and  other  railroads. 
The  chief  productions  in  1870  were  335,264 
bushels  of  wheat,  37,526  of  rye,  510,418  of  In- 
dian corn,  463,634  of  oats,  25,139  of  buck- 
wheat, 227,658  of  potatoes,  15,759  Ibs.  of 
wool,  486,128  of  butter,  and  25,831  tons  of  hay. 
There  were  5,406  horses,  6,117  milch  cows, 
4,896  other  cattle,  5,602  sheep,  and  12,495 
swine;  12  manufactories  of  brick,  12  of  car- 
riages and  wagons,  1  of  cars,  17  of  clothing,  14 
of  furniture,  13  of  iron  forged,  cast,  &c.,  27  of 
lime,  8  of  machinery,  13  of  saddlery  and  har- 
ness, 17  of  tin,  copper,  and  sheet-iron  ware, 
20  flour  mills,  7  planing  mills,  19  saw  mills, 
26  tanneries,  and  19  currying  establishments. 
Capital,  Sunbury.  II.  An  E.  county  of  Vir- 
ginia, at  the  mouth  of  the  Potomac,  bounded 
E.  by  Chesapeake  bay ;  area,  about  200  sq.  m. ; 
pop.  in  1870,  6,863,  of  whom  3,054  were 
colored.  It  has  an  undulating  surface  and  a 
moderately  fertile  soil.  The  chief  productions 
in  1870  were  20,061  bushels  of  wheat,  158,483 
of  Indian  corn,  22,871  of  oats,  8,210  of  Irish 
and  10,185  of  sweet  potatoes,  3,507  Ibs.  of  wool, 
19,860  of  butter,  and  1,368  gallons  of  sorghum 
molasses.  There  were  703  horses,  1,178  milch 
cows,  3,046  other  cattle,  1,794  sheep,  and  4,702 
swine.  Capital,  Heathsville. 

NORTHUMBERLAND.  I.  A  county  of  Ontario, 
Canada,  bordering  S.  on  Lake  Ontario;  area, 
743  sq.  m.;  pop.  in  1871,  39,086,  of  whom 
13,349  were  of  Irish,  13,271  of  English,  6,153 
of  Scotch,  3,313  of  German,  1,498  of  Dutch, 
and  901  of  French  origin.  Rice  lake,  a  con- 
siderable body  of  water,  is  on  the  border  of 
the  county,  and  several  streams  flow  into  Lake 
Ontario.  It  is  traversed  by  the  Grand  Trunk 


600 


NORTHUMBERLAND 


and  the  Cobourg,  Peterborough,  and  Marmora 
railways.  Capital,  Cobourg.  II.  A  N.  E.  coun- 
ty of  New  Brunswick,  Canada,  bordering  on 
the  gulf  of  St.  Lawrence ;  area,  4,760  sq.  m. ; 

Eop.  in  1871,  20,116,  of  whom  8j009  were  of 
pish,  6,895  of  Scotch,  3,002  of  English,  and 
1,377  of  French  origin.  It  is  drained  by  the 
Miramichi  river  and  its  branches,  is  heavily 
timbered,  and  has  a  diversified  surface.  Its 
commerce  is  important.  Capital,  Newcastle. 

NORTHUMBERLAND,  the  northernmost  county 
of  England,  bounded  N.  W.  by  Scotland,  from 
which  it  is  partly  separated  by  the  river 
Tweed,  E.  by  the  North  sea,  S.  by  Durham  and 
Cumberland,  and  W.  by  Cumberland;  area, 
1,952  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1871,  386,646.  In  the 
west  it  is  mountainous,  being  covered  by  the 
Cheviot  hills ;  but  along  the  coast  it  is  level, 
with  a  highly  fertile  soil.  The  Tyne,  Blyth, 
Coquet,  Aln,  Till,  and  Tweed  are  the  princi- 
pal streams.  The  county  contains  vast  quan- 
tities of  coal,  frequently  found  together  with 
limestone,  lead  ore  in  the  mountains  to  the 
southwest,  iron  ore  in  various  parts,  and  many 
excellent  qualities  of  stone.  The  principal  ag- 
ricultural products  are  wheat,  oats,  and  bar- 
ley ;  and  the  science  of  agriculture  has  been  so 
highly  developed  that  it  has  become  a  school 
to  which  many  resort.  Coal  and  iron  are  the 
bases  of  most  of  the  manufacturing  operations. 
Interesting  remains  of  the  Roman  era  exist, 
and  there  are  many  ruined  castles.  The  prin- 
cipal towns  are  Newcastle,  the  chief  centre  of 
trade,  Tynemouth,  North  Shields,  Morpeth,  and 
Aln  wick,  the  capital. 

NORTHUMBERLAND,  Dnkes  of.  See  DUDLEY, 
and  PEECT. 

NORTHWESTERN  UNIVERSITY,  an  institution 
of  learning  situated  at  Evanston,  111.,  12  m.  N. 
of  Chicago.  The  university  grounds  consist  of 
about  30  acres  on  the  shore  of  Lake  Michigan. 
The  principal  buildings  are  university  hall, 
which  contains  the  chapel,  library,  museum, 
and  recitation  rooms,  Heck  hall  or  college  of 
theology,  and  the  woman's  college  of  literature 
and  art.  The  university,  which  is  in  charge 
of  the  Methodist  Episcopal  denomination,  em- 
braces the  following  faculties :  1,  college  of  lit- 
erature and  science;  2,  college  of  technology, 
founded  in  1873 ;  3,  college  of  literature  and  art, 
formerly  the  Evanston  college  for  young  ladies, 
which  was  united  with  the  university  in  1873; 
4,  conservatory  of  music ;  5,  college  of  theol- 
ogy, or  Garrett  Biblical  institute,  established 
in  1856 ;  6,  college  of  law,  established  in  1873 
in  conjunction  with  the  university  of  Chicago, 
the  two  institutions  agreeing  to  unite  in  the 
maintenance  of  the  Chicago  law  school;  7, 
college  of  medicine,  begun  in  1869,  when  the 
Chicago  medical  college  became  a  part  of  the 
university;  8,  preparatory  school.  The  libra- 
ry contains  about  30,000  volumes,  20,000  of 
which  formerly  constituted  the  private  libra- 
ry of  Dr.  Johannes  Schulze  of  the  Prussian 
ministry  of  public  "instruction,  purchased  and 
presented  to  the  university  in  1870  by  Luther 


NORTHWEST  PROVINCES 

L.  Greenleaf  of  Evanston.  The  library  has  a 
fund  of  $60,000,  the  interest  of  which  is  to  be 
added  to  the  principal  until  a  sum  sufficient 
to  erect  a  fire-proof  building  is  secured.  '  The 


University  Hall. 

museum  comprises  about  15,000  specimens. 
Every  course  of  study  is  open  to  both  sexes. 
The  university  was  chartered  Jan.  28,  1851, 
and  formally  opened  Nov.  1,  1855.  Its  presi- 
dents have  been  as  follows :  Clark  T.  Hinman, 
D.  D.,  1853-'5-;  R.  S.  Foster,  D.  D.,  1856-'60; 
Henry  S.  Noyes  (acting),  1860-'69;  E.  O.  Ha- 
ven, D.  D.,  1869-'72 ;  and  0.  H.  Fowler,  D.  D., 
1872.  In  1874  there  were  in  all  the  depart- 
ments 62  professors,  instructors,  and  lectu- 
rers, and  866  students,  of  whom  212  were  in 
the  academical  school,  403  in  the  preparatory 
school,  166  in  the  theological  school,  and  the 
remainder  distributed  among  the  other  schools. 

NORTHWEST  PASSAGE.  See  ARCTIC  DISCOV- 
ERY, and  POLAE  SEAS. 

NORTHWEST  PROVINCES,  a  political  division 
of  British  India,  comprising  a  long  and  irreg- 
ular strip  of  territory  lying  between  lat.  23° 
51'  and  31°  10'  N.,  and  Ion.  77°  and  84°  45'  E., 
immediately  W.  of  Bengal.  It  adjoins  Nepaul 
on  the  southern  and  western  frontiers  of  that 
country,  except  where  the  province  of  Oude 
intervenes,  which  is  enclosed  by  the  North- 
west Provinces  on  all  sides  but  the  northern 
Gurwhal  and  the  Himalaya  mountains  form 
the  northernmost  limits  of  the  division;  the 
western  boundaries .  are  the  Punjaub,  Rajpoo- 
tana,  and  Gwalior;  and  the  southern  border 
is  formed  by  Bundelcund  and  Rewah.  Its 
name  does  not  accurately  describe  its  posi- 
tion, for  it  occupies  about  the  centre  of  the  N. 
part  of  India.  Area,  80,901  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in 
1872,  30,769,056,  distributed  as  follows  among 
the  seven  administrative  commissionerships  of 
the  territory:  Meerut,  4,973,190;  Kumaon, 
743,170;  Rohilcund,  5,435,550;  Agra,  5,038,- 


NORTHWEST  PROVINCES 


NORTHWEST  TERRITORIES     501 


136;  Jhansi,  934,747;   Allahabad,  5,466,116; 
Benares,  8,178,147.     Of  these,  26,569,068  were 
Hindoos,  4,189,348  Mohammedans,  and  10,640 
Christians.    The  density  of  the  population,  380 
to  the  square  mile,  exceeds  that  in  any  other 
large  division  of  India  except  Oude,  where 
there  are  465  to  the  square  mile.     The  com- 
missionerships  are  subdivided  into  35  districts, 
and  in  1872  contained  91,226  villages.    At  that 
time  the  area  of  the  subject-allied  native  states 
under  the  supervision  of  the  provincial  govern- 
ment was  5,390  sq.  m.,  with  an  estimated  popu- 
lation of  1,284,691. — Although  the  northern 
portions,  situated  within  the  Himalaya  region, 
are  broken  by  spurs  of  the  great  snowy  range, 
the  Northwest  Provinces  lie  chiefly  in  the  rich 
Gangetic  plain,  and  are  watered  by  the  Ganges 
and  Jumna  and  their  affluents,  which  here  flow 
through  an  exceedingly  fertile  and  prosperous 
region,  dotted  with  wealthy,  famous,  and  pow- 
erful cities,  and  abounding  in  historical  inter- 
est.   The  tract  between  the  Ganges  and  the 
Jumna,  known  as  the  Doab,  is  occupied  by  one 
of  the  most  extensive  and  important  systems  of 
artificial  irrigation  in  the  world,  of  which  the 
Ganges  canal  is  the  chief  work,  supplying  water 
in  187l-'2  to  an  area  of  about  800,000  acres. 
The  principal  forests  are  in  Jhansi  and  near 
the  foot  of  the  Himalaya  in  Gurwhal  and  Ku- 
maon,  and  are  under  the  care  of  the  govern- 
ment forest  conservancy.    The  chil  (pinus  ex- 
celsa},  the  chir  (pinus  longtfolia),  the  saul  tree, 
and  the  deodar  are  the  chief  timber  trees. 
Immense  numbers  of  bamboos  are  obtained 
from  the  bamboo  forests  in  the  north.     There 
are  but  few  trees  in  the  lower  country.    The 
climate  is  dry  from  April  to  June,  when  the 
rains  begin,  but  the  annual  rainfall  averages 
very  little  more  than  30  inches.     Opium,  in- 
digo, sugar  cane,  and  the  cereals  are  cultivated 
in  the  plains ;  there  is  a  cotton  farm  at  Bu- 
lundshuhur ;  and  tea  is  grown  in  Gurwhal,  Ku- 
maon,  and  the  district  of  Dehra  Boon.    Mines 
of  lead  and  copper  occur  in  the  north,  and  iron 
also  has  been  found  in  Kurnaon,  but  the  ore 
cannot  be  worked  profitably. — The  Northwest 
Provinces  are  traversed  by  the  East  Indian  and 
Delhi   railways,   together  forming  the  great 
trunk  line  between  Calcutta  and  Lahore.     On 
April  1,  1873,  there  were  839|  m.  of  railway 
in  operation  within  the  provincial  limits.     The 
whole  opium  crop  is  sent  to  the  government  de- 
pot at  Ghazepoor,  near  Benares,  and  consider- 
able quantities  of  cocoanuts  are  exported  to  oth- 
er parts  of  India.     The  manufacture  of  cotton 
goods  is  an  important  industry,  but  most  of 
the  supply  is  required  for  home  consumption. 
A  proprietary  system  of  land  revenue  prevails, 
the  principle  of  which  is  derived  from  a  settle- 
ment made  by  the  emperor  Akbar.     The  cul- 
tivators of  the  soil  pay  rent  to  the  proprietors 
of  the  villages,  from  whom  the  government 
exacts  a  portion  as  a  tax,  now  amounting  to 
one  half  of  the  assumed  rental.     These  pro- 
prietors are  usually  the  members  of  a  family 
who  own  a  village,  all  the  villagers  being  their 


tenants.    In  1871-'2  the  net  land  revenue  was 
£3,682,588,  and  £414,501  were  derived  from 
the  duty  on  salt,  £216,868  from  excise  duties, 
and  £79,174  from  income  tax  ;  the  total  reve- 
nue in  1872-'3  was  £5,849,714,  and  the  expen- 
diture was  £2,083,562.— The  executive  author- 
ity is  vested  in  a  lieutenant  governor,  appoint- 
ed by  the  viceroy  with  the  approval  of  the 
secretary  of  state  for  India.     A  high  court  of 
judicature,  consisting  of  a  chief  justice  and  five 
puisne  judges,  is  the  chief  judicial  tribunal. 
There  are  67  regularly  organized  municipalities. 
Among  the  more  important  cities  and  towns 
are  Allahabad,  the  capital,  Agra,  Bareilly,  Be- 
nares, Cawnpore,  Furruckabad,  Ghazepoor,  Go- 
ruckpoor,  Meerut,  and  Muttra.    The  total  num- 
ber of  educational  institutions  in  1872  was  8,938, 
at  which  there  was  an  average  daily  attendance 
of  180,898  pupils.     These  included  seven  col- 
leges affiliated  to  the  Calcutta  university,  all 
of  which  received  assistance  from  the  govern- 
ment, while  four  were  directly  under  its  control, 
35  high  schools,  and  13  normal  schools.    Under 
British  rule,  elementary  education  has  made 
greater  progress  here  than  elsewhere  in  India. 
Separate  statistics  are  wanting  as  to  the  Prot- 
estant mission  schools  of  the  Northwest  Prov- 
inces alone,  but  in  1872  the  entire  number  there 
and  in  Oude  was  335,  with  an  attendance  of 
16,609  students;  while  there  were  7,779  native 
Christian  converts  distributed  throughout  the 
same  territory.     At  Agra  there  is  a  medical 
college.    A  prosperous  native  literature  exists, 
comprising  books,  magazines,  and  newspapers 
in  Urdu,  Hindee,  and  other  languages;    du- 
ring 1871-2,  30  native  newspapers  and  9  mag- 
azines were  regularly  published,  a  majority  of 
them  in  Urdu ;  and  of  the  317  books  which 
appeared  in  1871,   90  were  in  Urdu,  56  in 
Persian,  53  in  Hindee,  47  in  Arabic,  and  33 
in  English. — The  Northwest  Provinces  were 
formerly  included  in  the  presidency  of  Fort 
William  in  Bengal,  but  in  1833  they  were  "con- 
stituted a  separate  administrative  division,  with 
the  capital  at  Agra.    During  the  sepoy  mutiny 
they  were  the  principal  theatre  of  war.    (See 
INDIA.)    In  1862  the  seat  of  government  was 
removed  to  Allahabad. 

NORTHWEST  TERRITORIES,  a  portion  of  the 
Dominion  of  Canada,  comprising  the  greater 
part  of  the  former  Hudson  Bay  territory, 
bounded  N.  by  the  Arctic  ocean  and  Hudson 
strait,  and  E.  by  the  portion  of  Labrador  be- 
longing to  Newfoundland  and  by  Quebec.  On 
the  south  it  has  for  its  boundary,  E.  of  the 
Rocky  mountains,  Quebec,  Ontario,  the  United 
States,  Manitoba,  and  again  the  United  States 
(along  the  parallel  of  49°  N.) ;  and  W.  of  that 
range,  British  Columbia  along  the  parallel  of 
60°.  Its  W.  boundary,  S.  of  the  60th  parallel,  is 
formed  by  the  Rocky  mountains,  separating  it 
from  British  Columbia,  and  N.  of  that  line  by 
Alaska,  along  the  meridian  of  141°  W.  Its  E. 
extremity  is  in  Ion.  65°  W.  Much  of  the  E. 
portion  is  occupied  by  Hudson  bay,  with  its  S. 
projection,  James  bay.  The  length  E.  and  W. 


502 


NORTHWEST  TERRITORIES 


is  about  2,500  m. ;  breadth  of  the  mainland 
N.  and  S.,  1,500  m. ;  estimated  area,  including 
the  islands  in  the  Arctic  ocean,  about  2,750,000 
sq.  m.  The  southwestern  portion  is  generally 
level  or  rolling;  further  E.  the  surface  is  ex- 
tremely uneven,  with  mountains  in  places  1,000 
ft.  high,  and  is  interspersed  with  extensive 
marshes.  For  600  m.  W.  of  Hudson  bay  there 
is  generally  a  rise  of  2  ft.  to  the  mile.  N.  of 
about  lat.  56°  there  is  a  descent  for  a  distance 
of  upward  of  1,200  m.  to  the  Arctic  ocean. 
The  numerous  great  lakes  which  succeed  each 
other  in  a  N.  N.  W.  and  S.  S.  E.  direction  are 
a  prominent  feature  of  the  country.  The 
largest  of  these,  commencing  at  the  south,  are 
Winnipeg  (with  Manitoba  and  Winnipegosis), 
Deer,  Wollaston,  Athabasca,  Great  Slave,  and 
Great  Bear.  There  are  two  great  river  sys- 
tems, the  one  discharging  its  waters  directly 
into  the  Arctic  ocean  and  the  other  into  Hud- 
son bay.  The  great  arctic  river  is  the  Mac- 
kenzie, which  with  its  upper  portion,  the  Slave 
and  Athabasca,  and  its  tributaries,  Peace  and 
Mountain  rivers,  drains  the  W.  portion  of  the 
Northwest  territories,  and  discharges  the 
waters  of  Athabasca,  Great  Slave,  and  Great 
Bear  lakes.  E.  of  the  Mackenzie  the  Arctic 
ocean  receives  Coppermine  river  and  Back  or 
Great  Fish  river.  The  chief  tributaries  of 
Hudson  bay,  besides  several  from  the  east,  are 
the  Abbitibbe  from  the  south,  and  the  Alba- 
ny, Severn,  Nelson,  and  English  or  Churchill 
from  the  west.  Nelson  river  is  the  outlet  of 
Lake  Winnipeg,  and  the  Churchill  discharges 
the  waters  of  Deer  lake  and  a  part  of  those  of 
Wollaston  lake,  the  rest  flowing  into  Atha- 
basca lake.  Lake  Winnipeg  receives  at  its 
S.  E.  extremity  Winnipeg  river,  which  dis- 
charges the  waters  of  the  lake  of  the  Woods, 
and  through  Rainy  river  those  of  Rainy  lake 
on  the  United  States  border.  From  the  west 
Lake  Winnipeg  receives  through  Dauphin 
river  the  waters  of  Manitoba  and  Winnipego- 
sis lakes,  and  at  the  N.  W.  extremity  the  Sas- 
katchewan river,  which,  rising  by  several 
branches  in  the  Rocky  mountains,  drains  the 
S.  W.  portion  of  the  Northwest  territories. 
The  Assiniboin  river  rises  W.  of  Lake  Winni- 
pegosis, and  flowing  S.  E.  and  E.  joins  the 
Red  river  in  Manitoba. — The  geology  of  this 
region  is  not  accurately  known.  A  belt  of 
azoic  rocks,  150  or  200  m.  wide,  and  apparently 
of  the  Huronian  and  Laurentian  formations, 
stretches  N.  W.  from  the  shore  of  Lake  Supe- 
rior to  the  Arctic  ocean,  between  the 'mouth 
of  the  Coppermine  river  and  Ion.  95°.  This 
belt  is  bordered  on  the  west  for  the  most  part 
by  a  margin  of  Silurian  and  Devonian  rocks. 
The  extensive  region  W.  of  this  consists  of 
different  formations,  the  cretaceous  being  ex- 
tensively developed  in  the  south.  There  are 
extensive  beds  of  lignite  on  the  Mackenzie 
river.  The  Athabasca  flows  through  beds  of 
limestone,  broken  occasionally  by  cliffs  of  clay 
slate,  while  in  the  vicinity  are  found  sulphur, 
iron,  bitumen,  and  plumbago.  The  Peace 


river  region  has  plaster  quarries  and  carbon- 
iferous deposits,  and  there  are  deposits  of  coal 
on  the  upper  Saskatchewan.  N.  of  the  lower 
Saskatchewan  there  is  an  extensive  belt  of 
primary  rocks,  with  limestone  strata  of  Silurian 
formation  in  the  vicinity.  In  the  Devonian 
formation  on  the  W.  shore  of  Lakes  Manitoba 
and  Winnipegosis  there  are  numerous  salt 
springs.  The  region  E.  of  Hudson  bay  is  com- 
posed chiefly  of  the  Laurentian  formation. 
From  James  bay  around  the  W.  side  of  Hud- 
son bay  there  is  a  broad  margin  of  Silurian 
and  Devonian  rocks,  extending  to  the  Arctic 
ocean.  About  30  m.  from  the  sea  copper  has 
been  found  on  the  Coppermine  river,  but  not 
in  large  quantities.  Before  the  use  of  iron 
was  known  to  them,  the  northern  or  Copper- 
mine Indians  used  the  copper  for  hatchets,  ice 
chisels,  and  arrow  heads. — The  climate  of  the 
Northwest  territories  is  severe,  and  in  the 
greater  portion  of  the  country  agriculture  is 
not  practicable.  In  the  north  permanent  frost 
is  found  a  few  feet  below  the  surface,  the 
ground  thawing  to  a  slight  depth  only  in  the 
brief  summer.  The  western  portion  has  a 
higher  temperature  than  the  eastern,  the  iso- 
thermal line  tending  N.  as  we  proceed  W.  from 
Hudson  bay.  In  the  S.  part,  W.  of  the  100th 
meridian,  there  is  a  considerable  tract  that  suf- 
fers from  lack  of  moisture.  The  entire  region 
N.  E.  of  the  chain  of  lakes  and  the  Mackenzie 
river,  with  small  exceptions,  is  a  barren  waste, 
valuable  only  for  its  furs.  The  climate  is 
inhospitable,  pasturage  is  wanting,  and  the  sur- 
face is  clothed  only  with  a  scanty  growth  of 
stunted  trees.  The  region  W.  of  this  may  be 
subdivided  into  the  desert,  the  prairie,  and  the 
forest.  The  desert,  the  N.  extremity  of  what 
was  formerly  called  the  great  American  desert, 
occupies  the  S.  W.  portion,  bounded  N.  E.  by 
a  somewhat  irregular  line  commencing  at  the 
100th  meridian  and  49th  parallel,  and  extend- 
ing N.  W.,  crossing  the  52d  parallel  at  the 
113th  meridian,  and  reaching  as  far  N.  as  the 
55th  parallel.  This  section  embraces  about 
50,000  sq.  m.  It  is  too  arid  for  agriculture, 
its  principal  production  being  prairie  hay  (sys- 
teria  dactyloides),  which  preserves  its  flavor 
and  nutritive  properties  through  the  winter, 
and  is  eagerly  sought  for  by  the  bison  (buffalo) 
and  by  domestic  animals.  N.  and  N.  E.  of  the 
desert  is  the  prairie  section,  comprising  about 
50,000  sq.  m.,  covered  in  summer  with  rich 
verdure,  which  affords  excellent  pasturage,  and 
diversified  with  occasional  clumps  of  poplars, 
aspens,  and  birches.  The  soil  is  generally  fer- 
tile, but  the  climate,  often  hot  in  summer,  is 
very  cold  in  winter,  and  late  and  early  frosts 
are  common.  Storms  of  wind  and  hail  are 
frequent  in  this  region.  N.  of  the  prairie  is 
the  forest  section,  comprising  about  480,000  sq. 
m.,  and  containing  within  its  limits  occasional 
prairies,  as  in  the  valleys  of  Peace  and  Moun- 
tain rivers.  It  embraces  tracts  capable  of 
cultivation,  particularly  along  the  principal 
streams  and  around  the  larger  lakes,  which 


NORTHWEST  TERRITORIES 


503 


moderate  the  temperature.  Fires  are  constant- 
ly devastating  the  wooded  country  and  adding 
to  the  area  of  the  prairies.  The  best  agricul- 
tural regions  are  the  valley  of  Peace  river,  the 
district  along  the  upper  waters  of  the  Atha- 
basca, and  the  valley  of  the  Saskatchewan,  ex- 
cept along  its  lower  course.  These  tracts  are 
capable  of  producing  the  root  crops,  wheat, 
barley,  &c.  The  region  in  the  vicinity  of 
Rainy  river,  the  lake  of  the  Woods,  and  Win- 
nipeg river,  and  the  islands  in  Lake  Winnipeg, 
are  well  wooded,  the  chief  trees  being  red  and 
white  pine,  cedar,  oak,  elm,  and  ash.  W.  of 
the  100th  meridian  the  principal  trees  are  the 
poplar,  spruce,  gray  pine,  balsam  fir,  and  birch. 
The  ash-leaved  maple,  which  yields  sugar,  is 
found  as  far  N".  as  the  55th  parallel  and  as  far 
W.  as  the  107th  meridian.  Various  kinds  of 
berries  are  common.  The  fauna  of  the  coun- 
try includes  bears,  badgers,  raccoons,  wolve- 
renes, weasels,  ermines  or  stoats,  minks,  mar- 
tens, pekans  or  fishers,  otters,  skunks,  Esqui- 
maux and  other  dogs,  wolves,  foxes,  lynxes, 
beavers,  muskrats,  lemmings,  marmots,  squir- 
rels, porcupines,  hares,  moose,  caribou  or  rein- 
deer, the  wapiti  or  stag,  deer,  antelope,  musk 
ox,  and  bison.  The  polar  bear  is  found  only 
in  the  north,  the  grisly  bear  in  the  southwest; 
the  brown  bear  frequents  the  barren  region  of 
the  northeast  as  far  up  as  the  Arctic  ocean, 
while  the  black  bear  is  widely  diffused.  There 
are  two  species  of  the  caribou,  the  one  fre- 
quenting the  barren  region,  the  other  the 
wooded  country.  The  musk  ox  is  found  only 
in  the  barren  wastes  in  the  north.  Vast  herds 
of  bisons  formerly  roamed  over  the  plains  W. 
of  Red  river,  but  they  are  rapidly  disappear- 
ing before  the  hunters,  and  are  now  found 
chiefly  on  the  N.  branch  of  the  Saskatchewan. 
The  seal  and  walrus  are  found  on  the  shores  of 
the  Arctic  ocean.  Various  species  of  birds 
are  common,  the  most  useful  of  which  are  the 
grouse,  ptarmigan,  plover,  lapwing,  crane,  and 
water  fowl,  such  as  ducks,  geese,  swans,  gulls, 
and  pelicans,  which  breed  in  the  northern  re- 
gions in  summer.  The  principal  rivers  and 
larger  lakes  are  well  stocked  with  fish,  includ- 
ing perch,  carp,  pike,  whitefish,  sturgeon,  &c. — 
The  white  inhabitants,  scattered  at  the  various 
Hudson  Bay  company's  posts  and  employed  by 
the  company,  number  about  2,500.  The  great- 
er portion  are  Scotch  (chiefly  from  the  Orkney 
islands),  with  some  French  Canadians  and 
other  nationalities.  The  half-breeds,  for  the 
most  part  similarly  employed,  number  about 
5,000.  Archbishop  Tach6  estimates  the  In- 
dian population  (excluding  Labrador)  at  60,- 
000,  viz. :  Algonquins,  30,000 ;  Assiniboins, 
4,000;  Blackfeet,  6,000;  Chipewyans,  15,000; 
Esquimaux,  5,000.  The  Algonquins  occupy 
chiefly  the  region  E.  of  the  Rocky  mountains 
and  S.  of  Churchill  river,  and  in  a  large  part 
of  it  are  found  to  the  exclusion  of  other  races. 
This  family  consists  of  three  tribes :  the  Saul- 
teaux  or  Chippeways,  who  occupy  a  belt  3°  or 
4°  wide  N".  of  the  49th  parallel,  extending  as 


far  W.  as  the  105th  meridian ;  the  Maskegons 
or  Swampies,  N.  of  these  as  far  as  Hudson 
bay ;  and  the  Crees,  situated  between  the  other 
two  and  extending  to  the  Rocky  mountains. 
The  Crees  are  subdivided  into  two  sections, 
the  plain  Crees  and  the  forest  Crees.  The 
Assiniboins  or  Stonies  are  a  branch  of  the 
Sioux  family,  and  occupy  a  narrow  strip  of 
country  stretching  from  the  upper  part  of  the 
Athabasca  river  S.  E.  to  the  Mouse,  a  S.  afflu- 
ent of  the  Assiniboin.  They  are  subdivided 
into  the  Assiniboins  of  the  plains  and  the  Assi- 
niboins of  the  forest.  The  Blackfeet  roam  over 
the  W.  portion  of  the  plains  S.  of  the  Saskatch- 
ewan, and  are  subdivided  into  three  tribes: 
the  Sixika  or  Blackfeet  proper,  the  Pieganew 
or  Piegans,  and  the  Bloods  or  Kena.  With 
these  are  connected  the  Sards,  who  speak  a 
different  language.  The  Chipewyans,  divided 
into  several  groups,  inhabit  the  valley  of  the 
lower  Athabasca,  the  Slave,  and  the  upper 
Mackenzie  rivers,  as  well  as  the  region  watered 
by  the  Churchill,  except  in  its  lower  course. 
(See  TINNE.)  The  Esquimaux  occupy  the  ex- 
treme north,  along  the  shore  of  the  Arctic 
ocean  and  the  coast  of  Hudson  bay  as  far  S. 
as  the  60th  parallel.  These  Indians,  except 
those  inhabiting  the  plains  of  the  southwest, 
are  peaceable.  They  subsist  by  hunting,  trap- 
ping, and  fishing.  The  furs,  which  are  the 
sole  export  of  the  country,  are  purchased  by 
the  Hudson  Bay  company.  (See  FUE.)  There 
are  numerous  Roman  Catholic,  a  number  of 
Anglican,  and  a  few  Methodist  and  Presby- 
terian missions  among  the  Indians,  and  many 
of  them  have  embraced  the  Christian  religion. 
— The  government  of  the  Northwest  territories, 
by  an  act  of  1875,  is  vested  in  a  lieutenant  gov- 
ernor and  a  council  of  not  more  than  five  mem- 
bers, appointed  by  the  governor  general  in 
council.  As  soon  as  any  district  of  not  more 
than  1,000  sq.  m.  contains  1,000  adult  inhab- 
itants, it  may  elect  a  member  of  the  council  for 
two  years,  and  a  second  member  when  such 
inhabitants  number  2,000.  When  there  are  21 
elected  members,  they  will  constitute  a  legis- 
lative assembly,  and  the  appointed  council  will 
cease. — In  1670  Charles  II.  granted  to  Prince 
Rupert  and  14  others  and  their  successors, 
under  the  title  of  "  the  governor  and  company 
of  adventurers  of  England  trading  into  Hud- 
son's bay  "  (commonly  called  the  Hudson  Bay 
company),  "the  sole  trade  and  commerce  of 
all  those  seas,  straits,  bays,  rivers,  lakes,  creeks, 
and  sounds,  in  whatsoever  latitude  they  shall 
be,  that  lie  within  the  entrance  of  the  straits 
commonly  called  Hudson's  straits,  together 
with  all  the  lands  and  territories  upon  the 
countries,  coasts,  and  confines  of  the  sea,  bays, 
lakes,  rivers,  creeks,  and  sounds  aforesaid," 
not  previously  granted.  This  region  was  held 
by  the  company  to  embrace  all  the  territory 
watered  by  streams  flowing  into  Hudson  or 
James  bay,  and  was  denominated  in  the  char- 
ter "  Rupert's  Land."  The  company  was  by 
the  charter  invested  with  the  ownership  of  the 


504: 


NORTHWEST  TERRITORIES 


soil  and  with  governmental  powers  within  the 
region.  The  country  "W.  of  this,  watered  by 
streams  flowing  into  the  Arctic  and  Pacific 
oceans,  was  distinguished  as  the  Indian  or 
Northwest  territory.  In  1783  the  Northwest 
company  was  chartered,  with  headquarters  at 
Montreal,  for  the  purpose  of  carrying  on  the 
fur  trade.  The  two  companies  had  frequent 
collisions  till  1821,  when  the  Northwest  com- 
pany was  merged  in  the  Hudson  bay  company. 
In  that  year  the  British  government  .granted 
the  latter  company  a  license  of  exclusive  trade 
in  the  Indian  territory  for  a  period  of  21  years, 
and  in  1838  a  new  license  for  21  years.  After 
its  expiration  in  1859  the  company  continued 
to  carry  on  the  fur  trade  in  the  Indian  terri- 
tory, though  possessing  no  special  privilege 
there.  In  1858  the  colony  of  British  Colum- 
bia was  formed  from  the  W.  portion  of  the 
Indian  territory,  and  in  1859  Vancouver  island, 
in  which  in  1849  a  license  of  exclusive  trade 
and  management  for  10  years  had  been  granted 
to  the  company,  was  erected  into  a  colony; 
while  in  1870  the  province  of  Manitoba  was 
created  in  the  Red  river  valley,  reducing  the 
region  formerly  under  the  control  of  the  Hud- 
son Bay  company  (and  commonly  called  the 
Hudson  Bay  territory)  as  proprietor  or  grantee 
of  a  trading  monopoly  to  the  limits  described 
at  the  beginning  of  this  article.  Before  the 
last  mentioned  date,  however,  the  company 
had  become  a  mere  commercial  organization. 
The  parliamentary  act  of  1867  creating  the 
Dominion  of  Canada  contemplated  the  acqui- 
sition by  that  government  of  the  Hudson  Bay 
territory,  and  negotiations  were  opened  which 
resulted  in  the  surrender  by  the  company  to 
the  crown  of  all  its  territorial  and  govern- 
mental rights,  by  deed  dated  Nov.  19,  1869. 
It  retained  its  posts  with  a  small  lot  of  land 
around  each  of  them,  and  reserved  the  right  to 
certain  portions  of  land  in  the  fertile  belt  S. 
of  the  N.  branch  of  the  Saskatchewan.  The 
Canadian  government  agreed  to  pay  in  return 
the  sum  of  £300,000.  The  country  became  a 
part  of  the  Dominion  on  July  15,  1870,  in  ac- 
cordance with  a  royal  proclamation  of  June 
23.  An  act  of  the  Dominion  parliament  of 
June  22, 1869,  had  provided  for  its  government, 
when  annexed,  under  the  name  of  the  North- 
west territories. — The  Hudson  Bay  company 
in  its  trading  capacity  extends  its  operations 
beyond  the  regions  already  described,  into  por- 
tions of  the  provinces  of  Ontario  and  Quebec 
and  that  part  of  Labrador  under  the  jurisdic- 
tion of  Newfoundland.  At  one  time  it  had 
posts  on  United  States  territory,  in  Oregon, 
Washington  territory,  and  Alaska.  Its  fur  trade 
has  been  of  vast  extent,  and  its  profits  at  times 
enormous.  In  its  dealings  with  the  Indians  it 
has  had  remarkable  success.  The  field  of  oper- 
ations is  divided  into  four  departments:  the 
Montreal  department,  which  includes  the  es- 
tablishments in  Quebec,  in  the  Newfoundland 
portion  of  Labrador,  and  in  the  adjacent  por- 
tions of  the  Northwest  territories ;  the  southern 


department,  including  the  establishments  in  the 
remainder  of  the  Northwest  territories  E.  of 
the  90th  meridian  and  those  in  Ontario ;  the 
northern  department,  embracing  the  portion 
of  the  Northwest  territories  W.  of  the  90th 
meridian ;  and  the  western  department,  "W.  of 
the  Rocky  mountains.  These  were  placed  in 
charge  of  a  governor  (formerly  the  governor 
of  Rupert's  Land),  under  whom  were  different 
grades  of  officers  and  employees,  known  as 
chief  factors,  chief  traders,  clerks,  apprenticed 
clerks,  postmasters,  interpreters,  and  numerous 
guides,  boatmen,  &c.  The  governor  was  as- 
sisted by  a  council  of  chief  factors  and  traders 
for  each  department,  which  met  annually.  Un- 
der a  recent  reorganization  the  principal  officer 
is  denominated  chief  commissioner,  under  whom 
are  inspecting  chief  factors,  factors,  chief  tra- 
ders, junior  chief  traders,  &c.  The  departments 
are  subdivided  into  districts,  each  under  the 
superintendence  of  a  factor  or  trader,  and  the 
districts  include  various  posts  or  forts  in  charge 
of  officers  of  different  grades.  The  officers  and 
employees  are  remunerated  as  formerly,  in  part 
by  fixed  salaries  and  in  part  by  a  percentage 
of  profits.  In  1856  the  whole  number  of  em- 
ployees was  about  3,000,  including  the  gover- 
nor, 16  chief  factors,  29  chief  traders,  5  sur- 
geons, 87  clerks,  67  postmasters,  1,200  per- 
manent servants,  and  500  voyageurs,  with  tem- 
porary employees,  chiefly  voyageurs  and  ser- 
vants. At  that  date  there  was  a  fifth  depart- 
ment, Oregon,  and  the  whole  number  of  dis- 
tricts was  33,  and  of  posts  152.  At  the  time 
of  the  surrender  to  the  crown  there  were  20 
districts  within  the  present  limits  of  the  North- 
west territories  and  Manitoba,  viz.:  Albany, 
Athabasca,  Cumberland,  East  Main,  English 
River,  Kinogumisse,  Labrador,  Mackenzie  Riv- 
er, Manitoba  Lake,  Moose,  Norway  House, 
Portage  la  Prairie,  Rainy  Lake  (Lac  la  Pluie), 
Red  River,  Rupert's  River,  Saskatchewan,  Su- 
perior, Swan  River,  Temiscamingue,  and  York ; 
these  contained  120  posts.  The  northernmost 
post  is  the  "  Ramparts,"  on  the  Porcupine  river 
and  the  Alaska  border,  about  lat.  67°.  The  two 
most  important  posts  are  York  Factory,  on  Hud- 
son bay  near  the  mouth  of  Nelson  river,  and 
Fort  Garry  in  Manitoba.  The  latter  is  the  com- 
pany's headquarters  in  America;  the  former 
until  a  recent  period  was  the  sole  point  of  im- 
port and  shipment,  and  is  still  visited  by  one 
or  two  vessels  annually ;  but  the  greater  part  of 
the  trade  is  now  carried  on  through  the  United 
States,  by  way  of  Manitoba.  Communication 
between  the  different  posts  and  transportation 
of  goods  are  effected  in  winter  by  means  of 
dog  sledges,  and  in  summer  by  means  of  canoes 
and  boats  on  the  streams,  frequent  portages 
around  rapids  and  between  different  water- 
courses being  in  many  cases  necessary. — See 
"  Notes  of  a  Twenty-five  Years'  Service  in  the 
Hudson's  Bay  Territory,"  by  S.  McLean  (2 
vols.,  London,  1849);  "The  Hudson's  Bay 
Territories,"  &c.,  by  R.  M.  Martin  (London, 
1849)  ;  "Exploration  of  the  Country  between 


NORTON 


505 


Lake  Superior  and  the  Red  River  Settlement," 
by  J.  S.  Dawson  (Toronto,  1859) ;  "  Narrative 
of  the  Canadian  Red  River  Exploration  Ex- 
pedition of  1857,"  &c.,  by  H.  Y.  Hind  (2  vols., 
London,  1860);  Esquisse  sur  le  Nord-Ouest, 
by  Archbishop  Tach6  (Montreal,  1869;  trans- 
lated by  Capt.  D.  R.  Cameron,  "  Sketch  of  the 
Northwest  of  America,"  Montreal,  1870)  ; 
"Peace  River:  a  Canoe  Voyage  from  Hud- 
son's Bay  to  the  Pacific  in  1828,"  edited  by 
Malcolm  McLeod  (Ottawa,  1872) ;  "The  Great 
Lone  Land,"  &c.,  by  Capt.  W.  F.  Butler  (Lon- 
don, 1872) ;  and  "  The  Wild  North  Land,"  &c., 
by  the  same  (1873). 

NORTON,  a  N.  W.  county  of  Kansas,  border- 
ing on  Nebraska,  and  intersected  by  the  N. 
fork  of  Solomon  river  and  affluents  of  the 
Republican  river ;  area,  900  sq.  m.  It  is  not 
included  in  the  census  of  1870.  The  surface 
consists  chiefly  of  rolling  prairies. 

NORTON.  I.  Andrews,  an  American  author, 
born  in  Hingham,  Mass.,  Dec.  31,  1786,  died  in 
Newport,  R.  I.,  Sept.  18, 1853.  He  graduated 
at  Harvard  college  in  1804,  became  a  tutor  in 
Bowdoin  college  in  1809,  and  a  tutor  in  mathe- 
matics in  Harvard  college  in  1811.  In  1813  he 
was  appointed  librarian  of  the  college,  and  in 
the  same  year  succeeded  the  Rev.  Dr.  Channing 
as  lecturer  on  Biblical  criticism  and  interpreta- 
tion, in  the  chair  endowed  by  Samuel  Dexter. 
In  1819,  on  the  organization  of  the  divinity 
school  as  a  separate  department  of  the  univer- 
sity, he  was  chosen  Dexter  professor  of  sacred 
literature.  He  resigned  the  office  of  librarian 
in  1821  and  his  professorship  in  1830,  and 
passed  the  remainder  of  his  life  for  the  most 
part  in  retirement,  in  feeble  health.  In  1833 
he  published  "A  Statement  of  Reasons  for  not 
believing  the  Doctrines  of  Trinitarians  con- 
cerning the  Nature  of  God  and  the  Person  of 
Christ "  (new  ed.,  1856,  with  a  memoir  by  Dr. 
Newell  of  Cambridge).  In  1837  appeared  the 
first  volume  of  his  elaborate  work  on  "The 
Genuineness  of  the  Gospels,"  which  was  fol- 
lowed in  1844  by  vols.  ii.  and  iii.,  devoted 
principally  to  the  history  of  Gnosticism.  A 
fourth  volume,  on  the  internal  evidences  of  the 
genuineness  of  the  Gospels,  appeared  after  his 
death,  and  an  abridged  edition  in  1867.  He 
left  a  "Translation  of  the  Gospels,"  which  was 
published  in  1855,  with  a  supplementary  vol- 
ume of  notes,  edited  by  his  son.  Of  his  other 
literary  labors,  those  which  attracted  the  most 
attention  were  his  inaugural  discourse  on  as- 
suming the  duties  of  his  professorship,  and  his 
address  to  the  alumni  of  the  divinity  school 
in  1839,  "  On  the  Latest  Form  of  Infidelity." 
He  also  edited,  in  1833-'4,  in  connection  with 
Mr.  Charles  Folsom,  the  "Select  Journal  of 
Foreign  Periodical  Literature."  II.  Charles 
Eliot,  an  American  author,  son  of  the  preceding, 
born  in  Cambridge,  Mass.,  Nov.  16,  1827.  He 
graduated  at  Harvard  college  in  1846,  and 
soon  entered  a  counting  house  in  Boston  to 
become  familiar  with  the  East  Indian  trade. 
In  1849  he  went  to  sea  as  supercargo  of  a  ship 


bound  for  India,  in  which  country  he  travelled 
extensively,  returning  home  through  Europe 
in  1851.  He  made  a  second  visit  to  Europe  in 
1855-'7,  and  went  there  a  third  time  in  1868, 
remaining  till  1873.  In  1855  he  edited  with 
Dr.  Ezra  Abbot  his  father's  translation  of  the 
Gospels  with  notes  (2  vols.),  and  his  "  Internal 
Evidences  of  the  Genuineness  of  the  Gospels  " 
(1  vol.).  During  the  civil  war  he  edited  at  Bos- 
ton the  papers  issued  by  the  "Loyal  Publica- 
tion Society,"  and  from  1864  to  1868  inclusive 
he  was  joint  editor  with  James  Russell  Lowell 
of  the  "  North  American  Review."  His  pub- 
lications in  book  form  are :  "  Considerations  on 
some  recent  Social  Theories"  (1853);  "Notes 
of  Travel  and  Study  in  Italy"  (1860);  and  a 
translation  of  the  Vita  nuova  of  Dante  (1867). 

NORTON,  Caroline  Elizabeth  Sarah  (SHERIDAN), 
an  English  authoress,  born  in  1808.  She  is  a 
granddaughter  of  Richard  Brinsley  Sheridan, 
and  sister  of  Lady  Dufferin  and  the  duchess  of 
Somerset.  Her  first  publication  was  called 
"  The  Dandies'  Rout,"  with  illustrations  from 
her  own  designs.  In  1827  she  was  married  to 
the  Hon.  George  Chappie  Norton,  a  brother  of 
Lord  Grantley.  In  1836  she  was  accused  of 
criminal  intimacy  with  Lord  Melbourne,  then 
prime  minister,  but  on  trial  was  acquitted. 
This  was  followed  by  entire  separation  from 
her  husband,  but  without  a  divorce.  Her  first 
volume  of  poems,  comprising  among  others 
"  The  Sorrows  of  Rosalie,"  written  in  her  17th 
year,  was  published  anonymously  in  1829.  "The 
Undying  One,"  founded  on  the  legend  of  the 
Wandering  Jew,  appeared  in  1830.  Her  suc- 
ceeding works  are  :  "  The  Wife,  and  Woman's 
Reward"  (1835);  "  A  Voice  from  the  Facto- 
ries "  (1836) ;  "  The  Dream,  and  other  Poems  " 
(1840);  "The  Child  of  the  Islands"  (1845); 
"Stuart  of  Dunleath,  a  Survey  of  Modern 
Times"  (1847)  ;  "Tales  and  Sketches  in  Prose 
and  Verse  "  (1 850) ;  "  English  Laws  for  English 
Women  in  the  19th  Century"  (privately  print- 
ed, 1854) ;  "  A  Letter  to  the  Queen  on  Lord 
Chancellor  Cranworth's  Marriage  and  Divorce 
Bill  "  (1855) ;  "  The  Lady  of  La  Garaye  " 
(1861);  "Lost  and  Saved "(1863);  and  "Old 
Sir  Douglas  "(1868). 

NORTON,  John,  an  American  clergyman,  born 
at  Stortford,  Hertfordshire,  England,  May  6, 
1606,  died  in  Boston,  Mass.,  April  5, 1663.  Ed- 
ucated at  Cambridge,  he  was  curate  in  Stort- 
ford, embraced  Puritanism,  came  to  Plymouth, 
New  England,  in  October,  1635,  and  preached 
there  during  the  winter.  In  1636  he  became 
minister  of  the  church  at  Ipswich.  With  Gov. 
Bradstreet  he  was  an  agent  sent  from  the  col- 
ony in  1662  to  address  Charles  II.  after  his 
restoration.  He  wrote  a  treatise  against  the 
Quakers,  entitled  "  The  Heart  of  New  England 
rent  by  the  Blasphemies  of  the  Present  Gene- 
ration," which  so  exasperated  the  members  of 
that  sect,  that  after  his  death  they  represented 
to  the  king  and  parliament  that  "John  Nor- 
ton, chief  priest  in  Boston,  by  the  immediate 
power  of  the  Lord,  was  smitten  and  died." 


506 


NORWALK 


NORWAY 


NORWALK,  a  town  and  borough  of  Fairfield 
co.,  Connecticut,  on  Long  Island  sound,  at  the 
terminus  of  the  Danbury  and  Norwalk  rail- 
road, and  on  the  New  York,  New  Haven,  and 
Hartford  railroad,  60  m.  S.  W.  of  Hartford 
and  43  m.  by  rail  N.  E.  of  New  York ;  pop. 
of  the  town  in  1860,  7,582;  in  1870,  12,119, 
including  about  6,000  in  the  borough.  The 
town  contains  five  post  offices,  Norwalk, 
Rowayton,  South  Norwalk,  West  Norwalk, 
and  Winnipauk,  and  besides  the  borough  in- 
cludes the  city  of  South  Norwalk  (pop.  3,000), 
incorporated  in  1870.  There  are  four  railroad 
stations.  The  Norwalk  river  empties  into  the 
sound  at  this  point,  and  a  horse  railroad  con- 
nects Norwalk  bridge  and  South  Norwalk. 
Vessels  drawing  six  feet  of  water  can  reach 
the  up-town  wharves  at  low  tide,  and  freight 
and  passenger  steamers  make  daily  trips  to 
New  York.  Norwalk  is  especially  noted  for 
its  trade  in  oysters.  The  natural  scenery  is 
fine,  combining  land  and  water  views  of  much 
beauty.  There  are  many  elegant  residences. 
The  town  is  divided  into  11  school  districts, 
and  has  good  public  schools,  several  excellent 
private  schools,  and  three  weekly  newspapers. 
It  contains  two  large  felt  cloth  factories,  a 
fancy  cassimere  factory,  two  straw  hat  fac- 
tories, a  number  of  large  felt  hat  factories,  a 
shirt  factory,  iron  works,  a  lock  factory,  a 
paper  box  factory,  a  manufactory  of  wrapping 
paper,  a  pottery,  boot  and  shoe  factories,  &c. 
The  borough  has  an  efficient  fire  department, 
and  fine  water  works,  which  also  supply  Win- 
nipauk, a  manufacturing  village,  which  togeth- 
er with  the  borough  and  city  is  supplied  with 
gas.  The  borough  contains  two  national  banks, 
two  savings  banks,  and  a  fire  insurance  com- 
pany ;  the  city,  one  national  bank,  one  savings 
bank,  and  a  fire  insurance  company.  There 
are  16  churches,  of  which  6  are  in  the  bor- 
ough, 4  in  the  city,  and  6  in  other  parts  of  the 
town. — Norwalk  was  settled  about  1640.  It 
was  burned  by  the  British,  under  Gov.  Tryon, 
in  July,  1779.  It  was  the  scene  of  a  terrible 
railroad  accident  in  1853,  when  an  express  train 
plunged  into  the  open  draw,  and  50  lives  were 
lost.  The  borough  was  incorporated  in  1836. 

NORWALK,  a  town  and  the  capital  of  Huron 
co.,  Ohio,  on  the  Lake  Shore  and  Michigan 
Southern  railroad,  95  m.  N.  by  E.  of  Colum- 
bus, and  56  m.  by  rail  W.  of  Cleveland ;  pop. 
in  1870,  4,498.  It  extends  along  a  sandy  ridge, 
and  is  built  principally  on  a  single  street  shaded 
by  a  double  row  of  maples.  The  buildings  are 
tastefully  constructed.  The  town  is  lighted 
with  gas,  and  has  Holly  water  works.  It  con- 
tains several  founderies  and  machine  shops, 
flouring  and  saw  mills,  two  national  banks, 
graded  public  schools,  two  weekly  newspapers, 
and  12  churches. 

NORWAY  (Norw.  and  Dan.  Norge ;  Swed. 
Norrige),  a  kingdom  of  northern  Europe,  oc- 
cupying the  western  portion  of  the  Scandina- 
vian peninsula,  and  lying  between  lat.  57°  57' 
and  71°  ft'  N.,  and  Ion.  4°  45'  and  31°  15'  E. 


STIFTS. 

Area  in 
•q.  mile). 

Population. 

Christiania  or  Aggerhuus 

10053 

448374 

Hamar  

19,706 

245  422 

Christiansand         

15,406 

32S  742 

14369 

267854 

19558 

256  529 

Tromso                 

42,687 

155,885 

Total  

122,279 

1,701,756 

It  is  bounded  N.  by  the  Arctic  ocean,  E.  by 
Russian  Lapland  and  Sweden,  S.  by  the  Ska- 
ger  Rack,  and  W.  by  the  North  sea  and  the 
Atlantic  ocean.  Its  length  is  about  1,080  m., 
its  greatest  breadth  275  m.,  and  its  area  122,- 
279  sq.  m.  It  is  divided  for  political  purposes 
into  six  stifts  or  dioceses,  named  from  their 
chief  towns,  the  area  and  population  of  which, 
according  to  the  government  returns  of  Dec.  1, 
1865,  are  as  follows : 


These  are  subdivided  into  20  amts  or  districts. 
According  to  an  official  calculation,  founded 
on  the  movement  of  population,  the  total  pop- 
ulation in  January,  1873,  was  estimated  at 
1,763,000.  A  new  census  is  to  be  taken  in  De- 
cember, 1875. — The  coast  line  trends  generally 
N.  E.  and  S.  W.  from  the  North  cape,  its  north- 
ernmost point,  to  Cape  Stadt,  whence  it  runs 
S.  to  about  lat.  59°,  where  it  turns  gradually 
S.  E. ;  and  beyond  Lindesnaes  (the  Naze),  its 
southernmost  point,  it  assumes  again  a  north- 
easterly course,  which  it  keeps  to  its  junction 
with  Sweden.  It  is  very  rugged,  being  in- 
dented by  numerous  arms  of  the  sea,  some 
of  which  extend  far  inland  and  form  many 
branches.  In  these  bays  or  fiords  is  some  of 
the  most  magnificent  scenery  in  the  world, 
their  shores  often  rising  in  precipitous  cliffs 
to  a  height  of  from  3,000  to  4,000  ft.  Many 
of  them  are  deep  and  form  excellent  harbors, 
but  navigation  is  rendered  dangerous  by  nu- 
merous islands,  which  obstruct  their  entrances 
and  line  the  whole  coast.  The  principal  fiords 
are  the  Varanger,  Tana,  Laxe,  Porsanger,  Al- 
ten,  Kvenang,  Lyngen,  and  Senjen,  on  the 
Arctic  coast;  the  West,  Folden,  Salten,  Dront- 
heim,  and  Molde,  on  the  Atlantic ;  the  Stav, 
Sogne,  Hardanger,  Bdmmel,  and  Bukke,  on 
the  North  sea;  and  the  Christiania,  on  the 
coast  of  the  Skager  Rack.  The  islands  on  the 
coast  number  many  hundreds,  and  have  an  ag- 
gregate area  of  about  8,500  sq.  m.  The  whole 
number  of  inhabited  isles  is  1,160,  with  an 
aggregate  population  of  212,000.  Of  these,  80 
lie  off  the  coast  of  the  Arctic  ocean,  between 
the  Russian  frontier  and  the  Loffoden  isles,  and 
have  20,000  inhabitants ;  the  Loffoden  and  Ves 
teraalen  groups  comprise  40,  with  30,000  inhab- 
itants, off  the  Atlantic  coast,  from  the  Loffo- 
den isles  to  Cape  Stadt,  are  510,  with  66,000 
inhabitants;  off  the  coast  of  the  North  sea, 
between  Capes  Stadt  and  Lindesnaes,  are  350, 
with  72,000  inhabitants;  and  in  the  Skager 
Rack,  from  the  latter  cape  to  the  Swedish  fron- 
tier, are  180,  with  23,500  inhabitants.  The 


NORWAY 


507 


islands  off  the  coast  of  the  Arctic  ocean  are 
very  rocky  and  mountainous,  with  peaks  from 
3,000  to  4,000  ft.  high,  generally  covered  with 
snow  and  ice.  Among  them  many  isolated 
rocks  like  cones  rise  out  of  the  sea,  inhabited 
by  millions  of  aquatic  birds.  On  Magero  is  the 
North  cape,  the  most  northerly  point  of  the 
continent  of  Europe,  with  cliffs  300  ft.  high. 
On  Kvalo  is  Hammerfest,  the  most  norther- 
ly city  in  the  world;  and  on  Tromso  is  the 
city  of  the  same  name,  with  4,000  inhabitants. 
Senjen  is  the  second  largest  island  in  Norway. 
The  Loffoden  isles  are  also  very  rocky  and 
mountainous ;  the  principal  one,  Hindo,  is  the 
largest  in  Norway.  At  the  S.  W.  end  of  the 
Loffoden  islands  is  the  Maelstrom,  which  is 
produced  by  the  currents  of  the  West  fiord. 
(See  MAELSTROM.)  In  1869  there  were  90 
lighthouses  on  the  coasts  of  Norway,  of  which 
4  were  on  the  Arctic  coast,  30  on  the  Atlantic, 
34  on  the  North  sea,  and  22  on  the  Skager 
Eack.  That  of  Fruholmen,  near  Hammerfest, 
in  lat.  71°  5'  45",  is  the  most  northerly  one  in 
the  world.  The  principal  ports  are  Christiania 
and  Ohristiansand  on  the  Skager  Rack,  and 
Bergen,  Christiansund,  and  Drontheim.  on  the 
North  sea. — The  surface  is  very  mountainous, 
particularly  in  the  north,  but  there  are  no  well 
defined  and  regular  ridges,  the  great  Scandi- 
navian chain,  which  extends,  under  the  names 
of  Kiolen,  Dovrefield,  and  Langfield,  and  other 
appellations,  N.  and  S.  throughout  the  penin- 
sula, consisting  rather  of  a  series  of  elevated 
plateaus  called  fjelds  or  fields,  from  which  rise 
mountain  masses.  The  principal  summits  are 
Ymes  Field,  8,540  ft.  above  the  sea,  and  Skagtols 
Tind,  8,061.  The  descent  from  these  plateaus 
on  the  Swedish  side  is  gradual,  but  on  the  west 
it  is  abrupt  and  precipitous,  though  it  stretches 
out  far  toward  the  sea,  and  in  some  places 
covers  almost  the  entire  width  of  the  kingdom. 
The  whole  country  is  extremely  rugged.  Mi- 
nor lateral  ranges  branch  from  the  main  chain, 
forming  deep  narrow  valleys,  each  with  its 
stream  and  lakes.  On  the  W.  coast  the  lower 
parts  of  these  valleys  form  the  fiords,  the  upper 
parts  of  which  are  but  dark  narrow  lanes  of 
water,  with  wooded  precipices  rising  from  their 
edges,  and  cataracts  and  torrents  pouring  into 
them.  Among  the  most  famous  natural  curi- 
osities is  the  mountain  of  the  Kilhorn  in  Nord- 
land,  a  remarkable  pyramidal  peak,  termina- 
ting with  a  long,  sharp,  spire-like  summit,  and 
having  a  large  perforation  about  three  fourths 
of  the  way  up  its  side.  The  mountain  of  Horn- 
elen,  which  forms  the  E.  extremity  of  the  isl- 
and of  Bremanger  at  the  entrance  of  Yaags 
fiord,  is  an  isolated  mass  from  which  rises  a 
sharp-pointed  peak  inclined  at  an  angle  of  60° 
to  the  horizon,  and  appearing  about  to  topple 
over  upon  the  surrounding  plain.  Some  of 
the  mountain  passes  are  extremely  picturesque. 
The  Voring-f os  and  Rinkan-fos  are  cataracts, 
each  900  ft.  in  perpendicular  descent,  and  sev- 
eral of  the  rivers  have  falls  of  less  height.  The 
principal  rivers  are  the  Tana  and  Alten,  which 


flow  into  the  Arctic  ocean,  the  former  forming 
part  of  the  boundary  of  Russian  Lapland ;  the 
Namsen,  which  empties  into  the  Atlantic ;  and 
the  Laugen,  Drammen,  and  Glommen,  which 
fall  into  the  Skager  Rack.  There  are  many 
other  smaller  streams.  Lakes  abound  in  all 
parts  of  the  country,  the  largest  being  the  Mio- 
sen,  40  m.  N.  of  Christiania,  55  m.  long  and 
from  1  to  12  m.  broad ;  it  is  formed  by  an  ex- 
pansion of  the  river  Laugen,  and  discharges  into 
the  Glommen  through  the  Vormen.  The  geo- 
logical formation  is  chiefly  primitive  and  tran- 
sition rocks.  The  most  abundant  is  gneiss,  al- 
ternating occasionally  with  granite,  and  inter- 
mixed with  mica  slate.  Limestone,  quartz,  and 
hornblende  are  also  found.  In  the  southern 
districts  there  are  many  traces  of  volcanic  ac- 
tion. The  mountains  are  rich  in  iron,  copper, 
silver,  nickel,  and  cobalt;  but  the  mines  are 
not  worked  to  their  full  capacity  on  account 
of  government  restrictions  and  the  scarcity  of 
fuel.  The  silver  mines  of  Kongsberg  belong 
to  the  state.  The  Roraas  copper  mines  have 
been  worked  for  more  than  200  years.  The 
iron  mines  are  but  imperfectly  worked,  but  the 
metal  is  of  superior  quality. — The  soil  is  in 
general  poor.  Only  0'8  per  cent,  of  the  sur- 
face is  under  cultivation ;  2'1  per  cent,  is 
meadow,  and  97*1  woodland,  pasture  land,  or 
barren.  The  land  is  of  a  light  sandy  tex- 
ture, which  under  the  best  cultivation  could 
not  yield  heavy  crops ;  but  there  are  vast  pas- 
ture lands  of  good  quality.  The  climate  is 
healthy,  and  less  severe  than  might  be  expect- 
ed from  the  high  latitude  and  elevation  of  sur- 
face, being  considerably  tempered  by  the  sea 
and  warm  S.  W.  winds.  Many  of  the  western 
and  northern  gulfs  and  fiords  are  rarely  or 
never  frozen,  while  those  on  the  south  are 
filled  with  ice.  The  mean  temperature  at 
Christiania  is  43°  F. ;  at  Ullensvang,  on  the 
gulf  of  Hardanger,  44° ;  at  Drontheim,  39'50° ; 
at  the  Salten  fiord,  43° ;  and  at  the  North  cape, 
29°.  The  temperature  is  milder  than  that  of 
any  other  region  equally  distant  from  the  equa- 
tor. Vegetation  flourishes  as  far  N.  as  lat.  70°. 
The  weather  is  remarkably  steady  for  the  lati- 
tude. About  3*8-  of  the  surface  is  covered  with 
perpetual  snow ;  in  other  districts  snow  lies 
only  about  four  months  in  the  year,  beginning 
toward  the  end  of  November.  In  January  and 
February  the  mercury  ranges  from  14°  F.  above 
to  15°  below  zero,  and  sometimes  sinks  to 
31°  below.  In  summer  it  rises  occasionally  to 
108°,  and  the  crops  ripen  three  months  after 
sowing.  The  principal  crop  is  barley,  which 
is  cultivated  as  far  N.  as  lat.  70°.  Rye,  oats, 
wheat  (in  favorable  seasons  and  southern  dis- 
tricts), potatoes,  flax,  hemp,  a  little  tobacco, 
and  apples,  pears,  cherries,  and  other  fruits 
are  also  raised.  The  system  of  agriculture  is 
extremely  rude,  and  the  prejudice  of  the  farmers 
against  innovation  precludes  the  hope  ^  of  any 
speedy  improvement.  Under-drainage  is  never 
practised.  A  large  quantity  of  grain,  chiefly  rye 
and  barley,  is  annually  imported  from  Denmark 


508 


NORWAY 


and  Russia.  The  precariousness  of  the  crops 
has  led  to  the  establishment  of  corn  magazines 
where  farmers  may  deposit  their  surplus  pro- 
duce, receiving  interest  for  it  at  the  rate  of  12£ 
per  cent,  per  annum,  and  in  time  of  scarcity 
may  borrow  grain  at  the  interest  of  25  per 
cent,  per  annum.  Most  of  the  land  is  the  prop- 
erty of  the  cultivators.  The  number  of  landed 
estates  in  1869  was  147,453,  of  which  131,780 
were  cultivated  by  owners.  The  owners  till 
the  soil  themselves,  with  the  aid  of  their  ten- 
ants. The  latter  in  1865  numbered  60,330. 
The  tenant  hires  from  the  owner  land  enough 
to  keep  one  or  two  cows  and  a  few  sheep,  for 
which  he  pays  rent  in  days'  work  in  each 
season.  Much  of  the  agricultural  work  is  done 
by  women.  There  are  large  tracts  covered 
with  valuable  timber.  Fir,  mountain  ash,  birch, 
poplar,  and  willow  grow  in  all  the  provinces ; 
oak  only  in  the  southern.  The  pine  and  fir 
forests,  which  are  chiefly  on  the  banks  of  the 
rivers  flowing  into  Ohristiania  fiord,  give  em- 
ployment to  great  numbers  of  timber  mer- 
chants ;  and  their  product,  besides  being  con- 
verted into  planks  and  beams,  is  invaluable  for 
fuel  in  working  the  mines,  no  coal  being  found 
in  the  kingdom.  Nearly  all  the  exported  tim- 
ber is  sent  te  France. — The  principal  wild  ani- 
mals are  the  wolf  and  the  bear.  Deer  are  now 
scarce.  The  lynx  and  wolverene  are  occasion- 
ally met  with,  and  there  are  hares,  wild  fowl, 
and  other  game  in  abundance.  One  of  the 
most  valuable  domestic  animals  is  the  reindeer, 
which  constitutes  the  main  dependence  of  the 
inhabitants  of  the  northern  provinces.  Cattle 
are  reared  in  great  numbers,  but  the  breed  is  in- 
ferior ;  and  the  horses,  though  strong  and  sure- 
footed, are  of  small  size.  Ponies  of  a  good 
breed  are  raised  and  exported.  Sheep  and  goats 
are  numerous.  In  1866  the  number  of  horses 
in  the  kingdom  was  149,167;  horned  cattle, 
953,036;  sheep,  1,705,394;  goats,  290,985; 
swine,  96,166;  and  tame  reindeer,  101,768. 
The  rivers  and  lakes  are  abundantly  stocked 
with  many  varieties  of  excellent  fish,  among 
which  are  trout  and  salmon,  while  the  neigh- 
boring seas  afford  valuable  fisheries  of  cod  and 
herring. — Among  the  inhabitants  born  in  Nor- 
way, besides  Norwegians  proper,  there  were  in 
1866  7,637  Finns,  15,601  settled  Laplanders, 
1.577  Laplander  nomads,  called  in  Norway 
Finner,  and  about  4,000  of  mixed  races.  The 
number  of  foreign  inhabitants  was  21,260, 
of  whom  15,784  were  Swedes,  1,791  Danes, 
1,684  Finns,  1,257  Germans,  and  348  Eng- 
lish. The  Laplanders  live  in  the  northern 
provinces,  almost  isolated  from  the  rest  of  the 
inhabitants ;  their  chief  occupation  is  tending 
their  reindeer  herds.  In  the  southern  prov- 
inces industry  is  devoted  more  to  stock  raising 
than  to  tillage.  The  Norwegians  are  among 
the  best  sailors  in  the  world,  large  numbers 
being  engaged  from  early  life  in  the  coast 
fisheries  and  local  navigation,  which  is  intri- 
cate and  dangerous.  The  people  generally  are 
frugal,  industrious,  upright,  and  enterprising. 


They  are  somewhat  reserved  in  manner,  but 
kind  and  hospitable,  simple  in  habits,  firm  in 
purpose,  and  exceedingly  patriotic.  The  con- 
dition of  the  working  classes  is  poor,  and  in 
some  parts  of  the  country  they  are  said  to  live 
in  the  same  manner  that  they  did  three  cen- 
turies ago.  The  use  of  strong  drink  prevails 
extensively,  and  few  laboring  men  save  any 
money.  Companies  have  been  formed  to  build 
better  dwellings  for  the  working  poor,  who 
have  shown  an  inclination  of  late  years  to  emi- 
grate in  large  numbers  to  the  United  States. 
From  1856  to  1865  this  emigration  amounted  to 
54,000 ;  from  1866  to  1870,  to  76,400 ;  in  1871, 
12,300;  and  in  1872,  14,400.  The  Lutheran 
is  the  established  church,  and  although  all 
creeds  are  permitted  to  be  publicly  professed, 
no  one  can  be  legally  married  until  confirmed  in 
the  Lutheran  church,  and  only  members  of  that 
communion  are  admitted  to  public  offices.  Of 
the  population  in  1866,  1,696,651  were  Luther- 
ans, 3,662  belonged  to  other  Protestant  sects, 
1,038  were  Mormons,  316  Roman  Catholics,  15 
Greek  Catholics,  and  25  Jews.  The  estab- 
lished church  is  governed  by  six  bishops,  the 
eldest  of  whom  is  primate.  The  right  of  pre- 
sentation to  sees  and  livings  belongs  to  the 
king,  the  minister  for  ecclesiastical  affairs,  and 
the  Norwegian  council  of  state.  The  clergy 
are  generally  well  educated,  and  their  incomes 
average  about  $1,000  per  annum,  which,  taking 
into  account  the  value  of  money  in  Norway, 
may  be  considered  high.  There  is  no  privilege 
of  birth,  hereditary  nobility  having  been  abol- 
ished by  a  law  which  passed  the  storthing 
Aug.  1,  1821 ;  but,  as  in  Sweden,  the  sons  of 
the  technically  noble  and  the  wealthy  always 
have  the  preference  for  places  of  honor.  Scho- 
lastic or  university  education  is  also  essential 
to  obtaining  position  in  church  or  state.  The 
press  is  practically  free,  and  almost  every  im- 
portant town  has  at  least  one  newspaper ;  in 
1870  there  were  80  published  in  the  kingdom. 
There  are  several  scientific  periodicals.  Edu- 
cation is  compulsory,  all  children  from  7  to  14 
years  of  age  being  obliged  to  receive  public 
instruction.  Each  parish  has  its  schoolmaster, 
who  is  paid  by  a  small  tax  levied  on  house- 
holders. Instruction  in  the  primary  schools, 
of  which  there  are  6,500,  is  limited  to  reading, 
writing,  arithmetic,  geography,  grammar,  and 
religion.  In  16  of  the  principal  towns  there 
are  as  many  public  classical  schools,  where 
are  taught  theology,  Latin,  Greek,  Norwegian, 
German,  French,  English,  mathematics,  history, 
and  geography.  There  is  a  university  at  Chris- 
tiania,  with  faculties  of  theology,  law,  medi- 
cine, philosophy,  and  the  sciences,  which  is 
attended  by  about  700  students.  There  are 
also  a  royal  school  of  design,  a  military  high 
school  in  the  capital,  and  an  agricultural  school 
in  Aas.  The  "  Society  of  Public  Good  "  main- 
tains public  libraries  in  different  parts  of  the 
kingdom,  and  there  are  many  learned  and  sci- 
entific societies. — Although  Norway  is  essen- 
tially an  agricultural  and  pastoral  country,  it 


NORWAY 


509 


has,  in  proportion  to  its  population,  the  largest 
commercial  navy  in  the  world.  At  the  end  of 
1873  it  consisted  of  7,447  vessels,  of  1,243,433 
tons,  manned  by  56,147  men.  Of  these,  199 
were  steamers  having  8,835  horse  power,  and 
a  tonnage  of  38,830.  The  total  value  of  ex- 
ports in  1873  was  $29,189,000;  of  imports, 
$26,738,000.  Of  the  exports,  about  30  per 
cent,  were  to  Great  Britain,  16  to  Germany, 
and  8  to  France ;  of  the  imports,  about  28  per 
cent,  were  from  Great  Britain,  26  from  Ger- 
many, 15  from  Denmark,  9  from  Sweden,  and 
9  from  Russia.  The  principal  exports  are  tim- 
ber and  wood,  bark,  fish,  ice,  calf  and  sheep 
skins,  and  copper  and  iron  ore ;  the  principal 
imports  are  cotton  and  woollen  goods,  groceries, 
grain,  tobacco,  and  manufactured  iron.  The 
internal  trade  of  the  kingdom  suffers  from  the 
want  of  good  roads  and  the  comparative  thin- 
ness of  the  population.  The  highways  how- 
ever are  gradually  improving,  and  railways  are 
in  progress  to  connect  the  principal  towns. 
The  railways  and  telegraphs  are  the  property 
of  the  government.  In  1873  there  were  312  m. 
of  railway  in  operation,  and  741  in  construc- 
tion and  projected.  Those  open  for  traffic 
were :  Christiania  to  Eidsvold,  45  m. ;  Chris- 
tiania  to  Stockholm,  350  m.,  of  which  76  are  in 
Norway ;  Christiania  to  Drammen  and  Kongs- 
berg,  50  m. ;  Drammen  to  Randsfjord,  42  m. ; 
Vigersund  to  Kroderen,  21  m. ;  Drontheim 
to  Storen,  28  m. ;  and  Drontheim  to  Mera- 
ker,  50  m.  At  the  end  of  1873  there  were 
101  telegraph  stations  in  the  kingdom,  with 
3,876  m.  of  lines;  the  total  number  of  de- 
spatches sent  was  780,285.  The  number  of 
post  offices  in  1872  was  719;  number  of 
letters  during  the  year,  7,479,350.  Accounts 
are  kept  in  specie  dollars,  called  Species,  equal 
to  $1  10,  and  divided  into  120  Shilling.  These 
coins  are  silver  and  copper,  there  being  no 
gold  currency.  There  is  a  national  bank,  which 
issues  notes,  in  Drontheim,  with  branches  in 
Christiania,  Bergen,  and  Christiansand. — The 
fisheries  constitute  one  of  the  principal  indus- 
tries, and  employ  many  thousand  men.  The 
herring  fishery,  the  chief  seat  of  which  is  on 
the  W.  coast  between  Capes  Lindesnses  and 
Stadt,  is  carried  on  in  both  winter  and  autumn. 
The  winter  fishery,  beginning  in  January,  is 
called  the  great  fishery,  and  employs  about  50,- 
000  men  for  two  months,  with  a  usual  product 
of  800,000  barrels.  The  autumn  fishery  is  less 
productive.  The  cod  fisheries  may  be  divided 
into  the  sea  and  the  fiord  fisheries.  The  prin- 
cipal sea  fisheries  are  off  the  Loffoden  isles 
and  the  coast  of  Finmark.  The  former,  which 
is  carried  on  chiefly  in  February  and  March, 
now  employs  about  20,000  men  and  4,000  to 
5,000  boats.  The  catch  is  about  20,000,000  fish. 
These  are-the  largest  cod  that  are  caught.  The 
Finmark  fishery  begins  later,  ending  about  the 
last  of  May.  The  yield  is  usually  from  11,000,- 
000  to  15,000,000  fish,  which  are  smaller  than 
the  Loffoden  cod,  and  resemble  those  caught 
off  the  coast  of  Labrador.  The  total  catch  of 


the  cod  fisheries  in  1873  was  27,000,000.  Pre- 
vious to  1859  the  Loffoden  fishing  waters  were 
divided  into  small  areas  which  were  under 
the  control  of  traders,  but  they  are  now  free. 
On  the  S.  coast  the  mackerel  fishery  employs 
many  men.  In  1869  there  were  117  vessels 
and  boats  engaged  in  the  shark  fishery  in  the 
Arctic  ocean,  which  took  7,277  barrels  of  liv- 
ers for  oil;  and  in  1870  there  were  37  vessels 
employed  in  seal  and  walrus  fishing  off  Nova 
Zembla  and  Spitzbergen.  The  usual  product  of 
the  seal  fishery  is  about  400,000  species  a  year. 
The  other  principal  industries  are  lumbering, 
mining,  and  the  common  trades.  The  manu- 
factures are  of  little  importance,  and  consist 
chiefly  in  the  production  of  cottons,  woollens, 
linens,  and  silks  for  home  use.  There  are  also 
a  few  paper  mills,  distilleries,  tobacco  factories, 
and  large  salt  works.  The  peasants  supply 
nearly  all  their  wants  by  their  own  labor. — 
Norway  is  united  with  Sweden  under  one  sov- 
ereign, but  according  to  the  terms  of  its  .con- 
stitution is  "free,  independent,  indivisible, 
and  inalienable."  The  government  is  a  heredi- 
tary constitutional  monarchy.  The  constitu- 
tion, which  was  adopted  Nov.  4,  1814,  vests 
the  legislative  power  in  the  Storthing,  or  assem- 
bly of  deputies,  chosen  by  indirect  election. 
The  people  choose  deputies  at  the  rate  of  one 
to  50  voters  in  towns  and  one  to  100  in  the 
rural  districts,  and  these  deputies  elect  either 
from  among  themselves  or  from  other  qualified 
voters  of  the  district  the  storthing  representa- 
tives. Every  male  citizen  of  25  years  of  age, 
who  possesses  land  property  of  the  value  of 
150  specie  dollars,  or  who  has  been  tenant  of 
such  property  for  five  years,  who  is  or  has  been 
a  public  functionary,  or  is  a  burgess  of  any 
town,  is  entitled  to  vote.  Representatives 
must  be  at  least  30  years  of  age  and  10  years 
resident  in  Norway.  The  storthing  formerly 
met  every  three  years,  but  since  the  modifica- 
tion of  the  constitution  in  1869  it  has  assem- 
bled annually.  When  assembled,  it  divides 
into  two  chambers,  an  upper  one,  called  the 
Lagthing,  consisting  of  one  fourth  of  the  mem- 
bers, and  a  lower  one,  the  Odelsthing,  of  the  re- 
mainder. Each  house  chooses  its  own  officers. 
The  king  cannot  dissolve  the  storthing  until  it 
has  been  three  months  in  session ;  and,  though 
he  may  veto  any  measure,  his  veto  may  be  over- 
ruled by  the  action  of  three  successive  stor- 
things. The  storthing  makes  and  repeals  laws; 
establishes  imposts,  taxes,  and  tariffs ;  author- 
izes loans,  regulates  the  finances,  votes  appro- 
priations, naturalizes  foreigners,  and  examines 
documents  relating  to  all  public  business, 
treaties,  salaries,  and  pensions.  There  can  be 
no  domiciliary  visits  except  in  criminal  cases, 
and  no  ex  post  facto  laws.  The  army  is  not  to 
be  ordered  out  of  the  kingdom  without  the 
consent  of  the  storthing,  and  no  Swedish  or 
other  foreign  troops  shall  enter  Norway  except 
to  repel  invasion ;  but  a  Swedish  corps  not  ex- 
ceeding 3,000  men  may  pass  six  weeks  of  each 
year  in  Norway  for  the  purpose  of  exercising 


510 


NORWAY 


with  the  Norwegian  army.  Norway  preserves 
her  own  official  language,  bank,  accounts,  cur- 
rency, and  flag.  The  king  exercises  the  exe- 
cutive power  through  a  council  of  state,  con- 
sisting of  two  ministers  of  state  and  seven 
councillors.  Two  of  the  councillors  and  one 
minister  reside  near  the  king  at  Stockholm, 
and  the  remainder  are  at  Christiania.  With 
the  consent  of  the  council  the  king  may  declare 
war,  make  peace,  and  conclude  and  abrogate 
treaties.  The  king  must  pass  some  months  of 
every  year  in  Norway,  and  on  his  accession  to 
the  throne  must  be  crowned  as  king  of  Norway 
at  Drontheim.  The  judiciary  comprises  courts 
of  reconciliation  in  every  parish,  the  arbitra- 
tors being  chosen  by  the  householders  every 
three  years ;  law  courts  sitting  once  a  quarter 
in  each  of  the  64  SorensTcriverier  into  which  the 
kingdom  is  divided ;  the  Stiftsamt  in  the  chief 
town  of  each  stift,  composed  of  three  judges 
with  assessors ;  and  the  Ti&ieste  Ret,  a  court  of 
last  resort,  in  Christiania,  which  is  composed 
of  a  president  and  eight  assessors.  Capital 
punishment  is  not  inflicted.  The  judges  are 
liable  in  damages  for  their  decisions.  The 
budget  for  1873  showed  a  revenue  of  6,453,000 
specie  dollars,  and  an  expenditure  of  6,310,000. 
The  principal  items  of  the  annual  revenue 
were:  customs,  3,638,000  specie  dollars;  excise 
on  domestic  brandy,  603,000 ;  excise  on  grain, 
362,000;  interest  on  active  capital,  635,000; 
post  office,  343,000;  mines,  192,000;  telegraph, 
192,000;  stamps,  135,000;  tolls  on  bridges  and 
roads,  169,000.  The  chief  items  of  expendi- 
ture were :  civil  list,  127,000 ;  storthing,  75,- 
000 ;  council  of  state  and  government,  206,000 ; 
religion  and  public  instruction,  214,000 ;  jus- 
tice, 328,000;  interior,  496,000;  army,  1,123,- 
000;  navy  (including  posts  and  telegraph), 
1,233,000;  foreign  affairs,  131,000;  finances, 
1,298,000 ;  railway  construction,  793,000 ; 
bridge  and  road  construction,  179,000.  The 
public  debt  at  the  end  of  1873  amounted  to 
7,998,500  specie  dollars;  the  active  capital  of 
the  state  at  the  end  of  1872  was  10,476,300. 
The  army  consists  of  troops  of  the  line,  Land- 
vcernj  civic  guard,  and  Landstorm.  In  time 
of  peace  the  line  consists  of  12,000  men,  and 
cannot  be  increased  without  the  consent  of  the 
storthing  to  more  than  18,000.  The  Land- 
vcern  is  only  for  the  defence  of  the  country, 
and  the  civic  guard  for  the  defence  of  the  dif- 
ferent localities.  The  Landstorm  is  organized 
only  in  time  of  war.  The  line  is  filled  by  the 
conscription  of  young  men  22  years  old.  The 
time  of  service  is  seven  years  in  the  cavalry, 
and  in  the  infantry,  artillery,  and  engineers 
ten  years,  of  which  five  are  passed  in  the  line, 
two  in  the  reserve,  and  three  in  the  Land- 
vcBrn.  At  the  end  of  his  term  of  service,  each 
subject  is  liable  to  duty  in  the  civic  guard 
and  the  Landstorm  until  45  years  old.  The 
navy  in  1873  consisted  of  27  steamers,  of  2,670 
aggregate  horse  power  and  151  guns,  and  two 
sailing  vessels,  of  24  guns.  Four  of  the  steam- 
ers are  monitors  of  two  guns  each.  There  are 


also  57  gunboats,  propelled  by  oars,  carrying 
114  guns,  and  35  smaller  ones  carrying  35  guns. 
— The  history  of  Norway  prior  to  the  7th  cen- 
tury rests  upon  tradition.  The  descendants  of 
Odin  are  represented  to  have  been  the  first 
kings,  the  earliest  whose  name  has  been  trans- 
mitted to  us  being  Sreming.  Nor,  the  scion 
of  an  ancient  Finnish  family,  established  him- 
self upon  the  site  of  modern  Drontheim  early 
in  the  4th  century,  and  subjugated  the  neigh- 
boring territory.  Authentic  history  begins 
with  Harald  Harfager  or  the  Fair-Haired,  who 
subdued  the  petty  kings  or  jarls  of  Norway, 
and  united  the  tribes  as  a  nation  (A.  D.  863- 
933).  In  his  conquest  he  is  said  to  have  been 
animated  by  the  love  of  Gyda,  daughter  of  the 
jarl  of  Hardaland,  who  vowed  not  to  wed  him 
until  he  had  subjugated  the  whole  country. 
His  victories  induced  many  of  the  defeated 
princes  to  emigrate,  and  hence  began  the  more 
famous  maritime  and  piratical  adventures  of 
the  Northmen.  (See  NOKTHMEN.)  His  son 
Haco  the  Good,  who  had  been  educated  in 
England  at  the  court  of  Athelstan,  introduced 
Christianity;  but  the  old  religion  was  not 
completely  eradicated  until  three  centuries 
later.  Olaf  or  Olaus  I.,  who  came  to  the 
throne  in  995  after  a  successful  revolt,  destroyed 
the  pagan  temples,  and  laid  the  foundations  of 
Drontheim.  He  was  killed  in  battle  with  the 
Danes,  and  for  fifteen  years  following  Norway 
was  a  prey  to  Swedish  and  Danish  marauders. 
In  1015  Olaf  II.  (St.  Olaf)  determined  to  com- 
plete the  work  of  his  predecessor,  and  perse- 
cuted the  pagans,  though  with  less  cruelty  than 
Olaf  I.  In  1028  Canute  the  Great  of  Den- 
mark and  England  landed  in  Norway,  drove 
Olaf  out  of  the  kingdom,  and  was  elected 
king.  Olaf  subsequently  returned  with  an 
army,  and  was  defeated  and  slain  at  Stikklestad 
in  1030.  Canute  deputed  his  son  Sweyn  to  gov- 
ern Norway,  but  after  the  death  of  his  father 
Sweyn  was  driven  out  by  Magnus  I.,  the  son 
of  St.  Olaf.  Harald  III.,  surnamed  Hardrada 
from  his  severe  discipline  (1047-1066),  invaded 
England,  and,  after  capturing  York,  was  slain 
in  battle  by  the  English  king  Harold  II.  at 
Stamford  Bridge,  in  Yorkshire,  Sept.  25, 1066. 
His  grandson  Magnus  III.  (1093-1103)  con- 
quered the  isle  of  Man,  the^  Shetlands,  Ork- 
neys, and  Hebrides,  and  invaded  Ireland,  where 
he  was  killed  in  battle.  His  son  Sigurd  L,  the 
great  hero  of  Scandinavian  song,  is  famous 
for  various  exploits  against  the  Moors  in  Por- 
tugal and  at  sea,  and  for  a  pilgrimage  to  Jeru- 
salem, where  he  offered  his  arms  to  Baldwin, 
and  with  him  reduced  and  plundered  Sidon. 
His  death  (1130)  was  followed  by  54  years  of 
civil  war,  interrupted  only  temporarily  by  the 
efforts  of  the  English  cardinal  Nicholas  Break- 
spear,  afterward  Pope  Adrian  IV.,  who  came 
to  establish  an  archbishopric  at  Drontheim, 
and  instituted  many  excellent  reforms.  Order 
was  restored  by  Sverrer  in  1184.  His  il- 
legitimate son  Haco  IV.  was  succeeded  by 
Guttorm  and  Haco  V.  (called  by  some  of  the 


NORWAY 


511 


chroniclers  Haco  IV.),  who  subjugated  Ice- 
land (1261),  and  died  in  the  Orkneys  after 
losing  a  battle  at  the  mouth  of  the  Clyde 
(1262).  The  national  prosperity  of  Norway 
declined  from  this  epoch.  Wars  with  Den- 
mark exhausted  the  people.  A  monopoly  of 
trade  in  the  hands  of  merchants  of  the  Hansea- 
tic  league  checked  the  national  industry ;  and 
the  plague  known  as  the  black  death,  which 
broke  out  in  1348,  ravaged  the  kingdom  for 
more  than  two  years  to  an  unparalleled  extent, 
destroying  two  thirds  of  the  population.  The 
country  fell  into  a  decay  from  which  it  did 
not  recover  for  centuries.  Magnus  Lagabseter 
(law  reformer)  reigned  from  1263  to  1280,  and 
was  succeeded  by  his  son  Eric  II.  After  the 
death  of  Haco  VII.  in  1319  two  Swedish  kings 
obtained  the  throne  successively,  Magnus  VIII. 
of  Norway  and  II.  of  Sweden,  and  Haco  VIII. 
of  Norway,  reckoned  by  some  as  the  sixth  of 
the  name.  The  kingdom  lost  its  nationality. 
A  province  first  of  Sweden,  and  afterward  of 
Denmark,  the  country  even  lost  its  proper  lan- 
guage, which  became  thenceforth  a  corrupt 
mixture  of  those  of  its  neighbors.  Haco  VIII. 
married  the  daughter  of  Waldemar  of  Den- 
mark, and  died  in  1380.  The  crown  descended 
to  his  infant  son,  Olaf  III.  of  Denmark,  from 
which  period  down  to  the  year  1814  the  two 
countries  were  united.  Margaret  of  Denmark 
succeeded  her  son  Olaf  III.,  and,  having  re- 
duced Sweden,  framed  the  "union  of  Calmar" 
(1397),  the  object  of  which  was  to  unite  the 
three  crowns.  With  this  view  it  was  stipu- 
lated that  the  subjects  of  each  country  should 
have  equal  rights  under  the  common  sovereign, 
and  should  be  governed  by  their  own  laws. 
From  this  period,  and  in  violation  of  the  treaty, 
the  Norwegians  lost  all  their  independence. 
The  nobles,  wholly  supplanted  by  Danish  im- 
migrants, were  amalgamated  with  the  peasants, 
impoverished,  exiled,  or  massacred.  The  union 
of  Calmar  was  severed  by  Gustavus  Vasa  of 
Sweden  in  1523 ;  and  during  nearly  two  sub- 
sequent centuries  Norway  was  scarcely  more 
than  a  province  of  Denmark.  In  the  reign  of 
Christian  I.  the  Shetland  and  Orkney  islands 
were  transferred  to  Scotland  as  part  of  the 
dowry  (in  mortgage  of  money)  of  Christian's 
daughter  on  her  marriage  with  James  III.  of 
Scotland.  They  were  never  redeemed.  Chris- 
tian died  in  1481.  The  reformation  reached 
Norway  first  in  1536.  Christian  IV.  (1588- 
1648)  was  more  popular  in  Norway  than  any 
other  Danish  king.  He  visited  the  country 
more  than  50  times;  rebuilt  Christiania  (1624) 
and  founded  Christiansand  (1641) ;  and  institu- 
ted a  code  of  laws,  many  of  which  are  still  in 
force.  After  this  reign  Norway  was  treated 
as  a  conquered  province  rather  than  as  a  joint 
kingdom ;  and  it  was  not  until  the  beginning 
of  the  present  century  that  a  brighter  day  be- 
gan to  dawn.  Frederick  VI.  founded  the  uni- 
versity of  Christiania  (1811),  and  became  en- 
deared to  the  Norwegians.  Meanwhile  the 
Swedish  government  had  entered  into  the  coa- 
610  VOL.  xn. — 33 


lition  against  Napoleon  (April  8,  1812) ;  and 
by  convention  with  Russia  the  possession  of 
Norway  was  guaranteed  to  Sweden.  England 
also  entered  into  this  guarantee,  and  the  new- 
ly elected  crown  prince  of  Sweden,  Berna- 
dotte,  according  to  engagements,  took  com- 
mand of  an  army  in  Germany.  After  the  bat- 
tle of  Leipsic  (Oct.  16-19,  1813),  the  crown 
prince1  led  the  Swedish  contingent  into  Hoi- 
stein,  with  a  .view  to  compel  the  Danish  gov- 
ernment to  cede  Norway.  A  singular  system 
of  spoliation  prevailed.  Napoleon  had  on  a. 
former  occasion  signed  away  to  Russia  the 
Swedish  province  of  Finland,  which  did  not 
belong  to  him ;  Russia  now  indemnified  Swe- 
den by  a  present  of  Norway,  to  which  she  had 
no  title.  After  the  fall  of  Ltibeck  and  some 
bloody  actions  in  Holstein,  the  Danes  were 
forced  to  the  peace  of  Kiel  (Jan.  14,  1814); 
and  Norway  was  acknowledged  as  a  domin- 
ion of  Charles  XIII.  of  Sweden.  The  people 
of  Norway  heard  of  this  treaty  with  great  in- 
dignation. The  Danish  crown  prince,  Chris- 
tian, went  at  once  to  Norway,  convoked  a 
national  diet  in  May  at  Eidsvold,  near  Chris- 
tiania, and  accepted  the  crown  of  Norway  in 
independent  sovereignty,  and  with  it  a  consti- 
tution hastily  drawn  up  on  the  spot.  In  July 
the  Swedish  crown  prince,  at  the  head  of  an 
army,  invaded  Norway  by  way  of  Frederiks- 
hald.  A  British  fleet  appeared  off  the  coast, 
and  blockaded  the  ports.  Resistance  was  ob- 
viously a  waste  of  life  and  property,  and  after 
a  few  unimportant  actions  the  country  submit- 
ted. The  Danish  prince  abdicated  his  new 
throne;  and  on  Aug.  14  an  armistice  and  a 
convention  were  signed  at  Moss,  uniting  Nor- 
way and  Sweden.  The  Norwegians  obtained 
far  better  terms  than  had  been  designed  by  the 
allies  originally,  and  the  storthing  formally 
ratified  the  union,  Oct.  20.  The  constitution 
of  Eidsvold,  with  few  alterations,  was  ac- 
cepted by  the  king,  Nov.  4.  On  the  death  of 
Charles  XIII.,  Bernadotte  ascended  the  throne 
(1818)  as  Charles  XIV.  John.  He  made  many 
unavailing  attempts  to  reduce  the  country  to 
closer  submission  to  royal  authority,  and,  in 
his  desire  to  modify  the  constitution,  tried  in 
vain  to  win  over  a  majority  of  the  Norwe- 
gian storthing.  He  endeavored  twice  to  ob- 
tain, in  place  of  the  suspending  veto,  an  ab- 
solute one.  In  1815  the  storthing  passed  a 
resolution  to  abolish  titles  of  nobility,  a  mea- 
sure which  the  king  refused  to  approve.  The 
next  two  storthings  passed  the  same  resolu- 
tion, notwithstanding  an  appeal  of  the  king 
in  person,  and  a  strong  military  demonstration 
on  the  Swedish  frontier;  and  the  royal  veto 
was  thus  rendered  constitutionally  null.  Some 
years  later  the  storthing  resolved  that  the  peo- 
ple of  Norway  should  be  styled  citizens  of 
that  kingdom.  Rarely  indeed  has  a  political 
assembly  shown  more  jealousy  of  executive 
privileges.  King  Oscar  I.,  who  succeeded  his 
father,  March  8,  1844,  was  more  conciliatory 
in  his  policy,  and  obtained  a  greater  degree  of 


512 


NORWAY  (LANGUAGE  AND  LITERATUBE) 


confidence.  He  gave  the  Norwegians  a  sep- 
arate national  flag,  which  his  father  had  re- 
fused. In  1847  he  established  a  Norwegian 
order  of  merit,  that  of  St.  Olaf.  The  general 
feeling  of  anxiety  concerning  Russian  en- 
croachments brought  about  an  alliance,  in  No- 
vember, 1855,  between  Norway  and  Sweden, 
England,  and  France.  By  this  treaty  the  two 
Scandinavian  powers,  in  exchange  for  a  prom- 
ise never  to  cede  or  sell  territory  to  Russia  or 
to  any  power  without  the  consent  of  England 
and  France,  received  a  guarantee  of  future  ter- 
ritorial integrity  under  protection  of  the  last 
named  powers.  In  1857  King  Oscar,  in  conse- 
quence of  bad  health,  transmitted  the  govern- 
ment to  his  son  Charles  Louis  Eugene  as  re- 
gent, who  on  the  death  of  his  father,  July  8, 
1859,  ascended  the  throne  with  the  title  of 
Charles  XV.  The  50th  anniversary  of  the 
union  with  Sweden  was  celebrated  Nov.  4, 
1864.  The  measures  devised  by  the  official 
committee  (1865-'7)  for  permanently  regulating 
the  relations  between  the  united  kingdoms  were 
rejected  in  1870  by  both  countries.  The  prin- 
cipal cause  of  discord  is  the  great  preponder- 
ance in  Norway  of  the  peasantry,  whose  feel- 
ings are  democratic.  One  of  their  leaders  has 
demanded  the  suppression  of  the  university  of 
Ghristiania,  and  in  1869  a  law  was  passed  which 
tended  in  some  degree  to  the  suppression  of 
classical  education,  since  the  peasants  associate 
it  with  aristocracy.  Charles  XV.  died  Sept. 
18,  1872,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  brother, 
Oscar  II. ,  who  was  crowned  at  Drontheim. 

NORWAY,  Language  and  Uteratnre  of.  The 
Norrcena  mdl,  or  northern  language,  now  rep- 
resented, with  slight  inflectional  and  ortho- 
graphical variations,  by  the  Icelandic,  was  the 
common  language  of  Denmark,  Norway,  and 
Sweden  from  an  unknown  period  to  the  llth 
century.  (See  ICELAND,  LANGUAGE  AND  LIT- 
ERATURE OF.)  Norway  retained  the  old  tongue 
longer  than  either  of  the  other  kingdoms.  The 
few  mediaeval  Norwegian  documents  do  not 
exhibit  any  important  grammatical  changes 
until  about  the  time  of  the  annexation  of  Nor- 
way to  Denmark  toward  the  close  of  the  14th 
century.  But  from  this  period  a  rapid  trans- 
formation took  place,  and  soon  after  the  begin- 
ning of  the  16th  century  the  written  language 
and  the  speech  of  the  higher  classes  became 
identical  with  those  of  Denmark.  Outside  of 
the  large  towns  and  among  the  peasants,  how- 
ever, the  Danish  has  never  been  the  spoken 
tongue,  but  the  old  Norrsena  has  been  cor- 
rupted into  a  number  of  dialects,  diverging 
more  or  less  in  their  structure  from  their 
ancient  original.  From  these  dialects  some  phi- 
lologists have  attempted  to  construct  a  national 
tongue,  and  the  efforts  of  several  poets  and 
story  writers  have  made  the  movement  par- 
tially successful.  But  still  the  Danish,  with 
only  dialectic  differences,  is  the  language  of 
society,  of  the  press,  and  of  the  pulpit,  and  is 
taught  in  the  schools.  The  Norwegian  dialects 
may  be  classified  in  three  divisions,  correspond- 


ing to  the  natural  divisions  of  the  country :  the 
Nordenf  jeld  group,  comprising  those  spoken 
in  Drontheim  and  the  extreme  northern  prov- 
inces ;  the  Vestenf  jeld  group,  or  those  spoken 
west  of  the  mountains  in  Bergen  and  the  west- 
ern portion  of  Christiansand ;  and  the  Sonden- 
f  jeld  group,  including  those  spoken  in  south- 
ern Norway,  or  to  the  east  of  the  mountains. 
Of  these  divisions,  the  second  approaches 
the  nearest  to  the  Icelandic,  while  the  last 
named,  lying  nearer  to  Christiania,  has  been 
most  influenced  by  the  Danish.  All  of  them 
possess  some  peculiarities  in  common,  which 
distinguish  them  from  the  written  speech. 
The  old  diphthongs,  au,  ei,  &y,  are  retained; 
the  hard  consonants  &,  £,  and  p  are  placed  after 
as  well  as  before  vowels ;  a  distinction  is  made 
between  the  terminations  in  a  (ar)  and  those  in 
e  (er) ;  although  the  genitive  form  of  the  nouns 
is  generally  lost,  the  old  dative  is  often  retained ; 
the  distinction  between  the  masculine  and  fem- 
inine genders  of  substantives,  nearly  or  quite 
lost  in  Danish  and  Swedish,  is  still  marked ;  and 
the  definite  article  (Icel.  hinn,  Mn,  hit)  requires 
the  substantive  which  follows  it  to  take  the 
definite  termination  also,  as  is  still  the  case  in 
Swedish  but  not  in  Danish. — Norway  cannot 
be  said  to  have  had  a  distinct  literature  until 
after  her  union  with  Sweden.  Before  that 
date  the  writings  of  her  poets,  historians,  and 
naturalists  properly  form  a  part  of  Danish  lit- 
erature. With  the  foundation  of  the  university 
of  Christiania  in  1811,  and  the  establishment 
of  political  independence  in  1814,  the  records 
of  Norwegian  literature  begin.  For  10  or  20 
years  after  the  union  it  consisted  chiefly  of  po- 
litical essays,  legal  tracts,  treatises  on  agricul- 
ture and  manufactures,  and  text  books  for  pop- 
ular instruction.  Among  the  noted  publicists 
and  economical  writers  are  K.  M.  Falsen  (died 
in  1830),  Sverstrup  (died  in  1850),  Raeder,  Ma- 
riboe,  Petersen,  Blom,  and  F.  Monrad.  Keyser 
and  Munch  critically  edited  the  ancient  Nor- 
wegian codes  of  law ;  Schweigaard  wrote  com- 
mentaries upon  jurisprudence ;  M.  C.  S.  Aubert 
and  Rasder  treated  of  the  principle  of  jury 
trial.  Other  juridical  writers  are  P.  C.  Lassen, 
Smidt,  Bull,  Brandt,  and  L.  K.  Daa  (born  in 
1809).  Besides  the  Statistislce  Tabeller  an- 
nually issued  by  the  government,  J.  E.  Kraft 
published  a  topographical  and  statistical  de- 
scription of  the  kingdom  (6  vols,  1820-'35) ; 
Tvethe  issued  his  Norges  StatistiTc  in  1848; 
O.  J.  Broch's  Statistisk  Ordbog  was  published 
annually  1867-'72 ;  A.  N.  Kjaer,  chief  of  the 
official  statistical  bureau,  has  produced  many 
valuable  works,  among  them  the  Statistisk 
Haandbog  (1871);  and  in  the  department  of 
social  statistics  the  treatises  of  Eilert  Sundt 
are  well  known.  In  physics,  the  discoveries 
of  Christopher  Hansteen  (1784-1873),  which 
were  made  known  in  1819,  mark  the  com- 
mencement of  a  new  period  in  the  study  of 
the  phenomena  of  terrestrial  magnetism.  In 
the  Gcea  Norvegica,  of  B.  M.  Keilhau  (1797- 
1858),  and  in  the  account  of  his  journey  to 


NORWAY  (LANGUAGE  AND  LITEEATUEE) 


513 


Finmark  and  Spitzbergen,  large  additions  were 
made  to  geological  science.  Theodor  Kjerulf 
(1825-'73)  succeeded  Keilhau  in  the  profes- 
sorship of  geology  at  the  national  university. 
The  explorations  of  Jens  Esmark  (1763-1839) 
among  the  Norwegian  mountains  resulted  in 
some  well  founded  theories  on  glaciers;  and 
J.  C.  Horbye  has  treated  (1857)  the  erosion  of 
mountains.  The  leading  botanists  have  been 
Christen  Smith  (1785-1816),  whose  travels  in 
the  Congo  region  of  Africa  were  first  published 
by  the  British  government ;  Sommerf  eldt,  who, 
besides  a  treatise  on  the  cryptogamous  plants 
of  Norway,  issued  in  1826  a  large  supplement 
to  Wahlenberg's  "Laplandic  Flora;"  Blytt,  the 
first  part  of  whose  Norsk  Flora  appeared  in 
1847;  and  Schiibeler  (born  in  1815),  author  of 
Die  Pflanzenwelt  Norwegens.  In  zoology,  the 
splendid  work  of  Michael  Sars  (1805-'69),  a 
Norwegian  Fauna  Litoralis,  is  widely  known ; 
and  the  son  of  the  author,  G.  O.  Sars,  sustains 
in  this  branch  his  father's  high  reputation. 
The  mathematical  writings  of  N.  H.  Abel 
(1802-'29)  have  been  translated  into  French; 
other  authors  of  distinction  in  the  same  branch 
are  B.  Holmboe,  O.  J.  Broch,  and  M.  S.  Lie. 
In  1848  Danielson  and  Boeck  published,  in 
Danish  at  Christiania  and  in  French  at  Paris, 
the  important  results  of  their  investigations 
into  Spedahlched  or  elephantiasis,  which  is 
prevalent  in  Norway  and  Iceland;  and  their 
work  has  been  followed  by  another  essay  by 
Bidenkap.  Boeck  was  the  first  to  advoqate 
inoculation  in  syphilitic  diseases.  F.  Hoist 
(born  in  1791)  greatly  contributed  by  his  trea- 
tises on  the  subject  to  the  improvement  of  the 
Norwegian  hospitals  and  prisons.  Skjelderup 
published  several  volumes  of  interest  to  the 
medical  student.  The  schism  produced  by  the 
labors  and  writings  of  Hauge  (1771-1824),  and 
the  freedom  of  religious  worship  secured  by 
the  constitution,  have  produced  theological 
writers  of  ability.  Among  them  are  W.  A. 
Wexels,  S.  J.  Stenersen  (1789-1835),  C.  P.  Cas- 
pari  (born  at  Dessau  in  1814,  but  for  many 
years  attached  to  the  university  of  Christiania), 
and  somewhat  later  Tonder,  Nissen,  G.  John- 
son, and  F.  W.  Bugge.  In  metaphysics  the 
only  authors  of  note  are  M.  J.  Monrad,  C. 
Heiberg,  and  G.  V.  Lyng.  The  history,  phi- 
lology, and  antiquities  of  Norway  have  been 
zealously  studied.  Jacob  Aall  (1773-1844) 
translated  the  voluminous  chronicles  of  Snorri 
Sturlason,  besides  leaving  an  interesting  record 
of  his  own  times  in  his  Erindringer  or  me- 
moirs ;  A.  Faye  published  a  history  of  Norway 
in  1831 ;  Rudolph  Keyser  followed  up  his  ac- 
count of  the  religion  of  the  ancient  Northmen 
(translated  by  Pennock,  New  York,  1854)  with 
a  more  extensive  work  on  the  history  of  the 
Norwegian  church  during  the  Catholic  pe- 
riod ;  and  C.  0.  A.  Lange  and  C.  R.  Unger  have 
edited  a  Diplomatarium  Norvegicum.  But 
the  most  important  national  historical  work 
is  Det  norslce  Folks  Historic,  by  Peder  An- 
dreas Munch  (1810-'63),  in  nine  volumes.  La- 


ter historical  writers  are  O.  Rygh,  J.  E.  Sars, 
S.  Petersen,  and  Gustav  Storm,  whose  essay 
on  Snorri  Sturlason  (1873)  is  a  work  of  abil- 
ity. In  1847,  by  the  publication  of  Munch's 
edition  of  the  elder  Edda,  and  a  grammar  and 
chrestomathy  of  the  old  language,  was  found- 
ed the  Norwegian  school  of  philology.  The 
works  of  P.  A.  Munch,  C.  R.  Unger  (born  in 
1817),  and  R.  Keyser  (1803-'65),  the  leaders  in 
this  philological  movement,  comprise,  among 
many  others,  a  treatise  on  the  oldest  form  of 
runic  writing,  a  Gothic  and  an  Old  Swedish 
grammar,  and  editions  of  Fagr-sMnna  (1847), 
Alexandurs  Saga  (1848),  Saga  Olafs  hins  Helga 
(1849),  Strengleilcur  (1850),  Aslak  Bolts  Jord- 
log  (1852),  Stj#rn  (1853),  Saga  Olafs  Tryggm- 
sonar  (1853,  Saga  Didrilcs  af  Bern  (1853),  Kar- 
lamagnus  Saga  (1859),  Horlcinslcinna  (1866),  the 
"  Saga  of  Thomas  a  Becket  "  (1868),  the  Nariu 
Saga  (1869),  and  the  Codex  Frisianus  (1870). 
With  the  assistance  of  the  government  there 
has  been  completed  (1860-'65)  an  accurate  re- 
print of  the  Flateyjarbok  (Codex  Flateyensis), 
containing  sagas  of  the  Norwegian  kings,  and 
much  historical  and  legendary  lore  concerning 
Iceland  and  the  whole  European  north.  The 
youngest  member  of  this  school,  Sophus  Bugge 
(born  in  1833),  has  edited  several  sagas  and 
the  best  critical  edition  of  the  elder  Edda. 
Ivar  Andreas  Aasen  (born  in  1813)  published 
Det  norske  Follcesprogs  Grammatik  (1848)  and 
an  Ordbog  (1850).  C.  A.  Holmboe  (born  in 
1796)  has  made  an  important  contribution  to 
comparative  philology  by  his  "  Comparative 
Lexicon  of  several  of  the  Indo-European 
Tongues"  (Vienna,  1852),  and  by  other  works. 
The  dialects  of  the  Laplanders  have  been  labo- 
riously studied  by  the  missionary  Stockfleth 
(born  in  1787),  and  by  I.  A.  Friis,  whose  Lap- 
pish Sproglcere  was  issued  in  1852,  and  has  been 
followed  by  other  works.  In  classical  philology 
the  chief  laborer  is  L.  C.  M.  Aubert.  The  poems 
and  dramas  of  H.  A.  Bjerregaard  (died  in  1842) 
are  national  in  spirit,  but  lack  originality  and 
brilliancy.  Henrik  Arnold  Wergeland  (1808- 
'45)  was  for  a  long  time  the  favorite  poet  of 
the  Norwegians,  and  a  complete  collection  of 
his  works  in  nine  volumes  has  been  published. 
J.  S.  Welhaven  (1807-' 73),  the  eminent  rival 
of  Wergeland,  wrote  numerous  lyrics,  nation- 
al dramas,  and  sesthetical  essays,  collected  in 
eight  volumes  (1868).  Andreas  Munch  (born  in 
1810),  a  cousin  of  the  historian,  by  his  poetical 
and  dramatic  productions  has  rendered  himself 
one  of  the  most  popular  of  the  living  poets. 
His  Digte  (1848),  Nye  Digte  (1850),  ReiseUlle- 
der  (1851),  Sorg  og  Tr&st  (1852),  Digte  og 
Fortallinger  (1855),  and  Reiseminder  (1865) 
are  his  chief  works.  M.  C.  Hansen  (1794- 
1842)  produced  a  multitude  of  poems  and  ro- 
mances, besides  several  works  on  other  sub- 
jects. P.  C.  Asbjornsen  and  J.  Moe,  in  their 
Folkeventyr  and  Huldreeventyr  (4th  ed.,  1871), 
have  collected  the  popular  tales  which  have 
been  orally  preserved  by  the  Norwegian  pea- 
sants for  many  generations ;  and  M.  B.  Land- 


514: 


NORWICH 


stad  and  Sophus  Bugge  have  each  edited  collec- 
tions of  the  old  popular  ballads.  Among  the 
more  recent  poets,  the  best  known  are  J.  Moe, 
Kjerulf,  Schiwe,  Bentsen,  Schwach,  and  Si- 
vertson,  and  the  dramatic  writers  0.  P.  Riis 
and  R.  Olsen.  The  most  distinguished  living 
writer  is  Bjornstjerne  Bjornson  (born  in  1832), 
many  of  whose  tales,  such  as  Arne  and  Syn- 
n&ve  Solbakken,  illustrative  of  Norwegian  pea- 
sant life,  have  been  translated  into  several 
languages  ;  his  other  works  are  the  dramas 
Mellemslagene.  Halte  Hulda,  Kong  Sverre 
(1860),  Sigurd  Slembe  (1862),  Sigurd  Jorsala- 
fare  (1873),  and  the  epic  poem  Arnljot  Gelline 
(1870).  Henrik  Ibsen  (born  in  1828),  who  has 
for  many  years  resided  in  Dresden,  has  also 
achieved  great  success  in  the  dramatic  field  by 
his  JKjcerlighedens  Komedie  (1862),  Kongs-Em- 
nerne  (1864),  Brand  (1867),  Hertog  Skule,  and 
Reiser  og  Galilceer  (1874) ;  he  has  likewise 
written  a  long  poem,  Peer  Gynt,  and  a  volume 
of  lyrics  (1871).  Of  the  writers  in  the  Folke- 
sprog  or  popular  dialect 
the  most  noted,  besides 
Aasen,  are  O.  Vinje  (died 
1870),  a  poet  who  united 
great  force  with  a  strong 
satirical  humor ;  Kristo- 
f  er  Janson,  long  engaged 
in  efforts  for  the  educa- 
tion of  the  peasant  class- 
es, whose  most  notable 
works  are  Jon  Arason 
(1867),  and  Sigmund 
Brestesson  (1872),  a  po- 
em founded  on  the  Fcere- 
yinga  Saga  ;  and  Kristo- 
fer  Bruun.  Sympathetic 
with  the  same  school  is 
Jonas  Lie,  whose  recent 
novels  Den  Fremsynte, 
Tremasteren,  and  Lodsen 
og  ham  Huatru  (1874), 
tales  of  the  coast  fisher- 
man's life,  have  given 
their  author  a  wide  pop- 
ularity. Two  female 
writers  of  fiction,  Mrs.  Camilla  Collett,  the  sis- 
ter of  Wergeland,  and  Mrs.  Magdalene  Thore- 
sen,  have  published  works  of  merit.  The 
royal  Norse  academy  of  sciences,  the  seat  of 
which  is  at  Drontheim,  the  university  of  Chris- 
tiania,  the  Norwegian  antiquarian  society 
(Oldskriftsehkab},  and  the  Selskab  for  Folke- 
oplvmingem  Fremme  have  each  published 
transactions  and  series  of  works  distinguished 
by  zeal  and  learning. — The  best  sources  of  in- 
formation concerning  Norwegian  literature  are 
the  Norsk  Forfatter-Lexikon  (1863),  a  diction- 
ary of  authors,  by  J.  E.  Kraft,  and  La  Nor- 
vtge  litteraire  (1868),  by  P.  Botten-Hansen. 

NORWICH,  a  town  and  city,  and  one  of  the 
county  seats  of  New  London  co.,  Connecticut, 
situated  at  the  head  of  the  Thames  river,  15 
m.  from  Long  Island  sound,  and  35  m.  S.  E. 
of  Hartford;  pop.  in  1860,  14,048;  in  1870, 


16,653.  The  town  and  city  are  not  coex- 
tensive. The  principal  portion  of  the  city  lies 
upon  the  sides  and  summit  of  the  eminence 
that  rises  between  the  Yantic  and  Shetucket 
rivers,  which  here  unite  to  form  the  Thames. 
The  business  portion  is  at  the  base  near  the 
water,  in  the  locality  formerly  known  as  Chel- 
sea Landing,  while  the  residences  are  mostly 
upon  the  plateau  that  extends  N.  from  the 
brow  of  the  hill.  The  houses  are  generally 
white,  and,  rising  in  terraces  one  above  the 
other,  can  be  seen  from  a  considerable  distance 
down  the  river,  whose  elevated  banks  lend 
additional  attraction  to  the  view.  The  prin- 
cipal public  building  is  the  court  house,  used 
for  town,  city,  and  county  purposes.  There 
is  a  cemetery  tastefully  laid  out,  and  in  the 
park  a  monument  has  been  erected  to  the  sol- 
diers of  the  civil  war.  West  of  the  Yantic  is 
a  portion  of  the  city  known  as  the  West  Side 
or  West  Chelsea.  Greeneville,  in  the  N.  E.  part 
|  of  the  city,  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Shetucket, 


Norwich,  Conn. 

contains  one  of  the  largest  paper  mills  in  New 
England.  The  town  extends  N.  W.  of  the  city, 
in  a  pleasant  valley  surrounded  by  hills.  At 
the  falls  of  the  Yantic,  about  1  m.  from  its 
entrance  into  the  Thames,  the  river  is  com- 
pressed into  a  narrow  channel,  and  rushes  over 
a  rocky  bed  having  a  perpendicular  descent 
of  about  50  ft.  The  "  Falls"  in  this  vicinity 
is  an  active  manufacturing  village.  Norwich 
has  railroad  communication  with  the  principal 
points  in  New  England  by  means  of  the  New 
London  Northern  and  Norwich  and  Worcester 
lines,  and  is  connected  with  New  York  by 
daily  lines  of  steamers.  The  harbor  is  com- 
modious, and  is  accessible  by  vessels  drawing 
10  ft.  of  water.  It  has  an  important  trade 
in  coal,  lumber,  West  India  goods,  groceries, 
and  drugs.  The  capital  invested  in  manufactu- 
ring and  transportation  companies  amounts  to 


NOKWICH 

$9,000,000.  The  aggregate  capital  of  the  seven 
national  banks  is  nearly  $3,000,000;  the  de- 
posits in  the  three  savings  banks  amount 
to  about  $11,000,000.  The  principal 
articles  of  manufacture  are  machinery, 
rolling-mill  products,  printing  presses, 
firearms,  locks,  water  wheels,  type,  pa- 
per, organs,  and  cotton  and  worsted 
goods.  Norwich  has  good  public  schools, 
a  free  reading  room,  a  public  library, 
one  daily  and  three  weekly  newspapers, 
an  old  ladies'  home,  and  16  churches. 
The  free  academy  was  built  and  endow- 
ed by  the  private  subscription  of  $110,- 
000  by  residents  of  the  town,  and  is 
open  for  a  full  academical  education  to 
all  its  children,  free  of  expense  to  them, 
and  without  regard  to  sex  or  condition. 
— Norwich  was  settled  in  1659.  In  _^ 
that  year  Uncas  and  his  two  sons  made 
a  formal  deed  of  the  site  of  the  old 
town,  9  m.  square,  to  Major  John  Ma- 
son and  34  other  proprietors,  and  re- 
ceived from  the  company  £70  as  a  com- 
pensation. Its  settlement  was  begun 
by  Major  Mason  and  the  Eev.  James 
Fitch,  who,  with  a  part  of  his  congre- 
gation, removed  from  Saybrook.  The 
city  was  incorporated  in  1784. 

NORWICH,  a  village  and  the  county 
seat  of  Ohenango  co.,  New  York,  on 
the  Chenango  river  and  canal,  and  on 
the  Delaware,  Lackawanna,  and  West- 
ern, and  the  New  York  and  Oswego 
Midland  railroads,  90  m.  W.  of  Albany ; 
pop.  in  1870,  4,279.  It  has  a  handsome 
stone  court  house,  in  the  Corinthian 
style,  an  academy,  two  banks,  manufac- 
tories of  pianos,  hammers,  and  carriages,  two 
weekly  newspapers,  and  six  churches. 

NORWICH,  a  city,  capital  of  the  county  of 
Norfolk,  England,  on  the  Wensum  river,  98 
m.  N.  E.  of  London;  pop.  in  1871,  80,390. 
It  is  a  place  of  great  antiquity,  was  a  flourish- 
ing town  in  the  time  of  Edward  the  Con- 
fessor, and  is  still  surrounded  by  fragments 
of  its  ancient  walls,  which  were  flanked  with 
towers  and  entered  by  12  gates.  The  streets 
are  narrow  and  mostly  unpaved,  and  the  houses 
are  built  of  brick  with  rude  pointed  gables; 
but  the  market  place  is  one  of  the  largest 
in  the  kingdom.  The  cathedral,  founded  in 
1094,  and  chiefly  of  Norman  architecture,  is 
a  cruciform  structure,  with  a  tower  (restored 
in  1858)  and  spire  rising  from  the  intersection 
of  the  nave  and  transepts  to  the  height  of  315 
ft.  In  1872  there  were  67  places  of  worship, 
of  which  46  belonged  to  the  church  of  England, 
8  to  the  Baptists,  3  to  the  Congregationalists, 
4  to  the  Primitive  Methodists,  and  2  each  to 
the  Wesleyans,  United  Methodists,  and  Roman 
Catholics.  Norwich  has  been  noted  for  its 
woollen  fabrics  since  the  reign  of  Henry  I., 
when  a  colony  of  Flemings  settled  there,  and 
obtained  long  wool  spun  in  the  village  of  Wor- 
stead,  9  m.  distant,  whence  the  produce  took 


NOSE 


515 


the  name  of  worsted.     The  leading  manufac- 
tures are  shawls,  crapes,  bombazines,  muslin  de 


Norwich  Cathedral. 

laine,  damasks,  camlets,  gros  de  Naples,  and 
bandanna  handkerchiefs. 

NOSE,  the  organ  of  the  sense  of  smell  in 
vertebrated  animals,  and  in  the  three  highest 
classes  connected  with  the  respiratory  function. 
Of  the  14  bones  which  enter  into  the  compo- 
sition of  the  cavities  of  the  nose  in  man,  the 
principal  are  the  nasal,  attached  more  or  less 
perpendicularly  to  the  frontal  bone  above  and 
to  the  superior  maxillary  on  the  sides ;  in  the 
lower  orders  these  bones  become  more  horizon- 
tal and  more  developed,  as  the  face  and  animal 
propensities  predominate  over  the  cranium  and 
the  intellect.  The  nasal  cavities,  bounded  in 
front  by  these  bones,  and  separated  into  two 
by  the  vomer,  open  widely  anteriorly  to  the 
external  air  and  posteriorly  into  the  pharynx ; 
the  upper  wall  is  pierced  by  numerous  fora- 
mina, through  which  enter  the  filaments  of  the 
olfactory  nerve,  or  nerve  of  smell;  the  lower 
wall  forms  the  bony  roof  of  the  mouth,  and  is 
nearly  horizontal;  the  outer  wall  is  divided 
into  the  superior,  middle,  and  inferior  mea- 
tuses  by  the  turbinated  bones,  into  the  first 
of  which  open  the  posterior  ethmoidal  and 
sphenoidal  sinuses,  into  the  second  (much  lar- 
ger) the  frontal  and  anterior  ethmoidal  sinuses 
and  the  great  cavity  of  the  antrum,  and  into 


516 


NOSE 


the  third  the  duct  of  the  nasal  canal  which 
conveys  the  tears  from  the  eyes  to  the  nose ; 
from  the  last  also  the  Eustachian  tube,  by  which 
the  tympanic  cavity  of  the  ear  communicates 
with  the  throat,  may  be  most  easily  entered, 
as  is  frequently  necessary  in  aural  surgery ;  the 
septum  or  inner  wall  is  a  thin  vertical  partition 
situated  upon  the  median  line,  and  separating 
the  nasal  passages  on  the  right  side  from  those 
on  the  left.  The  suture  of  the  nasal  bones 
in  man  remains  ununited  generally  until  very 
late  in  life,  in  this  differing  from  the  condi- 
tion in  the  highest  apes,  in  which  they  are 
very  early  consolidated  into  a  single  bone  with 
hardly  a  trace  of  suture  5  their  inner  border  is 
also  elevated,  so  that  the  depressed  nose  of  the 
negro  has  never  the  flatness  of  that  of  the  go- 
rilla and  chimpanzee.  The  external  prominent 
part  of  the  nose,  which  gives  the  character  to 
the  feature,  is  composed  of  several  cartilages, 
connected  to  the  bones  and  to  each  other  by 
strong  fibrous  tissue,  sufficiently  firm  to  pre- 
serve the  shape  of  the  organ,  and  so  elastic  and 
flexible  as  to  permit  the  expansion  and  contrac- 
tion of  the  nostrils  in  respiration;  at  the  tip 
of  most  noses,  on  the  median  line,  may  be  felt 
a  fossa  or  depression  bounded  on  each  side  by 
the  lateral  cartilages,  which,  with  the  absence 
of  rigidity,  some  ethnologists  have  made  char- 
acteristic of  certain  human  races,  like  the  Ma- 
lay and  negro.  The  varying  expression  given 
to  the  face  by  the  movements  of  the  nose 
depends  on  the  action  of  its  muscles,  attached 
to  the  cartilages,  skin,  and  upper  lip ;  most  of 
the  expressions  arising  from  these  movements 
are  disagreeable,  indicating  either  contempt, 
anger,  fear,  or  pain.  The  openings  of  the  nose 
are  provided  with  stiff  curved  hairs,  which 
prevent  the  entrance  of  many  particles  floating 
in  the  air.  The  mucous  membrane  lining  the 
nasal  passages  is  of  two  kinds,  viz. :  the  Schnei- 
derian  membrane,  occupying  the  lower  portion, 


FIG.  1.— Olfactory  Membrane  of  the  Sheep,  in  vertical 

section. 

a.  Epithelium.    &,  &.  Fibres  of  the  olfactory  nerve,    c.  Mu- 
cous follicle,    d.  Orifice  of  the  mucous  follicle. 

and  the  olfactory  membrane,  occupying  the 
upper  portion.  The  Schneiderian  membrane 
is  covered  with  ciliated  epithelium,  is  provided 


with  compound  mucous  glandules,  and  supplied 
with  nerves  of  ordinary  sensibility  from  the 
nasal  branch  of  the  ophthalmic  division  of  the 
fifth  pair;  it  is  to  be  considered  as  forming  a 
part  of  the  respiratory  surfaces.  The  olfactory 
membrane  is  covered  with  non-ciliated  epithe- 
lium, provided  with  simple,  nearly  straight 
mucous  follicles,  and  supplied  with  filaments 
from  the  olfactory  nerve;  it  constitutes  the 
organ  of  the  special  sense  of  smell.  The  soft 


FIG.  2.— Profile  View  of  the  Nasal  Passages. 
a.  Superior  turbinated  bone,  covered  by  its  mucous  mem- 
brane,   b.  Middle  do.    c.  Inferior  -do.    d.  Horizontal  or 
hard  palate. 

olfactory  nerves  or  nerves  of  smell  arise  from 
the  olfactory  lobules,  which  rest,  in  the  inte- 
rior of  the  cranium,  upon  the  cribriform  plate 
of  the  ethmoid  bone;  the  nerves  then  pierce 
the  ethmoid  bone  and  reach  the  nasal  cavities, 


FIG.  3.— Transverse  Section  of  the  Nasal  Passages. 
Or.  Cribriform  plate  of  the  ethmoid  bone,  upon  which  rest 
the  olfactory  lobules  and  through  which  pass  the  fila- 
ments of  the  olfactory  nerves.  8.  T.  Superior  turbinated 
bone.  M.  T.  Middle  turbinated  bone.  /  T.  Inferior  tur- 
binated bone.  An.  Antrum  of  the  superior  maxillary 
bone.  Sp.  Septum  of  the  nares.  PL  Hard  palate. 

being  finally  distributed  to  the  olfactory  mem- 
brane upon  the  upper  part  of  the  septum,  and 
upon  the  superior  and  middle  turbinated  bones. 
— The  nose  forms  one  of  the  characteristic  fea- 
tures of  the  human  face,  and  by  physiogno- 
mists has  been  regarded  as  a  faithful  index  of 
character.  The  sense  of  smell  is  less  developed 
than  that  of  sight  in  man,  and  in  comparison 
with  that  of  some  other  animals  is  very  feeble, 
and  the  more  so  in  proportion  to  the  elevation 
of  the  race  in  the  scale  of  civilization ;  the  blind 
have  a  more  acute  sense  of  smell  to  compen- 
sate for  the  deficiency  of  sight ;  the  Mongolian, 


NOSTEADAMUS 


NOTARY  PUBLIC 


517 


the  negro,  and  the  American  Indian  have  a 
greater  development  of  the  internal  cavities  of 
the  nose  than  the  white  races.  In  man  the 
nose  projects  heyond  the  level  of  the  upper 
jaw,  the  opening  of  the  nostrils  being  hori- 
zontal and  downward ;  but  even  in  the  highest 
apes  this  feature  is  flat,  and  the  nasal  orifice 
vertical  and  forward.  The  ethnological  char- 
acters derived  from  the  shape  of  the  nose  are 
given  in  the  articles  on  the  different  races,  and 
in  ETHNOLOGY.  In  fishes,  breathing  by  gills, 
there  is  no  communication  between  the  nose 
and  the  mouth  or  throat,  except  in  the  myxi- 
noids ;  in  batrachians  and  reptiles,  all  of  which 
in  the  adult  state  breathe  more  or  less  by 
lungs,  the  nose  and  mouth  communicate,  by  a 
short  passage  as  in  the  frog,  or  by  a  long  one  as 
in  the  crocodile ;  in  birds  the  nostrils  open  on 
the  back  of  the  bill,  generally  nearest  the  base, 
and  are  frequently  covered  by  bristly  feathers 
to  prevent  the  entrance  of  foreign  bodies,  and 
they  communicate  with  the  mouth  behind. 
In  mammals  only  are  found  the  sinuses  and 
cellular  cavities  in  the  frontal,  sphenoid,  eth- 
moid, and  superior  maxillary  bones,  larger  in 
some  than  in  others;  the  nasal  cartilages  are 
often  widely  different  from  those  of  man,  as 
may  be  seen  in  the  movable  snout  of  the  mole 
and  hog,  and  in  the  proboscis  of  the  tapir  and 
elephant,  which  are  only  modified  and  largely 
developed  noses ;  in  cetaceans  the  nasal  open- 
ings are  on  the  top  of  the  head,  constituting 
the  blow-holes. — There  are  many  congenital 
defects  in  which  the  nose  is  concerned.  It  may 
be  almost  entirely  deficient,  partially  developed, 
closed  in  front,  or  fissured  below ;  the  septum 
may  be  distorted  or  absent ;  or  the  organ  may 
be  monstrously  developed.  The  skin  of  the 
nose  is  subject  to  cutaneous  eruptions;  the 
numerous  small  veins  may  be  dilated,  giving  a 
red  color  to  the  tip,  which,  from  the  disturb- 
ance and  retardation  of  a  naturally  slow  circu- 
lation, is  very  difficult  to  remove.  In  common 
colds  the  mucous  membrane  is  gorged  with 
blood,  and  often  so  thickened  as  to  interfere 
with  respiration  through  the  nose,  aud  even  to 
close  the  posterior  passage  to  the  throat.  Ab- 
scesses, chronic  thickening,  deep  ulcerations, 
ozsena,  lupus,  polypus,  and  cancer  are  common 
in  this  organ,  and  can  only  be  alluded  to  here. 
Some  of  the  greatest  triumphs  of  modern  re- 
parative  surgery  may  be  found  in  the  history 
of  rhinoplastic  operations.  (See  AUTOPLASTY.) 
NOSTRADAMUS  (Fr.  NOTKEDAME),  Michel  de,  a 
French  astrologer,  born  of  Jewish  parents  at 
St.  Eemy,  Provence,  Dec.  14, 1503,  died  at  Sa- 
lon, July  2,  1566.  He  studied  at  Avignon  and 
Montpellier,  and  travelled  in  the  south  of 
France  for  five  years.  He  was  successful  in 
curing  the  plague  in  Provence,  by  means  of  a 
powder  which  he  invented.  About  the  year 
1547  he  began  to  believe  in  his  own  prophetic 
powers.  In  1555  he  published  in  Lyons  seven 
"  Centuries "  of  quatrains ;  and  in  1558  he 
published  a  new  edition,  1,000  in  number,  ded- 
icated to  King  Henry  II.,  whose  death  in  a 


tournament  the  following  year  was  found  to 
be  foretold  therein.  He  was  made  physician 
in  ordinary  to  Charles  IX.,  and  was  consulted 
by  all  classes  of  persons  for  diseases  and  for 
the  foretelling  of  fortunes  and  public  events. 
He  is  said  to  have  been  the  first  to  publish  al- 
manacs containing  predictions  of  the  weather. 
Of  his  "Centuries"  the  Lyons  edition  (8vo, 
1568)  is  the  best. 

NOTARY  PUBLIC,  an  officer  appointed  to  draw 
up  and  attest  deeds  and  contracts,  and  per- 
form other  similar  functions.  The  name  and 
office  of  notary  are  of  Eoman  origin.  The 
notarii,  so  called  from  the  notes  or  short-hand 
characters  in  which  they  minuted  the  instru- 
ments which  they  drew,  had  not  a  public  char- 
acter. They  were  mere  scribes,  who  wrote 
out  the  agreements  of  those  who  employed 
them.  The  writings  thus  composed  were  com- 
pleted by  the  signatures  of  the  parties.  Un- 
less these  signatures  were  attested  by  wit- 
nesses or  verified  by  proof  of  the  handwriting, 
the  instruments  could  have  no  authority  in 
the  courts.  But  it  was  possible  to  render 
them  valid  by  a  declaration  of  their  tenor  be- 
fore a  magistrate  and  by  registration  of  them 
in  the  public  records.  Like  the  notarii  were 
the  tabelliones  forenses,  who  drew  up  legal 
documents  and  statements  to  be  sent  to  the 
courts  of  law  or  presented  to  the  different  civil 
authorities.  The  tabelliones  formed  themselves 
into  a  guild  under  a  presiding  officer.  A  con- 
stitution of  Diocletian  prescribed  a  tariff  of  fees 
for  them.  As  the  craft  grew  in  importance, 
the  state  began  to  prescribe  the  terms  of  ad- 
mission and  removal  of  the  members.  Laws 
were  made  to  define  the  legal  effect  of  the  in- 
struments which  they  framed.  It  was  required 
that  the  tdbellio  be  present  at  the  execution  of 
the  instrument,  and  affix  to  it  his  signature  and 
the  date.  Three  witnesses  must  also  subscribe 
their  names  ordinarily,  but  four  were  necessa- 
ry if  the  principal  parties  could  not  read. — In 
imitation  of  these  Eoman  officers,  the  Frankish 
kings  created  notaries,  and  guarded  by  laws 
against  the  abuse  of  their  functions.  During 
the  middle  ages  notaries  were  appointed  direct- 
ly by  the  popes  or  emperors,  or  under  their  im- 
mediate authority.  In  France,  by  an  ordinance 
of  1312,  Philip  the  Fair  forbade  for  the  future 
the  creation  of  notaries  to  all  except  prelates, 
barons,  and  those  to  whom  appointment  per- 
tained as  an  ancient  right  in  virtue  of  their  es- 
tates. From  that  time  onward  notaries  were 
invested  in  France  with  a  qualified  judicial 
character.  They  had  authority,  for  example, 
to  insert  in  the  memoranda  of  obligations  a 
clause  granting  summary  execution  to  the  cred- 
itor in  case  of  a  non-fulfilment  of  the  contract. 
But  this  voluntary  jurisdiction  which  notaries 
had  so  long  possessed  in  France,  was  taken 
from  them  by  the  legislation  of  the  republic. 
They  are  now  public  officers,  formally  recog- 
nized indeed  as  sharers  in  the  civil  administra- 
tion, but  deriving  their  authority  from  and 
representing  rather  the  state  than  the  courts. 


518 


NOTARY  PUBLIC 


NOTORNIS 


They  are  commissioned  for  life,  and  can  be  re- 
moved only  by  judicial  decree.  They  are  au- 
thorized to  draw  instruments  of  various  char- 
acters ;  and  in  matters  which  are  of  more  than 
private  importance,  they  retain  in  their  cus- 
tody the  original  drafts,  and  furnish  copies  of 
them  to  the  parties  concerned.  They  are  of- 
ten employed  under  the  direction  of  the  courts 
in  making  out  inventories  and  in  the  distri- 
bution of  estates,  and  perform  those  notarial 
acts  which  are  required  by  law  in  respect  to 
wills,  gifts,  marriage  contracts,  and  protests. 
Notarial  chambers,  which  consist  of  deputies 
chosen  by  the  profession,  regulate  the  rules  of 
practice,  decide  upon  the  admission  of  candi- 
dates, and  punish  members  who  are  guilty  of 
abuse  of  their  office.  All  documents  which 
were  executed  in  the  presence  of  two  notaries, 
or  of  one  notary  and  two  witnesses,  and  are 
attested  by  them,  receive  full  credence  in  all 
courts  of  law. — Notaries  were  known  in  Eng- 
land before  the  conquest.  In  the  early  part  of 
the  14th  century  they  were  commonly  employ- 
ed, for  in  1347  we  find  them  frequently  named 
in  the  petitions  of  the  commons  to  the  king. 
Ever  since  that  time  the  office  has  been  one 
of  prominence  and  importance.  Until  recently 
the  English  notary  derived  his  authority  to 
practise  from  the  court  of  faculties  of  the 
archbishop  of  Canterbury.  The  ecclesiastical 
courts  were  abolished  by  the  statutes  20  and 
21  Victoria,  c.  77,  85 ;  but  these  acts  did  not 
affect  the  notaries.  Their  authority  extends 
to  the  drawing  of  deeds  relating  to  real  and 
personal  property,  to  protesting  bills  of  ex- 
change, authenticating  and  certifying  copies  of 
documents,  and  to  the  attestation  of  instru- 
ments going  abroad.  They  receive  the  affida- 
vits of  mariners  and  shipmasters,  and  draw 
their  protests.  English  notaries  have  always 
considered  themselves  competent  to  administer 
oaths  and  affirmations. — The  functions  of  no- 
taries in  the  United  States  are  similar  to  those 
exercised  by  the  same  officers  in  England, 
though  in  general  they  seem  to  be  limited  in 
practice  to  the  attestation  of  writings  of  a 
mercantile  kind,  and  to  the  protestation  of  bills 
and  notes.  They  are  usually  commissioned  by 
the  executive  of  their  states,  and  derive  their 
particular  powers  from  statute  provisions.  In 
most  of  the  states  acknowledgments  of  deeds 
before  them  have  the  same  validity  as  those 
made  before  justices  of  the  peace,  and  they 
are  empowered  to  administer  oaths.  In  those 
states  where  the  powers  of  these  officers  are 
not  distinctly  set  forth,  it  may  be  supposed 
that  they  include  such  acts  as  attach  to  the 
office  by  general  mercantile  usage. — In  respect 
to  the  value  of  notarial  acts  in  evidence,  it  may 
be  remarked  that  the  admissibility  in  evidence 
of  notarial  acts  done  in  a  foreign  country,  and 
their  authenticity,  rests  solely  on  the  ancient 
mercantile  usage,  which  makes  what  may  be 
termed  the  commercial  law  of  nations.  In  re- 
spect to  bills  of  exchange  and  similar  paper  of 
merchants,  there  is  no  doubt  of  the  effect  of 


notarial  acts.  It  is  the  rule  of  English  and  of 
American  law  that  the  minutes  of  a  foreign 
notary  of  his  protest  for  non-acceptance,  when 
attested  by  his  signature  and  notarial  seal,  are 
full  proof  of  these  facts,  and  require  no  aux- 
iliary support.  But  the  principle  that  the  for- 
eign notary's  certificate  is  conclusive  evidence 
only  of  such  acts  as  he  does  under  the  law 
merchant,  has  been  upheld  in  a  case  where  a 
deed  of  partition  made  and  acknowledged  be- 
fore a  foreign  notary  was  pronounced  insuffi- 
cient in  respect  to  the  acknowledgment ;  and 
in  England  the  certificate  of  an  American  no- 
tary under  seal  of  the  execution  of  a  power  of 
attorney  in  his  presence  was  not  admitted  as 
evidence  of  the  fact,  though  the  notary's  cer- 
tificate was  verified  by  the  British  consul.  In- 
dependently therefore  of  special  laws,  which  in 
some  states  indeed  give  validity  to  acknowl- 
edgments and  the  like  acts  if  done  before  for- 
eign notaries,  no  certificates  of  theirs  which 
concern  matters  foreign  to  the  mercantile  law 
will  be  recognized  as  evidence.  The  protest 
of  a  promissory  note  at  home  is  not,  unless 
made  so  by  the  local  statute,  an  official  notarial 
act,  as  the  protest  of  a  foreign  bill  of  exchange 
is ;  and  therefore,  after  the  notary's  death,  the 
note  of  such  a  protest  is  not  of  itself  compe- 
tent evidence  in  chief.  Yet  when  it  is  duly 
authenticated  by  signature  and  seal,  it  will  be 
admitted  as  secondary  evidence  of  the  notarial 
acts  which  it  recites.  So  the  memoranda  en- 
tered in  the  office  books  of  the  notary,  either 
by  him  in  person  or  by  his  clerk  in  the  ordi- 
nary course  of  business,  are  admissible  in  evi- 
dence when  the  party  is  dead  who  could  direct- 
ly speak  to  the  fact. 

KOTO,  a  town  of  Sicily,  on  a  hill  within  a 
few  miles  of  the  Mediterranean,  14  m.  S.  W. 
of  Syracuse ;  pop.  about  15,000.  It  is  one  of 
the  finest  towns  on  the  island,  is  the  seat  of  a 
bishop,  and  has  several  schools.  The  ancient 
town  of  Notuin  was  flourishing  several  centu- 
ries before  the  Christian  era.  Under  the  Nor- 
mans it  was  the  capital  of  S.  Sicily,  under  the 
name  of  Val  di  Noto.  It  was  destroyed  by  an 
earthquake  in  1693,  and  the  modern  town  was 
founded  in  1703  about  j8  m.  N.  W.  of  the  old 
site,  now  known  as  Noto  Vecchio,  where  are 
remains  of  an  amphitheatre  and  other  edifices. 

NOTORNIS  (Gr.  vdrof,  south,  and  dpvig,  bird), 
a  large  bird  of  the  rail  family,  established  by 
Owen  in  1848,  on  a  nearly  entire  skull  sent 
with  those  of  the  dinornis  from  New  Zealand. 
The  natives  had  traditions  of  the  existence  of 
a  large  rail-like  bird  which  they  called  moho, 
contemporary  with  the  moa  or  dinornis,  but  it 
was  by  them  considered  extinct  like  the  latter. 
This  bird,  which  Owen  called  N.  Mantelli,  was 
known  only  by  the  occasional  occurrence  of 
its  bones,  until  Mr.  Walter  Mantell  in  1849  ob- 
tained a  skin  from  the  South  island  of  New 
Zealand.  A  specimen  was  there  taken  alive 
by  some  sealers  after  a  long  chase ;  it  ran  very 
rapidly,  and  when  captured  screamed  and  strug- 
gled violently ;  after  having  been  kept  three 


NOTT 


NOTTINGHAM 


519 


or  four  days,  it  was  killed,  and  its  flesh  found 
delicious ;  the  skin  was  sent  to  England,  where 
a  description  was  made  by  Mr.  John  Gould, 
confirming  entirely  the  opinion  of  Owen  based 
upon  the  bony  structure.  The  bird  had  the 
aspect  of  a  large  porphyrio  in  the  bill  .and  the 
color,  but  had  the  moderate  feet  of  tribonyx, 
with  the  rudimentary  wings  and  tail  of  an  os- 
trich. The  length  was  26  in.,  the  bill  to  gape 
2|,  the  wing  8£,  and  the  tarsi  and  tail  each  3^ ; 
the  bill  was  shorter  than  the  head,  much  com- 
pressed on  the  sides,  with  the  culmen  elevated 
and  arched,  extending  on  the  forehead  as  far 
as  the  posterior  angle  of  the  eye  ;  wings  very 
short,  rounded,  slightly  concave ;  the  primaries 
soft  and  yielding,  the  first  short,  and  the  third 
to  the  seventh  equal  and  longest ;  feathers  of 
tail  soft  and  loose ;  tarsi  powerful,  almost  cy- 
lindrical, very  broad  in  front  and  defended  by 
wide  scutellaa ;  anterior  toes  large  and  strong, 
shorter  than  the  tarsus,  with  powerful  hooked 
nails ;  hind  toe  short,  strong,  rather  high  up, 
with  a  blunt  hooked  nail.  The  head,  neck, 
breast,  upper  part  of  abdomen  and  sides  pur- 
plish blue ;  back,  rump,  upper  tail  coverts,  les- 
ser wing  coverts,  and  tertiaries  dark  olive  green 
tipped  with  verditer  green ;  on  the  nape  a  band 
of  rich  blue  separating  the  purplish  blue  of  the 
neck  from  the  green  of  the  body ;  wings  rich 
deep  blue,  the  greater  coverts  tipped  with  ver- 
diter green  ;  tail  dark  green  ;  lower  abdomen, 
vent,  and  thighs  bluish  black  ;  under  tail  cov- 
erts white  ;  bill  and  feet  red.  From  the  thick- 
ness of  the  plumage,  and  the  great  length  of 
the  feathers  of  the  back,  it  is  believed  that  this 
bird  inhabited  marshy  places  and  coverts  of 
damp  ferns ;  it  was  essentially  terrestrial,  yet 
probably  able  to  swim ;  though  unable  to  fly, 
it  was  a  very  rapid  runner ;  it  was  doubtless 
very  shy,  keeping  concealed,  naturally  or  to 
avoid  enemies,  in  the  darkest  and  thickest  re- 
cesses of  the  islands. 

NOTT,  Eliphalet,  an  American  educator,  born 
in  Ashford,  Conn.,  June  25,  1773,  died  in 
Schenectady,  N.  Y.,  Jan.  29,  1866.  He  studied 
theology,  and  at  the  age  of  21  was  sent  as  a 
domestic  missionary  to  central  New  York.  On 
passing  through  Cherry  Valley,  he  accepted 
a  call  to  the  pastorate  of  the  Presbyterian 
church  there,  and  he  also  became  teacher  in 
the  academy.  Soon  afterward  he  was  called 
to  the  Presbyterian  church  at  Albany,  where  he 
preached  his  celebrated  sermon  on  the  death  of 
Alexander  Hamilton.  In  1804  he  was  chosen 
president  of  Union  college,  Schenectady,  which 
place  he  held  until  his  death.  More  than  3,700 
students  graduated  during  his  presidency.  In 
1854  its  semi-centennial  anniversary  was  cele- 
brated, when  several  hundred  of  the  men  who 
had  graduated  under  him  assembled.  Besides 
occasional  addresses  and  discourses,  Dr.  Nott 
published  "Counsels  to  Young  Men"  (1810, 
often  republished),  and  "Lectures  on  Tem- 
perance" (1847).  He  gave  much  attention  to 
physical  science,  especially  to  the  laws  of  heat, 
and  obtained  about  30  patents  for  inventions 


in  this  department;  among  the  most  notable 
of  these  was  the  first  stove  for  burning  anthra- 
cite coal,  which  bore  his  name,  and  was  for 
many  years  extensively  used. 

NOTT,  Josiah  Clark,  an  American  ethnologist, 
born  in  Columbia,  S.  C.,  March  31,  1804,  died 
in  Mobile,  March  31,  1873.  He  graduated  at 
the  South  Carolina  college  in  1824,  took  the 
degree  of  M.  D.  in  Philadelphia  in  1827,  and 
was  for  two  years  demonstrator  of  anatomy 
to  Dr.  Physick,  when  he  returned  to  Columbia 
and  commenced  practice.  In  1835-'6  he  studied 
medicine,  natural  history,  and  the  kindred  sci- 
ences in  Europe,  and  after  his  return  practised 
medicine  in  Mobile.  Besides  contributing  many 
articles  on  professional  and  similar  topics  to 
medical  journals,  he  published  several  ethno- 
logical works.  Among  these  are  "  Two  Lec- 
tures on  the  Connection  between  the  Bibli- 
cal and  Physical  History  of  Man  "  (8vo,  New 
York,  1849);  "The  Physical  History  of  the 
Jewish  Race"  (Charleston,  1850);  "Types  of 
Mankind"  (4to,  Philadelphia,  1854);  and  "In- 
digenous Races  of  the  Earth  "  (4to,  Philadel- 
phia, 1857).  The  last  two  were  prepared  in 
connection  with  Mr.  George  R.  Gliddon.  The 
object  of  these  works  is  to  refute  the  theory  of 
the  unity  of  the  human  race,  by  showing  that 
the  present  types  of  mankind  lived  around  the 
Mediterranean  3,000  years  B.  C.,  and  that  there 
is  no  evidence  that,  during  the  last  5,000  years, 
one  type  has  been  changed  into  another.  In 
1857  Dr.  Nott  was  called  to  the  chair  of  anat- 
omy in  the  university  of  Louisiana,  but  in  1858 
established  a  medical  college  in  Mobile,  which 
was  made  a  branch  of  the  state  university. 

NOTTINGHAM,  a  town  of  England,  capital 
of  Nottinghamshire,  and  a  county  in  itself, 
situated  on  the  river  Leen  near  its  junction 
with  the  Trent,  and  on  the  Nottingham  canal 
and  the  Midland  railway,  108  m.  N.  K  W.  of 
London;  pop.  in  1871,  86,621.  The  suburban 
villages  dependent  upon  Nottingham  have  a 
population  of  about  40,000.  The  town  is  built 
on  the  side  of  a  steep  hill,  and  many  of  the 
streets  rise  in  terraces.  On  the  summit  of  a 
precipitous  rock  133  ft.  above  the  surrounding 
meadows  are  the  ruins  of  "the  castle,"  a  large 
mansion  built  by  the  duke  of  Newcastle  in 
1674,  on  the  site  of  a  fortress  erected  in  the 
time  of  William  the  Conqueror;  it  was  burned 
in  the  reform  riots  of  1831.  In  1872  there  were 
77  places  of  worship,  of  which  23  belonged  to 
the  church  of  England.  There  are  five  lunatic 
and  blind  asylums,  hospitals,  several  libraries, 
and  a  mechanics'  institute.  The  principal  man- 
ufactures are  lace,  which  was  here  first  made 
by  machinery,  cotton  and  silk  hosiery,  and  ale. 
— Nottingham  is  a  place  of  great  antiquity,  and 
derives  its  name  from  the  Saxon  Snotingaham, 
which  is  descriptive  of  its  position  as  a  retreat 
in  rocks,  since  there  were  formerly  many  cav- 
erns in  the  soft  rock  on  which  its  castle  was 
built,  of  which  a  few  remain.  During  the  wars 
of  the  barons  the  castle  was  attacked  and  taken 
by  the  earl  of  Derby,  and  after  the  deposition 


520 


NOTTINGHAM 


NOVARA 


of  Edward  II.  it  became  the  residence  of  Queen 
Isabella  and  her  paramour  the  earl  of  March. 
Several  parliaments  were  held  here.  In  1485 
Richard  III.  marched  from  Nottingham,  where 
he  had  assembled  his  forces,  to  the  battle  of 
Bosworth  field.  In  the  civil  war  Charles  I.  set 
up  his  standard  in  Nottingham  in  1642,  but  the 
place  fell  in  1643. 

NOTTINGHAM,  Earl  of.   See  HOWARD,  CHARLES. 

NOTTINGHAMSHIRE,  or  Notts,  an  inland  coun- 
ty of  England,  bordering  on  the  counties  of 
York,  Lincoln,  Leicester,  and  Derby  ;  area, 
822  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1871,  319,956.  The  face  of 
the  country  is  generally  level,  with  moderate 
undulations.  The  royal  forest  of  Sherwood, 
the  traditional  scene  of  Robin  Hood's  exploits, 
was  in  this  county,  lying  N.  E.  of  Nottingham, 
and  extending  about  21  m.  in  length  by  a 
breadth  varying  between  7  and  9  m.  A  por- 
tion of  this  forest  is  still  in  existence,  form- 
ing part  of  Earl  Manvers's  park  at  Thoresby, 
and  called  Birkland  forest.  All  this  tract,  with 
the  above  and  a  few  other  trifling  exceptions, 
has  now  been  enclosed.  The  geological  for- 
mation on  which  the  county  rests  is  the  new 
red  sandstone ;  and  red  marl,  and  its  varieties 
of  sand,  gravelly  sand,  and  red  and  white  sand- 
stone, constitute  by  far  the  greater  part  of  the 
soil.  Coal  pits  have  been  sunk  to  considerable 
depths  in  various  places;  the  seams  vary  in 
thickness  from  1  to  6  ft. ;  the  coal  is  inferior 
to  that  of  Newcastle.  Gypsum  is  extensively 
worked  near  Newark,  and  a  very  good  yel- 
lowish freestone  for  building  and  paving  is  ob- 
tained in  various  places;  marl  is  also  found 
throughout  the  county.  The  climate  is  healthy 
and  comparatively  dry.  The  principal  crops 
are  wheat,  barley,  oats,  turnips,  and  clover. 
There  are  excellent  market  gardens  and  some 
good  orchards  near  the  principal  towns.  The 
river  Trent,  which  has  a  course  of  about  60  m. 
through  Nottinghamshire,  is  a  broad  navigable 
stream  bordered  by  level  lands.  There  are 
many  canals  and  railways.  The  chief  manu- 
factures are  malt,  paper,  iron,  ropes,  candles, 
ale,  earthenware,  lace,  and  hosiery.  The  prin- 
cipal towns,  besides  Nottingham,  the  capital, 
are  Newark,  East  Retf ord,  Bingham,  Mansfield, 
Southwell,  and  Worksop. 

NOTTOWAY,  a  S.  E.  county  of  Virginia, 
bounded  S.  by  the  Nottoway  river ;  area,  about 
300  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  9,291,  of  whom 
7,050  were  colored.  The  Richmond,  Danville, 
and  Petersburg,  and  the  Atlantic,  Mississippi, 
and  Ohio  railroads  intersect  it.  The  chief 
productions  in  1870  were  37,907  bushels  of 
wheat,  82,686  of  Indian  corn,  55,754  of  oats, 
653,296  Ibs.  of  tobacco,  and  37,135  of  but- 
ter. There  were  466  horses,  760  milch  cows, 
1,140  other  cattle,  903  sheep,  and  2,898  swine. 
Capital,  Nottoway  Court  House. 

NOTTOWA1S,  a  tribe  of  American  Indians,  one 
of  the  most  southerly  tribes  of  the  Huron  Iro- 
quois  family,  residing  to  the  last  on  the  river 
in  Virginia  bearing  their  name,  and  calling 
themselves  Cherohakah.  They  preserved  their 


independence  and  numbers  later  than  the  Pow- 
hatans,  and  at  the  end  of  the  1.7th  century  had 
130  warriors.  They  appear  in  a  Virginia  trea- 
ty with  the  Five  Nations  in  1722,  and  in  1729 
numbered  200.  Their  round-topped  bark  cab- 
ins were  enclosed  in  a  square  palisade  fort  on 
the  west  bank  of  the  river.  Gov.  Spottswood 
and  others  caused  the  sons  of  chiefs  to  be  edu- 
cated, but  all  attempts  to  elevate  them  failed. 
Jefferson  in  1781  said  that  there  was  not  a 
male  left.  The  reserve  allotted  to  them  con- 
tained 27,000  acres,  but  they  cultivated  very 
little.  In  1822  only  Edie  Turner,  recognized 
as  queen,  and  two  others  spoke  the  language, 
whose  vocabulary  proves  its  connection  with 
the  Huron,  Iroquois,  and  Susquehanna. 

NOUREDDIN  (MALEK  AL-ADEL  NUR  ED-DiN 
MAHMOUD),  a  Mohammedan  ruler  of  Syria  and 
Egypt,  born  in  Damascus  about  1116,  died  there 
in  1173  or  1174.  He  succeeded  his  father  Zen- 
ghi,  of  the  Atabek  dynasty,  in  1145,  and  made 
Aleppo  his  capital.  Soon  afterward  he  expel- 
led the  Christians  from  Edessa,  demolished  the 
walls,  and  massacred  the  inhabitants.  Subse- 
quently he  invaded  Antioch,  and  defeated  and 
slew  Prince  Raymond.  He  was  routed  in  the 
following  year  by  Jocelin  de  Courtenay,  but 
afterward  captured  that  leader.  The  whole  of 
northern  Syria  now  fell  into  his  hands.  In 
1154  the  Damascenes,  dreading  an  attack  from 
Baldwin  III.,  king  of  Jerusalem,  sought  the 
protection  of  Noureddin,  who  in  1156  entered 
Damascus,  rebuilt  and  adorned  it,  and  made 
it  his  capital.  In  1159  the  Greek  emperor, 
Manuel  Comnenus,  formed  an  alliance  with 
the  Franks  of  Antioch  against  him,  but  was 
bought  off,  and  Noureddin  defeated  and  cap- 
tured Reginald  de  Chatillon,  prince  of  Antioch. 
He  now  sent  to  Egypt  an  army  under  Shir- 
kuh  to  support  the  emir  Shawer  against  his 
rival  Ed-Dargam.  Shawer,  having  gained  the 
throne,  formed  an  alliance  with  the  Franks  and 
drove  Noureddin's  troops  out  of  Egypt.  In  a 
second  expedition  Skirkuh  defeated  the  Franks, 
put  Shawer  to  death,  and  ruled  Egypt  as  the 
lieutenant  of  Noureddin,  who  received  from 
the  caliph  of  Bagdad  the  title  of  sultan  and  the 
direct  investiture  of  Syria  and  Egypt.  Mos- 
lems and  Christians  equally  extol  his  character. 

NOURRISSON,  Jean  Felix,  a  French  philosopher, 
born  at  Thiers  in  1825.  He  became  professor 
of  philosophy  at  Clermont  and  in  Paris,  and 
in  1870  succeeded  the  duke  de  Broglie  in  the 
academy  of  moral  and  political  sciences.  A 
new  chair  of  the  history  of  modern  philosophy 
was  established  for  him,  Jan.  1,  1874,  at  the 
college  de  France.  His  Tableau  des  progres 
de  la  pensee  humaine  depuis  Thales  jusqu'd 
Leibnitz  (1858),  La  nature  humaine  (1865),  and 
La  philosophic  de  Saint  Augustin  (1865),  re- 
ceived academical  prizes.  Among  his  other 
works  are  Les  peres  de  VUJglise  latine  (1858), 
and  De  la  liberte  et  du  hasard  (1870). 

NOVALIS.    See  HARDENBERG,  FRIEDRIOH  VON. 

NOVARA.  I.  A  N.  W.  province  of  Italy,  in 
Piedmont,  bordering  on  Switzerland,  bounded 


NOVA  SCOTIA 


521 


E.  by  the  Lago  Maggiore  and  the  river  Ticino, 
S.  E.  by  the  province  of  Pavia,  S.  by  the  Po, 
which  separates  it  from  the  province  of  Ales- 
sandria, and  W.  by  the  province  of  Turin; 
area,  2,526  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1872,  624,985. 
The  principal  part  of  this  province  belonged 
to  the  former  duchy  of  Milan,  and  is  covered 
by  the  main  ridge  of  the  Alps,  which  encloses 
the  valley  of  the  Toce  or  Tosa,  into  which 
numerous  lateral  valleys  open,  each  adding 
its  tributary  stream  to  the  Toce,  which  finally 
discharges  its  waters  into  the  Lago  Maggiore. 
The  soil  is  noted  for  its  fertility.  The  prin- 
cipal products  are  grain,  rice,  hemp,  and  silk. 
It  is  divided  into  the  districts  of  Biella,  No- 
vara,  Ossola,  Pallanza,  Valsesia,  and  Vercelli. 
II.  A  city,  capital  of  the  province,  on  the  high 
road  from  Milan  to  Turin,  26  m.  W.  of  Milan  ; 
pop.  in  1872,  29,516.  It  is  surrounded  with 
walls  and  bastions.  Parts  of  the  old  fortifi- 
cations are  dismantled,  and  afford  pleasant 
walks.  The  cathedral  is  celebrated  for  its 
splendid  high  altar,  for  its  frescoes  by  Luini 
and  sculptures  by  Thorwaldsen,  and  for  its  ar- 
chives, rich  in  antiquities  of  the  lower  empire 
and  the  middle  ages,  and  above  all  for  its  mu- 
sic. In  Novara  the  priest  Dolcino  was  con- 
demned in  1307  for  preaching  Manichaeism  and 
communistic  principles,  and  was  burned  alive 
at  Vercelli  together  with  his  mistress  Marga- 
ret, a  nun  whom  he  had  taken  from  her  con- 
vent. In  the  battle  fought  at  Novara,  March 
23,  1849,  between  the  Sardinians  under  the 
Polish  general  Chrzanowski  and  the  Austrians 
under  Radetzky,  the  former  were  completely 
routed,  which  led  to  the  abdication  of  Charles 
Albert  in  favor  of  his  son  Victor  Emanuel. 

NOVA  SCOTIA,  a  province  of  the  Dominion 
of  Canada,  situated  between  lat.  43°  26'  and 
47°  5'  N.,  and  Ion.  59°  40'  and  66°  25'  W.  It 
consists  of  the  peninsula  of  Nova  Scotia  and 
the  island  of  Cape  Breton,  separated  from  it 
by  the  gut  of  Canso,  1  m.  wide.  (See  CAPE 
BRETON.)  The  peninsula,  inclusive  of  the  ad- 
joining islets,  is  situated  between  lat.  43°  26' 
and  46°  N.,  and  Ion.  61°  and  66°  25'  W. ;  it  is 
bounded  N.  by  Northumberland  strait,  separa- 
ting it  from  Prince  Edward  island,  and  by  the 
gulf  of  St.  Lawrence,  N.  E.  by  the  gut  of  Canso, 
S.  E.  and  S.  "W.  by  the  Atlantic  ocean,  and  N. 
W.  by  the  bay  of  Fundy  and  New  Brunswick, 
with  which  it  is  connected  by  an  isthmus  14 
m.  wide,  separating  Northumberland  strait 
from  the  bay  of  Fundy.  It  is  260  m.  long  from 
N.  E.  to  Sk  W.,  and  65  m.  in  average  breadth. 
Its  area,  according  to  the  Canadian  census  of 
1871,  is  16,956  sq.  m.,  and  that  of  Cape  Breton 
4,775  sq.  m. ;  of  the  entire  province,  21,731 
sq.  m.  The  province  is  divided  into  18  coun- 
ties, viz. :  Annapolis,  Antigonish,  Cape  Breton, 
Colchester,  Cumberland,  Digby,  Guysborough, 
Halifax,  Hants,  Inverness,  King's,  Lunenburg, 
Pictou,  Queen's,  Richmond,  Shelburne,  Victo- 
ria, and  Yarmouth.  The  capital,  commercial 
metropolis,  and  largest  city  is  Halifax,  with 
29,582  inhabitants  in  1871.  Dartmouth  (pop. 


4,358)  and  Pictou  (3,462)  are  incorporated 
towns.  Yarmouth  (pop.  3,500),  Liverpool 
(3,000),  Windsor  (3,000),  Sydney  (2,900),  Syd- 
ney Mines  (2,500),  Truro  (2,500),  Amherst 
(2,000),  Lunenburg  (1,500),  Annapolis,  Anti- 
gonish, Arichat,  Bridgewater,  Digby,  and  Shel- 
burne are  important  places.  The  population 
of  the  province  in  1784  was  about  20,000. 
According  to  subsequent  censuses  it  has  been 
as  follows  :  1806,  67,515  ;  1817,  91,913  ;  1827, 
142,578;  1838,208,237;  1851,276,117;  1861, 
330,857;  1871,  387,800,  of  whom  75;483  resided 
on  Cape  Breton.  Of  the  total  population  in 
1871,  351,360  were  born  in  the  province,  3,413 
in  New  Brunswick,  3,210  in  Prince  Edward 
island  and  Newfoundland,  577  in  other  parts 
of  British  America,  2,239  in  the  United  States, 
and  25,882  in  the  British  isles,  of  whom  14,316 
were  natives  of  Scotland,  7,558  of  Ireland,  and 
4,008  of  England  and  Wales;  130,741  were  of 
Scotch,  113,520  of  English,  62,851  of  Irish, 
32,833  of  French,  31,942  of  German,  6,212  of 
African,  2,868  of  Dutch,  1,775  of  Swiss,  and 
1,112  of  Welsh  origin,  and  1,666  were  Indians 
(Micmacs  and  Malicetes).  There  were  193,- 
792  males  and  194,008  females;  31,332  per- 
sons (13,719  males  and  17,613  females)  over  20 
years  of  age  unable  to  read,  and  46,522  (18,961 
males  and  27,561  females)  unable  to  write; 
1,254  of  unsound  mind,  441  deaf  and  dumb, 
and  328  blind.  The  number  of  families  was 
67,811 ;  of  occupied  dwellings,  62,501.  Of 
the  118,465  persons  returned  as  engaged  in  oc- 
cupations, 49,769  belonged  to  the  agricultural 
class,  13,351  to  the  commercial,  6,755  to  the 
domestic,  34,547  to  the  industrial,  and  4,151  to 
the  professional;  unclassified,  9,892. — The  sur- 
face of  the  peninsula  is  undulating,  and  though 
there  are  no  mountains  there  are  several  ranges 
of  hills,  most  of  which  traverse  the  country  in 
an  E.  and  W.  direction.  The  Cobequid  range 
runs  through  Cumberland  and  part  of  Colches- 
ter co.,  the  highest  points  being  1,100  ft.  above 
the  level  of  the  sea.  On  the  shore  of  the  Atlan- 
tic the  land  is  hilly  and  rugged,  and  for  the  most 
part  continues  to  be  so  from  3  to  5  in.  inland. 
The  shore  of  the  bay  of  Fundy  S.  of  Mines 
basin  is  precipitous.  The  entire  province  has 
a  coast  line,  not  counting  indentations  of  the 
land,  of  1,170  m.  The  shores  of  the  peninsula 
are  indented  with  a  great  number  of  excellent 
bays  and  harbors,  and  between  Halifax  and  the 
gut  of  Canso  alone  there  are  26  commodious 
havens,  12  of  which  will  accommodate  ships 
of  the  line.  Some  of  the  principal  inlets  are 
Chedabucto  bay,  at  the  entrance  of  the  gut  of 
Canso  ;  Halifax  harbor  and  Margaret's  and 
Mahone  bays,  on  the  S.  E.  coast ;  St.  Mary's 
bay,  Annapolis  basin,  Mines  basin,  and  Chig- 
necto  bay,  on  the  bay  of  Fundy ;  and  Pictou 
harbor,  on  Northumberland  strait.  Among 
the  most  remarkable  headlands  are  Cape  St. 
George,  at  the  N.,  and  Cape  Canso,  at  the  S. 
entrance  of  the  gut  of  Canso ;  Cape  Sambro, 
S.  of  the  entrance  to  Halifax  harbor;  Cape 
Sable,  the  S.  extremity  of  the  province;  and 


522 


NOVA  SCOTIA 


Cape  Chignecto,  at  the  end  of  a  peninsula  jut- 
ting out  into  the  bay  of  Fundy  from  the  isth- 
mus which  connects  Nova  Scotia  with  the 
mainland,  and  having  at  either  side  of  it  Mines 
basin  and  Chignecto  bay.  The  coasts  through- 
out are  lined  with  small  islands,  close  to  which 
there  is  deep  water.  Sable  island  in  the  At- 
lantic, 100  m.  S.  E.  of  the  peninsula,  belongs 
to  the  province.  There  are  numerous  small 
rivers,  mostly  navigable  by  coasting  vessels 
for  short  distances.  The  most  important  are 
the  Shubenacadie,  Avon,  and  Annapolis,  emp- 
tying into  the  bay  of  Fundy,  and  the  Clyde, 
Liverpool,  La  Have,  Musquodoboit,  and  St. 
Mary's,  into  the  Atlantic.  The  surface  is  in- 
terspersed with  numerous  lakes  and  ponds,  the 
largest  being  Lake  Rossignol  in  the  southwest, 
10  or  15  m.  long,  by  about  5  m.  wide. — The 
geological  formations  of  Nova  Scotia  range 
lengthwise  with  the  peninsula  from  S.  W.  to 
N.  E.  Along  the  Atlantic  coast  nearly  half 
the  breadth  is  occupied  by  the  lower  Silurian, 
N.  W.  of  which  the  country,  including  the 
isthmus  between  the  bay  of  Fundy  and  North- 
umberland strait,  consists  for  the  most  part  of 
the  upper  Silurian  and  carboniferous  groups. 
Along  the  bay  of  Fundy  S.  of  Mines  basin  is  a 
narrow  belt  of  triassic  rocks,  and  in  Annapolis 
co.  occurs  a  small  area  of  the  Devonian  forma- 
tion. Granite,  syenite,  &c.,  are  found  in  iso- 
lated localities  in  various  parts  of  the  penin- 
sula. Cape  Breton  is  occupied  by  the  upper 
Silurian  and  carboniferous  formations,  with 
occasional  areas  of  granite,  syenite,  &c.  The 
most  valuable  mineral  products  are  bituminous 
coal,  gold,  and  gypsum.  The  coal  is  found 
chiefly  in  the  N.  E.  part  of  the  peninsula  and 
on  Cape  Breton,  the  three  most  productive 
counties  being  Cape  Breton  (S.  E.  portion  of  the 
island),  Pictou,  and  Cumberland.  Nearly  all 
the  gold  has  been  mined  in  districts  scattered 
through  the  lower  Silurian  belt.  Guysborough 
co.  produces  more  than  half,  Halifax  and  Hants 
cos.  standing  next.  There  are  between  30  and 
40  mines  in  operation.  Gypsum  is  quarried 
chiefly  in  Hants  co.,  but  it  occurs  throughout 
the  N.  E.  portion  of  the  peninsula  and  on  Cape 
Breton.  Iron  is  mined  in  Annapolis,  Colches- 
ter, and  Pictou  cos.  to  a  limited  extent  only ; 
but  a  superior  quality  of  ore  is  abundant  there, 
and  also  in  Cumberland  co.  and  on  Cape  Bre- 
ton. Galena  and  copper  ore  occur  in  various 
localities.  Limestone,  freestone,  granite,  and 
marble  suitable  for  building  purposes,  and  clay 
for  brick  making,  are  common.  The  granite  of 
Shelburne  co.  is  celebrated.  Grindstones  are 
manufactured  from  the  sandstone  strata,  chiefly 
in  Cumberland  co.  The  mineral  product  of  the 
province  in  1874  was  valued  at  $2,104,633,  viz. : 
coal  (872,720  tons),  $1,787,098;  gold  (9,141 
oz.),  $164,538;  gypsum  (104,140  tons),  $104,- 
140 ;  other  products,  $48,857.  The  total  yield 
of  coal  from  1827  to  1874  inclusive  was  13,- 
752,618  tons.  The  gold  product  from  the 
opening  of  the  mines  in  1861  to  the  close  of 
1874  was  about  260,000  oz.,  worth  $4,790,000. 


— The  climate  is  remarkably  healthy,  and  its 
rigor  is  greatly  moderated  by  the  almost  insu- 
lar position  of  the  country  and  by  the  Gulf 
stream,  which  keeps  the  ports  facing  the  At- 
lantic free  from  ice  in  winter.  The  ther- 
mometer ranges  from  more  than  20°  below 
zero  to  more  than  90°  above.  Though  the 
spring  is  backward,  vegetation  is  remarkably 
rapid.  The  temperature  sometimes  varies  50° 
in  24  hours ;  but  the  weather  is  considered  pre- 
ferable to  that  of  most  other  parts  of  Canada, 
as  it  is  milder  in  winter  and  not  so  excessive- 
ly hot  in  summer.  The  mean  temperature  of 
the  western  (where  the  thermometer  rarely 
falls  below  zero)  is  higher  than  that  of  the 
eastern  counties.  Dense  fogs  are  prevalent  in 
spring  and  summer  both  in  the  bay  of  Fundy 
and  along  the  Atlantic  coast,  but  they  do  not 
extend  far  inland.  The  mean  temperature  at 
Digby,  in  the  southwest,  for  the  year  ending 
May  81,  1873,  was  43'6°  ;  at  Halifax,  42'8°  ;  at 
Pictou  in  the  northeast,  41°  ;  at  Sydney,  Cape 
Breton,  40°.  At  Halifax  the  mean  temperature 
of  summer  was  62° ;  autumn,  48'4° ;  winter, 
22-1°;  spring,  38-8° ;  warmest  month  (July), 
64*8° ;  coldest  (February),  20'6° ;  maximum 
temperature,  93 '1°;  minimum,  — 14-4°.  The 
total  fall  of  rain  during  the  year  at  the  same 
place  was  40-04  inches;  of  snow,  103'4  inches; 
total  precipitation  of  rain  and  melted  snow, 
51 -1  inches. — Along  the  S.  shore  the  soil  of  the 
highlands  is  light  and  poor,  but  toward  the 
north  there  are  large  tracts  of  fertile  uplands. 
The  valleys  are  exceedingly  rich.  Nova  Sco- 
tia has  extensive  tracts  of  woodland,  from 
which  lumber  and  ship  timber  are  obtained. 
Oak,  elm,  maple,  beech,  birch,  ash,  larch,  pop- 
lar, spruce,  pine,  hemlock,  &c.,  attain  a  large 
size.  The  rock  maple  yields  sugar.  Currants, 
gooseberries,  strawberries,  blackberries,  blue- 
berries, &c.,  are  abundant.  Apples,  pears, 
plums,  and  cherries  grow  well,  the  apple  or- 
chards of  Annapolis  and  King's  cos.  being  par- 
ticularly productive.  The  principal  agricultu- 
ral products  are  wheat,  rye,  oats,  barley,  buck- 
wheat, Indian  corn,  peas  and  beans,  potatoes, 
turnips  and  other  root  crops,  hay,  vegetables, 
and  dairy  products.  The  season  in  most  parts 
is  rather  short  for  Indian  corn,  but  it  yields  a  full 
crop  in  Annapolis  and  King's  cos.  There  are 
considerable  tracts  of  marsh  land  reclaimed  from 
the  sea  along  the  bay  of  Fundy  by  means  of 
dikes,  which  produce  abundant  crops  of  grass. 
Considerable  numbers  of  horses,  cattle,  sheep, 
and  swine  are  kept.  The  wild  animals  and 
birds  are  the  same  as  those  generally  found  in 
other  parts  of  North  America,  but,  with  the 
exception  of  some  of  the  smaller  species,  their 
numbers  have  been  greatly  reduced.  The  ad- 
jacent waters  swarm  with  fish  of  various  kinds. 
— The  manufactures  of  the  province  are  limit- 
ed, consisting  chiefly  of  coarse  cloths  (home- 
spun) made  and  generally  worn  by  the  farming 
population,  coarse  flannels,  bed  linen,  blankets, 
carpets  and  tweeds,  leather,  boots  and  shoes, 
saddlery  and  harness,  furniture,  agricultural 


NOVA.  SCOTIA 


523 


implements,  and  in  the  vicinity  of  Halifax  to- 
bacco, paper,  machinery,  nails,  gunpowder,  car- 
riages, pianos,  &c.  Ship  building  is  extensively 
carried  on.  (For  industrial  statistics,  see  AP- 
PENDIX to  this  volume.)  The  fisheries  of  Nova 
Scotia  are  of  great  value,  and  constitute  one  of 
the  chief  industries  of  the  province.  The  num- 
ber of  men  employed  during  the  year  ending 
June  30,  1874,  was  21,031 ;  number  of  vessels, 
529,  with  an  aggregate  tonnage  of  20,163 ;  num- 
ber of  boats,  8,923;  value  of  vessels  and  boats, 
$1,024,905  ;  value  of  nets  and  weirs,  $568,426; 
value  of  catch,  $6,652,301  59.  The  chief  varie- 
ties taken  were  cod,  mackerel,  lobsters,  her- 
ring, salmon,  and  hake.  The  value  of  fish  oil 
preserved  (included  in  the  above  total)  was 
$188,878  30.  The  province  has  an  important 
foreign  commerce.  The  value  of  goods  entered 
for  consumption  during  the  year  ending  June 
30,  1874,  was  $10,907,380;  value  of  exports, 
$7,656,547,  viz. :  products  of  the  mine,  $1,050,- 
186 ;  of  the  fisheries,  $3,791,152;  of  the  forest, 
$1,356,752 ;  animals  and  their  produce,  $334,- 
449;  agricultural  products,  $225,340;  manu- 
factures, $418,808;  miscellaneous  articles,  in- 
cluding goods  not  the  produce  of  Canada, 
$479,860.  The  principal  countries  to  which 
the  exports  are  taken  are  the  West  Indies, 
United  States,  and  Great  Britain.  The  chief 
articles  of  import  are  cottons,  silks,  woollens, 
hardware,  and  other  manufactured  goods,  mo- 
lasses, sugar,  and  spirits.  The  number  of  en- 
trances was  4,424,  with  an  aggregate  tonnage 
of  959,114,  of  which  1,850,  of  406,988  tons, 
were  in  ballast;  clearances,  3,752,  aggregate 
tonnage  881,263,  of  which  729,  of  205,678 
tons,  were  in  ballast;  built  during  the  year, 
181  vessels,  of  74,769  tons.  The  number  of 
vessels  belonging  in  the  province  at  the  close 
of  1873  was  2,803,  with  an  aggregate  tonnage 
of  449,701.  There  are  306  m.  of  railway,  viz. : 
Intercolonial,  from  Halifax  to  St.  John,  N.  B., 
276  m.,  of  which  138  m.  are  in  Nova  Scotia; 
branch  of  the  Intercolonial,  from  Truro  to 
Pictou,  52  m. ;  and  Windsor  and  Annapolis, 
from  Windsor  Junction  on  the  Intercolonial  to 
Annapolis,  116  m.  About  100  m.  more  are  in 
course  of  construction,  viz. :  Western  Counties, 
from  Annapolis  to  Yarmouth,  and  Springhill 
and  Parrsborough.  The  Shubenacadie  canal 
(30  m.  long),  in  connection  with  a  chain  of 
lakes  and  the  Shubenacadie  river,  forms  an  in- 
land water  communication  from  the  harbor  of 
Halifax  to  Cobequid  bay  at  the  head  of  Mines 
basin.  A  canal  less  than  half  a  mile  long  con- 
nects the  Bras  d'Or  with  the  Atlantic  coast  of 
Cape  Breton  opposite  Madame  island.  There 
are  ten  banks,  with  an  aggregate  capital  of 
about  $3,000,000,  besides  branches  of  banks  of 
other  provinces.  The  deposits  in  the  govern- 
ment savings  banks,  exclusive  of  post-office 
savings  banks,  on  May  31,  1874,  amounted  to 
$1,462,318  04. — The  executive  government  is 
administered  by  a  lieutenant  governor  appoint- 
ed by  the  governor  general  of  the  Dominion 
in  council,  assisted  by  an  executive  council  of 


nine  members  (treasurer,  attorney  general, 
provincial  secretary,  commissioner  of  public 
works  and  mines,  commissioner  of  crown 
lands,  and  four  without  office),  appointed  by 
himself  and  responsible  to  the  assembly.  The 
legislative  power  is  vested  in  a  legislative  coun- 
cil of  21  members  appointed  by  the  lieutenant 
governor  for  life,  and  a  house  of  assembly  of 
38  members  elected  by  the  qualified  voters  of 
the  counties  for  four  years.  Voting  is  by  bal- 
lot, and  a  small  property  qualification  is  re- 
quired. The  supreme  court,  having  law  and 
equity  jurisdiction  throughout  the  province, 
consists  of  a  chief  justice,  a  judge  in  equity, 
and  five  associates,  appointed  by  the  gover- 
nor general  in  council  for  life ;  and  there  are 
a  court  of  error,  consisting  of  the  lieutenant 
governor  and  council ;  a  court  of  divorce 
and  matrimonial  causes,  held  by  a  justice  of 
the  supreme  court;  a  vice-admiralty  court, 
held  by  the  chief  justice ;  a  probate  court  for 
each  county;  and  a  county  court  for  each 
county.  Nova  Scotia  is  entitled  to  12  sena- 
tors and  21  members  of  the  house  of  com- 
mons in  the  Dominion  parliament.  The  bal- 
ance in  the  provincial  treasury  on  Jan.  1,  1873, 
was  $38,916  41 ;  receipts  during  the  year, 
$672,551  97,  including  $481,106  30  subsidy 
from  the  Dominion  government;  total,  $711,- 
468  38.  The  expenditures  amounted  to  $681,- 
275  23 ;  balance  in  treasury  on  Jan.  1  1874, 
$30,193  15.  The  following  were  the  princi- 
pal items  of  expenditure  :  road  service,  $215,- 
416  27 ;  education,  $180,000 ;  local  works, 
$64,000;  legislative  expenses,  $44,102  45; 
lunatic  asylum  (construction),  $34,000 ;  sala- 
ries of  officers  of  government,  $21,497  90; 
poors'  asylum,  $18,676  88 ;  steamboats,  pack- 
ets, and  ferries,  $11,776;  navigation  securi- 
ties, $11,468  98;  mines,  $10,500;  immigra- 
tion, $7,772  24;  public  printing,  $4,818  25 ; 
provincial  and  city  hospital,  $4,000  ;  transient 
poor,  $2,587  50;  blind  asylum,  $1,250.  The 
provincial  debt  in  1875  amounted  to  $9,186,756. 
— The  Nova  Scotia  hospital  for  the  insane,  at 
Halifax,  was  opened  in  1859.  The  number  of 
patients  under  treatment  in  1872  was  329  (166 
males  and  163  females) ;  remaining  at  the  close 
of  the  year,  259  (130  males  and  129  females). 
The  institution  is  supported  partly  by  the  coun- 
ties, partly  by  the  province,  and  partly  by  pay 
patients.  The  institution  for  the  deaf  and 
dumb  and  the  blind  asylum  are  also  at  Hali- 
fax. The  former  in  1873  had  40  pupils  (part- 
ly from  other  provinces),  and  the  latter  15. 
They  receive  aid  from  the  provincial  gov- 
ernment, which  also  contributes  to  the  sup- 
port of  the  poors'  asylum  and  the  city  hospi- 
tal in  Halifax.  The  number  of  convicts  in  the 
penitentiary  at  Halifax  at  the  close  of  1873  was 
27. — Nova  Scotia  has  a  system  of  free  pub- 
lic schools,  organized  in  1864.  The  schools 
are  under  the  general  supervision  of  the  pro- 
vincial superintendent  of  education  with  in- 
spectors for  the  several  counties,  and  are  im- 
mediately managed  by  boards  of  commission- 


524 


NOVA  SCOTIA 


ers  for  the  counties  and  of  trustees  for  the  dif- 
ferent sections  or  districts.  The  number  of 
schools  in  operation  during  the  summer  term 
ending  Oct.  81,  1874,  was  1,673 ;  number  of 
teachers,  1,744  (602  males  and  1,142  females) ; 
number  of  pupils  registered,  79,910;  average 
daily  attendance,  46,233 ;  number  of  different 
children  at  school  some  portion  of  the  year 
ending  on  the  above  date,  93,512  (48,604  males 
and  44,908  females) ;  number  of  school  sections, 
1,932,  of  which  210  had  no  school  any  por- 


tion of  the  year;  value  of  school  property, 
$830,926  41 ;  number  of  pupils  for  whom  ac- 
commodation is  provided,  88,258.  Included  in 
the  above  figures  are  10  county  academies, 
with  45  teachers  and  2,614  pupils  enrolled  du- 
ring the  year.  Aid  was  granted  from  the  pro- 
vincial treasury  to  four  special  academies,  hav- 
ing 14  teachers  and  370  pupils,  and  also  to 
Mount  Allison  male  and  female  academies  in 
New  Brunswick.  There  are  five  colleges,  as 
follows,  with  their  statistics  for  1874: 


NAME. 

Location. 

Date  of 
foundation. 

Denomination. 

Number 
of  in- 
structors. 

Number 
of 
students. 

Volumes  in 
library. 

Windsor 

1788 

Episcopal  . 

5 

17 

6400 

St  Mary's  college 

Halifax 

1840 

Roman  Catholic 

4 

46 

1  400 

Dalhousie  college  and  university 

Halifax  

1820 

Presbyterian  

7 

78 

1373 

Wolfville  

1837 

Baptist  

7 

89 

8417 

St  Francis  Xavier  college 

Antigonish. 

1855 

Roman  Catholic 

3 

41 

2\)96 

These  receive  small  grants  from  the  provincial 
treasury,  as  does  also  Mount  Allison  college 
in  New  Brunswick.  In  Dalhousie  university 
a  medical  department  was  organized  in  1868, 
which  in  1874  had  11  professors  and  29  stu- 
dents. In  Halifax  is  situated  the  theological 
department  of  the  college  of  the  Presbyterian 
church  of  the  lower  provinces  of  British  North 
America.  The  Halifax  school  of  medicine  was 
incorporated  in  1873.  The  provincial  normal 
and  model  schools  are  at  Truro.  The  number 
of  teachers  in  the  normal  school  in  1874  was 
4;  of  pupils,  118.  In  the  model  school  there 
were  9  teachers  and  about  550  pupils.  The 
census  of  1871  enumerates  five  young  ladies' 
boarding  schools,  with  146  pupils.  The  total 
expenditure  for  educational  purposes  in  1874 
was  $619,361  87,  viz. :  public  schools,  $552,- 
221  40;  normal  and  model  schools,  $4,733; 
special  academies,  $26,970;  colleges,  $35,337 
47.  Of  these  sums  $175,013  65  was  derived 
from  the  provincial  treasury,  viz. :  for  public 
schools,  $157,480  65;  for  normal  and  model 
schools,  $4,733;  for  special  academies,  $6,800; 
for  colleges,  $6,000.  Of  the  expenditure  for 
public  schools,  $107,301  39  was  derived  from 
county  tax  and  $287,349  30  from  taxation  in  the 
different  school  sections.  The  number  of  news- 
papers and  periodicals  published  in  the  province 
in  1874  was  38,  viz. :  4  daily,  5  tri-weekly,  24 
weekly,  1  bi-weekly,  and  4  monthly. — The  fol- 
lowing table  from  the  census  of  1871  gives  the 
number  of  churches,  buildings  attached,  and 
adherents  of  the  principal  denominations : 


DENOMINATIONS. 

Churches. 

Buildings. 

Adherents. 

Baptist 

234 

267 

73894 

Episcopal  

142 

193 

55124 

Methodist  

157 

196 

40871 

Presbyterian 

197 

222 

103539 

Roman  Catholic  

120 

182 

102001 

Miscellaneous  

47 

47 

12,871 

Total  

897 

1  107 

887  800 

Of  the  Baptists  19,032  were  Freewill  Baptists, 
and  of  the  Methodists  38,683  were  Wesleyans. 


Among  the  miscellaneous  are  included  4,958  Lu- 
therans, 2,538  Congregationalists,  1,555  Chris- 
tian Conference,  869  Adventists,  647  Univer- 
salists,  and  128  Bible  Believers.— Nova  Scotia 
is  said  to  have  been  discovered  by  the  Cabots 
in  1497;  but  the  first  attempt  to  colonize  it 
was  made  by  De  Monts  and  some  other  French- 
men, together  with  a  few  Jesuits,  in  1604. 
They  called  the  country  Acadia,  and  for  eight 
years  made  efforts  to  form  settlements  at  Port 
Eoyal  (now  Annapolis)  and  some  other  places ; 
but  they  were  at  length  expelled  by  the  colo- 
nists of  Virginia,  who  claimed  Nova  Scotia  by 
right  of  original  discovery.  In  1621  Sir  Wil- 
liam Alexander  obtained  a  grant  of  the  penin- 
sula from  James  I.,  and  in  the  patent  it  was 
called  Nova  Scotia.  Alexander's  intention  was 
to  colonize  the  country  upon  an  extensive  scale ; 
but  when  the  colonists  arrived,  in  1623,  they 
found  the  localities  where  they  intended  to  form 
settlements  already  occupied  by  foreign  adven- 
turers, and  returned  to  their  native  country. 
In  the  reign  of  Charles  I.  the  Nova  Scotia  bar- 
onets were  created.  They  were  not  to  exceed 
150  in  number,  and  were  in  fact  a  kind  of 
joint  stock  company  for  colonizing  the  country. 
(See  ALEXANDER,  WILLIAM.)  The  French  ob- 
tained a  footing  in  Nova  Scotia  a  second  time, 
and  were  not  subdued  till  Cromwell  sent  a 
strong  force  against  them  in  1654.  England 
ceded  the  country  to  France  by  the  treaty  of 
Breda  in  1667 ;  but  the  English  continued  from 
time  to  time  to  ravage  the  French  settlements, 
and  in  1713  Nova  Scotia  was  restored  to  them. 
For  some  years  it  was  much  neglected ;  but  in 
1748  efforts  were  made  to  colonize  it  by  emi- 
grants sent  out  at  the  expense  of  the  British 
government.  Some  4,000  settlers  and  their 
families  reached  the  colony  in  this  way,  and 
founded  the  town  of  Halifax.  The  French, 
who  were  still  numerous,  caused  considerable 
annoyance  and  loss  to  the  English  by  joining 
the  Indians  in  making  war  upon  them,  and 
they  were  at  length  mostly  expelled.  (See 
ACADIA.)  A  constitution,  with  an  elective  as- 
sembly, was  granted  to  Nova  Scotia  in  1758 ; 


NOVATIANS 


NOVATION 


525 


and  by  the  treaty  of  Paris  (1763)  France  re- 
nounced all  future  claim  upon  any  of  her  for- 
mer possessions  in  North  America.  The  same 
year  Cape  Breton  and  Prince  Edward  island 
were  annexed  to  Nova  Scotia,  but  the  latter 
was  separated  from  it  in  1770.  New  Bruns- 
wick and  Cape  Breton  were  separated  from 
Nova  Scotia  in  1784,  but  the  latter  was  rean- 
nexed  in  1819.  After  the  close  of  the  Ameri- 
can revolution  large  numbers  of  royalist  refu- 
gees from  the  United  States  settled  in  Nova 
Scotia,  and  their  descendants  now  form  a  large 
portion  of  the  population.  Eesponsible  gov- 
ernment was  introduced  in  1848.  In  1867 
Nova  Scotia  became  one  of  the  original  prov- 
inces of  the  Dominion  of  Canada. — See  "An 
Historical  and  Statistical  Account  of  Nova 
Scotia,"  by  Thomas  0.  Haliburton  (Halifax, 
1829) ;  "History  of  Nova  Scotia,"  &c.,  by  R. 
M.  Martin  (London,  1837);  "Geological  Sur- 
vey of  Nova  Scotia  and  Cape  Breton,"  by  D. 
Honeyman  (Halifax,  1864);  "Acadian  Geol- 
ogy," by  J.  W.  Dawson  (London,  1868)  ;  "  Se- 
lections from  the  Public  Documents  of  the 
Province  of  Nova  Scotia,"  by  Thomas  B.  Akins 
(Halifax,  1869) ;  and  "  The  Mineralogy  of  Nova 
Scotia,"  by  Henry  How  (Halifax,  1869). 

NOVATIANS,  a  schismatical  sect  which  origi- 
nated in  the  3d  century,  so  called  from  their 
founder  Novatian  (Novatianus).  He  was  a 
priest  at  Rome,  who  by  his  learning  and  elo- 
quence won  a  high  reputation.  It  has  been 
inferred  from  uncertain  data  that  he  professed 
the  stoic  philosophy  before  becoming  a  Chris- 
tian; and  he  was  distinguished  after  his  bap- 
tism by  his  rigid  ascetic  life.  He  held  that 
persons  who  had  committed  the  more  grievous 
sins,  and  especially  those  who  had  denied  their 
faith  during  the  Decian  persecution,  ought 
not  to  be  received  again  into  the  church.  One 
of  the  foremost  defenders  of  the  contrary 
opinion  was  the  priest  Cornelius,  who  in  250 
succeeded  Fabian  in  the  see  of  Rome.  Nova- 
tian, unable  to  prevent  his  election,  withdrew 
from  communion  with  him,  was  excommuni- 
cated by  a  council  held  at  Rome  in  251,  and 
was  almost  immediately  afterward  set  up  as 
a  rival  bishop  by  his  own  party.  He  tried 
in  vain  to  obtain  fellowship  with  the  great 
churches  of  Antioch,  Alexandria,  and  Car- 
thage, but  found  his  principal  coadjutor  in 
Novatus,  a  Carthaginian  priest,  known  by  his 
opposition  to  St.  Cyprian.  Though  differing 
widely  on  the  administration  of  public  penance, 
they  agreed  in  their  notions  about  the  consti- 
tution of  the  church.  According  to  Novatian, 
the  chief  character  of  the  true  church  is  purity 
and  holiness.  Every  church  society  that  toler-: 
ates  in  its  bosom  or  readmits  to  its  communion 
persons  who  by  gross  sins  have  broken  their 
baptismal  vows,  ceases  by  that  very  act  to  be  a 
true  Christian  church.  Hence  the  Novatians, 
considering  themselves  to  be  the  only  pure 
church,  called  themselves  ol  Kadapoi,  "  the  pure." 
They  also  held  that  members  are  made  impure 
by  outward  connection  with  the  impure  in  the 


same  communion,  and  that  the  ministerial 
powers  transmitted  in  the  hierarchy  are  lost 
by  the  same  cause.  The  sect  survived  its 
founder  about  three  centuries. 

NOVATION,  a  law  term  introduced  recently 
into  use  by  English  and  American  lawyers,  from 
the  Roman  civil  law.    It  may  be  defined  as  the 
creation  of  a  new  debt  or  contract  in  substitu- 
tion for  an  old  one.    It  differs  from  a  mere  re- 
newal, such  as  takes  place  when  A  renews  a 
credit  he  has  given  B,  or  receives  a  new  debt 
or  obligation  from  B  in  payment  of  an  old  one. 
To  a  novation  there  are  three  parties.    It  takes 
place  when  A  owes  B,  and  C  owes  A,  and  A 
transfers  to  B  in  payment  of  his  debt  C's  debt 
to  him,  A.     The  effect  of  this  is,  that  A  is  no 
longer  the  debtor  of  B  nor  the  creditor  of  C ; 
and  B  is  no  longer  the  creditor  of  A,  but  has 
become  the  creditor  of  C  ;  and  C  is  no  longer 
the  debtor  of  A,  but  has  become  the  debtor  of 
B.     In  the  civil  law,  the  new  contract  of  C  to 
pay  B,  and  the  discharge  of  A's  debt  to  B  by 
the  transfer  of  A's  claim  on  C,  would  be  re- 
garded as  different  forms  of  novation.    By  our 
law,  however,  it  is  one  thing,  and  the  whole 
transaction  forms  one  novation.     It  is  a  uni- 
versal principle  in  the  law  of  England  and  of 
this  country,  that  a  premise  can  "be  enforced 
at  law  only  when  it  is  founded  upon  a  consid- 
eration.    This  rule  is  applied  to  the  case  of 
novation ;  the  effect  of  it  is,  that  the  original 
liabilities  must  be  extinguished  and  discharged 
by  the  novation,  and  their  discharge  is  then  a 
sufficient  consideration  for  the  new  liabilities. 
Thus,  C  becomes  the  debtor  of  B  by  the  above 
described  novation;   and  when  B  claims  the 
debt  of  C,  the  consideration  on  which  the  claim 
can  be  upheld  is  the  fact  that  C's  debt  to  A  was 
discharged.     So  if  B  claims  the  debt  from  A, 
and  A  interposes  his  agreement  to  release  him, 
that  agreement  is  valid  only  because  B  has 
received  C's  debt  to  A  by  way  of  consideration 
for  his  release  of  A.    Thus  all  the  parts  of  this 
transaction  are  mutually  connected  and  depen- 
dent.    Hence,  an  order  by  a  creditor  to  his 
debtor,  directing  him  to  pay  the  debt  to  some 
one  to  whom  the  creditor  is  indebted,  operates 
as  the  substitution  of  a  new  debt  for  an  old 
only  when  the  order  is  accepted,  and  when  the 
original  creditor  of  him  who  drew  the  order 
has  agreed  to  receive  the  accepted  order  in 
payment  of  his  claim.     This  transaction  may 
be  oral  only,  none  of  the  promises  being  in 
writing,  because  C,  the  original  debtor  of  A, 
does  not  undertake  to  pay  A's  debt  to  B,  inas- 
much as  A's  debt  is  entirely  discharged  by  the 
novation;   but  C  contracts  a  new  debt  to  B. 
This  therefore  does  not  come  under  the  pro- 
vision of  the  statute  of  frauds,  requiring  that 
the  promise  to  pay  the  debt  of  another  should 
be  in  writing.     Hence,  also,  if  after  the  trans- 
action is  complete  C  wholly  fails  to  pay  B,  B's 
claim  against  A  does  not  revive,  for  the  reason 
that  A's  debt  to  B  was  wholly  discharged  ;  and 
this  is  reasonable,  because  C's  debt  to  A  was 
wholly  discharged,  and  therefore  A  would  have 


526 


NOVA  ZEMBLA 


NOVGOROD 


no  claim  over  on  C,  if  he,  A,  were  obliged  to 
pay  his  original  debt  to  B. 

NOVA  ZEMBLA  (Russ.  Novaya,  Zemlya,  new 
land),  several  closely  contiguous  islands  in  the 
Arctic  ocean,  directly  N".  of  the  boundary  line 
between  Europe  and  Asia,  and  stretching  N. 
N.  E.  and  S.  S.  W.  between  lat.  70°  30'  and 
77°  N.,  and  Ion.  51°  30'  and  67°  30'  E.,  with  a 
total  length  of  about  500  m.  and  an  estimated 
average  breadth  of  60  m.  The  territory  belongs 
to  Russia,  and  is  subject  to  the  government  of 
Archangel.  Nova  Zembla  is  separated  from 
the  island  of  Vaigatch,  which  lies  close  to  the 
mainland,  by  the  strait  of  Kara  (more  properly 
called  Burrough's  strait),  and  from  the  conti- 
nents of  Europe  and  Asia  by  the  sea  of  Kara. 
There  are  two,  or  at  most  three  large  islands, 
the  southernmost  of  which  is  bounded  N.  by  a 
navigable  but  narrow  strait  known  as  the  Ma- 
totchkin  Shar.  Still  further  N.,  Cross  bay  on 
the  W.  coast  has  been  supposed  to  be  the  en- 
trance to  a  strait  between  a  middle  island  and 
the  northern  portion  of  Nova  Zembla ;  but  the 
latest  explorations  indicate  that  this  supposi- 
tion is  incorrect,  and  it  is  probable  that  there 
are  but  two  large  islands  separated  by  Matotch- 
kin  strait,  the  northern  being  about  twice  as 
long  as  the  southern  island.  The  geological 
formation  of  Nova  Zembla  is  a  continuation  of 
the  Ural  system.  The  rugged  western  coast  is 
deeply  indented  by  the  sea,  and  is  bordered 
throughout  its  extent  by  mountains  which  at- 
tain an  elevation  of  from  1,000  to  2,000  ft. 
Several  loftier  peaks  are  known,  two  of  which 
in  the  vicinity  of  Matotchkin  strait  are  respec- 
tively 3,400  and  3,700  ft.  high.  In  the  north 
the  heights  do  not  approach  the  shore  so  close- 
ly ;  the  E.  coast,  although  lower,  is  also  fringed 
by  highlands.  The  soil  is  barren,  the  only 
vegetation  being  mosses  and  lichens,  and  in 
some  places  a  few  stunted  shrubs.  The  polar 
bear,  reindeer,  walrus,  and  fox  are  the  animals 
most  frequently  met  with.  The  mean  summer 
temperature  at  the  S.  extremity  is  35-51°,  and 
that  of  winter  3-21°.  It  has  been  observed 
that  a  comparatively  mild  temperature  pre- 
vails in  the  vicinity  of  the  Gulf  Stream  islands, 
a  barren  group  on  the  N.  W.  coast,  occupying 
a  locality  which,  as  is  inferred  from  accounts 
left  by  Barentz,  was  covered  by  18  fathoms 
of  water  in  1596.  Their  name  is  due  to  the 
supposition  that  they  lie  within  the  path  of 
the  warm  current  which  skirts  the  Norwegian 
coast.  The  islands  have  no  permanent  inhab- 
itants, but  are  visited  by  fishermen  and  hunters 
from  the  mainland. — Nova  Zembla  was  un- 
known to  the  navigators  of  western  Europe 
prior  to  the  voyage,  in  1556,  of  Stephen  Bur- 
rough,  subsequently  chief  pilot  of  England,  by 
whom  the  entrance  to  the  sea  of  Kara  was  dis- 
covered. In  1596-'7  the  Dutch  navigator  Wil- 
lem  Barentz,  with  16  men,  wintered  in  a  hut 
at  Ice  Haven  on  the  N.  E.  coast.  Although 
the  coasts  of  Nova  Zembla  have  been  ex- 
plored by  several  Russian  expeditions  during 
the  present  century,  its  N.  E.  extremity  was 


never  rounded  again  from  the  time  of  Barentz 
till  1871,  when  Elling  Carlsen,  a  Norwegian 
sloop  captain,  succeeded  in  reaching  Ice  Haven, 
where  he  found  the  house  formerly  occupied 
by  Barentz  still  standing,  and  obtained  from  it 
many  interesting  relics  in  a  remarkably  good 
state  of  preservation.  Oarlsen's  voyage  led 
also  to  the  discovery  that  the  position  of  the 
N.  E.  extremity  of  Nova  Zembla  had  been 
erroneously  laid  down  as  in  Ion.  73°  E.,  the 
actual  longitude  being  67°  30'  E. 

NOVELLO.  I.  Vincent,  an  English  organist  and 
composer,  of  Italian  descent,  born  in  London, 
Sept.  6,  1781,  died  in  Nice  in  September,  1861. 
At  the  age  of  16  he  became  organist  of  the 
Portuguese  chapel  in  London,  and  under  his 
direction  the  music  there  became  noted  for  its 
excellence.  He  was  one  of  the  original  foun- 
ders of  the  philharmonic  society  and  a  member 
of  the  royal  society  of  musicians.  He  com- 
posed largely,  but  without  inspiration.  His 
principal  claim  to  distinction  rests  on  the  ser- 
vice he  rendered  to  the  art  of  music  by  editing 
and  bringing  to  public  attention  a  vast  number 
of  classical  works  of  old  as  well  as  modern 
masters.  II.  Clara  Anastasia,  an  English  soprano 
singer,  daughter  of  the  preceding,  born  in  Lon- 
don, June  15,  1818.  She  studied  under  Choron 
in  Paris,  and  Moscheles  and  Costa  in  London. 
Her  debut  as  a  vocalist  was  made  in  1830  at  a 
benefit  concert  in  Windsor,  but  she  continued 
to  study  for  the  stage,  and  finally  appeared  in 
opera  in  1841  in  Milan,  Bologna,  and  other 
Italian  cities.  In  1843  she  appeared  at  Drury 
Lane  in  Pacini's  "Sappho."  Her  artistic  ca- 
reer, in  which  she  had  already  attained  a  highly 
honorable  position,  was  brought  substantially 
to  a  close  by  her  marriage  in  November,  1843, 
to  Count  Gigliucci  of  Fermo,  Italy,  though  she 
subsequently  appeared  at  times  in  public.  She 
took  formal  leave  of  her  profession  at  the  crys- 
tal palace  in  Handel's  "Messiah,"  and  gave  her 
last  concert  at  St.  James's  hall,  Nov.  26,  1860. 

NOVELS  (Novella  Constitutiones).  See  CIVIL 
LAW,  vol.  iv.,  p.  622. 

NOVEMBER  (Lat.  novem,  nine),  the  llth  month 
of  our  year,  and  the  9th  of  the  Roman  when 
their  calendar  was  first  founded.  It  was  one 
of  the  10  months  of  the  year  of  Romulus,  and 
consisted  originally  of  30  days,  which  number 
was  afterward  changed  to  29,  probably  by  the 
decemvirs.  Julius  Caesar  again  made  it  30 
days,  and  so  it  has  remained. 

NOVGOROD.  I.  A  N.  W.  government  of  Eu- 
ropean Russia,  bordering  on  Olonetz,  Vologda, 
Yaroslav,  Tver,  Pskov,  and  St.  Petersburg; 
area,  46,312  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1867,  1,016,414. 
The  principal  rivers  are  the  Msta,  which  enters 
the  government  from  Tver,  flows  N.  W.  and  S. 
W.,  and  falls  into  Lake  Ilmen ;  the  Lovat  and 
Polist,  which  fall  into  the  same  lake ;  the  Vol- 
khov, flowing  from  that  lake  into  Lake  La- 
doga ;  and  the  Sheksna  and  Mologa,  tributaries 
of  the  Volga.  There  are  three  large  lakes :  the 
Bielo  Ozero  (white  lake)  in  the  northeast,  about 
25  m.  long  and  20  m.  broad ;  Lake  Ilmen  in  the 


NOVGOROD 

southwest,  about  30  m.  long  and  16m.  broad ; 
and  Lake  Voshe  in  the  northeast,  about  15  m. 
long  and  10  m.  broad.  In  the  southwest  the 
Valdai  hills  enter  from  the  province  of  Pskov, 
and  stretch  N.  E.  They  are  a  limestone  range, 
nowhere  more  than  1,200  ft.  high.  The  sur- 
face of  Novgorod  is  covered  with  granite  bowl- 
ders, though  there  is  no  granite  in  situ  within 
the  province,  nor  in  any  of  those  adjoining. 
The  country  is  in  general  flat,  a  considerable 
portion  being  covered  with  lakes  and  marshes. 
The  soil  of  the  N.  portion  is  for  the  most  part 
swampy  and  of  a  poor  quality,  but  in  the  south 
it  is  good  and  productive.  The  climate  is  cold, 
and  the  winter  lasts  from  November  to  May. 
There  are  large  forests  of  pine,  fir,  beech,  birch, 


NOVICE 


527 


Millennial  Monument. 

alder,  and  elm.  The  principal  crops  are  rye, 
barley,  oats,  flax,  and  hemp.  The  forests  afford 
shelter  to  large  numbers  of  wild  animals,  and 
the  lakes  and  rivers  are  well  stocked  with  fish. 
Iron,  coal,  and  salt  are  found ;  and  limestone, 
sandstone,  and  gypsum  are  very  abundant. 
II.  A  town,  also  known  as  Novgorod  Veliki 
(Great),  capital  of  the  government,  on  the 
Volkhov,  near  the  point  where  it  issues  from 
Lake  Ilmen,  103  m.  S.  S.  E.  of  St.  Petersburg; 
pop.  in  1867,  16,722.  It  is  divided  into  two 
parts  by  the  Volkhov,  which  is  crossed  by  a 
fine  wooden  bridge  supported  on  granite  pil- 
611  VOL.  xii. — 34 


lars.  The  town  is  generally  ill  built.  It  con- 
tains a  large  number  of  churches,  including 
the  cathedral  of  St.  Sophia  in  the  Kremlin, 
built  after  the  model  of  St.  Sophia  in  Con- 
stantinople, and  several  monasteries.  The 
manufactures  consist  of  sail  cloth,  leather,  to- 
bacco, candles,  and  vinegar.  There  is  a  trade 
in  flax,  corn,  and  hemp,  carried  on  chiefly  with 
St.  Petersburg. — Novgorod  was  founded  about 
500  by  the  Slavs.  About  862  Rurik  here  laid 
the  foundation  of  the  Russian  monarchy,  the 
1000th  anniversary  of  which  was  celebrated  in 
1862,  and  a  magnificent  monument  was  erected 
in  commemoration  of  it.  The  seat  of  govern- 
ment was  afterward  removed  to  Kiev,  and  in 
the  12th  century  Novgorod  became  an  inde- 
pendent republic  under  a  hereditary  magis- 
trate of  limited  power.  Its  territory  extend- 
ed as  far  as  Siberia  on  the  east  and  Livonia  on 
the  west.  It  had  an  extensive  trade ;  one  of 
the  earliest  factories  of  the  Hanseatic  league 
was  established  at  Novgorod,  and  its  fairs  were 
resorted  to  by  traders  from  all  the  neighboring 
countries.  In  the  15th  century  the  population 
was  400,000 ;  but  in  1477  its  independence  and 
prosperity  were  destroyed  by  Ivan  III. 

NOVI,  a  town  of  Italy,  in  the  province  of  Ales- 
sandria, 24  m.  N.  by  W.  of  Genoa ;  pop.  about 
12,000.  It  is  walled,  and  has  broad  though 
irregular  streets,  and  a  handsome  square,  with 
a  fountain.  There  are  many  fine  villas  and 
palaces  belonging  to  opulent  Genoese  families, 
who  spend  the  autumn  here  on  account  of  the 
salubrious  climate.  It  is  famous  for  its  silk 
manufactures.  A  battle  was  fought  here,  Aug. 
15,  1799,  between  the  Russians  and  Austrians 
under  Suvaroff  and  the  French  under  Joubert, 
in  which  the  French  were  defeated  and  their 
commander  killed. 

JVOYIBAZAR,  or  Yenibazar,  a  town  of  Bosnia, 
on  the  S.  border  of  Servia,  120  m.  S.  E.  of 
Bosna-Serai;  pop.  about  15,000.  The  houses 
are  hardly  more  than  hovels,  and  the  ancient 
castle  is  dilapidated;  but  the  town  is  impor- 
tant on  account  of  its  central  situation,  and  for 
the  fertility  of  the  surrounding  country.  It 
has  annual  fairs,  which  are  largely  attended, 
and  is  the  prospective  terminus  of  an  impor- 
tant railway  line. 

NOVICE,  a  candidate  for  admission  into  a  re- 
ligious order  who  has  not  yet  taken  the  vows, 
but  is  passing  through  a  period  of  probation. 
Novices  must  have  attained  the  age  of  puberty, 
else  the  vows  taken  by  them  afterward  are 
invalid.  No  married  person  can  be  admitted 
except  by  the  consent  of  both  parties.  Chil- 
dren whose  labor  is  necessary  for  the  support 
of  their  parents  are  inadmissible,  as  well  as 
widows  and  widowers  whose  children  are  de- 
pendent on  them.  They  usually  wear  the  dress 
of  the  order,  with  perhaps  some  distinguishing 
mark,  as  in  certain  of  the  sisterhoods,  in  which 
their  veils  are  white  instead  of  black,  and  are 
subject  to  the  rules  and  the  authority  of  the 
superiors.  They  are  placed  under  the  direc- 
tion of  an  officer  of  the  convent,  called  the 


528 


NOVIKOFF 


NOTES 


master  or  mistress  of  novices,  whose  duty  it  is 
to  examine  their  characters  and  fitness  for  the 
religious  state,  and  to  try  their  strength  by  ex- 
posing them  to  the  most  serious  obstacles  to 
perseverance  which  they  are  likely  to  encoun- 
ter in  the  order.  The  period  of  probation, 
called  the  novitiate  or  noviceship,  must  be,  ac- 
cording to  the  council  of  Trent,  at  least  a 
year.  The  reformatory  regulations  published 
by  Pius  IX.  make  a  novitiate  of  two  years 
obligatory  in  almost  all  religious  orders.  The 
council  of  Trent,  session  25,  canon  17,  pre- 
scribed that  female  novices  after  the  expira- 
tion of  their  novitiate  should  return  to  their 
home  in  the  world,  and  be  carefully  examined 
by  the  bishop  of  the  diocese,  to  ascertain 
whether  they  are  under  constraint  or  decep- 
tion, that  they  are  fully  aware  of  the  duties 
and  privations  of  monastic  life,  and  that  they 
enter  it  with  freedom. 

NOVIKOFF,  Nikolai  Ivanovitch,  a  Russian  au- 
thor, born  at  Tikhvensk,  near  Moscow,  in  1744, 
died  there,  Aug.  11, 1818.  He  early  published 
"The  Painter,"  on  the  plan  of  the  "Specta- 
tor," which  acquired  popularity,  and,  in  con- 
junction with  his  biographical  work  on  Rus- 
sian authors  (St.  Petersburg,  1772),  attracted 
the  notice  of  Catharine  II.,  with  whose  con- 
sent he  established  a  typographical  society  at 
Moscow  for  the  circulation  of  cheap  books  and 
the  first  circulating  library  in  Russia ;  but  he 
was  obliged  to  leave  Moscow  on  account  of  his 
alleged  partiality  in  his  publications  for  the 
writings  of  French  philosophers  and  revolu- 
tionists. After  the  death  of  the  empress  in 
1 79  6,  he  received  permission  to  return.  Among 
his  works  is  a  collection  of  historical  docu- 
ments and  material,  entitled  "  The  Old  Russian 
Library"  (10  vols.,  St.  Petersburg,  l773-'5). 

NOVOGEORGIEVSK,  formerly  MODLIN,  a  town 
of  Poland,  in  the  government  and  19  m.  N. 
W.  of  the  city  of  Warsaw,  at  the  confluence  of 
the  Bug  with  the  Vistula;  pop.  in  1867,  9,886. 
It  is  strongly  fortified,  and  contains  a  citadel 
and  an  arsenal.  The  town  was  founded  by 
Napoleon  in  1809,  under  the  name  of  Modlin. 
The  present  name  was  adopted  by  the  Russian 
government  after  its  occupation  of  the  town 
in  1831.  It  held  out  against  the  Russians  from 
January  to  November,  1813,  when  it  surren- 
dered to  avoid  starvation.  The  revolted  Poles 
gained  possession  of  it  in  December,  1830,  and 
retained  it  till  after  the  fall  of  Warsaw  in  Sep- 
'tember,  1831. 

NOWELL,  Alexander,  an  English  clergyman, 
born  at  Readhall,  Lancashire,  in  1507,  died  in 
Oxford  in  J602.  He  was  educated  at  Oxford, 
was  admitted  fellow  of  Brasenose  college  in 
1540,  and  three  years  later  was  appointed  sec- 
ond master  of  Westminster  school.  He  took 
orders  in  1550,  and  became  prebendary  of 
Westminster  in  1551.  On  the  accession  of 
Queen  Mary  he  went  to  the  continent  to  escape 
persecution,  and  in  1554  was  at  Strasburg 
with  Jewel,  Grindal,  and  others.  In  the  dis- 
putes among  the  exiles  Nowell  took  moderate 


ground  and  favored  mutual  concessions.  Re- 
turning home,  he  became  dean  of  St.  Paul's  in 
1560.  He  was  chosen  prolocutor  of  the  low- 
er house  in  1563,  became  canon  of  Windsor 
in  1594,  and  principal  of  Brasenose  college 
in  1595.  He  published  Jewel's  "  Apology  " 
(1566) ;  but  his  principal  work  is  his  "  Cate- 
chism "  in  Latin,  Catechismus,  sive  prima 
Institutio  Disciplinaque  Pietatis  Christiana, 
Latine  explicata  (1570).  It  was  translated 
into  English,  and  into  Greek  by  W.  Whitaker. 
An  abridgment  (Oatechismus  Parvus)  was 
made  nearly  at  the  same  time,  and  also  trans- 
lated into  English. 

NOX  (Or.  N££),  in  classical  mythology,  the 
goddess  of  night,  the  daughter  of  Chaos  and 
sister  of  Erebus  (Darkness),  and,  according  to 
the  Hesiodic  theogony,  one  of  the  very  first 
created  beings.  By  her  brother  Erebus  she 
became  the  mother  of  ^Ether  (the  Air)  and 
Hemera  (Day),  and  she  is  said  to  have  given 
birth  without  any  husband  to  Thanatos  (Death), 
Dreams,  Momus,  the  Hesperides,  Nemesis,  and 
similar  beings.  In  later  poets  she  is  merely  the 
personification  of  the  darkness  of  night.  She 
is  represented  as  a  winged  goddess,  covered 
with  a  dark,  star-spangled  robe,  or  sometimes 
riding  in  a  chariot  accompanied  by  the  stars, 
and  holding  in  her  arms  the  gods  of  sleep  and 
death  as  two  boys. 

NOXUBEE,  an  E.  county  of  Mississippi,  bor- 
dering on  Alabama,  and  intersected  by  Noxu- 
bee  river ;  area,  about  700  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870, 
20,905,  of  whom  15,798  were  colored.  It  has 
a  nearly  level  surface  and  an  excellent  soil. 
The  Mobile  and  Ohio  railroad  passes  through 
Macon.  The  chief  productions  in  1870  were 
3,619  bushels  of  wheat,  516,155  of  Indian  corn, 
19,707  of  oats,  30,835  of  sweet  potatoes,  15,473 
bales  of  cotton,  69,044  Ibs.  of  butter,  and 
25,000  gallons  of  molasses.  There  were  1,511 
horses,  3,308  mules  and  asses,  3,131.  milch 
cows,  6,064  other  cattle,  2,570  sheep,  and 
19,196  swine;  1  cotton  factory,  10  flour  mills, 
and  3  saw  mills.  Capital,  Macon. 

NOTES,  George  Rapall,  an  American  clergyman, 
born  in  Newburyport,  Mass.,  March  6,  1798, 
died  in  Cambridge,  June  3,  1868.  He  grad- 
uated at  Harvard  college  in  1818,  studied  the- 
ology at  the  divinity  school  in  Cambridge,  was 
licensed  to  preach  in  1822,  and  was  ordained 
pastor  of  a  church  at  Brookfield,  Mass.,  in  1827, 
and  afterward  of  a  church  at  Petersham.  In 
1839  he  received  from  Harvard  college  the  de- 
gree of  D.  D.,  and  in  1840  was  chosen  Hancock 
professor  of  Hebrew  and  other  oriental  lan- 
guages, and  Dexter  lecturer  on  Biblical  litera- 
ture. His  works,  chiefly  in  the  department 
of  Hebrew  philology,  included  new  transla- 
tions of  the  book  of  Job  (1827),  the  Psalms, 
the  Prophets  (3d  ed.,  2  vols.,  1866),  Proverbs, 
Ecclesiastes,  and  Canticles  (1846),  and  a  new 
translation  of  the  New  Testament  published 
after  his  death  (1869). 

NOTES,  John  Humphrey,  an  American  perfec- 
tionist, born  in  Brattleboro,  Vt.,  Sept.  3, 1811. 


NOYON 

He  graduated  at  Dartmouth  college  in  1830, 
and  began  to  study  law  ;  but  his  attention  be- 
ing turned  to  religion,  he  studied  theology  at 
Andover  and  New  Haven,  and  was  licensed  to 
preach  in  1833.  In  1834  he  experienced  what 
he  called  a  "second  conversion,"  and  an- 
nounced himself  a  "  Perfectionist."  His  license 
to  preach  was  annulled,  and  he  began  to  teach 
his  new  faith  in  various  periodical  publications, 
which  have  become  merged  in  the  "  Oneida 
Circular."  He  has  also  published  a  number  of 
volumes,  of  which  "The  Berean,"  "The 
Second  Coming  of  Christ,"  "  Salvation  from 
Sin,"  "  Bible  Communism,"  "Male  Continence 
and  Scientific  Propagation,"  and  a  "History  of 
American  Socialisms,"  are  the  most  important. 
By  the  phrase  "  salvation  from  sin  "  he  and  his 
followers  understand  a  special  phase  of  reli- 
gious experience,  having  for  its  basis  spiritual 
intercourse  with  God,  which  may  proceed  so 
far,  even  in  this  life,  as  to  destroy  selfishness, 
and  so  make  an  end  of  sin.  He  holds  that 
while  a  community  such  as  those  he  has 
founded  may  contain  members  who  have  not 
reached  this  state,  without  a  working  majority 
of  persons  who  have  this  religion,  communism 
such  as  he  has  attempted  is  impossible.  The 
practical  application  of  his  doctrines  has  been 
made  in  the  two  communistic  societies  at 
Oneida,  N.  Y.,  and  Wallingford,  Conn.,  which 
in  1874  numbered  283  members  (238  at  Oneida 
and  45  at  Wallingford).  They  practise  com- 
munity of  women  as  well  as  of  goods,  main- 
tain the  equality  of  women  with  men  in  social 
and  business  life,  live  in  a  "  unitary  home,"  are 
engaged  in  various  manufactures,  and  in  1874 
owned  property  to  the  amount  of  half  a  mil- 
lion of  dollars.  They  are  thorough  farmers, 
have  two  well  fitted  printing  offices,  and  em- 
ploy many  persons  who  are  not  members. 

NOYON  (anc.  Nomomagus),  a  town  of  France, 
hi  the  department  of  Oise,  55  m.  IS.  E.  of  Paris ; 
pop.  in  1866,  6,498.  It  is  a  place  of  great  an- 
tiquity, and  was  the  birthplace  of  Calvin.  The 
cathedral  of  Notre  Dame,  built  by  Pepin  the 
Short,  enlarged  by  Charlemagne,  and,  after 
having  been  damaged  by  fire,  rebuilt  in  the 
12th  century,  is  one  of  the  best  specimens  of 
transition  architecture  in  France.  There  are 
several  other  fine  public  buildings,  among  which 
are  the  town  hall,  the  ancient  episcopal  palace, 
and  the  hospital.  There  are  manufactures  of 
cloth,  laces,  and  hosiery.  Charlemagne  was 
here  crowned  in  768,  and  Hugh  Capet  was  here 
chosen  king  in  987.  The  place  subsequently 
passed  through  many  vicissitudes.  In  1516  a 
treaty  was  concluded  here  by  Charles  V.  and 
Francis  I. — About  4  m.  E.  of  Noyon  is  the  vil- 
lage of  Salency,  with  a  palace  and  an  ancient 
church.  It  is  the  birthplace  of  St.  Medard, 
who  instituted  here  a  "  festival  of  roses," 
which  is  still  celebrated  by  crowning  the  most 
virtuous  maiden  of  the  village,  and  presenting 
her  with  a  sum  of  money. 

NUBIA,  a  country  of  Africa  and  dependency 
of  Egypt,  comprehending  in  its  widest  sense 


NUBIA 


529 


all  that  territory  which  is  bounded  N.  by  Up- 
per Egypt,  E.  by  the  Eed  sea,  S.  E.  and  S.  by 
Abyssinia  and  the  Dinka  country,  and  W.  by 
the  Sahara  and  a  narrow  slip  of  the  desert  which 
separates  it  from  Darfoor.  It  thus  extends  be- 
tween lat.  10°  and  24°  N.,  and  Ion.  28°  and  39° 
E.,  about  950  m.  in  length,  and  rather  more 
than  600  in  breadth ;  and  includes  Lower  Nu- 
bia, or  Nubia  proper,  from  the  limits  of  Egypt 
to  the  S.  boundary  of  the  province  of  Don- 
gola;  the  ancient  kingdom  of  Meroe,  on  the 
E.  bank  of  the  Nile  between  the  Atbara  and 
the  Bahr  el-Azrek  or  Blue  river ;  and  Sennaar, 
in  the  extreme  south.  The  territory  of  Kor- 
dofan  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Nile,  W.  of  Sen- 
naar, is  usually  regarded  by  geographers  as  a 
part  of  Nubia.  The  application  of  the  name 
Nubia  is  very  indefinite,  however,  being  re- 
stricted by  some  authorities  to  the  territory  E. 
of  the  Nile,  while  the  small  tract  between  Derr 
and  Dongola,  called  Nooba  or  Wady  Nooba,  is 
the  only  locality  to  which  the  natives  now  ap- 
ply the  word.  Lower  Nubia  consists  chiefly 
of  deserts,  extending  on  the  east  to  the  Red  sea, 
the  coast  of  which  is  here  bordered  by  a  range 
of  hills,  and  on  the  west  nearly  to  the  Sahara. 
Of  these,  the  largest  is  the  great  Nubian  desert, 
which  is  crossed  by  caravans  from  Korosko, 
near  Derr,  to  Abu  Hammed,  a  route  of  230  m., 
which  has  been  described  as  the  chord  of  the 
arc  made  by  the  great  western  bend  of  the 
Nile.  The  monotonous  scenery  of  this  burn- 
ing and  waterless  waste  of  sand  is  varied  by 
mounds  of  volcanic  slag  and  hills  of  black  ba- 
salt. The  Nile  itself  is  here  enclosed  by  moun- 
tain ranges  of  sandstone  and  granite,  which 
approach  close  to  the  banks  of  the  river,  leav- 
ing only  a  narrow  strip  of  land  along  the  wa- 
ter's edge.  The  northern  portion  of  Upper 
Nubia,  W.  of  the  Nile,  is  occupied  by  the  Ba- 
hiuda  desert ;  further  E.  in  the  river  valley  is 
Berber ;  and  above  the  mouth  of  the  Atbara,  the 
Meroe  of  antiquity  is  represented  by  the  town 
and  district  of  Shendy.  Beyond  Khartoom,  the 
Nubian  territory  embraces  Kordofan  on  the 
west  and  Sennaar  on  the  east,  the  latter  ex- 
tending to  the  10th  parallel  of  N.  latitude.  Up- 
per Nubia  is  a  well  watered  table  land  of  mod- 
erate elevation,  diversified  by  low  mountain 
ranges,  but  largely  consisting  of  vast  and  fer- 
tile though  neglected  plains,  some  portions  of 
which  are  artificially  irrigated  by  means  of  the 
oriental  water  wheel.  The  chief  geological 
formations  are  granite,  quartz,  and  mica  slate. 
—The  climate  of  Nubia  is  dry  in  the  north, 
comparatively  moist  in  the  south,  and  very  hot 
throughout  the  whole  country,  but  not  un- 
healthy. In  Lower  Nubia  the  annual  rainfall 
is  exceedingly  light,  but  further  up  the  Nile 
there  are  plentiful  showers  during  the  spring 
months.  In  May  the  temperature  of  the  air 
on  the  Nubian  desert  frequently  ranges  from 
108°  to  114°  F.  in  the  shade,  and  at  night  the 
mercury  not  uncommonly  falls  more  than  30 
degrees.  The  cool  season  extends  from  No- 
vember to  February.  The  doum  palm  is  one 


530 


NUBIA 


of  the  most  important  vegetable  products  of 
the  country,  forming  as  it  does  a  source  of  food 
for  the  desert  tribes  of  Arabs,  who  seek  its 
fruit  in  the  vicinity  of  the  rivers  during  sea- 
sons of  drought  and  scarcity.  The  grain  most 
commonly  cultivated  in  Nubia  is  durra  (sor- 
ghum andropogori),  of  which  there  are  many 
varieties.  It  is  planted  in  July  and  harvested 
in  February  or  March.  The  stalk  attains  a 
height  of  7  and  even  10  ft.,  and  the  kernels 
are  about  as  large  as  hemp  seed.  The  durra 
flour  is  made  into  unleavened  bread.  Barley, 
beans,  lentils,  melons,  pumpkins,  and  tobacco 
are  also  grown.  The  soil  in  many  districts  is 
peculiarly  adapted  to  the  cultivation  of  cotton, 
but  the  prevalence  of  official  extortion  exerts  a 
depressing  effect  upon  the  agricultural  develop- 
ment of  the  country.  The  domestic  animals 
of  the  Nubians  are  cattle,  sheep,  goats,  dogs, 
and  the  common  fowl.  They  possess  a  few 
camels,  and  in  Dongola  there  is  a  fine  breed  of 
horses.  Hippopotami  and  crocodiles  frequent 
the  rivers,  in  the  neighborhood  of  which  are 
also  found  hyaenas  and  herds  of  giraffes.  Ga- 
zelles are  met  with  in  the  desert  and  among 
the  eastern  mountains,  and  baboons  descend 
from  Abyssinia  into  Nubian  territory.  Fish 
and  turtles  are  obtained  from  the  Nile  tribu- 
taries by  the  natives.  The  manufactures  of 
Nubia  are  limited  to  the  weaving  of  coarse  cot- 
ton and  woollen  cloths,  and  the  construction  of 
various  articles  of  household  use  from  the 
'leaves  of  the  date  tree.  The  exports  comprise 
grain,  honey,  musk,  ebony,  leeches,  and  ivory. 
The  inhabitants  of  Nubia  are  a  handsome  mulat- 
to race  of  dark  brown  complexion,  bold,  frank, 
cheerful,  and  morally  much  superior  to  the 
Egyptians.  They  live  in  low  huts  built  of 
mud  or  loose  stones,  roofed  with  durra  straw ; 
in  the  larger  towns  and  villages,  however, 
many  of  the  houses  are  better  built.  The 
largest  Arab  tribe  of  the  country,  the  Bishareen 
Arabs,  dwell  in  Lower  Nubia,  in  the  region 
of  the  Atbara.  The  extensive  monumental 
ruins  that  stand  along  the  banks  of  the  Nile 
constitute  one  of  the  most  remarkable  fea- 
tures of  Nubian  scenery.  (See  NILE.) — The 
name  Nubia  is  supposed  to  have  originated 
in  Egypt,  where  the  word  nob  or  nub,  sig- 
nifying gold,  was  applied  to  those  countries 
whence  the  precious  metal  was  brought.  In 
the  early  Greek  and  Eoman  writers  there  is 
occasional  mention  of  Nubia,  but  no  particular 
information  concerning  it.  In  the  reign  of 
Diocletian,  however,  a  tribe  known  as  the 
Nubse  or  Nubatae  inhabited  the  region  adjoin- 
ing Egypt  on  the  south,  and  were  granted  a 
considerable  area  of  territory  near  the  first 
cataract  of  the  Nile,  upon  their  engagement  to 
protect  that  country,  then  a  Eoman  province, 
from  invasion  by  the  Ethiopians.  These  people 
reappear  in  history  under  the  name  of  Noo- 
bas,  at  the  time  of  the  Moslem  invasion  of 
Egypt  in  the  7th  century,  when  they  consti- 
tuted a  powerful  Christian  nation  whose  capi- 
tal was  at  Dongola.  They  remained  tributary 


NUCLEOBRANCHIATE8 

to  the  Mohammedan  conquerors  of  Egypt, 
though  frequently  revolting  and  as  often  sub- 
dued, until  the  14th  century,  when  the  power 
of  the  king  of  Dongola,  who  with  all  his  os- 
tensible allegiance  to  Egypt  had  been  virtually 
independent,  seems  to  have  been  overthrown. 
Christianity  was  extinguished  by  repeated 
Arab  invasions,  and  the  country  became  di- 
vided into  a  number  of  small  Mohammedan 
states  governed  by  independent  chiefs.  Among 
these  were  Dongola,  Berber,  and  Shendy.  In 
1821  Mehemet  Ali,  the  pasha  of  Egypt,  sent  an 
expedition  against  Nubia,  overcame  the  prin- 
cipal states,  and  finally  extended  his  conquests 
as  far  as  the  frontiers  of  Abyssinia.  Ever 
since  that  period  the  country  has  remained  in 
subjection  to  the  Egyptian  rulers.  Sir  Samuel 
Baker  and  the  German  traveller  Schweinfurth 
represent  the  present  conditions  of  Nubia  as 
unfavorable  to  prosperity.  Of  late  years  tax- 
ation has  increased  while  production  has  di- 
minished, and  the  consequent  scarcity  and  dis- 
tress have  led  to  the  emigration  of  large  num- 
bers of  the  inhabitants. 

NIBLE,  an  inland  province  of  Chili,  border- 
ing on  the  provinces  of  Maule  and  Concep- 
cion,  and  separated  from  the  Argentine  Repub- 
lic by  the  Andes ;  area,  3,700  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in 
1872,  128,182.  It  occupies  the  central  plain 
and  the  western  slopes  of  the  Cordillera,  forest- 
clothed  branches  from  which  intersect  the 
province,  dividing  it  into  pleasant  and  fertile 
valleys.  It  is  watered  by  affluents  of  the  river 
Itata,  one  of  which  is  the  Nuble,  flowing  near 
the  capital.  The  products  embrace  all  the 
cereals,  and  a  great  variety  of  fruits  and  vege- 
tables; cattle  and  horses  are  reared  in  large 
numbers ;  and  several  kinds  of  excellent  wine 
are  made.  The  province  comprises  the  two  de- 
partments of  Chilian  and  San  Carlos,  which  be- 
fore 1848  belonged  respectively  to  the  provinces 
of  Concepcion  and  Maule.  Capital,  Chilian. 

NUCKOLLS,  a  S.  county  of  Nebraska,  border- 
ing on  Kansas,  and  intersected  by  the  Repub- 
lican and  Little  Blue  rivers ;  area,  576  sq.  m. ; 
pop.  in  1870,  8.  The  surface  consists  mostly 
of  undulating  and  fertile  prairies. 

MJCLEOBRANOHIATES,  an  order  of  gasteropod 
mollusks,  so  named  by  De  Blainville  because 
the  respiratory  and  digestive  organs  form  a 
kind  of  nucleus  on  the  posterior  part  of  tne 


Carinaria.— p,  proboscis;  t,  tentacles;  6,  branchiae;  «,  shell; 
/,  foot;  d,  disk. 

back ;   they  have  been  called  by  subsequent 
writers  lieteropoda,  the  foot  being  divided  into 


NUDIBRANCHIATES 

a  ventral  fin,  sucker,  and  terminal  fin.  Though 
they  are  regarded  as  the  most  highly  organized 
of  the  gasteropods,  their  form  and  mode  of 
progression  are  very  different  from  the  type  of 
their  class.  They  are  rapid  swimmers,  found 
at  the  surface  in  mid  ocean,  moving  by  their 
fin-shaped  foot  and  tail,  and  attaching  them- 
selves to  seaweed  by  the  sucker.  The  abdom- 
inal portion  is  small,  the  anterior  parts  being 
greatly  developed ;  the  proboscis  is  large  and 
cylindrical,  and  the  tongue  armed  with  spines ; 
from  their  transparency,  the  irregular  circula- 
tion can  be  plainly  seen.  Some  have  no  spe- 
cial breathing  organs ;  the  sexes  are  separate ; 
the  nervous  centres  are  widely  separated ;  the 
eyes  and  auditory  vesicles  are  well  developed. 
In  \hzf,rolidcB  the  body  is  large  and  the  shell 
small  or  absent ;  in  the  atlantidce,  the  animal 
can  retire  within  the  shell.  In  carinaria,  a 
good  specimen  of  the  group,  the  gills  and  heart 
are  protected  by  a  small  shell ;  it  swims,  back 
downward,  by  means  of  its  vertically  flattened 
ventral  fin ;  it  feeds  on  minute  pteropods  and 
jelly  fishes.  .Many  species  are  found  fossil,  and 
the  Maclurea,  one  of  the  oldest  and  largest  of 
the  Silurian  forms,  belongs  in  this  order. 

NIDIBRANCHIATES.     See  MOLLUSOA. 

NIECES,  a  S.  county  of  Texas,  bordering  on 
the  gulf  of  Mexico,  and  bounded  N.  by  the 
Nueces  river;  area,  3,450  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870, 
3,975,  of  whom  332  were  colored.  Between 
the  mainland  and  the  Isla  del  Padre,  a  narrow 
strip  of  land  extending  along  the  coast,  is  the 
Laguna  del  lifadre.  Corpus  Ohristi  bay  is  on 
the  N.  E.  corner,  and  the  county  is  indented 
by  other  bays  and  lagoons.  These  waters  fur- 
nish excellent  fish  and  oysters  in  abundance. 
It  has  an  undulating  but  nearly  level  surface, 
and  the  soil  is  a  rich  sandy  loam,  and  very 
fertile.  The  seasons,  however,  are  too  dry 
for  agriculture.  The  county  is  well  adapted 
to  the  raising  of  sheep.  In  1870  it  produced 
3,600  bushels  of  Indian  corn,  and  199,650  Ibs. 
of  wool,  and  contained  18,304  horses,  675 
mules  and  asses,  1,911  milch  cows,  177,270 
other  cattle,  82,368  sheep,  and  1,783  swine. 
Capital,  Corpus  Christi. 

NUEVA  GUATEMALA.    See  GUATEMALA. 

NTEVA  SPARTA,  or  Margarita,  an  island  in  the 
Caribbean  sea,  off  the  coast  of  Venezuela,  of 
which  it  is  a  province ;  length  about  45  m., 
breadth  from  5  to  20  m. ;  area,  441  sq.  m. ; 
pop.  about  21,000.  It  consists  of  two  por- 
tions, connected  with  each  other  by  a  low  and 
narrow  isthmus.  The  surface  is  rocky  and 
mountainous,  especially  toward  the  west,  where 
it  attains  an  elevation  of  3,000  ft.  above  the 
sea.  The  coast  is  rugged  and  precipitous,  but 
is  indented  with  excellent  harbors,  the  chief 
of  which,  Pampatar,  on  the  S.  E.  coast,  is  a 
spacious  basin,  deep  and  well  sheltered.  The 
interior  is  fertile,  producing  maize,  bananas, 
sugar,  coffee,  and  cacao.  It  was  formerly 
celebrated  for  its  pearl  fishery ;  but  the  pearls 
are  now  less  abundant,  smaller,  and  of  inferior 
quality.  It  was  discovered  by  Columbus  in 


NUISANCE 


531 


1498,  and  in  1816  was  the  scene  of  a  sanguinary 
struggle  between  the  patriots  and  the  Spanish 
troops,  which  resulted  in  the  defeat  of  the  lat- 
ter. Capital,  Asuncion. 

NUEVO  LEON,  an  inland  state  of  Mexico, 
bordering  on  Coahuila,  Tamaulipas,  and  San 
Luis  Potosi ;  area,  14,363  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1869, 
174,000,  but  reported  by  the  governor  in  1872 
at  178,871.  The  surface  is  very  irregular, 
being  traversed  by  several  branches  of  the 
Sierra  Madre ;  and  about  one  fourth  belongs 
to  the  great  central  table  land  of  Mexico.  Ex- 
tensive valleys,  divided  between  forest,  pasture 
land,  and  cultivated  fields,  lie  between  the 
mountains,  and  are  intersected  by  numerous 
rivers.  Most  of  these  have  precipitous  courses, 
and  none  are  navigable.  Among  the  more 
considerable  are  the  Salado,  separating  the 
state  from  Coahuila,  the  Sabinas,  Salinas, 
Santa  Catalina,  San  Juan,  Ramos,  Pilon, 
Linares,  and  Blanco ;  besides  which  there  are 
numberless  mountain  torrents,  and  several 
small  lakes.  The  mineral  productions  com- 
prise gold,  silver,  copper,  lead,  iron,  and  cin- 
nabar ;  sulphur,  nitrate  of  potash,  several 
varieties  of  sulphate  of  lime,  alabaster,  and 
marble  are  found ;  and  salt  is  very  abundant, 
but  not  yet  worked  to  much  extent.  Sulphur 
and  thermal  springs  are  common,  particular- 
ly in  the  vicinity  of  Monterey  and  Morelos. 
The  climate  is  hot,  humid,  and  insalubrious 
in  the  lowlands  and  some  of  the  valleys,  where 
malignant  and  intermittent  fevers  prevail; 
temperate  in  the  elevated  regions ;  and  varied 
in  the  hill  country  of  the  centre.  The  soil 
is  in  general  fertile,  but  suffers  from  want 
of  irrigation.  The  principal  productions  are 
maize,  usually  yielding  three  crops  annually, 
and  the  sugar  cane,  with  some  beans  (frijoles), 
and  a  little  wheat  and  barley.  Mining  is  car- 
ried on  to  a  limited  extent ;  and  cotton -cloths, 
hats,  furniture,  leather,  and  boots  and  shoes, 
all  of  excellent  quality,  are  extensively  manu- 
factured. In  the  weaving  establishments, 
some  of  which  have  steam  power,  about  5,000 
workers  are  employed.  The  annual  value  of 
the  sugar  manufactured  is  about  $300,000. 
Cattle  rearing,  once  an  important  industry,  is 
comparatively  neglected.  In  1873  there  were 
in  the  state  104  public  schools,  85  of  which 
were  for  males,  with  an  attendance  of  5,222, 
and  19  for  females,  with  1,220  pupils;  106 
private  schools,  75  being  for  males  and  31  for 
females,  the  former  with  2,408  pupils,  and  the 
latter  with  982 ;  and  a  civil  college,  a  semi- 
nary, and  a  college  for  females,  with  312,  63, 
and  65  pupils  respectively.  Nuevo  Leon,  in 
colonial  times  called  the  kingdom  of  Nuevo 
Leon,  is  divided  into  nine  partidos  or  districts  : 
Monterey,  Cadereita,  Villaldama,  Salinas,  Vic- 
toria, Doctor  Arroyo,  Garcia,  Morelos,  Cerral- 
vo,  and  Linares.  The  capital  is  Monterey ;  other 
chief  towns  are  Cadereita,  Linares,  and  Morelos. 

NUISANCE  (formerly  written  nusance ;  law 
Fr.  nosuunce,  noysaunce,  from  noier,  modern 
Fr.  nuire,  to  injure;  Lat.  nocumentum,  from 


532 


NUISANCE 


noceo,  annoyance,  anything  that  works  hurt, 
inconvenience,  or  damage).  Nuisance  cannot 
be  well  defined  in  specific  terms.  Not  only 
are  the  rights  which  it  affects  themselves  rath- 
er indefinite,  but,  including  as  the  offence  does 
both  private  and  public  injuries,  it  is  applied 
as  well  to  those  immediate  wrongs  to  individ- 
uals which  can  hardly  be  distinguished  from 
trespass,  as  to  those  remote  offences  against 
the  public  order  and  welfare  in  which  no  one 
member  of  the  community  can  show  greater 
damage  than  any  other.  More  than  this,  the 
offence  of  nuisance  is  rarely  direct  and  aggres- 
sive, but  the  injury  in  which  it  consists  is  rath- 
er the  consequential  than  the  immediate  effect 
of  the  wrong  act. — A  familiar  division  of  nui- 
sances is  that  into  public  or  common  and  pri- 
vate. The  former,  says  Blackstone,  are  those 
which  affect  the  public  and  are  an  annoyance 
to  the  king's  subjects,  for  which  reason  we 
must  refer  them  to  the  class  of  public  wrongs. 
Private  nuisance  may  be  defined  as  anything 
done  to  the  hurt  or  annoyance  of  the  lands, 
tenements,  or  hereditaments  of  another,  as 
when  one  projects  the  eaves  of  his  own  build- 
ing over  the  roof  of  that  of  his  neighbor,  or 
stops  his  ancient  lights ;  or  the  nuisance  may 
affect  incorporeal  hereditaments,  as  when  one 
ploughs  up  the  road  in  which  I  have  a  right  of 
way  across  another's  land.  It  will  be  seen  that 
these  illustrations  of  private  nuisance  approach 
very  nearly  to  the  offence  of  trespass.  Of  the 
first,  indeed,  Blackstone  expressly  says  it  is  a 
species  of  trespass,  for  cujus  est  solum,  ejus  est 
usque  ad  cesium,  he  who  possesses  the  land 
possesses  also  that  which  is  above  it ;  and  the 
last  is  the  case  of  infringement  of  a  right  which, 
though  not  corporeal,  is  yet  clearly  determined. 
Yet,  however  much  cases  like  these  may  re- 
semble trespass  and  differ  from  public  nuisance, 
they  cannot  be  ranked  with  the  former,  for 
they  lack  some  of  its  technical  elements,  as,  for 
example,  the  direct  application  of  force,  which 
is  the  criterion  of  trespass ;  and  they  may  be 
well  enough  ranked  with  the  latter,  because 
they  have  so  much  in  common  with  it.  Nui- 
sance, then,  whether  private  or  public,  is  rath- 
er a  tortious  than  a  criminal  act.  It  is  not 
committed  with  force,  either  actual  or  implied. 
The  injury  of  it  arises  rather  from  misuse  of 
one's  own,  than  from  abuse  of  or  aggression 
on  another's  right ;  and  it  is  therefore  indirect 
or  remote,  as  distinguished  from  actual  inva- 
sion of  another's  property.  It  would  be  tres- 
pass, that  is,  *a  plain  infringement  of  another's 
right,  to  enter  without  his  permission,  express 
or  implied,  upon  his  land  or  into  his  house ; 
but  it^  is  less  clear  that  an  offence  has  been 
committed  when  one  complains  that  his  neigh- 
bor has  injured  him  by  erecting  a  building  so 
near  him  as  to  darken  his  windows,  or  by  keep- 
ing a  swine  yard  so  near  as  to  lessen  his  com- 
fortable enjoyment  of  life.  The  nuisance  is  by 
so  much  less  clear  than  the  trespass,  as  the 
rights  which  the  complainant  sets  up  in  the 
former  cases  are  less  nicely  marked  than  those 


tangible  ones  of  corporeal  property  which  are 
invaded  by  the  trespass.  So  in  respect  to  pub- 
lic nuisance,  the  offence  consists  in  an  encroach- 
ment on  common  rights  of  the  whole  society, 
which,  from  their  nature,  are  determined  with 
very  various  degrees  of  certainty.  If  one  ob- 
structs the  public  highway,  the  case  is  clear ; 
but  it  is  not  quite  so  evident  that  a  bowling 
alley  is  a  public  nuisance,  and  it  may  require 
a  legislative  act  to  show  that  to  keep  liquors 
for  sale  is  an  offence  of  the  same  character. 
The  public  wrong  differs,  too,  in  different  com- 
munities. One,  for  instance,  may  legally  carry 
on  an  offensive  trade  in  an  uninhabited  tract 
of  country,  but  he  is  guilty  of  a  public  nuisance 
if  he  exercises  it  in  the  midst  of  a  town.  In- 
deed, when  any  use  even  of  one's  absolute 
rights  diminishes  the  general  welfare,  it  be- 
comes misuse  of  them  and  nuisance.  In  re- 
spect to  public  nuisance,  it  is  to  be  further 
observed,  that  as  the  legislature  represents  the 
whole  society  and  is  the  particular  custodian 
of  the  public  welfare,  no  act  which  it  author- 
izes can  be  declared  a  public  nuisance.  This 
has  been  so  held  in  respect  to  railways  laid  in 
the  streets  of  cities  under  legislative  charters; 
and  in  the  case  of  a  railroad,  the  locomotives 
on  which  frightened  the  horses  of  passengers 
along  a  parallel  highway,  it  was  declared  to  be 
no  nuisance,  because  the  public  benefit  may  be 
supposed  to  have  been  regarded  by  the  legisla- 
ture as  sufficient  compensation  for  the  incon- 
venience. Yet  any  abuse  or  excess  of  the  priv- 
ileges thus  granted  intrudes  on  the  domain  of 
public  rights,  and  is  a  nuisance  to  them. — A 
good  criterion  of  nuisance  was  suggested  by 
the  court  in  an  English  case  in  the  following 
language :  "Is  the  inconvenience  one  of  mere 
delicacy  and  fastidiousness,  or  does  it  interfere 
with  the  ordinary  physical  comfort  of  human 
existence,  not  merely  according  to  elegant  or 
dainty  modes  of  living,  but  according  to  plain, 
sober,  and  simple  notions  ? "  Public  nuisances, 
says  a  commentator  upon  the  criminal  law 
(Bishop),  may  be  defined  as  all  those  acts  put 
forth  by  man,  which  tend  to  create  evil  conse- 
quences to  the  community  at  large,  and  are  of 
sufficient  magnitude  to  require  the  interposi- 
tion of  the  courts.  They  are,  then,  injuries  to 
that  aggregate  of  rights  which  constitutes  the 
well-being  of  society.  All  acts  therefore  which 
imperil  the  public  safety  or  health,  or  disturb 
the  public  convenience,  are  indictable  as  com- 
mon nuisances.  Such  acts  are  the  keeping  of 
gunpowder  in  mills  or  magazines  in  a  danger- 
ous manner,  near  the  dwellings  of  citizens  or 
near  a  public  highway,  or  carrying  on  offensive 
trades  in  populous  places ;  and  it  is  not  neces- 
sary that  this  affect  the  health ;  it  is  sufficient, 
said  Lord  Mansfield,  if  it  lessen  the  enjoyment 
of  life.  So  it  is  an  indictable  offence  to  expose 
a  person  infected  with  a  contagious  disease  in 
a  public  street.  With  regard  to  offensive  trades, 
it  was  formerly  held  to  be  the  rule  that  if  one 
had  been  for  a  long  time  carried  on  in  a  locali- 
ty remote  from  habitations,  those  who  after- 


NUISANCE 


NULLIFICATION 


533 


ward  came  to  dwell  in  the  vicinity  had  no 
ground  to  complain  of  the  nuisance.  But  late 
cases  hold  what  seems  to  be  better  doctrine,  to 
wit,  that  no  one  can  have  a  right  to  use  his 
own  land  so  as  to  render  that  about  him  in  any 
degree  useless.  His  enjoyment  must  have  ref- 
erence to  the  rights  of  others,  and  be  subordi- 
nate to  the  general  laws  which  have  been  de- 
vised for  the  common  benefit.  So  it  was  held 
in  respect  to  a  bathing  place  in  England.  When 
it  was  urged  in  defence  that  it  had  been,  time 
beyond  memory,  the  resort  of  bathers,  the 
court  said  that,  the  neighborhood  having  lately 
become  thickly  populated,  the  ancient  enjoy- 
ment of  the  beach  must  cease ;  for  whatever 
place  may  become  the  dwelling  of  men,  there 
the  laws  of  decency  must  be  observed.  All  in- 
juries to  the  highway,  as  obstructions  of  it,  or 
narrowing  it,  which  render  it  less  commodious 
to  the  public,  are  nuisances  at  common  law. 
One  has  been  held  to  be  indictable  who,  by  ex- 
hibiting effigies  in  his  window,  attracted  such 
crowds  to  look  at  them  as  to  hinder  free  pas- 
sage along  the  road.  As  it  disturbs  the  public 
order,  that  is  a  common  nuisance  which  cor- 
rupts the  morals  of  the  community.  Profane 
cursing  and  swearing  in  public  is  indictable  as 
a  nuisance.  So  are  open  lewdness,  disorderly 
inns,  and  bawdy  and  gaming  houses. — The 
remedies  for  nuisances  vary  with  the  character 
of  the  injury.  For  a  private  wrong  there  is  a 
private  remedy  by  civil  suit,  and  for  a  public 
wrong  a  public  remedy  by  indictment;  but 
never  a  private  action  for  a  public  mischief, 
nor  a  public  prosecution  for  a  private  injury. 
Compensation  for  a  private  nuisance  is  sought 
therefore  by  private  action ;  but  in  the  case  of 
a  public  nuisance,  though  each  member  of  the 
society  is  in  fact  wronged,  yet  no  one  may 
have  a  private  suit.  Thus  if  A  dig  a  trench 
across  the  highway,  the  act  is  a  public  griev- 
ance ;  but  no  individual  can  make  the  offence 
a  cause  of  action,  for  no  one  can  ascertain  his 
particular  proportion  of  the  damage ;  and  even 
if  he  could,  it  would  be  highly  inexpedient  that 
the  offender  should  be  pursued  by  the  separate 
suits  of  all  the  citizens.  But  if  B  fall  into  the 
trench  and  sustain  particular  damage,  this  will 
give  him  cause  of  separate  action,  not  founded 
at  all  upon  the  nuisance,  for  that  is  matter  of 
public  concern,  but  upon  the  private  damage 
which  the  public  wrong  has  caused  him  par- 
ticularly. In  other  words,  A's  tortious  act, 
though  immediately  a  public  offence,  has  yet 
wrought  consequentially  the  same  injury  to  B 
which  a  direct  personal  trespass  would  have 
wrought.  For  what  we  may  call  B's  public 
right  of  free  passage  along  the  highway  he  has 
no  right  of  individual  action,  but  must  join 
with  the  whole  body  politic  in  a  public  pros- 
ecution.— He  whose  rights  are  prejudiced  by 
a  private  nuisance  may  abate  it,  that  is,  may 
remove  it  by  destroying,  if  need  be,  the  cause 
of  nuisance ;  and  as  a  public  nuisance  injures 
equally  all  the  members  of  the  society,  it  has 
been  laid  down  that  any  one  of  these  has  the 


right  to  and  may  legally  abate  it.  Thus,  says 
a  text  writer  of  authority,  if  any  one  whose 
estate  is  prejudiced  by  a  private  nuisance  actu- 
ally erected,  may  justify  the  entering  into  an- 
other's ground  and  pulling  down  and  destroy- 
ing such  nuisance,  it  cannot  but  follow  a  for- 
tiori that  any  one  may  lawfully  destroy  a  com- 
mon nuisance.  But  it  is  also  the  law  in  respect 
to  private  nuisance,  that  one  may  abate  so 
much  and  only  so  much  as  is  a  direct  injury 
or  nuisance  to  him  individually ;  and  this  will 
appear  reasonable  when  it  is  remembered  that 
it  is  just  this  direct  injury  which  gives  and 
measures  the  right  of  private  suit.  In  private 
nuisance,  then,  one  may  abate  as  he  may  have 
his  civil  action,  in  both  cases  for  the  special 
injury.  Now  in  respect  to  public  nuisance  we 
have  seen  that  the  law  permits  no  individual 
citizen  to  prosecute  the  public  wrong,  but 
limits  him  to  a  private  action  for  his  private 
damage.  By  analogy  with  the  case  of  private 
nuisance,  it  would  seem  that,  in  respect  to 
public  nuisance,  the  right  of  individual  action 
should  measure  the  right  of  individual  abate- 
ment ;  that  is  to  say,  that  an  individual  would 
be  privileged  to  abate  a  public  nuisance,  not  as 
such  and  merely  because  it  existed,  but  only 
when,  and  so  far  as,  it  interfered  with  his  in- 
dividual rights;  in  short,  that  he  might  abate 
in  those  cases  only  in  which  he  might  have 
a  separate  action.  This  is  the  doctrine  of  the 
recent  English  and  American  cases. — The  rem- 
edies at  law  can  at  most  only  abate  or  afford 
compensation  for  existing  nuisances,  but  are 
ineffectual  to  restrain  or  prevent  those  which 
are  threatened.  There  is  therefore  a  jurisdic- 
tion in  equity  over  nuisance,  by  process  of  in- 
junction ;  but  the  jurisdiction  will  be  exercised 
only  when  the  fact  of  nuisance  is  clearly  made 
out,  and  when  it  is  proved  that,  from  the  na- 
ture of  the  case,  the  injury  is  not  susceptible 
of  adequate  compensation  at  law. 

MUTTER,  the  anagram  of  CHAELES  LOTJIS 
ETIENNE  TEUINET,  a  French  dramatist,  born  in 
Paris,  April  24,  1828.  He  became  archivist  of 
the  opera,  and  his  vaudevilles  are  very  popu- 
lar, especially  La  perruque  de  mon  oncle  (1852), 
and  Un  coup  tfeventail  (1869).  He  has  written 
libretti  for  OUron  and  Preciosa  (1857),  Romeo 
et  Juliette  (1859),  Tannhduser  (1860),  Macbeth 
(1865),  Le  docteur  Crispin  (1869),  Laprincesse 
de  Trebizonde  (1869),  Le  Icolold,  acd  other 
operas,  chiefly  those  of  Offenbach ;  and  he  has 
prepared  several  ballets. 

NtKAHIVA.     See  MAEQTIESAS  ISLANDS. 

NUKHA,  a  walled  town  of  Asiatic  Russia,  in 
the  Transcaucasian  government  and  60  m.  N. 
E.  of  the  city  of  Elisabethpol ;  pop.  in  1872, 
23,371.  It  consists  of  a  Tartar  and  an  Arme- 
nian town.  Inside  the  fortress  is  a  Greek  or- 
thodox church.  The  W.  part  of  the  town 
forms  the  settlement  of  Tzarabad,  noted  for 
the  production  and  manufacture  of  silk,  which 
have  been  carried  on  here  for  several  centuries. 

NULLIFICATION,  the  refusal  of  a  state  to  per- 
mit an  act  of  the  federal  congress  to  be  exe- 


534: 


NTJMANTIA 


NUMIDIA 


cuted  within  its  limits.  The  Kentucky  resolu- 
tions of  1798  declared  the  constitution  to  he  a 
compact;  that  "to  this  compact  each  state  ac- 
ceded as  a  state,  and  is  an  integral  party ;  that 
the  government  created  by  this  compact  was 
not  made  the  exclusive  or  final  judge  of  the 
powers  delegated  to  itself,  but  that,  as  in  all 
other  cases  of  compact  among  parties  having 
no  common  judge,  each  party  has  an  equal 
right  to  judge  for  itself,  as  well  of  infractions 
as  of  the  mode  and  measures  of  redress."  To 
this  it  was  added  by  the  resolutions  of  1799 
that  "  a  nullification  by  those  sovereignties  [the 
states]  of  all  unauthorized  acts  done  under 
color  of  that  instrument  [the  constitution]  is 
the  rightful  remedy."  The  election  of  Mr. 
Jefferson  to  the  presidency  in  1800  took  away 
all  occasion  for  any  more  distinct  assertion  of 
the  doctrine  at  that  time ;  but  in  the  contro- 
versy over  the  tariff  near  the  close  of  the  ad- 
ministration of  John  Q.  Adams,  Virginia  reas- 
serted the  right  of  each  state  to  construe  the 
federal  constitution  for  itself;  and  in  1832 
South  Carolina  undertook  to  give  the  doctrine 
practical  effect  by  an  ordinance  adopted  by  a 
delegate  convention  chosen  for  the  purpose, 
which  declared  the  tariff  acts  of  congress  to  be 
null  and  void,  forbade  the  collection  of  duties 
within  the  state,  required  all  persons  holding 
office  under  the  state  to  take  an  oath  to  sup- 
port the  ordinance  on  pain  of  vacating  their 
offices,  pledged  the  people  of  the  state  to 
maintain  the  ordinance  and  not  to  submit  to 
force,  and  declared  any  acts  of  the  general 
government  to  enforce  the  tariff  or  to  coerce 
the  state  to  be  inconsistent  with  her  longer 
continuance  in  the  Union,  and  that  she  would 
forthwith  proceed  to  organize  a  separate  gov- 
ernment. This  ordinance  was  met  by  a  proc- 
lamation of  President  Jackson  in  which  he  de- 
clared that  "  the  power  to  annul  a  law  of  the 
United  States,  assumed  by  an  individual  state, 
is  incompatible  with  the  existence  of  the 
Union,  contradicted  expressly  by  the  letter  of 
the  constitution,  unauthorized  by  its  spirit,  in- 
consistent with  every  principle  on  which  it 
was  founded,  and  destructive  of  the  great  ob- 
jects for  which  it  was  formed,"  and  pledged 
himself  at  all  events  to  execute  the  laws.  This 
threatening  controversy  was  for  the  time  al- 
layed by  the  compromise  of  Mr.  Clay;  but 
when  dissatisfaction  with  federal  affairs  again 
led  to  its  practical  assertion,  the  states  did  not 
stop  at  the  nullification  of  particular  laws,  but 
proceeded  at  once  to  declare  their  relations 
with  the  Union  at  an  end.  (See  CALHOUN, 
JOHN  C. ;  CLAY,  HENRY  ;  HAYNE,  ROBERT  Y. ; 
JACKSON,  ANDREW  ;  and  WEBSTER,  DANIEL. 
See  also  CONFEDERATE  STATES.) 

NUMANTIA,  an  ancient  city  of  Spain,  capital 
of  the  Arevaci,  supposed  to  have  been  in  His- 
pania  Tarraconensis,  on  the  present  site  of 
Puente  de  Don  Guarray,  on  the  Douro,  3  m. 
N.  of  Soria,  Old  Castile.  It  was  the  most  im- 
portant place  in  all  Celtiberia.  After  the  fall 
of  Carthage  (146  B.  0.),  the  Numantines  re- 


solved not  to  surrender  to  the  Romans,  and 
defeated  in  succession  (140-137)  Quintus  Pom- 
peius,  Popillius,  Mancinus,  and  Lepidus,  who 
were  sent  against  them.  Finally,  Scipio  Afri- 
canus  the  younger  besieged  them  with  60,000 
men.  The  Numantines,  who  numbered  no 
more  than  4,000  men  able  to  bear  arms,  held  out 
for  14  months,  when,  their  provisions  being  ex- 
hausted and  their  sources  of  supply  cut  off,  they 
set  fire  to  their  houses  and  killed  their  wives, 
their  children,  and  themselves  (133  B.  C.). 

NUMA  POMPILICS,  an  ante-historical  king  of 
Rome.  After  the  death  of  Romulus  there  was 
an  interregnum  of  a  year,  each  of  the  senators 
in  turn  enjoying  the  regal  prerogative ;  but  the 
people  soon  demanded  the  election  of  a  king. 
When  the  senate  had  given  its  consent,  a  dis- 
pute arose  between  the  Sabines  and  Romans  as 
to  which  people  the  sovereign  should  be  taken 
from ;  and  when  it  was  agreed  that  he  should 
be  selected  from  among  the  Sabines,  Numa 
Pompilius,  of  the  town  of  Cures,  was  unani- 
mously chosen.  His  first  care  was  the  reforma- 
tion of  the  civil  institutions.  He  divided  the 
lands  which  Romulus  had  gained  by  conquest, 
founded  the  worship  of  Terminus,  the  god  of 
boundaries,  and  divided  the  artisans  according 
to  their  trades  into  nine  companies.  He  was 
considered  the  author  of  the  Roman  ceremonial 
law.  He  regulated  the  duties  of  the  pontiffs, 
who  had  charge  of  the  enforcement  of  the  laws 
relating  to  religion,  the  augurs,  the  flamens, 
the  vestal  virgins,  and  the  Salii,  and  prescribed 
the  rites  of  worship.  He  reigned  39  years,  and 
in  all  that  time,  as  Livy  relates,  there  were  no 
wars,  famines,  or  plagues.  He  was  buried 
under  the  Janiculum  hill.  At  his  death  the 
nymph  Egeria,  who  had  been  his  guide  and 
counsellor  through  life,  melted  away  in  tears, 
and  was  changed  into  a  fountain.  According 
to  popular  tradition  he  derived  much  of  his 
knowledge  from  Pythagoras,  which  critics  re- 
gard as  an  anachronism.  The  sacred  books  of 
Numa  were  said  to  have  been  buried  near  him, 
and  to  have  been  discovered  500  years  after- 
ward (181  B.  C.). 

NUMBERS,  one  of  the  canonical  books  of 
the  Old  Testament,  and  the  fourth  of  the  five 
books  of  Moses.  It  is  called  in  the  Hebrew 
canon  Bemidbar,  "in  the  desert,"  from  a 
leading  word  in  the  first  verse  of  the  opening 
chapter,  and  describes  the  numbering  of  the 
children  of  Israel,  the  continuation  of  the  laws 
given  to  Moses  in  the  wilderness  of  Sinai,  the 
march  through  the  wilderness,  the  rejection  of 
a  whole  generation,  and  the  entrance  into  the 
land  of  Canaan.  Historically  it  comprehends 
a  period  of  38  years,  opening  with  the  second 
month  of  the  second  year  after  the  exodus; 
but  it  is  chiefly  confined  to  the  first  and  last  of 
these  years.  For  all  questions  relating  to  the 
authorship  and  authenticity  of  the  book,  see 
PENTATEUCH. 

MIIIDLV.  an  ancient  country  of  northern 
Africa,  corresponding  nearly  to  the  modern 
Algeria.  In  early  times  the  country  was  oc- 


NUMISMATICS 


535 


cupied  by  tribes  from  whose  nomadic  mode  of 
life  it  is  supposed  to  have  received  its  name 
(Gr.  No//a&'a,  or  rj  No^a^/c^).  Among  the  prin- 
cipal towns  were :  Hippo  Regius  (now  Bona), 
the  capital  of  the  Massylians ;  Oirta  (Constan- 
tine),  the  residence  of  Masinissa ;  Zama,  famous 
for  the  final  defeat  of  Hannibal  in  202  B.  0. ; 
Csesarea  (Cherchell),  which  at  a  later  period 

fave  name  to  Mauritania  Csesariensis ;  and 
iga,  the  capital  of  Syphax.  The  Numidians 
were  famous  as  horsemen.  When  the  Romans, 
during  the  second  Punic  war,  first  entered  into 
relations  with  the  Numidians,  the  Massylians 
were  the  principal  tribe  E.  of  the  Ampsaga 
(now  Wad  el-Kebir),  and  the  Massaesylians  W. 
of  it.  Masinissa,  the  son  of  Gala,  a  king  of 
the  former,  having  allied  himself  with  the  Ro- 
mans, after  various  struggles  became  master 
also  of  the  possessions  of  Syphax,  the  rival 
king  of  the  Massaesylians,  and  in  a  long  reign 
made  the  united  kingdom  powerful  and  pros- 
perous. Of  his  three  sons,  who  according  to 
his  will  divided  the  country  after  his  death 
(148  B.  0.),  Mastanabal  and  Gulussa  died  soon 
after,  and  the  kingdom  was  reunited  by  Mi- 
cipsa,  who  died  in  118,  bequeathing  his  posses- 
sions to  his  sons  Adherbal  and  Hiempsal,  and 
to  his  nephew  Jugurtha.  The  first  two  soon 
fell  victims  to  the  treachery  of  Jugurtha,  who 
himself  ended  his  life  in  a  dungeon  at  Rome 
(104).  Numidia  was  bestowed  by  the  con- 
querors on  Hiempsal  II.,  a  prince  of  royal 
blood,  whose  son  and  successor  Juba,  having 
fought  with  the  adherents  of  Pompey  against 
Caasar,  shared  in  their  defeat  at  Thapsus  (46), 
and  died  by  his  own  hand.  Numidia  was 
made  a  Roman  province,  and  its  western  part 
was  annexed  to  Mauritania.  Augustus  restored 
Juba  II.  to  his  father's  kingdom,  but  subse- 
quently made  him  king  of  Mauritania  and  the 
land  between  the  Malva  and  Saldae,  converting 
the  territory  between  the  latter  river  and  the 
Tusca  into  a  Roman  province.  Another  part 
between  the  Saldse  and  the  Ampsaga  being 
annexed  to  Mauritania  under  Claudius,  the 
eastern  division,  also  called  New  Numidia  or 
Numidia  Proper,  formed  a  province  of  the 
later  empire. 

NUMISMATICS  (Lat.  numisma,  a  coin),  the 
science  of  coins  and  medals.  It  has  no  rela- 
tion to  the  value  of  coins  as  a  circulating  me- 
dium, but  only  to  the  history  of  coins  and 
medals  in  all  ages  and  countries,  and  the  study 
of  history  as  illustrated  by  their  images  and 
superscriptions. — A  coin  is  a  piece  of  metal 
bearing  an  impressed  device,  and  designed  for 
circulation  as  money.  A  medal  is  a  large  piece 
of  metal  struck  with  one  or  more  dies,  intend- 
ed to  commemorate  some  event,  and  not  de- 
signed for  circulation.  A  medallion  is  now 
generally  understood  to  be  synonymous  with  a 
medal.  A  medallet  is  a  small  medal,  and  usu- 
ally but  not  necessarily  of  inferior  workman- 
ship. A  token  is  a  small  medal,  usually  but 
not  always  of  the  same  size  with  the  current 
coin  of  the  country  in  which  it  is  struck,  and 


issued  for  purposes  of  private  individuals.  The 
obverse  of  a  coin  or  other  piece  is  that  side 
which  bears  the  portrait  or  principal  design 
indicating  the  country,  nation,  or  object  for 
which  it  was  struck.  The  other  side  is  the  re- 
verse. The  head  or  portrait  on  a  piece  is  said 
to  face  to  the  right  or  left  with  reference  to 
the  beholder's  right  or  left  hand.  When  the 
design  on  a  specimen  varies  in  any  decided 
characteristic  from  one  already  known,  while 
the  general  object  and  purpose  is  manifestly 
the  same,  this  is  said  to  constitute  a  new  type. 
When  the  variation  is  very  slight,  as  in  the 
size  of  the  lettering  or  the  distance  between 
letters,  it  is  classed  as  a  variety.  Proofs  are 
coins  or  medals  struck  from  the  original  die  as 
it  leaves  the  hands  of  the  die  cutter,  and  are 
thus  distinguished  from  specimens  struck  with 
dies  which  have  been  reproduced  by  pressure 
from  the  original  dies.  Pattern  or  mint  pieces 
are  coins  struck  in  any  mint  and  proposed  for 
adoption  in  the  coinage  of  a  country,  but  not 
adopted  in  the  year  of  their  first  manufacture. 
The  abbreviations  ATI.  or  AV.,  AR.,  and  M. 
signify  respectively  aurum,  gold,  argentum,  sil- 
ver, and  ces,  brass  or  copper.  Electrum,  a  na- 
tive alloy  of  silver  and  gold,  was  also  used 
in  ancient  times  for  coins.  The  term  billon 
denotes  a  debased  silver  used  in  some  coinage. 
Brass  was  used  for  coin  in  ancient  times,  and 
is  frequently  used  in  modern  times  for  tokens 
and  medallets.  Potin  is  a  softer  alloy  than 
billon.  The  field  on  a  coin  or  medal  is  the 
open  space  not  occupied  by  a  device  or  inscrip- 
tion. The  exergue  is  variously  understood  as 
the  open  space  outside  the  figure  and  inscrip- 
tions, or  as  the  portion  of  that  space  below  the 
main  device,  and  distinctly  separated  from  it. 
Strictly,  the  exergue  only  belongs  to  the  re- 
verse of  a  coin,  but  in  America  this  distinction 
is  not  preserved.  The  legend  is  usually  under- 
stood to  be  any  inscription  other  than  the 
name  of  the  monarch  or  personage  represented 
on  the  coin  or  medal.  The  inscription  includes 
any  legend,  names,  titles,  &c.  A  mint  mark  on 
a  coin  is  the  private  mark  placed  on  it  by  the 
mint  to  indicate  genuineness,  or  the  place  of 
coinage,  or  for  some  other  purpose.  The  size 
of  coins  or  medals  is  measured  among  numis- 
matists by  arbitrary  scales.  In  Europe  Mion- 
net's  scale  is  generally  used.  In  America  a  scale 
of  sixteenths  of  an  inch  is  much  in  use,  and  a 
medal  of  size  24  is  24  sixteenths  of  an  inch  in  di- 
ameter across  its  face. — Most  of  the  principal 
cities  of  Europe  have  valuable  numismatic  col- 
lections, the  most  important  of  which  are  those 
of  Paris,  London,  St.  Petersburg,  Berlin,  Mu- 
nich, Vienna,  Copenhagen,  Stockholm,  Flor- 
ence, and  Madrid.  The  oldest  coin  extant'  is 
considered  by  high  authority  to  be  a  specimen 
of  the  gold  stater  of  the  Ionian  city  of  Miletus, 
now  in  the  British  museum,  of  about  800  B.  C. 
It  has  a  lion's  head  on  the  obverse,  and  a  rude 
indented  punch  mark  on  the  reverse.  But 
Herodotus  says  that  the  Lydians  were  the  first 
to  coin  gold,  and  by  some  authorities  the  gold 


536 


NUMISMATICS 


coins  found  in  the  ruins  of  Sardis  are  believed 
to  antedate  the  Ionian  specimen.  The  most 
ancient  type  represents  the  mythical  triumph 


FIG.  1.— Gold  Stater  of  Miletus. 

of  the  lion  over  the  bull,  typical  of  the  triumph 
of  royal  authority  over  its  enemies.    The  Per- 


FIG.  3.— Persian  Gold  Daric. 


FIG.  2.— Gold  Stater  of  Sardis. 

sian  stater  or  daric  was  also  coined  at  a  very 
early  period.    It  bore  the  royal  emblem,  a 
crowned      archer. 
The   oldest    silver 
coins    extant    are 
those  of  the  island 
of  ^Egina,  bearing 
a  tortoise   on  the 
obverse.    Those  of 
the  first  period  are 
very  rude,  with  ir- 
regular punch  marks  on  the  back ;  in  the  sec- 
ond period  the  punch  holes  are  more  regular, 
and  in  the  third 
the    tortoise     is 
more      elaborate 
and    the    punch 
holes      have      a 
decided  tendency 
toward     symme- 
try.     A  marked 
feature     in     the 
history  of    coin- 
age is  the  passage 
through  the  successive  stages  of  improvement 
in  the  punch  holes  on  the  reverse.    The  first 


FIG.  4.— Silver  Coin  of  ^Egina, 
First  Period. 


FIG.  5.— Silver  Coin  of  ^Egina,  Third  Period. 

improvement  was  to  give  the  end  of  the 
punch  some  rude  design,  as  in  the  coin  of 
the  Corinthian  colony  of  Syracuse,  fig.  6.  The 
next  advance  was  to  make  the  punch  cor- 
respond to  the  die,  which  produced  a  coin 
with  a  design  in  relief  on  one  side  and  an 
incused  impression  of  the  same  design  on 


the  other.  The  coins  of  Tarentum  in  Magna 
Graecia  are  fine  examples  of  this  class,  some 
of  which  are  as  early  as  600  B.  C.  Sometimes 


FIG.  6.— Coin  of  Syracuse. 

the   incused  reverse  differs  in  design  from 
the  obverse.    Coins  with  both  obverse  and  re- 


FIG.  7.— Incused  Coin  of  Tarentum. 

verse  in  relief  were  made  in  Magna  Grsecia 
about  610  B.  C.,  and  this  form  came  into 
general  use  previous  to  400  B.  C.  One  of  the 
oldest  known  coins  bearing  the  name  of  a 
sovereign  is  inscribed  AAE2ANAPO,  the  name 
of  Alexander  I.  of  Macedon,  who  reigned 
from  about  500  to  454  B.  C.  Coins  of  Ge- 
tas,  king  of  the  Edoneans,  bear  in  addition  to 
the  name  the  title  of  king  and  the  name  of 
the  people.  The  first  devices  on  coins  were 
generally  the  forms  of  animals,  local  genii, 
river  gods,  nymphs,  and  the  like.  Portraits 
do  not  appear  until  the  time  of  Archelaus  I. 
of  Macedon  (413-399  B.  C.) ;  but  some  doubt 
that  the  face  on  his  coins  is  a  portrait,  and 
contend  that  no  human  head  was  impressed 
on  a  coin  until  after  the  death  of  Alexander 
the  Great,  whose  head  was  then  admitted  as  in 
some  sort  that  of  a  divinity.  To  the  Greeks 
belongs  the  credit  of  bringing  the  art  of  coin- 
ing to  perfection;  and  although  modern  art 
has  invented  new  processes  which  secure 
greater  uniformity,  the  most  elaborate  coins 
of  the  present  day  dp  not  surpass  those  of  the 
Macedonian  empire  in  boldness  and  beauty  of 
design.  The  spread  of  the  art  was  very  rapid. 
There  was  scarcely  a  colony  of  Greece,  and 
certainly  no  independent  nation,  which  did  not 
have  its  coinage.  More  than  1,000  series  of 
Greek  autonomous  coins,  or  coins  of  self-gov- 
erning cities,  are  extant.  There  are  also  the 
splendid  series  of  the  Parthian  kings,  the  Mace- 
donian, Armenian,  Bactrian,  Syrian,  Thracian, 
Bithynian,  Cappadocian,  Carian,  the  Ptolemaic 
series  of  Egypt,  and  numerous  others,  all  in- 
cluding large  varieties  extending  through  many 
years,  sometimes  through  centuries,  and  all 


NUMISMATICS 

distinct  from  those  of  the  Eoman  empire  and 
its  dependencies.  For  a  long  time  before  the 
establishment  of  the  empire,  and  even  after 
its  beginning,  family  names  and  devices  were 
used  on  the  coins  of  the  various  parts  of  the 
Eoman  dominions.  These  family  coins,  which 
are  sometimes  called  consular  coins,  because 
the  names  of  most  of  the  consuls  appear  on 
them,  constitute  a  very  large  and  important 
series,  containing  the  names  of  a  great  num- 
ber of  the  Eoman  families,  both  patrician  and 
plebeian.  The  imperial  coinage  is  also  a  superb 
series,  in  which  are  preserved  the  portraits  of 
the  emperors,  and  many  interesting  and  valu- 
able records.  Numismatists  are  accustomed  to 
class  the  gold,  silver,  and  copper  or  brass  coin- 
age distinctly,  dividing  the  latter  into  first, 
second,  and  third  classes,  according  to  size. 
Another  series  is  that  called  the  imperial  Greek, 
issued  by  Greek  cities  subjected  to  Eome,  and 
which  generally  bear  the  portrait  of  the  reign- 
ing emperor,  with  his  name  and  titles  in  Greek. 
The  Eoman  colonial  coins,  the  most  of  which 
were  issued  in  Spain,  also  form  a  distinct  class, 
generally  marked  by  the  abbreviation  col.  for 
colonia.  In  the  eastern  empire  the  coinage 
became  very  rude,  and  in  mediaeval  times  the 
art  had  so  declined  that  the  coins  of  Europe 
and  the  East  of  that  period  are  little  better 
than  the  earliest  form  of  Ionian  coinage. — The 
Chinese  are  said  to  have  coined  the  bronze 
pieces  called  cash,  having  a  square  hole  in  the 
centre,  about  1120  B.  C. ;  but  according  to  the 
best  authorities  there  is  no  certainty  of  the 
existence  of  any  genuine  specimens  older  than 
247  B.  C.  The  Hindoo  or  Indian  coinage  is  of 
early  origin,  but  the  date  is  unsettled.  There 
are  square  copper  coins  with  a  Pali  legend, 
which  are  conjectured  to  be  of  the  3d  century 
B.  C.,  but  the  earliest  certain  dates  are  about 
100  B.  0.  The  Hebrews  had  no  coin  of  their 
own  until  the  time  of  the  Maccabees,  when  Si- 
mon, by  virtue  of  the  permission  in  the  decree 
of  Antiochus  (1  Mace.  xv.  6),  issued  the  she- 
kel and  the  half  shekel,  with  such  inscriptions 
as  "Shekel  Israel,"  "Jerusalem  the  Holy," 
and  "  Simon  prince  of  Israel."  This  coinage 
seems  not  to  have  been  continued  after  the 
time  of  the  Maccabees.  These,  with  some 
small  brass  coins  of  the  Herods,  Archelaus, 
and  Agrippa,  and  a  doubtful  coin  attributed 
to  Bar-Cokheba,  the  leader  in  the  last  rising 
against  the  Eomans,  are  the  only  coins  of 
Judea  which  are  extant.  The  Arabic  series  of 
coins  begins  with  the  successors  of  Mohammed 
in  the  7th  century.  They  usually  have  a 
sentence  from  the  Koran  on  the  reverse,  and 
the  name  of  the  caliph  on  the  obverse,  but 
never  a  portrait  of  the  caliph.  (For  the  series 
of  British  coins,  see  MONEY  ;  and  for  American 
colonial  coins  and  those  of  the  United  States, 
see  COINS.) — The  issue  of  medals  seems  to  have 
been  a  very  early  custom.  Many  of  the  largest 
pieces  of  ancient  coin  so  called  are  more  cor- 
rectly to  be  considered  as  medals,  struck  for 
prizes  in  the  games,  or  in  commemoration  of 


NUMMULITE 


537 


great  events.  The  Eoman  series  of  medals  or 
medallions  is  very  extensive  in  gold,  silver,  and 
brass  or  copper.  The  gold  medals  begin  with 
Constantine,  and  continue  to  the  fall  of  the 
empire ;  the  silver  begin  under  Gallienus,  and 
continue  as  long ;  the  copper  from  Augustus 
to  Alexander  Severus.  In  more  modern  times 
the  art  of  medal  making  has  been  brought 
to  great  perfection,  and  most  of  the  principal 
nations  have  adopted  the  plan  of  preserving 
their  history  by  these  durable  monuments. 
The  French  series  is  deserving  of  special  men- 
tion as  the  most  perfect  and  complete  in  the 
world.  It  commences  under  Louis  XI.  and 
continues  to  the  present  date,  illustrating  every 
important  event  in  the  history  of  France.  The 
English  series  commences  under  Henry  VIII., 
but  as  works  of  art  the  medals  have  not  high 
rank.  The  British  battle  medals  form  an 
admirable  series.  The  Italian  and  German 
medals  of  modern  date  are  very  fine ;  the  me- 
diaeval are  interesting  and  bold  in  design,  but 
rude  in  execution.  The  papal  series,  com- 
mencing with  Paul  V.,  are  worthy  of  the  col- 
lector's attention.  One  of  the  earliest  Amer- 
ican medals  is  that  presented  to  Gen.  John 
Armstrong  for  his  successful  attack  in  1756  on 
the  Indians  at  Kittanning.  Several  were  pre- 
sented to  officers  of  the  army  and  navy  during 
the  revolution,  most  of  which  were  struck  in 
France.  Those  struck  since  the  establishment 
of  the  mint  have,  it  is  believed,  all  been  made 
at  the  mint.  This  is  certainly  true  of  all  from 
the  beginning  of  the  war  of  1812  to  the  pres- 
ent time. — Many  counterfeit  coins  and  medals 
exist,  of  both  ancient  and  modern  manufac- 
ture. The  Greek  forgers  were  very  skilful, 
and  produced  many  fine  imitations  of  coins, 
some  of  which  are  still  found  in  as  perfect 
a  state  as  the  originals.  The  Eoman  forged 
money  was  mostly  cast.  Among  the  most  skil- 
ful of  modern  forgers  were  Giovanni  Cavino 
and  Alessandro  Bassiano  of  Padua,  who  pro- 
duced so  many  false  coins  that  all  such  are 
generally  termed  Paduans.  Benvenuto  Celli- 
ni did  not  disdain  this  employment.  Devrieux 
and  Weber  in  Florence,  Carteron  in  Holland, 
Congornier  in  Lyons,  Laroche  in  Grenoble, 
and  Caprara  in  Smyrna  were  among  the 
chief  counterfeiters,  and  their  coins  command 
high  prices  as  curiosities.  American  colonial 
coins  have  been  very  skilfully  made  in  New 
York,  and  rare  dates  are  often  found  carefully 
altered  from  common  years. — See  Eckhel's  Doc- 
trina  Numorum  Veterum  (9  vols.  4to,  Vien- 
na, 1792-1826) ;  Mionnet's  Description  des  me- 
dailles  antiques  grecs  et  romaines,  &c.  (18  vols. 
8vo,  Paris,  1806-'39);  and  Prime's  "Coins, 
Medals,  and  Seals,"  &c.  (4to,  New  York,  1861). 

NTMITOR.     See  EOMTJLUS. 

NUMMULITE,  a  large,  coin-shaped,  foraminif- 
erous  protozoan,  living  in  immense  numbers 
in  the  seas  of  the  eocene  tertiary  epoch,  and 
constituting  strata  sometimes  several  thousand 
feet  thick.  The  so-called  nummulitic  lime- 
stone extends  from  the  London,  Paris,  and 


538 


NUNCIO 


NUREMBERG 


Mediterranean  basins  eastward  to  China,  and 
is  made  up  almost  entirely  of  these  thin  disk- 
shaped  fossils.  The  pyramids  of  Egypt  are  built 


Nummulites  laevigatus. 

partly  of  this  limestone,  and  the  nummulites 
in  them  were  noticed  by  Herodotus.  These 
fossils  are  also  abundant  in  the  eocene  of  our 
southern  states.  (See  FOKAMINIFEBA.) 

NUNCIO  (Lat.  nuntius,  messenger),  a  prelate 
representing  the  Roman  pontiff  near  a  foreign 
government.  Strictly  speaking,  he  represents 
the  pope  only  as  temporal  sovereign,  but  he 
is  often  commissioned  to  treat  of  spiritual  af- 
fairs, and  to  report  on  the  condition  of  churches 
and  the  character  of  church  dignitaries,  espe- 
cially of  candidates  for  the  mitre.  A  nuncio 
may  be  resident  or  extraordinary ;  and  if  ap- 
pointed simply  to  fill  a  vacancy  in  a  royal  or 
imperial  court,  or  if  resident  at  a  minor  court, 
he  is  styled  an  internuncio.  The  nuncio  in 
France  is  forbidden  by  law  to  exercise  eccle- 
siastical jurisdiction,  being  recognized  only  as 
the  papal  ambassador.  The  only  nuncio  who 
has  ever  visited  the  United  States  was  Arch- 
bishop (afterward  Cardinal)  Bedini,  in  1853. 
(See  LEGATE.) 

Mi\EZ,  Alvar  (CABEQA  DE  YAOA),  a  Spanish  ex- 
plorer, born  about  1490,  died  in  Seville  in  1564. 
He  was  chief  officer  under  Narvaez  in  the  ex- 
pedition to  Florida  in  1527-'8  (see  NAEVAEZ, 
PAMFILO  DE),  and  after  the  shipwreck  and 
death  of  the  latter  escaped  with  a  few  follow- 
ers to  the  mainland  somewhere  W.  of  the  mouth 
of  the  Mississippi.  He  travelled  N.  W.  until 
he  reached  a  mountainous  country,  believed 
to  be  New  Mexico.  Making  friends  of  the  In-, 
dians  by  prescribing  for  their  ailments,  he  re- 
mained with  them  eight  months.  Pursuing 
his  journey  in  a  southwesterly  direction,  after 
incredible  hardships  he  at  length  reached  the 
Spanish  settlements  on  the  Pacific  coast  in  1536, 
with  only  three  surviving  companions,  having 
been  eight  years  in  crossing  the  continent.  Af- 
ter his  return  to  Spain,  Nunez  was  appointed 
administrator  of  La  Plata,  and  sailed  for  that 
colony  at  the  end  of  1540  ;  but  he  was  obliged 
by  shipwreck  to  go  to  Paraguay,  which  coun- 
try he  first  explored.  Passing  through  the 
country  of  the  Guaranis,  and  descending  the 
Plata  with  their  assistance,  he  reached  Asun- 
cion, where  he  established  his  headquarters, 
March  15,  1542.  An  insurrection  broke  out 
the  following  year,  after  a  conflagration,  Nunez 
being  accused  of  leniency  toward  the  native 
incendiaries;  but  he  arrested  the  ringleaders 
and  sent  them  to  Spain.  He  subjugated  the 


Payagoaes,  a  tribe  on  the  shores  of  a  lake  which 
he  called  Rio  Negro,  who  had  killed  Juan  de 
Ayolas  and  80  of  his  men ;  and  exploring  the 
river  Iguayu,  he  reduced  to  subjection  the  Ya- 
guesses  and  Clanesses,  and  other  tribes,  taking 
possession  of  their  territory  in  the  name  of 
Spain.  He  was  repulsed  however  by  the  So- 
.  corines  and  Agaces,  who  killed  63  of  his  men ; 
and  falling  sick,  he  was  accused  by  his  lieuten- 
ant Domingo  de  Irala  and  sent  to  Spain,  where 
the  council  of  the  Indies  condemned  him  to 
banishment  to  Africa.  After  eight  years  he 
was  recalled  by  the  king,  who  gave  him  a  pen- 
sion and  appointed  him  judge  of  the  supreme 
court  of  Seville,  where  he  resided  till  his  death. 
The  Naufragios  de  Alvar  Nunez  was  published, 
together  with  his  secretary  Fernandez's  Comen- 
tarios  de  Alvar  Nunez,  in  Valladolid  in  1544, 
and  is  included  in  Barclays  Historiadores  primi- 
tives de  las  Indias  occidentals  (Madrid,  1749). 
An  abridgment  of  his  narrative  is  contained  in 
Hakluyt's  "  Voyages,"  and  there  is  a  French 
translation  in  the  collection  of  voyages  pub- 
lished in  Paris  by  Ternaux-Compans,  and  an 
English  translation  with  annotations  by  Buck- 
ingham Smith  (Washington,  1851). 

NUfiJEZ,  Fernan,  a  Spanish  scholar,  born  in 
Valladolid  about  1470,  died  in  Salamanca  in 
1553.  He  was  knight  commander  of  the  order 
of  Santiago ;  and  being  also  a  Greek  scholar, 
he  was  called  the  "  Greek  commander."  Car- 
dinal Ximenes  appointed  him  one  of  the  Cretan 
professors  of  Greek  in  the  university  of  Al- 
cala,  and  also  intrusted  to  him  and  to  Lope  de 
Astufiiga  the  Latin  version  of  the  Septuagint 
for  the  Complutensian  polyglot.  In  1521  he 
fought  on  the  side  of  the  commons  in  the  "  war 
of  the  comunidades."  Being  forced  to  leave 
Alcala,  he  went  to  Salamanca,  and  in  the  uni- 
versity there  taught  Latin,  Greek,  rhetoric,  and 
the  "  Natural  History  "  of  Pliny,  until  his  death. 
He  restored  the  text  of  Seneca,  and  published 
a  commentary  upon  his  writings  (Salamanca, 
1543) ;  also  Observationes  in  Pomponium  Me- 
lam,  Observations  in  Historiam  Naturalem  G. 
Plinii  (1544),  and  Glosa  sobre  las  obras  de  Juan 
de  Mena.  At  the  end  of  his  life  he  was  en- 
gaged in  making  a  collection  of  Spanish  prov- 
erbs, which  was  completed  and  published  after 
his  death,  with  the  title  Refranes  y  proverbios 
glosados  (4to,  Madrid,  1555). 

MTHAR.    See  WATEE  LILT. 

NUREDDIN.     See  NOTJREDDIST. 

NUREMBERG  (Ger.  Nurriberg),  a  city  of  Ba- 
varia, in  the  district  of  Middle  Franconia,  on 
the  river  Pegnitz  and  on  the  Ludwig's  canal,  92 
m.  N.  by  W.  of  Munich,  and  74  m.  N.  of  Augs- 
burg; pop.  in  1871,  82,929,  chiefly  Protestants. 
The  Pegnitz  forms  three  islands  within  the 
circuit  of  the  former  double  wall,  connected 
with  each  other  and  with  the  city  by  numerous" 
bridges.  One  of  these  bridges  was  the  first 
suspension  bridge,  and  the  railway  to  the  ad- 
joining town  of  Furth  was  the  first  operated 
with  steam  in  Germany.  The  river  divides  the 
city  into  two  irregular  parts,  the  southern  and 


NUREMBERG 


539 


larger  being  called  the  Lorenzer  side  and  the 
northern  the  Sebalder  side.  The  impression  of 
quaintness  and  antiquity  which  the  general 
aspect  of  the  city  produces  is  heightened  by 
the  old  Gothic  style  of  architecture,  and  the 
old-fashioned  internal  arrangement  of  many 
of  the  houses,  their  narrow  fronts  in  many 
instances  adorned  with  paintings.  To  this  day 
nearly  every  modern  structure  within  the  walls 
is  also  built  in  mediaeval  style.  Nuremberg 
ceased  to  be  a  fortified  town  after  the  war  of 
1866,  when  it  was  occupied  for  some  time  by 
Prussian  troops ;  and  the  demolition  of  the  old 
walls,  with  their  hundreds  of  square  and  round 
towers  and  a  moat,  now  in  progress  (1875), 
has  already  made  room  for  new  and  handsome 


suburbs.  A  large  municipal  loan  has  been 
contracted  for  a  park,  new  bridges  and  canals, 
and  for  other  improvements  and  extensions. 
Among  the  most  notable  Protestant  churches 
are  those  of  St.  Sebaldus,  St.  James,  and  St. 
^Egidius,  all  more  or  less  distinguished  for  their 
works  of  art.  The  finest  and  largest  of  them 
all  is  that  of  St.  Lawrence,  a  Gothic  building 
of  the  13th  century.  The  church  of  the  Holy 
Ghost,  which  was  restored  in  1850,  contained 
the  jewels  of  the  imperial  German  crown  from 
1424  until  1806,  when  they  were  removed  to 
Vienna.  The  Roman  Catholic  church,  or  Frau- 
enkirche,  is  remarkable  for  its  richly  orna- 
mented Gothic  portal.  There  is  also  a  Re- 
formed church  and  a  Jewish  synagogue.  The 


The  Walls  and  Moat,  Nuremberg. 


town  hall  is  one  of  the  most  remarkable  build- 
ings of  the  kind  in  Europe,  on  account  of  its 
large  size,  as  well  as  of  its  collection  of  paint- 
ings by  Albert  Diirer  and  other  masters.  Be- 
neath the  building  are  secret  and  subterraneous 
passages;  also  the  dungeons,  scarcely  six  feet 
square,  and  the  torture  chamber,  in  which  up 
to  the  commencement  of  the  present  century 
prisoners  were  put  to  the  rack.  A  bronze 
statue  of  Dtirer  was  erected  in  1840  on  the  Al- 
brecht  Diirer's  Platz,  near  the  house  where  he 
resided,  and  a  street  bears  the  name  of  Hans 
Sachs.  Nuremberg  has  several  elegant  public 
fountains,  that  on  the  Hauptmarlct  (the  prin- 
cipal square)  being  appropriately  known  as  der 
schone  Brunnen.  The  Gansemarlct,  remarka- 
ble for  the  immense  numbers  of  geese  offered 
for  sale,  contains  also  an  interesting  fountain 
called  Gdnsemannchen.  The  public  library  con- 
tains upward  of  50,000  volumes.  Among  the 
educational  institutions  are  an  excellent  gym- 
nasium founded  by  Melanchthon,  mercantile 


and  normal  schools,  and  a  school  of  design.  A 
communal  school  founded  in  1870  contained 
in  1875  nearly  1,000  pupils.  Baron  Aufsess 
founded  in  1853  the  Germanic  museum  for 
researches  into  national  history,  literature,  and 
art,  for  collections  of  art  and  antiquities,  and 
for  publications  relating  to  ancient  history ;  it 
publishes  a  monthly  periodical.  Another  great 
institution  is  the  Bavarian  museum  of  industry, 
which  has  lately  superseded  the  industrial  so- 
ciety.— Nuremberg  was  once  one  of  the  most 
prosperous  of  the  free  imperial  cities,  with  a 
population  of  100,000  and  an  extensive  trade 
with  the  East  and  other  remote  parts  of  the 
world.  It  was  not  less  celebrated  in  the  his- 
tory of  art  and  literature,  and  in  the  16th  cen- 
tury it  was  the  headquarters  of  the  master 
singers.  The  reminiscences  and  traces  of  its 
former  glories  continue  to  make  Nuremberg 
one  of  the  most  interesting  cities  of  Germany. 
Watches  were  first  made  here,  and  they  were 
long  known  as  Nuremberg  eggs.  It  suffered 


540 


NUTATION 


NUTHATCH 


much  from  the  thirty  years'  war,  during  which 
it  witnessed  the  first  contest  between  G-ustavus 
Adolphus  and  Wallenstein  (1632),  and  lost  its 
former  commercial  greatness ;  but  it  has  im- 
proved within  the  present  century,  and  is  now 
again  famous  for  its  industrial  activity,  par- 
ticularly in  lead  pencils,  looking-glass  plates, 
papier  mache",  machines,  and  ultramarine ;  and 
it  is  the  toy  shop  and  one  of  the  principal  hop 
markets  of  Europe.  An  active  trade  is  carried 
on  with  the  United  States,  to  which  goods 
were  exported  in  1872-'3  valued  at  $2,737,560. 

NUTATION,  in  astronomy,  a  small  periodic 
gyratory  movement  in  the  direction  of  the 
earth's  axis,  by  which,  if  it  existed  independent 
of  the  motion  in  precession,  the  pole  of  the 
earth  would  describe  in  the  heavens  a  minute 
ellipse.  This  ellipse  would  cover  a  space  by 
its  longer  axis  of  18'5",  and  by  its  shorter  of 
13'7",  the  longer  axis  being  directed  toward 
the  pole  of  the  ecliptic.  The  nutation  period 
is  a  little  less  than  19  years  (18-6),  and  cor- 
responds to  that  of  a  revolution  of  the  moon's 
nodes,  with  which  it  is  directly  connected. 
The  effect  of  the  nutation  on  the  position  of 
the  stars  is  combined  with  the  effect  from 
precession ;  and  as  both  are  referable  to  the 
same  physical  agency  for  explanation,  their 
further  consideration  will  be  found  in  the 
article  PEECESSION. 

NUTCRACKER,  a  conirostral  bird  of  the  crow 
family,  and  genus  nucifraga  (Briss.).  The 
bill  is  longer  than  the  head,  strong,  with  cul- 
men  elevated  and  sloping  to  the  entire  tip ; 
the  lateral  margins  straight ;  gonys  very  long 
and  ascending ;  the  nostrils  basal,  covered 
by  frontal  bristles;  wings  long  and  rounded, 
with  the  fourth  and  fifth  quills  longest ;  tail 
moderate, rounded  on  the  sides;  tarsi  longer 
than  middle  toe,  covered  in  front  with  broad 
scales ;  toes  long,  robust,  and  strongly  scutel- 
lated  ;  claws  long,  sharp,  and  curved.  The 


Nutcracker  (Nucifraga  caryocatactes). 

common  nutcracker  (JV.  caryocatactes,  Briss.), 
the  best  known  species,  is  about  13  in.  long, 
and  the  bill  If ;  it  is  about  the  size  and  shape 
of  the  European  jay;  the  bill  and  feet  are 


brownish  black;  the  general  color  dull  red- 
dish brown,  blackish  brown  above ;  the  whole 
plumage,  except  the  top  of  the  head  and  the 
upper  tail  coverts,  is  marked  with  oblong 
white  dashes  margined  with  dark  brown  at 
the  end,  largest  on  the  lower  parts ;  lower  tail 
coverts  and  tips  of  tail  feathers  white.  This 
bird,  rare  in  Great  Britain,  is  common  in  the 
woods  of  the  mountainous  parts  of  Europe  and 
Asia,  especially  in  Switzerland,  and  in  Russia ; 
they  are  usually  seen  in  pairs,  but  sometimes 
in  flocks,  migrating  according  to  the  season  in 
search  of  larvae  and  insects,  which  they  obtain 
from  trees  in  the  manner  of  woodpeckers ; 
they  are  also  fond  of  the  seed  of  fir  trees,  and 
of  nuts,  which  they  break  by  repeated  strokes 
of  the  bill ;  they  are  said  to  devour  small  birds 
and  eggs.  The  nest  is  made  in  a  hole  in  a  de- 
cayed tree ;  the  eggs,  five  or  six,  are  yellowish 
gray  with  a  few  spots  of  light  brown.  This 
bold  and  familiar  bird  by  its  nearly  straight 
bill  seems  to  form  a  transition  from  the  crows 
to  the  starlings,  and  in  some  respects  to  the 
woodpeckers,  the  last  of  which  it  also  resem- 
bles in  some  of  its  habits. 

NUTGALL.     See  GALLS. 

NUTHATCH,  a  subfamily  of  tenuirostral  birds 
of  the  creeper  family,  scattered  over  North 
America,  Europe,  and  India  and  its  archi- 
pelago. In  the  typical  genus  sitta  (Linn.)  the 
bill  is  entire,  about  as  long  as  the  head,  slender, 
compressed,  straight,  and  sharp-pointed,  with 
the  gonys  long  and  ascending;  nostrils  in  a 
groove,  covered  by  bristles  directed  forward ; 
wings  long  and  acute,  reaching  nearly  to  end 
of  tail,  the  first  quill  being  very  short,  and 
the  third  and  fourth  about  equal  and  longest ; 
tail  short,  broad,  and  nearly  even ;  tarsi  about 
equal  to  middle  toe,  strong  and  scutellated; 
toes  long,  the  outer  much  longer  than  the  in- 
ner, the  hind  toe  the  longest,  and  all  armed 
with  sharp  and  curved  claws.  Nearly  20  spe- 
cies are  described.  They  prefer  dense  woods, 
where  they  run  rapidly  up  and  down  the 
trunks  and  branches  of  trees  in  spiral  circles, 
examining  the  crevices  in  the  bark  for  spiders 
and  insects;  in  winter  they  approach  houses, 
and  feed  upon  seeds,  grains,  nuts,  and  other 
vegetable  food.  The  largest  of  the  American 
species  is  the  white-bellied  nuthatch  {8.  Caro- 
linensis,  Gmel.),  about  6  in.  long,  with  an  ex- 
tent of  wings  of  11,  and  the  bill  along  the  gape 
five  sixths  of  an  inch ;  the  bill  is  black,  and 
iris  dark  brown  ;  general  color  above  ashy 
blue,  with  top  of  head  and  neck  black ;  under 
parts  and  sides  of  head  to  above  the  eyes 
white  ;  under  tail  coverts  and  tibial  feathers 
brown ;  concealed  primaries  white.  This  is  a 
bold,  active,  and  familiar  bird,  though  gener- 
ally living  in  retired  woods ;  the  nest  is  made 
in  the  hole  of  a  decayed  tree;  the  eggs,  five 
or  six,  are  dull  white,  spotted  with  brown 
at  the  larger  end;  the  flight  is  rapid,  and  at 
times  protracted ;  like  others  of  the  family, 
they  are  fond  of  roosting  head  downward. 
This  species  is  spread  over  eastern  North 


NUTMEG 


541 


America  to  the  highest  central  plains,  re- 
placed to  the  west  by  a  variety  which  differs 
chiefly  in  the  more  slender  hill ;  in  the  south- 
ern states  two  broods  are  hatched  in  a  sea- 
son ;  the  notes  are  very  nasal.  The  red-bellied 
nuthatch  (8.  Canadensis,  Linn.)  is  4£  in.  long, 
with  an  extent  of  wings  of  8  in. ;  the  upper 
parts  are  ashy  blue,  with  the  top  of  the  head 
black,  a  white  line  above  and  a  black  line 
through  the  eye;  chin  white,  and  rest  of 
under  .parts  brownish  rusty.  The  eggs  are 
white,  sprinkled  with  reddish  dots.  This  very 
restless  and  active  bird  is  spread  over  North 
America  from  South  Carolina  to  Nova  Scotia, 
from  the  Atlantic  probably  to  the  Pacific. 
Some  remain  all  winter  in  the  northern  states, 
coming  into  the  roads  and  farm  yards  in  search 


European  Nuthatch  (Sitta  Europaea). 

of  seeds.  The  European  nuthatch  (S.  Europaa, 
Linn.)  is  one  of  the  largest  of  the  genus,  being 
6  in.  long,  with  an  extent  of  wings  of  10£,  and 
bill  three  fourths  of  an  inch ;  the  upper  parts 
are  bluish  gray,  with  the  throat  and  cheeks 
white,  loral  space  and  a  band  behind  the  eye 
black;  lower  parts  light  reddish  yellow,  and 
sides  brownish  red.  Its  manners  are  the 
same ;  the  tail  is  not  used  as  a  support  either 
in  ascending  or  descending  trees.  It  is  some- 
times kept  in  wire  cages  for  its  activity,  cun- 
ning, and  drollery.  The  bill  of  the  nuthatches 
is  so  powerful  that  it  is  used  for  breaking  the 
shells  of  nuts,  which  they  fix  in  a  cleft  or  hol- 
low, whence  they  are  sometimes  called  nut- 
crackers, a  name  which  properly  belongs  to 
the  genus  nucifraga.  The  French  call  them 
torche-pots,  from  their  habit  of  plastering  up 
with  yellow  clay  (torchis)  the  apertures  of  holes 
in  trees  which  are  too  open  to  make  comfort- 
able nests.  Unlike  the  woodpeckers,  they  de- 
scend trees  head  foremost,  in  which  they  must 
find  great  assistance  in  the  long  hind  toe. 

NUTMEG  (Fr.  noix  muscade),  the  seed  of  the 
tree  myristica  fragrans,  which  has  also  been 
called  M.  moschata,  M.  officinalis,  &c.  The 
genus  myristica  is  now  placed  in  an  order  by 


itself,  the  myristicece,  which  is  exogenous  and 
apetalous,  and  closely  related  to  the  laurel 
family.  All  of  the  genus  are  tropical,  being 
most  abundant  in  the  islands  of  Asia,  though 


Nutmeg  Flower  and  Leaf  (Myristica  fragrans). 

some  are  found  in  tropical  America.  The  true 
nutmeg  tree  is  20  to  30  ft.  high,  and  has  much 
the  aspect  of  a  pear  tree ;  its  smoothish  gray 
bark  abounds  in  a  yellowish  juice.  The  slight- 
ly aromatic  leaves  are  petioled  and  alternate,  5 
to  6  in.  long,  oblong,  acute  at  the  apex,  entire, 
dark  green  and  somewhat  shining  above,  and 
whitish  beneath.  The  tree  is  dio3cious,  but 
except  when  in  flower  the  two  sexes  are  not 
distinguishable.  The  male  or  staminate  flow- 
ers are  in  small  clusters  of  three  to  five,  much 
resemble  in  shape  and  size  those  of  the  lily  of 
the  valley,  and  have  three  to  five  teeth  at 
the  apex;  they  are  fleshy,  pale  yellow,  very 
fragrant,  and  within  have  about  11  stamens, 


1.  Nutmeg  Fruit. 


2.  Seed  with  its  arillus.   3.  Seed  cut 
vertically. 


the  filaments  of  which  are  united  to  form  a 
column  surmounted  by  a  disk,  to  the  edges  of 
which  the  anthers  are  attached.  The  pistillate 
flowers  are  externally  similar  to  the  staminate, 


542 


NUTMEG 


but  usually  solitary ;  the  single  pistil  is  with- 
out a  style,  and  has  a  small  two-lobed  stigma. 
The  fruit  is  pear-shaped  or  nearly  spherical, 
about  the  size  of  the  peach,  and  consists  of  a 
fleshy  pericarp  or  capsule,  which  at  maturity 
breaks  open  in  two  nearly  equal  valves,  and 
exposes  the  contained  seed  and  its  appendages ; 
this  exterior  portion  of  the  fruit  is  about  half 
an  inch  thick,  of  a  yellowish  brown  color,  and 
has  an  astringent  juice  ;  in  collecting  the  crop 
this  is  thrown  away  as  useless,  but  in  its  young 
state  it  is  sometimes  made  into  a  sweetmeat 
with  brandy  and  sugar.  Within  this  husk  is 
the  seed,  surrounded  by  a  fleshy,  much  divided, 
bright  scarlet  arillus,  a  growth  which  starts 
from  the  f uniculus,  or  little  stalk  which  sup- 
ports the  ovule,  and  increases  as  that  ripens, 
and  at  maturity  it  envelops  the  seed  so  com- 
pletely that  there  are  only  here  and  there  a 
few  apertures  through  which  it  is  visible ;  the 
arillus  in  drying  loses  its  scarlet  color  and  be- 
comes yellowish  brown,  horny  in  texture,  and 
brittle ;  it  is  then  known  as  mace.  The  seed 
or  nut  within  the  mace  has  a  hard,  dark  brown 
shell,  about  a  line  thick,  enclosing  the  kernel 
or  nucleus,  which  is  the  nutmeg  of  commerce ; 
this  is  pale  brown,  and  smooth  when  freshly 
deprived  of  its  shell,  but  it  becomes  much 
wrinkled  by  drying;  it  consists  principally  of 
the  large  albumen  of  the  seed,  closely  invested 
by  a  very  thin  inner  covering,  folds  or  pro- 
cesses from  which  penetrate  the  albumen  and 
give  it  the  well  known  marbled  appearance ; 
the  albumen  abounds  in  oil,  which  is  chiefly  con- 
tained in  the  dark  veins;  the  embryo,  lodged 
in  a  cavity  at  the  base  of  the  albumen,  has  two 
fan-shaped  cotyledons  and  a  very  short  radicle. 
The  nutmeg  tree  is  a  native  of  the  Moluccas, 
and  has  long  been  cultivated,  especially  in  the 
group  known  as  the  Banda  islands.  The  plants 
come  into  bearing  in  about  eight  years  from 
the  seed,  and  reach  their  maximum  productive- 
ness in  15  years ;  they  are  said  to  continue  in 
bearing  for  70  or  80  years.  While  the  tree  has 
ripe  fruit  upon  it  at  all  seasons,  there  are  three 
periods  of  harvesting :  July  and  August,  when 
the  fruit  is  most  abundant,  but  the  mace  thin- 
ner than  at  the  second  harvest;  November, 
when  the  nuts  are  smaller,  with  thicker  mace ; 
and  March  or  early  April,  when  both  nuts  and 
mace  are  in  the  greatest  perfection,  but  the 
season  being  dry  their  number  is  not  so  great. 
The  average  product  is  about  5  Ibs.  of  nutmegs 
and  1£  Ib.  of  mace  to  each  tree.  The  fruit  is 
gathered  by  means  of  a  barb  at  the  end  of  a 
long  stick ;  the  outer  husk  is  removed,  and  the 
mace  carefully  separated  by  means  of  a  knife ; 
this  is  then  dried  in  the  sun,  or  in  wet  weather 
by  artificial  heat;  some  flatten  out  the  mace 
with  the  hands,  and  dry  it  in  a  single  layer, 
while  others  dry  it  in  double  blades ;  when  it 
has  attained  the  desired  golden-brown  color  it 
is  sprinkled  with  salt  water,  which  is  said  to 
aid  in  its  preservation,  and  packed  in  sacks  for 
exportation.  The  nutmegs  are  placed  upon 
gratings  over  a  slow  fire,  and  dried  at  a  heat 


not  exceeding  140°  F.  until  the  nut  rattles 
freely  in  the  shell,  an  operation  requiring  about 
two  months ;  the  shells,  then  very  brittle,  are 
broken  with  a  mallet,  and  the  nutmegs  sepa- 
rated. In  some  localities  the  nutmegs  are 
dipped  in  milk  of  lime,  with  a  view  to  prevent 
the  attacks  of  insects,  as  well  as  to  destroy 
their  power  of  germinating.  They  have  been 
sometimes  exported  in  their  shells,  in  order  to 
preserve  them  more  completely;  but  this  in- 
creases the  cost  of  transportation  about  one 
third.  They  are  exported  in  tight  casks  which 
have  been  thoroughly  smoked  and  then  coated 
on  the  interior  with  lime  wash.  The  true  or 
round  nutmeg  is  olive-shaped,  and  about  an 
inch  long,  marked  externally  with  a  network  of 
furrows  which  in  limed  nuts  are  filled  with  the 
lime ;  in  the  unlimed  the  surface  is  ashy  brown, 
and  they  are  known  as  brown  nutmegs;  in- 
ternally the  color  is  a  pale  reddish  gray,  with 
darker  veins.  Their  odor  is  strongly  aromatic, 
and,  as  well  as  the  taste,  pleasant  and  peculiar. 
The  odor  and  the  taste  of  mace,  while  closely 
analogous  to  those  of  nutmeg,  are  sufficiently 
distinct  to  be  readily  recognized ;  both  contain 
a  volatile  oil,  upon  which  their  flavor  and  aroma 
depend,  as  well  as  a  solid  and  a  liquid  fat.  Ac- 
cording to  Bonastre,  nutmegs  contain,  in  100 
parts,  volatile  oil  6,  liquid  fat  7' 6,  solid  fat  24, 
woody  fibre  54,  besides  starch,  gum,  &c.  The 
volatile  oil  is  obtained  by  distilling  the  nutmegs 
with  water ;  it  is  colorless  or  pale  yellow,  some- 
what viscid,  and  possesses  in  a  high  degree 
the  characteristic  odor  and  flavor  of  nutmegs. 
The  solid  fat,  known  as  the  expressed  oil  of 
nutmegs,  butter  of  nutmegs,  and  oil  of  mace,  is 
obtained  by  heating  the  nutmegs  to  a  paste  and 
expressing  this,  after  exposure  in  a  bag  to  steam, 
between  heated  plates.  It  is  imported  in  cubes 
of  the  size  and  shape  of  a  brick ;  it  is  orange- 
colored  and  firm,  and  has  the  odor  of  nutmegs 
from  a  portion  of  the  volatile  oil  it  contains ;  it 
was  formerly  used  as  a  stimulant  external  appli- 
cation, and  as  an  ingredient  in  plasters.  The 
chief  use  of  both  nutmegs  and  mace  is  as  a  con- 
diment, especially  for  flavoring  preparations  of 
milk  and  farinaceous  substances.  In  Germa- 
ny nutmeg  is  thought  to  promote  the  digestion 
of  brassicaceous  plants,  and  is  often  used  in 
dressing  cabbage  and  cauliflower.  Medicinally 
nutmeg  ranks  as  an  aromatic  stimulant,  with 
narcotic  powers  in  large  doses.  Two  drachms 
have  been  known  to  produce  drowsiness,  fol- 
lowed by  complete  stupor  and  insensibility ;  in 
mild  diarrhoea  it  is  regarded  as  a  useful  substi- 
tute for  opium  in  doses  of  20  to  30  grs.  It  is 
used  in  substance  or  in  the  form  of  spirit  of 
nutmeg,  to  cover  the  taste  or  modify  the  action 
of  purgative  and  other  medicines.  As  nutmegs 
are  not  sold  in  the  powdered  state,  they  are  not 
so  subject  to  adulteration  as  are  most  other 
spices.  If  the  volatile  oil  has  been  extracted 
by  distillation,  the  nutmegs  will  be  appreciably 
lighter ;  their  quality  can  be  judged  by  their 
weight  when  handled,  and  by  the  oozing  out 
of  the  oil  when  the  surface  is  pricked  with  a 


NUTMEG 


NUTRITION 


543 


pin.  According  to  Chevallier,  old  nuts  which 
have  become  riddled  by  insects  have  their  holes 
stopped  by  a  mixture  of  flour,  oil,  and  pow- 
dered nutmegs ;  and  in  Marseilles  false  nuts 
have  been  fabricated  from  bran,  clay,  and' 
the  refuse  of  nutmegs.  In  either  case  the 
fraud  may  be  readily  detected  by  soaking  the 
suspected  sample  in  water. — The  long  or  wild 
nutmeg  is  the  produce  of  myristica  fatua, 
found  in  similar  localities  with  the  true  nut- 
meg ;  it  is  about  1^  in.  long,  and  pointed. 
This  is  the  "  male  nutmeg  "  of  the  older  wri- 
ters ;  it  is  greatly  inferior  to  the  round  nut- 
meg, some  specimens  being  almost  without 
flavor ;  it  is  rarely  to  be  met  with  in  this  coun- 
try ;  the  inace  of  this  species,  called  wild  or 
false  mace,  is  nearly  devoid  of  flavor.  It  is 
said  that  the  long  nutmeg  is  sometimes  mixed 
with  the  round,  an  adulteration  at  once  detect- 
ed by  the  eye.  Several  other  species  of  myris- 
tica yield  nutmegs  of  inferior  quality.  Seeds 
of  the  South  American  M.  Mcuiba  and  M. 
officinalis  have  their  faint  aroma  changed  by 
some  bitter  principle ;  the  seeds  of  the  West 
Indian  M.  sebifera,  when  treated  with  hot 
water,  yield  a  fat  of  which  candles  are  made. 
— For  a  long  time  the  Dutch  had  a  monopoly 
of  nutmeg  culture,  and  made  great  efforts  to 
preserve  it.  They  were  possessors  of  the 
Banda  group,  consisting  of  ten  islands,  and  re- 
stricted the  cultivation  of  nutmegs  to  four  of 
these,  destroying  the  trees  in  all  their  other 
possessions.  They  made  wars  upon  the  inhabi- 
tants of  islands  not  belonging  to  them,  and  in 
their  treaties  of  peace  stipulated  that  every 
nutmeg  tree  should  be  destroyed.  The  carry- 
ing of  trees  or  fresh  seed  from  these  islands 
was  prohibited  under  heavy  penalties,  and  the 
liming  of  the  nuts  was  done  quite  as  much  to 
kill  the  embryo  as  to  prevent  the  attacks  of  in- 
sects. In  order  to  keep  the  price  up  to  their 
standard,  the  surplus  crop  in  years  of  unusual 
abundance  was  burned  ;  a  Dutch  writer  states 
that  he  saw  three  piles  of  nutmegs  burned,  "  each 
of  which  was  more  than  a  church  of  ordinary 
dimensions  could  hold."  But  nature  was  not 
in  sympathy  with  this  narrow  policy,  and,  by 
means  against  which  the  most  rigid  laws  were 
powerless,  the  tree  was  distributed  to  numerous 
other  localities ;  the  agent  in  effecting  this  was 
the  nutmeg  pigeon,  carpopJiaga  cenea,  a  fine 
large  species  found  in  all  the  Indian  islands ; 
this  bird  lives  largely  upon  the  fresh  mace, 
swallowing  the  nutmeg  with  its  enveloping 
mace,  and,  after  this  is  removed  by  digestion, 
voiding  the  nutmeg  encased  in  its  shell,  un- 
harmed, and  ready  to  vegetate  if  dropped  in  a 
favorable  spot.  Localities  of  which  the  Dutch 
did  not  even  know  the  existence  were  thus 
stocked  with  the  trees  ;  a  most  fortunate  pro- 
vision, as  in  1778  a  violent  hurricane  and 
earthquake  visited  the  Banda  islands,  which  for 
years  afterward  furnished  but  few  nutmegs. 
From  1796  to  1802,  and  again  from  1810  to 
1814,  the  English  had  possession  of  the  Spice 
islands,  and  during  these  intervals  the  nutmeg 
612  VOL.  xii.— 35 


tree  was  taken  to  various  parts  of  the  East, 
to  the  Calcutta  botanic  garden,  to  Mauritius, 
French  Guiana,  and  the  West  Indies,  and  is 
now  beyond  the  control  of  any  one  govern- 
ment. The  attempts  to  cultivate  the  tree  in 
the  West  Indies  have  not  been  successful ;  the 
original  trees,  though  they  have  grown  to  a 
large  size,  bear  but  a  small  number  of  fruits. 
The  nutmegs  of  the  Banda  islands  are  sent  to 
Batavia,  whence  they  are  exported;  in  1871 
1,080,933  Ibs.  were  shipped  from  Batavia,  of 
which  306,666  Ibs.  came  to  this  country,  and  a 
larger  quantity  went  to  Singapore,  from  which 
|  place  there  were  exported  to  the  United  States 
in  the  same  year  310,576  Ibs. — American,  cala- 
bash, and  Jamaica  nutmegs  are  names  given  to 
the  seeds  of  monodora  myristica,  a  small  West 
Indian  tree  of  the  order  anonacece,  and  related 
to  our  custard  apple  or  papaw.  Its  fruit  is 
about  the  size  of  an  orange,  with  numerous 
seeds  having  the  flavor  of  nutmeg.  California 
nutmeg  is  the  fruit  of  Torreya  Californica. 
(See  TOEREYA.)  Peruvian  nutmegs  are  the 
aromatic  seeds  of  laurelia  sempermrens.  Bra- 
zilian nutmegs  are  the  seeds  of  cryptocarya 
moschata,  one  of  the  laurel  family. 

NUTRIA.     See  COYPTJ. 

NUTRITION,  the  growth  arid  reparation  of  liv- 
ing organisms,  animal  and  vegetable.  Animal 
nutrition  in  its  most  extended  sense  includes 
the  various  complex  processes  of  digestion, 
chylification,  sanguification,  circulation,  respi- 
ration, assimilation,  secretion,  and  excretion. 
In  a  more  restricted  sense  it  is  the  conversion 
of  nutritive  material  into  the  various  tissues  of 
the  body.  The  first  important  process  of  nu- 
trition is  digestion  (see  DIGESTION)  ;  the  next 
is  the  conversion  of  the  digested  material  into 
blood,  or  the  process  of  sanguification ;  the 
third  is  the  formation  of  bodily  tissue  from  the 
constituents  of  the  blood  (assimilation),  "which 
is  done  by  virtue  of  the  power  of  selective 
appropriation  by  the  tissues  themselves.  The 
materials  appropriated  by  the  organism  may  be 
divided  into  two  kinds,  the  nitrogenous  or  pro- 
teinaceous,  and  the  non-nitrogenous  or  hydro- 
carbonaceous.  This  branch  of  the  subject  will 
be  found  treated  under  the  heads  ALIMENT, 
ANIMAL  HEAT,  and  DIETETICS.  The  action  of 
the  nervous  system  has  much  to  do  with  the 
functions  of  nutrition,  principally  because  of 
the  influence  the  nerves  have  upon  the  cir- 
culation of  the  blood.  That  nervous  condition 
which  causes  an  increased  circulation  of  the 
blood  in  a  part  will,  if  continued,  cause  its 
larger  development,  instances  of  which  are 
seen  in  the  arms  of  blacksmiths  and  the  legs  of 
dancers.  Therefore  exercise  or  training  be- 
comes an  important  element  in  influencing  the 
nutrition  and  development  of  the  whole  or  parts 
of  the  body.  Disassimilation  or  the  disintegra- 
tion of  structure,  the  initiative  process  of  excre- 
tion, must  always  accompany  a  continuance  of 
nutrition,  because  the  detention  of  excrementi- 
tious  matter  would  not  only  poison  the  fluids, 
and  in  this  way  prevent  assimilation,  but  would 


544 


NUTRITION 


prevent  it  by  not  making  room  for  assimilated 
tissue.  Therefore,  aside  from  stimulating  the 
circulation  of  the  blood,  the  influence  of  exer- 
cise upon  the  nutritive  functions  is  of  great 
importance  as  an  aid  in  eliminating  effete  mat- 
ter. The  formation  of  abnormal  growths  is  a 
variation  of  the  nutritive  process  which  will 
be  found  treated  under  the  heads  CANCER, 
EXOSTOSIS,  TUMOR,  &c.  In  cold-blooded  ani- 
mals nutrition  may  be  greatly  retarded  and 
some  of  the  functions  suspended  by  a  greatly 
diminished  temperature ;  and  this  to  a  certain 
extent  is  true  of  some  warm-blooded  animals, 
as  the  bear  and  the  woodchuck,  which  in  win- 
ter enter  into  a  condition  of  hibernation,  during 
which  time  the  fat  and  other  tissues  take  the 
place  of  food  as  supporters  of  organic  life  du- 
ring the  temporary  suspension  of  ingesta.  (See 
HIBERNATION.)  The  discussion  of  the  ques- 
tion of  increased  nutrition  during  infancy  and 
youth,  and  of  the  balance  between  nutrition 
and  waste  during  the  prime  of  life,  is  full  of 
interest,  but  does  not  properly  find  place  in 
this  article.  It  is  attended  by  a  consideration 
of  questions  of  a  philosophical  nature  which 
greatly  concern  the  reception  or  rejection  of 
modern  theories  of  the  generation  and  develop- 
ment of  living  organisms,  inasmuch  as  it  in- 
volves the  explanation  of  limitation  of  growth 
by  purely  molecular  forces.  The  assimilation 
by  each  organ  or  tissue  of  material  of  the  same 
nature  with  itself  is  a  process  more  easily  ex- 
plainable by  physical  theories ;  as  it  is  not  diffi- 
cult to  comprehend  that  histological  structures 
may  exert  an  influence  on  contiguous  formative 
matter  of  similar  composition,  whereby  it  may 
be  caused  to  assume  a  similar  development. 
The  great  purpose  or  end  of  nutrition  is  to 
evolve  certain  vital  phenomena  which  depend 
upon  a  variety  of  molecular  changes  requiring 
the  maintenance  of  a  temperature  within  cer- 
tain limits.  The  interdependence  of  the  vari- 
ous vital  processes  which  are  carried  on  in  the 
animal  system  renders  it  difficult  to  form  an 
estimate  as  to  which  are  of  primary  and  which 
of  secondary  importance.  Thus,  among  the 
forces  either  directly  or  indirectly  evolved  by 
nutrition  is  heat.  But  heat,  that  is,  a  temper- 
ature between  certain  limits,  is  also  a  necessary 
condition  of  nutrition ;  digestion  cannot  be  ac- 
complished outside  of  these  limits;  and  the 
same  may  be  said  of  sanguification.  In  fevers, 
which  as  a  rule  are  attended  with  increased 
bodily  temperature,  there  is  also  greatly  dimin- 
ished assimilation.  It  must  not  be  concluded, 
however,  that  the  increased  temperature  is  a 
primary  cause  of  the  diminished  assimilation ; 
on  the  contrary,  it  is  to  be  considered  as  a 
result  of  the  altered  assimilation  and  metamor- 
phosis of  tissue,  whereby  latent  is  converted 
into  sensible  heat.  That  it  nevertheless  reacts, 
to  interfere  with  assimilation,  cannot  be  doubt- 
ed ;  but  the  extent  of  its  influence  is  difficult 
of  estimation.  Innervation  also  depends  as 
well  upon  the  maintenance  of  a  temperature 
between  certain  limits  as  upon  assimilation 


and  metamorphosis  of  tissue ;  and  on  the  other 
hand,  these  processes  are  dependent  to  a  great 
extent  upon  innervation.  A  certain  degree  of 
heat  is  as  necessary  for  the  performance  of 
the  functions  of  nutrition  as  it  is  for  the  pro- 
cesses of  fermentation  and  for  the  various  chem- 
ical transformations.  Cold  produces  numb- 
ness, and  advantage  is  taken  of  this  action  by 
the  employment  of  refrigeration  in  surgical 
operations.  The  functions  of  sanguification 
and  assimilation  may,  however,  be  considered 
as  the  two  most  important  to  nutrition,  espe- 
cially if  we  restrict  the  term  as  denoting  simply 
a  formative  process.  It  may  be  remarked  that 
sanguification  is  accompanied  by  a  passage  of 
matter,  when  becoming  plastic,  into  the  blood 
vessels,  while  assimilation  is  accompanied  by 
the  passage  of  the  plastic  portions  of  the  blood 
out  of  the  blood,  vessels  through  the  walls 
of  the  capillaries,  and  virtually  takes  place 
outside  of  the  circulatory  apparatus  and  with- 
in the  tissues  themselves.  As  the  consump- 
tion of  oxygen  forms  a  part  of  the  processes 
by  which  nutritive  material  is  prepared  for 
assimilation,  it  really  forms  a  part  of  the  in- 
come of  the  system,  and  is  therefore  nutritive 
material ;  but  it  stands  so  distinctly  apart  from 
the  other  materials,  that  these  latter,  composed 
of  animal  and  vegetable  substances,  are  by 
common  consent  classed  as  articles  of  food,  or 
alimentary  principles.  They  have  the  property 
of  being  digested,  that  is,  of  being  dissolved  by 
the  gastric  juice  and  other  digestive  fluids,  and 
rendered  capable  of  absorption  by  the  lacteal 
and  capillary  vessels,  and  are  all  capable  of 
oxidation.  Nutrition  demands  that  the  system 
shall  be  supplied  not  only  with  oxidizable  ali- 
mentary principles  which  are  capable  of  im- 
mediately generating  force,  but  also  with  other 
substances,  such  as  water  and  various  saline 
bodies,  and  is  greatly  dependent  upon  the  di- 
gestibility of  food,  not  so  much  as  regards  time 
of  digestibility  as  degree.  The  functions  of 
digestion,  sanguification,  and  assimilation  are 
regarded  as  having  the  nature  of  the  assimilative 
processes  in  plants,  and  are  often  called  vegeta- 
tive functions,  their  effect  being  to  raise  prox- 
imate organic  principles  to  a  condition  which 
will  permit  them  in  undergoing  oxidation,  or 
any  mode  of  metamorphosis,  to  develop  some 
form  of  vital  or  physical  force.  The  forma- 
tive processes  of  nutrition  may  therefore  be 
considered  as  supplementary  to  those  forma- 
tive processes  which  take  place  in  the  vegetable 
kingdom,  by  which  proximate  elements,  under 
the  influence  of  light  and  heat,  are  formed  from 
inorganic  nature  and  raised  to  a  higher  degree 
of  potentiality,  which  potentiality  is  again  re- 
duced by  animal  metamorphoses  to  a  lower' 
degree,  with  the  evolution  of  force.  Thus  the 
conversion  of  sugar  into  fat  by  animal  diges- 
tion and  assimilation,  by  which  CeHisOe  (glu- 
cose or  starch  sugar)  is  converted  into  CieH^Oa 
(oleic  acid),  OsHsOs  (glycerine),  and  other  con- 
stituents of  fat,  is,  as  will  be  seen  from  the  for- 
mulas, a  deoxidizing  process,  by  which  a  prox- 


NUTRITION 


NUX  VOMICA 


545 


imate  principle  is  raised  to  a  higher  potential. 
This  raising  of  potential  by  organization, 
whether  in  the  plant  or  animal,  may  be  regard- 
ed as  a  conversion  of  force  into  matter,  while 
the  animal  metamorphoses  of  tissue  may  be 
regarded  as  a  conversion  of  matter  into  force, 
or  more  strictly  speaking  the  evolution  of 
force  by  matter.  The  precise  point  at  which 
the  vital  transformations  begin  to  generate 
force  would  be  difficult,  perhaps  impossible,  to 
determine,  and  probably  varies  under  different 
circumstances.  Thus  the  absorption  of  oxygen 
by  the  blood  globules  should  be  regarded  as  a 
force-generating  process ;  while  in  the  nervous 
system  the  evolution  of  force  is  to  be  regard- 
ed as  commencing  with  the  metamorphosis  or 
oxidation  of  nerve  matter.  According  to  the 
experiments  of  Bischof  and  Voigt,  it  is  conclu- 
ded that  all  the  nitrogenous  material  which  is 
digested  and  taken  into  the  circulation  is  assim- 
ilated into  flesh  (not  limiting  the  term  to  mus- 
cular fibre,  but  including  all  proteine  tissues) 
before  it  undergoes  metamorphosis  into  urea. 
The  first  series  of  experiments  made  were  with 
an  exclusively  meat  diet,  and  the  first  and  most 
marked  effect  was  an  increase  in  the  produc- 
tion of  urea.  If,  at  the  time  of  commencing 
the  experiment,  the  dog  was  ill  fed  and  losing 
in  weight,  the  feeding  of  a  small  quantity  of 
lean  meat  caused  such  an  increase  in  the  waste 
(metamorphosis)  that  nothing  was  stored  up 
and  the  animal  continued  to  lose  weight.  An 
increase  in  the  quantity  of  meat  caused  an  in- 
crease in  the  metamorphosis  and  a  continued 
loss  of  weight;  but  it  was  found  that  a  contin- 
ued succession  of  equal  increments  was  not 
accompanied  by  equal  increments  of  metamor- 
phosis, but  that  the  latter  diminished,  so  that 
at  length  a  point  was  reached  when  the  quan- 
tity of  ingesta  balanced  the  amount  of  meta- 
morphosis. This  condition  was  established  only 
when  the  amount  of  meat  eaten  by  the  dog  was 
equal  to  ^  or  ^  of  his  weight.  An  increase 
beyond  this  caused  an  increase  in  weight ;  but  in 
a  short  time  another  equilibrium  was  reached, 
and  a  succession  of  increases  of  weight  followed 
by  states  of  equilibrium  occurred,  each  state  of 
equilibrium  occupying  a  higher  level  or  poten- 
tial, until  at  last  a  point  was  reached  when  the 
animal  refused  to  take  the  required  quantity 
of  food.  Then  followed  a  loss  of  weight  and  a 
reduction  of  equilibrium  to  a  lower  level.  The 
cause  of  the  successive  diminution  in  the  incre- 
ments of  metamorphosis  compared  to  the  incre- 
ments of  food  is  found  in  the  nearly  equable 
quantity  of  oxygen  present  in  the  blood.  In  the 
next  series  of  experiments  fat  and  lean  meat 
were  given  together,  and  then  fat  alone.  The 
adddition  of  fat  to  meat  produced  two  dif- 
ferent effects.  The  fat  did  not  prevent  the 
increase  of  metamorphosis  which  took  place 
when  lean  meat  alone  was  used,  but  rather  in- 
creased it ;  at  the  same  time,  however,  on  ac- 
count of  its  greater  readiness  to  combine  with 
oxygen,  it  protected  the  flesh  from  the  action 
of  this  agent.  It  was  found  that  only  one 


!  third  as  much  lean  meat  was  required  to  main- 
;  tain  equilibrium  when  fat  was  added  as  when 
not.  Sugar  and  starch  were  found  to  have  a 
similar  effect,  but  in  a  rather  greater  degree. 
These  experiments  accord  with  the  results  of 
Mr.  Banting.  (See  ABSTINENCE,  COKPULENCE, 
and  BANTING.)  Ranke  found  that  in  man, 
who  is  omnivorous,  an  equilibrium  could  not 
be  maintained  on  lean  meat  alone,  and  that  a 
loss  of  weight  occurred  even  when  eating  the 
greatest  quantity  possible ;  but  by  the  addition 
of  fat  or  starch  a  state  of  equilibrium  or  in- 
crease was  easily  attainable.— The  production 
of  fatty  matter  by  insects  in  excess  of  the  fat 
contained  in  their  food  was  established  long 
'  ago  by  the  experiments  of  Huber  on  bees,  and 
confirmed  by  Dumas  and  Milne-Edwards.  The 
;  experiments  also  of  Boussingault  upon  pigs, 
whose  digestive  organs  resemble  those  of  man, 
establish  the  fact  that  fat  is  developed  in  their 
bodies.  His  experiments  also  indicate  that  fat 
I  may  be  produced  from  exclusively  nitrogenous 
|  food,  although  more  readily  formed  from  that 
;  which  is  simply  hydrocarbonaceous. — For  a 
further  consideration  of  the  subject,  see  "Phys- 
iology of  Man,"  by  Austin  Flint,  jr.,  M.  D. 
(1866-76):  "A  Treatise  on  Human  Physiol- 
ogy," by  John  C.  Dalton,  M.  D.  (latest  ed., 
1870);  and  "Principles  of  Human  Physiolo- 
gy," by  W.  B.  Carpenter  (latest  ed.,  1874). 
The  subject  of  vegetable  nutrition  is  treated 
in  the  article  PLANT. 

NUTTALL,  Thomas,  an  American  naturalist, 
born  in  Yorkshire,  England,  in  1786,  died  at 
Nutgrove,  St.  Helen's,  Lancashire,  Sept.  10, 
1859.  He  learned  the  trade  of  a  printer,  and 
studied  natural  history  in  the  United  States. 
He  explored  the  great  lakes  and  the  upper 
branches  of  the  Mississippi,  and  in  1810  ascend- 
ed the  Missouri  as  far  as  the  Mandan  villages. 
In  1819  he  explored  the  Arkansas  river  and 
the  neighboring  regions,  and  published  "  A 
Journal  of  Travels  into  the  Arkansas  Terri- 
tory "  (Philadelphia,  1821).  He  travelled  also 
on  the  Pacific  coast,  and  published  several  pa- 
pers on  the  shells  and  plants  of  that  region. 
From  1822  to  1834  he  was  professor  of  natural 
history  in  Harvard  college,  and  curator  of  the 
botanical  garden.  Subsequently  he  returned 
to  England,  and  lived  on  the  estate  of  Nut- 
grove,  bequeathed  to  him  on  condition  that  he 
should  reside  there.  His  principal  works  are : 
"Manual  of  the  Ornithology  of  the  United 
States  and  Canada"  (2  vols.  12mo,  Boston, 
1834),  and  "The  North  American  Sylva"  (3 
vols.  royal  8vo,  Philadelphia,  1842-'9),  forming 
a  continuation  to  Michaux's  great  work  on  the 
forest  trees  of  North  America. 

MIX  VOMICA,  a  name  formerly  given  to  some 
other  seeds,  but  now  applied  to  a  drug  which 
is  the  produce  of  strychnos  nux-vomica,  a  tree 
of  the  family  Loganiacece.  It  is  a  small  tree 
with  opposite,  three-  to  five-nerved,  smooth 
leaves,  and  terminal  corymbs  of  tubular  flowers 
with  a  five-parted  limb ;  the  fruit  is  smooth, 
about  the  size  and  color  of  an  orange,  with  a 


546 


NUX  VOMICA 


NYAOK 


somewhat  hard  shell,  and  containing  a  soft 
gelatinous  pulp  in  which  are  imbedded  several 
seeds.  The  wood  of  the  tree  is  white,  hard, 
and  durable  ;  and  the  bark  is  gray,  very  brittle 
when  dry,  and  intensely  bitter.  The  seeds  are 
scarcely  an  inch  in  diameter,  round,  flat,  slight- 
ly convex  on  one  surface  and  concave  on  the 
other,  and  covered  with  short  silky  hairs,  of 
an  ash-gray  or  yellowish  color,  which  are  di- 
rected from  the  centre  toward  the  circum- 
ference. The  seeds  are  called  by  the  Germans 
crow's  eyes,  and  in  this  country  they  are  called 
dog  beans,  and  sometimes,  on' account  of  their 
drab  color,  "  Quaker  buttons."  The  mass  of 
the  seed  consists  mainly  of  the  albumen,  at  the 
base  of  which  the  embryo  is  placed  in  a  small 
cavity.  The  albumen  (which  in  botany  is  the 
nourishment  provided  for  the  embryo,  without 
reference  to  its  chemical  characters)  is  exceed- 
ingly horn-like  and  tough,  and  in  small  sec- 
tions semi-transparent;  it  is  one  of  the  most 


Nux  Vomica  Tree  (Strychnos  nux-vomica). 

difficult  of  drugs  to  powder,  but  after  thorough 
steaming  the  seeds  are  broken  up  with  much 
less  difficulty.  The  taste  of  nux  vomica  is  acrid 
and  bitter.  The  highly  poisonous  nature  of 
the  drug  has  long  been  known;  while  in  man 
and  carnivorous  animals  it  readily  destroys 
life,  herbivorous  animals  are  less  affected  by 
it ;  a  few  grains  destroy  a  dog,  while  it  requires 
several  ounces  to  kill  a  horse,  and  a  bird  of  the 
countries  in  which  the  tree  grows  is  said  to  eat 
the  seeds  with  impunity.  The  first  accurate 
analysis  of  nux  vomica  was  made  in  1818  by 
Pelletier  and  Caventou,  who  found  the  alka- 
loids strychnia  and  brucia,  in  combination  with 
peculiar  acids ;  and  a  less  important  alkaloid, 
igasuria,  has  since  been  detected.  The  most 
active  of  these  principles  is  strychnia.  (See 
STYECHNIA.)  Nux  vomica  in  powder  was  for- 
merly employed  in  medicine,  but  being  vari- 
able in  its  strength  and  uncertain  in  its  opera- 
tion, strychnia  is  preferred  on  account  of  its 
greater  uniformity,  though  some  physicians  pre- 
fer the  alcoholic  extract  of  the  seeds  as  repre- 


senting more  correctly  all  the  constituents  of 
the  drug.  A  pound  of  nux  vomica  thoroughly 
exhausted  by  alcohol  gives,  upon  evaporation 
of  the  tincture,  about  one  ounce  of  extract.  In 
doses  of  three  or  four  grains  of  the  powder  or 
half  a  grain  of  the  extract,  nux  vomica  has 
been  used  as  a  tonic  and  a  stimulant  of  the  se- 
cretions ;  its  medicinal  and  poisonous  effects 
are  given  under  STRYCHNIA.  About  1850  much 
excitement  was  created  in  England  by  the 
statement  of  a  French  chemist  that  nux  vomica 
was  largely  used  in  the  preparation  of  English 
bitter  beer.  The  leading  brewers  demanded 
an  investigation,  and  samples  of  their  beer, 
procured  at  different  places  in  such  a  manner 
as  to  preclude  any  preparation  for  the  examina- 
tion, were  found  to  be  entirely  free  from  other 
than  the  proper  constituents  of  malt  liquor. 
Still  the  fact  remains  that  as  many  tons  of  nux 
vomica  are  now  imported  into  England  as 
there  were  pounds  25  years  ago,  and  the  in- 
creased consumption  is  not  accounted  for.  The 
bark  of  the  nux  vomica  tree  is  of  interest  from 
the  fact  that  at  one  time  a  large  quantity  of  it 
was  sent  to  Europe,  and,  finding  no  sale  under 
its  proper  name,  it  was  placed  in  commerce  as 
Angostura  bark,  a  most  dangerous  substitution 
of  a  highly  poisonous  bark  for  one  which  is 
simply  an  aromatic  tonic,  used  much  the  same 
as  Peruvian  bark.  The  true  Angostura  is  sep- 
arable into  laminae  and  easily  broken  or  cut, 
while  the  nux  vomica  bark  is  the  opposite  in 
these  as  well  as  in  other  characters. — St.  Igna- 
tius's  bean  is  so  much  richer  in  strychnia  than 
nux  vomica,  that  it  is  generally  used  in  the 
preparation  of  that  alkaloid.  The  seeds  are 
about  the  size  of  an  olive,  convex  on  one  side 
and  angular  on  the  other,  dark  brown,  and  of 
an  exceedingly  horny  texture.  They  are  flow 
regarded  as  the  product  of  strychnos  Ignatia, 
a  climbing  species  of  the  Philippines,  with  a 
fruit  as  large  as  a  melon.  Other  species  of 
strychnos  have  fruit  with  edible  or  innocuous 
pulp  and  poisonous  seeds ;  among  which  is  8. 
potatorum,  the  clearing  nut  of  India,  which 
clarifies  water  if  placed  in  a  vessel  whose  in- 
terior has  been  rubbed  with  one  of  the  nuts. 
8.  Tieute  affords  the  arrow  poison  of  Java, 
and  the  South  American  Indians  obtain  a  sim- 
ilar poison  from  other  species.  (See  WOOEABA.) 
MACK,  a  village  of  Rockland  co.,  New  York, 
on  the  W.  bank  of  the  Hudson,  30  m.  above 
its  mouth,  and  nearly  opposite  Tarrytown, 
with  which  it  is  connected  by  a  steam  ferry, 
and  at  the  terminus  of  the  Northern  railway  of 
New  Jersey  ;  pop.  in  1870,  3,438.  It  is  situa- 
ted at  the  foot  of  the  Nyack  hills,  is  lighted 
with  gas,  has  water  works  and  a  fire  depart- 
ment, and  is  much  resorted  to  in  summer  by 
citizens  of  New  York.  Broad  drives  lead  to 
Rockland  lake  on  the  north  and  Piermont  on 
the  south.  Steamers  run  to  New  York,  and 
large  quantities  of  milk,  fruit,  and  vegetables 
are  shipped  to  that  city.  The  village  contains 
a  manufactory  of  wooden  ware,  three  of  shoes, 
one  of  pianos,  a  stone  crusher,  three  planing 


NYAM-NYAM 


N'YANZA 


547 


mills,  two  banks,  several  hotels,  six  schools, 
including  the  Eockland  female  institute,  two 
weekly  newspapers,  a  monthly  periodical,  and 
nine  churches. 

NYAM-NYAM,  a  negro  tribe  in  N.  central  Af- 
rica, whose  territory  extends  from  lat.  4°  to  6° 
N.,  and  from  Ion.  24°  to  29°  E.,  and  is  bounded 
N.  by  the  country  of  the  Bongos,  E.  by  that 
of  the  Mittoos,  S.  by  that  of  the  Monbuttoos, 
and  W.  by  various  tribes  whose  names  are 
unknown.  The  first  information  respecting 
this  tribe  was  given  in  1859  by  Petherick,  and 
in  1863  by  the  Italian  Piaggia;  but  Schwein- 
furth  in  1870  was  the  first  to  traverse  a  large 
portion  of  the  country.  The  Nyam-Nyam  are 
cannibals,  but  in  some  respects  more  civilized 
than  the  neighboring  tribes.  They  appear  to 
have  taken  possession  of  their  present  country 
at  a  comparatively  recent  period,  after  con- 
quering several  other  tribes.  They  live  in  con- 
ical straw  huts,  there  being  separate  ones  for 
men  and  women.  The  chiefs  or  sultans,  of 
whom  there  are  about  100,  have  very  extensive 
powers  over  their  subjects.  Every  settlement 
has  a  divan  or  bancajo,  in  which  public  affairs 
are  discussed  and  decided,  and  where  the  boys 
are  accustomed  to  stay  from  their  eighth  year. 
The  Nyam-Nyam  show  considerable  skill  in 
manufacturing  earthen  and  iron  ware,  espe- 
cially in  the  forging  of  weapons. 

N'YANZA,  a  word  used  by  the  natives  of  cen- 
tral Africa  to  designate  large  bodies  of  water, 
but  especially  applied  to  the  two  great  equato- 
rial fresh-water  lakes  which  are  now  believed 
to  be  the  proximate  sources  of  the  Nile.  I.  Vic- 
toria N'yanza,  the  eastern  of  these  lakes,  called 
also  Ukerewe  by  the  natives,  is  situated  direct- 
ly under  the  equator,  between  lat.  2°  24'  S. 
and  0°  21'  N.,  at  an  elevation,  according  to 
Speke  (1862),  of  3,308  ft.  above  the  level  of 
the  sea.  According  to  Baker,  however,  its 
elevation  must  be  considerably  higher,  as  he 
found  its  outlet,  Somerset  river,  to  flow  at 
M'rooli  at  an  altitude  of  4,061  ft.  Its  western 
limit  is  not  far  from  Ion.  31°  30'  E.,  but  the 
width  of  the  lake  has  not  been  ascertained,  al- 
though it  must  be  considerable,  as  the  opposite 
side  cannot  be  seen  from  that  portion  of  the 
western  shore  which  has  been  explored.  The 
Victoria  N'yanza  was  discovered  on  July  30, 
1858,  by  Capt.  J.  H.  Speke  of  the  British  In- 
dian army,  who  visited  its  southern  extremity, 
in  about  Ion.  33°  E.,  while  upon  the  expedition 
with  Oapt.  Richard  F.  Burton  which  resulted 
in  the  discovery  of  Lake  Tanganyika,  although 
he  was  not  accompanied  by  his  associate  on 
this  part  of  the  journey.  Convinced  that  he 
had  found  one  of  the  great  feeders  of  the 
Nile,  Capt.  Speke,  on  returning  to  England 
in  the  following  year,  organized  an  expedition 
for  its  further  exploration,  and  in  1862  again 
reached  the  vicinity  of  its  shores,  from  Zanzi- 
bar, this  time  in  company  with  Capt.  (now 
Col.)  J.  W.  Grant.  They  travelled  along  its 
western  and  northern  margin,  though  seldom 
within  view  of  its  waters,  to  the  outlet  of  the 


lake,  in  about  lat.  0°  21'  19"  N.,  Ion.  33°  30' 
E.  This  is  a  magnificent  river  from  600  to 
700  yards  wide,  flowing  northward  over  a 
beautiful  cataract,  having  a  descent  of  about 
12  ft.,  to  which  they  gave  the  name  of  Eipon 
falls.  This  stream,  now  known  as  the  Somer- 
set river,  Speke  believed  to  be  the  White  Nile ; 
and  his  conjecture,  founded  upon  native  infor- 
mation, that  it  flowed  into  another  lake  further 
W.,  whence  it  emerged  as  the  Nile  itself,  has 
since  been  verified  by  the  discovery  of  the  Al- 
bert N'yanza.  Our  actual  knowledge  concern- 
ing the  Victoria  lake  is  thus  confined  to  the  S. 
extremity  and  its  N.  W.  shores.  As  seen  from 
the  south  in  1858,  it  resembled  a  vast  flood 
overspreading  a  flat  surface ;  and  though  said 
by  the  natives  to  be  very  deep,  its  appearance 
did  not  confirm  the  statement.  According  to 
Speke,  if  any  part  of  the  adjacent  country, 
which  is  low,  well  wooded,  and  dotted  with 
hills,  were  inundated  to  the  same  extent,  it 
would  wear  the  same  aspect.  The  water  was 
of  a  dirty  white  color,  but  good  and  sweet.  A 
small  river  flows  into  the  S.  end  of  the  lake 
near  a  group  of  islets,  N.  of  which  are  two 
islands  of  considerable  size.  Information  de- 
rived from  the  Arabs  represents  the  E.  shore 
as  studded  with  islands ;  but  according  to  na- 
tive accounts  no  rivers  of  any  importance  find 
their  way  into  the  lake  on  that  side,  the  coun- 
try which  stretches  eastward  toward  the  moun- 
tain range  of  Kenia  and  Kilimanjaro  being 
scantily  watered  and  containing  many  salt  lakes 
and  salt  plains.  The  region  S.  of  the  Victoria 
N'yanza  is  occupied  by  the  numerous  petty 
states  which  constitute  the  extensive  territory 
known  as  Unyamuezi.  The  principal  feeder  of 
the  lake  from  the  west  is  the  Kitangule  river, 
which  enters  it  near  the  1st  parallel  of  S.  lati- 
tude. This  river  is  believed  to  rise  near  Mt. 
M'fumbiro,  a  cone-like  summit  about  100  m. 
W.  of  the  lake,  the  altitude  of  which  is  esti- 
mated by  Speke  at  10,000  ft.  The  W.  shore  is 
in  the  kingdom  of  Karagu6,  and  the  N.  W. 
and  N.  borders  are  included  within  the  Ugan- 
da country.  The  surface  of  this  moist,  tem- 
perate, wooded,  well  cultivated,  and  populous 
region  slopes  toward  the  lake,  near  which  the 
lands  generally  are  low,  grassy,  and  intersect- 
ed by  numerous  rush  drains.  Further  back, 
the  scenery  is  more  hilly,  and  the  country  is 
penetrated  by  several  mountain  spurs  from  the 
west,  of  moderate  elevation.— The  Victoria 
Nile,  or  Somerset  river,  as  Speke  called  the 
outlet  of  the  Victoria  N'yanza,  flows  from  Ri- 
pon  falls  northward  and  westward.  It  has 
actually  been  traced  by  Speke  somewhat  fur- 
ther down  than  lat.  1°  N.,  and  its  course  below 
M'rooli,  the  capital  of  Uuyoro,  in  lat.  1°  38' 
N.,  Ion.  32°  20'  E.,  has  become  tolerably  well 
known  through  the  later  explorations  of  Baker. 
At  Karuma  falls,  near  lat.  2°  15'  N.,  Ion.  32° 
26'  E.,  where  there  is  a  descent  of  about  5  ft., 
the  river  bends  suddenly  westward  and  flows- 
thence  in  that  direction,  between  cliffs  and 
over  a  succession  of  rapids,  to  Murchison  falls. 


54:8 


N'YANZA 


where  its  width  contracts  from  200  to  about  50 
yards,  and  its  waters  rush  furiously  through  a 
rocky  gorge  and  descend  at  one  leap  a  distance 
of  120  ft.,  in  a  cataract  of  snowy  whiteness, 
forming  the  greatest  waterfall  of  the  Nile. 
The  river  now  broadens  until  its  banks  are 
500  yards  apart,  and  moves  with  sluggish  cur- 
rent slowly  westward  until,  about  20  m.  from 
the  falls,  it  joins  the  second  lake.  II.  Albert 
N'yanza.  On  their  journey  N.  from  the  Vic- 
toria N'yanza  Speke  and  Grant  heard  of  this 
lake  under  the  name  of  Luta  N'zige,  but  did 
not  visit  it,  as  they  left  the  Somerset  river 
near  Karuma  falls,  and  did  not  see  the  Nile  un- 
til they  reached  lat.  3°  32'  N.,  about  a  degree 
below  its  exit  from  the  then  undiscovered  body 
of  water  thus  designated.  On  Feb.  15,  1863, 
near  Gondokoro,  they  met  Mr.  (now  Sir)  Sam- 
uel Baker  and  his  wife,  on  their  way  S.  to  dis- 
cover the  sources  of  the  Nile,  and  communica- 
ted to  them  intelligence  of  the  existence  of 
this  second  lake.  Baker  then  left  the  Nile 
region  and  pushed  southward  into  Unyoro,  N. 
of  the  Victoria  lake,  where  he  learned  that 
the  proper  native  name  for  the  object  of  his 
search  was  not  Luta  N'zige,  but  M'wootan 
N'zige,  the  waters  of  which  he  first  descried 
and  reached  on  March  14,  1864,  in  lat.  1°  15' 
N.,  Ion.  30°  50'  E.,  at  a  small  fishing  village 
named  Vacovia,  on  the  E.  shore.  Thence  the 
lake,  which  he  called  Albert  N'yanza,  in  honor 
of  the  prince  consort,  spread  out  apparently 
a  limitless  expanse  of  white  water  toward  the 
south  and  southwest,  while  on  the  opposite 
western  shore  rose  blue  mountains  to  a  height 
of  about  7,000  ft.  above  the  lake  level.  The 
width  at  this  point  appeared  to  be  50  or  60  m. 
South  of  Vacovia  the  Albert  N'yanzahas  never 
been  explored,  but  the  natives  describe  it  as 
extending  directly  S.  beyond  the  1st  parallel 
of  S.  latitude,  where  it  bends  westward;  no 
information  has  been  obtained  as  to  its  extent 
any  further  than  this.  The  E.  coast  of  the  N. 
portion,  however,  was  carefully  traced  by  Ba- 
ker, who  followed  it  northward,  in  a  canoe 
voyage  of  13  days'  duration,  as  far  as  the 
mouth  of  the  Somerset  river  or  Victoria  Nile, 
at  Magungo,  in  lat.  2°  16'  N.  The  shore 
trends  N.  N.  E.,  and  for  some  distance  above 
Vacovia  is  fringed  with  precipitous  cliffs  1,500 
ft.  high ;  but  these  decrease  in  elevation  toward 
the  north,  and  the  lake  loses  its  character  of  a 
deep  inland  sea,  narrowing  to  a  width  of  from 
15  to  20  m.,  while  the  banks  become  marshy 
and  are  bordered  by  thick  beds  of  reeds.  The 
mountains  on  the  W.  coast  opposite  Magungo 
appear  to  be  about  4,000  ft.  in  height.  From 
the  same  village  the  exit  of  the  Nile  proper  or 
Bahr  el-Abiad  from  the  N.  E.  extremity  of  the 
lake  was  visible,  at  a  distance  which  Baker 
states  to  be  18  m.,  but  which  is  nearly  30  m. 
according  to  his  map,  from  which  it  appears 
that  the  point  of  the  river's  departure  must  be 
•near  lat,  2°  45'  N.,  Ion.  31°  30'  E.  The  lake  ex- 
tends toward  low  ground  on  the  northwest,  but 
how  far  is  unknown.  The  corrected  altitude  of 


NYASSA 

its  surface  above  the  sea  level,  as  determined 
by  Baker  at  Vacovia,  is  2,720  ft.  His  map  in- 
dicates that  the  minimum  distance  of  the  lake 
from  the  Victoria  N'yanza  cannot  much  exceed 
100  m.,  and  represents  the  altitude  of  the  in- 
tervening country  of  Unyoro,  which  extends 
down  the  E.  shore  to  the  equator,  as  averaging 
4,200  ft.  The  W.  coast  is  occupied  by  the 
mountainous  kingdom  of  Malegga.  The  Al- 
bert N'yanza  is  thus  situated  in  a  vast  longitu- 
dinal depression  crossing  the  equator,  bounded 
E.  by  highlands  and  W.  by  mountains.  Its 
waters  abound  in  fish,  some  varieties  of  which 
exceed  200  Ibs.  in  weight ;  innumerable  hippo- 
potami and  crocodiles  frequent  its  banks,  and 
the  adjacent  regions  are  the  abode  of  large 
herds  of  elephants.  According  to  Baker,  the 
Victoria  N'yanza  is  the  first  source  of  the  Nile, 
which  collects  its  eastern  affluents ;  while  from 
the  Albert  N'yanza,  which  receives  those  and 
all  the  other  waters  of  the  equatorial  basin,  the 
river  issues  at  once  as  the  great  White  Nile. — 
See  Speke's  "Journal  of  the  Discovery  of  the 
Source  of  the  Nile"  (1863),  and  Baker's  "Al- 
bert N'yanza"  (1866;  new  ed.,  1870),  and 
"  Ismailia  "  (1874).  (See  NILE.) 

NYASSA,  a  lake  in  S.  E.  Africa,  with  its  S.  ex- 
tremity situated  about  350  m.  W.  of  the  town 
of  Mozambique,  in  lat.  14°  25'  S.,  Ion.  35°  10'  E., 
whence  its  waters  are  known  to  extend  north- 
ward upward  of  200  m.  The  width  of  the  main 
body  of  water  varies  from  20  to  60  m.  The 
southern  portion  consists  of  two  arms,  between 
which  rises  Cape  Maclear,  a  lofty  headland  with 
its  summit  2,000  ft.  above  the  surface  of  the 
lake.  From  the  S.  extremity  of  the  eastern  arm 
flows  the  river  Shire,  which  joins  the  Zambesi 
about  90  m.  from  the  sea.  This  arm  of  the  lake 
is  about  30m.  long  and  from  10  to  12  m.  wide, 
while  the  length  of  the  western  arm  is  not  more 
than  half  as  great.  According  to  Dr.  Kirk,  the 
elevation  of  Nyassa  above  the  level  of  the  sea  is 
1,522  ft.  The  country  on  both  sides  is  moun- 
tainous. The  lake  is  known  to  be  very  deep, 
in  some  places  over  40  fathoms ;  and  its  clear, 
blue  waters  are  frequently  lashed  into  waves 
of  extraordinary  magnitude  by  the  sudden  and 
violent  storms  to  which  it  is  subject.  Both  the 
E.  and  W.  banks  are  populated,  and  the  latter 
has  been  explored  nearly  to  lat.  11°  S. ;  but, 
so  far  as  known,  the  northern  extremity  has 
never  been  visited  by  any  European.  Nyassa 
was  first  laid  down  on  Portuguese  maps  as 
early  as  1546,  but  no  precise  information  con- 
cerning its  position  was  obtained  until  the  time 
of  Manoel  Godinho  (1663),  who  learned  in  In- 
dia from  a  Portuguese  traveller  that  it  com- 
municated with  the  Zambesi  through  a  river 
which  he  called  Zachaf .  In  1859  it  was  doubly 
discovered :  on  Sept.  16  by  Dr.  Livingstone, 
who  reached  it  through  the  valley  of  the  Shire ; 
and  on  Oct.  19  by  Dr.  Albrecht  Roscher  of 
Hamburg,  who  was  attacked  by  two  of  the 
natives  on  the  E.  shore  and  killed  by  poisoned 
arrows,  shortly  after  making  his  way  to  the 
lake  from  Kilwa.  Nyassa  has  since  been  ex- 


NYBORG 


NYSSA 


549 


plored,  in  1861  by  Livingstone  and  Kirk,  in 
1863  and  1866  again  by  Livingstone,  and  in 
1867  by  Mr.  E.  D.  Young. 

NYBORG,  a  fortified  town  of  the  island  of 
Etinen,  Denmark,  on  the  Great  Belt,  16  m.  E. 
S.  E.  of  Odense ;  pop.  about  4,000.  It  is  de- 
fended by  a  strong  citadel,  and  is  the  place 
where  the  Sound  dues  were  formerly  paid  by 
vessels  passing  through  the  Great  Belt.  It  con- 
tains ship-building  yards,  and  has  a  large  trade 
in  grain. 

NYCTALOPIA  (Gr.  v{£,  night,  a  privative,  and 
&1/;,  eye),  night  blindness.  The  disease  varies 
in  intensity;  in  mild  and  recent  cases  there 
being  only  a  greater  or  less  indistinctness  of 
vision  after  sunset,  while  in  others  the  pa- 
tient is  entirely  unable  to  distinguish  objects 
by  the  light  of  the  moon  or  by  artificial  light, 
or  even  to  see  a  lighted  candle  placed  directly 
before  the  eyes.  During  the  day  the  pupils 
move  naturally,  but  after  nightfall  they  remain 
usually  dilated  and  sluggish  or  motionless.  In 
old  cases  they  are  occasionally  observed  to  be 
contracted.  The  disease  is  said  to  be  some- 
times congenital  and  hereditary;  more  com- 
monly it  is  produced  by  continued  exposure 
to  the  bright  light  of  the  sun  during  the  day, 
particularly  when  the  strength  is  impaired  by 
over-fatigue,  watching,  and  a  faulty  diet.  It 
is  of  common  occurrence  in  warm  and  tropical 
climates,  particularly  among  strangers  from  a 
more  temperate  region.  It  sometimes  seems 
to  be  produced  by  the  reflection  from  snow. 
Avoidance  of  exposure  to  excessive  light  is  in 
general  all  that  is  necessary  to  obtain  a  cure. 
If  the  disease  is  accompanied  by  any  gastric 
or  other  derangement,  this  should  of  course  be 
attended  to.  When  the  complaint  has  proved 
obstinate,  a  succession  of  blisters  to  the  temples 
has  been  found  beneficial. — The  term  heme- 
ralopia,  day  blindness,  has  been  applied  to  a 
defect  of  vision  the  opposite  to  nyctalopia. 
Beyond  the  photophobia  common  to  those  who 
have  been  long  habituated  to  darkness,  to  al- 
binos, and  to  children  laboring  under  strumous 
ophthalmia,  this  has  no  real  existence. 

NYE,  a  S.  E.  county  of  Nevada,  bounded  E. 
by  Utah  and  S.  W.  by  California  ;  area,  24,200 
sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  1,087.  The  N.  part  con- 
sists of  regularly  alternating  mountains  and 
valleys,  running  N.  and  S.  In  every  range 
there  are  mining  districts,  and  the  valleys  con- 
tain large  areas  of  arable  and  grazing  land. 
The  mountain  streams  are  numerous.  The  S. 
part  is  mostly  a  high  table  land,  falling  off 
toward  the  west  into  the  Death  valley  in  Cali- 
fornia, and  toward  the  east  to  the  Colorado 
river.  Reese  river  rises  in  the  N.  W.  part,  and 
Amargoza  river  in  the  S.'  part.  According  to 
the  census  of  1870,  there  were  15  quartz  mines 
in  operation,  of  which  14  produced  silver  and 
one  gold  and  silver.  The  chief  productions 


were  1,314  bushels  of  wheat,  1,390  of  oats. 
14,260  of  barley,  7,065  of  potatoes,  and  1,138 
tons  of  hay.  The  value  of  live  stock  was  $42,822. 
There  were  5  saw  mills  and  5  quartz  mills. 
Capital,  Belmont. 

NYERCP,  Nasmns,  a  Danish  antiquary,  born 
at  Orsted  in  the  island  of  Fiinen,  March  12, 
1759,  died  in  Copenhagen,  June  28,  1829.  He 
was  educated  at  Copenhagen,  where  in  1796 
he  ^  became  professor  of  literary  history  and 
university  librarian.  He  wrote  several  valu- 
able bibliographical  works,  but  his  reputation 
rests  chiefly  on  his  antiquarian  compilations, 
of  which  the  most  noteworthy  is  his  "  His- 
torical and  Statistical  Exhibition  of  the  Condi- 
tion of  Denmark  and  Norway  in  Ancient  and 
Modern  Times"  (2  vols.,  1802-'6) ;  and  more 
especially  on  his  numerous  writings  in  regard 
to  the  ancient  Danish  language  and  literature. 

NYKOPING,  a  town  of  Sweden,  in  the  Ian 
of  Sodermanland,  on  a  bay  of  the  Baltic, 
50  m.  S.  W.  of  Stockholm ;  pop.  about  5,000. 
It  is  traversed  by  the  small  Nykoping  river, 
which  connects  the  great  network  of  lakes 
in  the  interior  with  the  Baltic.  The  new 
town  contains  a  fine  square  with  a  fountain, 
several  churches,  and  a  palace  for  the  provin- 
cial governor.  Steam  engines,  locomotives, 
iron-clad  ships,  &c.,  are  produced.  There  are 
only  relics  of  the  old  castle,  once  one  of  the 
strongest  in  Sweden;  it  was  destroyed  by  a 
fire  in  1665.  In  1719  the  old  town  was  devas- 
tated by  the  Russians. 

NYMPH.     See  CHRYSALIS. 

NYMPHEA.     See  Cos. 

NYMPHS  (Gr.  vv^ai),  in  Greek  and  Roman 
mythology,  inferior  female  divinities,  presiding 
over  various  departments  of  nature.  The 
Oceanids,  daughters  of  Oceanus,  and  the  Ne- 
reids, daughters  of  Nereus,  were  salt-water 
nymphs,  the  latter  dwelling  in  the  Mediterra- 
nean, and  especially  in  the  ^Egean  sea.  The 
naiads  were  nymphs  of  fountains  and  other 
fresh  waters,  those  presiding  over  lakes  being 
also  called  limniads,  and  those  over  rivers,  pot- 
amids.  The  nymphs  of  mountains  and  grottoes 
were  called  oreads  or  orestiads  ;  of  forests  and 
groves,  dryads  and  hamadryads  ;  and  of  vales, 
glens,  and  meadows,  naphsese  and  limoniads. 
They  were  also  named  from  certain  races  or 
localities  with  which  they  were  associated,  as 
Nysiads,  Dodonids,  Lemnise,  &c. ;  and  were 
subdivided  into  still  other  classes,  with  almost 
innumerable  names  and  attributes.  Sacrifices 
were  offered  to  the  nymphs  of  such  productions 
of  nature  as  abounded  in  their  several  haunts, 
but  never  of  wine.  They  were  not  immortal, 
though  always  youthful,  and  often  perished 
with  the  objects  of  their  care;  or  the  object 
was  said  to  languish  and  die  when  the  guardian 
nymph  forsook  it. 

NYSSA.     See  TUPELO. 


550 


O 


OAJAOA 


0 


OTHE  15th  letter  and  the  4th  vowel  of  the 
English  alphabet.  Phonetically  it  occu- 
pies a  position  between  A  and  U,  with  both 
of  which  it  is  sometimes  interchanged.  O  and 
U  appear  indeed  to  have  had  a  common  origin, 
and  it  has  been  supposed  that  the  old  Greek 
alphabet  did  not  contain  upsilon  (v),  while  the 
Etruscan  had  U  but  not  O  ;  hence  the  frequent 
occurrence  of  O  in  Greek  (in  the  double  form 
of  o  and  u)  and  of  U  in  Latin.  O  is  also  in- 
terchanged with  the  Greek  and  Latin  long  e, 
equivalent  to  the  English  a  (Gr.  Kyp,  Lat.  cor) ; 
with  ou  (Fr.  tout,  Lat.  totus) ;  uo  (especially  in 
Italian,  as  in  cuore,  Lat.  cor) ;  eu  (Fr.  lieu,  Lat. 
locus)  ;  au  (Fr.  &r,  Lat.  aurum) ;  ue  (Span. 
bueno,  Lat.  bonus)  ;  ea  (cleave,  clove)  ;  i  (write, 
wrote) ;  ei,  pronounced  as  the  English  long  i 
(Ger.  nein,  Eng.  no) ;  and  short  e  (Lat.  v elle, 
volo ;  vermis,  Eng.  worm).  In  English  O  has 
four  sounds :  long,  as  in  note  ;  short,  as  in  not ; 
obscure,  as  in  occur  ;  like  oo,  as  in  move,  wolf. 
There  are  also  some  exceptional  cases  in  which 
it  takes  the  sound  of  short  u,  as  in  lone,  some  ; 
of  broad  a,  as  in  lord ;  and  of  short  i,  as  in 
women.  It  forms  the  folio  wing  diphthongs :  oa, 
sometimes  equivalent  to  long  o,  as  in  coal,  or 
broad  a,  as  in  broad  ;  oe,  sounded  like  long  o  in 
foe,  oo  in  canoe,  and  long  e  in  foetus  ;  oi,  hav- 
ing its  proper  sound  as  in  voice  ;  oo,  long  as  in 
boon,  short  as  in  good,  like  long  o  as  m  floor,  or 
like  short  u  as  in  flood;  ou,  as  in  house,  or  like 
short  u  in  double,  oo  in  soup  and  could,  long  o  in 
though,  short  o  in  hough,  and  broad  a  in  ought; 
ow,  sounded  like  ou  in  house  or  like  long  o 
(vow,  low)-,  and  oy,  like  oi.  O  is  employed 
particularly  to  express  admiration,  warning, 
compassion,  and  entreaty,  and  occurs  as  an  in- 
terjection in  all  languages. — In  inscriptions,  O. 
stands  for  optimus.  As  a  prefix  to  Irish  names, 
it  signifies"  grandson  of;"  thus,  O'Connor  is 
equivalent  to  grandson  of  Connor.  In  free- 
masonry it  denotes  Orient ;  in  French  geogra- 
phy, ouest,  west;  in  German  geography,  Ost, 
east.  In  Greek  numeration  o  stood  for  70 
and  «  for  800,  and  in  the  middle  Latin  O  stood 
for  11,  or  with  a  dash  over  it,  o,  for  11,000. 

OAHU,  one  of  the  Hawaiian  islands,  the 
fourth  of  the  group  in  size,  in  Ion.  158°  W.,  and 
between  lat.  21°  and  22°  N". ;  pop.  in  1872, 
20,671,  of  whom  3,129  were  foreigners.  The 
island  is  roughly  quadrilateral ;  its  extreme 
length  is  33  m.  and  its  breadth  is  20  m.  It  is 
of  volcanic  formation  and  mountainous,  but 
the  highest  peaks  are  clothed  with  vegetation. 
There  are  two  distinct  ranges  of  mountains, 
the  windward  and  the  leeward,  called  respec- 
tively the  Konahuinui  and  the  Waianae  ranges. 
They  exhibit  few  craters  in  perfect  condition, 
but  there  are  groups  of  tufa  cones  along  the 
shore.  The  island  is  well  watered,  and  its  val- 
leys are  productive,  the  most  fertile  region  lying 
on  the  northeast  between  Kaala  and  Kahuku. 


Honolulu,  the  capital  of  the  Hawaiian  king- 
dom, is  on  the  S.  side  of  Oahu ;  its  port  is  the 
best  in  the  islands.  It  has  regular  steam  com- 
munication with  San  Francisco,  about  2,000  m. 
distant.  The  shores  of  Oahu  are  mostly  fringed 
with  coral  reefs,  often  half  a  mile  broad. 

OAJACA.  I.  A  maritime  state  of  Mexico, 
bounded  N.  W.  by  Puebla,  K  E.  by  Vera  Cruz, 
S.  E.  by  Chiapas,  S.  by  the  Pacific  ocean,  and 
"W.  by  Guerrero ;  area,  27,389  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in 
1869,  646,729,  and  in  1872,  as  reported  by  the 
governor,  662,463.  It  is  extremely  mountain- 
ous, being  traversed  from  S.  to  N.  by  the  great 
chain  of  the  Mexican  Andes,  which,  after  en- 
tering from  the  south  in  a  single  ridge  almost 

j  midway  between  the  two  oceans,  bifurcates, 
sending  N".  the  two  separate  branches  which 
flank  the  vast  central  plateau.  These  lateral 
ridges  cut  the  country  into  valleys  and  gorges 
of  no  great  extent,  but  of  surprising  beauty 
and  fertility.  The  most  remarkable  summits 
are  Zempoaltepec  in  the  district  of  Villalta, 
with  an  elevation  of  10,542  ft.  above  the  sea, 
and  whose  crest  commands  magnificent  views 
of  both  oceans;  the  Sirena,  S.  of  San  Juan 
de  Ozolotepec;  Chicahuastla,  in  Teposcolula; 
Colcoyan,  S.  of  Huajuapam  ;  Jilotepec,  in  Tla- 
colula;  and  Mijes,  S.  of  Quetzaltepec.  The 
principal  rivers  are  the  Quiotepec,  which  rises 

I  in  the  mountains  N.  of  the  city  of  Oajaca,  col- 

\  lects  the  waters  of  the  Tonto,  and  unites  with 

!  the  Cosamaloapam  after  a  course  of  120  m. ; 

|  the  Villalta,  also  a  tributary  of  the  Cosama- 
loapam, ,  descending  from  the  Zempoaltepec, 
and  having  a  course  of  more  than  100  m. ;  the 
Tehuantepec,  flowing  from  the  mountains  of 
Quiechapa,  Amatlan,  and  Minas,  and  falling 

l  into  the  Pacific  at  Ventosa;  and  the  Atoyac 
or  Verde,  which  takes  its  rise  near  the  capital, 
and  empties  into  the  Pacific  after  a  winding 
course  of  nearly  170  m.  The  climate  presents 
all  the  variations  characteristic  of  the  torrid 
and  temperate  zones,  and  is  mostly  very  salu- 
brious. There  are  in  Oajaca  8  gold  and  17 
silver  mines,  besides  39  mines  of  silver  and 

:  gold,  5  of  iron,  and  4  of  lead ;  but  the  mining 
operations  are  comparatively  limited  for  want 
of  adequate  labor.  The  agricultural  products 
include  maize,  chilli,  beans  of  several  kinds, 
wheat,  barley,  rice,  aniseed,  coffee,  cotton, 
wax,  and  tobacco;  but  the  great  staples  are 
the  sugar  cane,  cochineal,  indigo,  and  cacao, 
the  last  being  equal  in  quality  to  the  best  from 
Caracas. .  The  annual  yield  of  cochineal  is 
about  500,000  Ibs. ;  and  the  mean  annual  value 
of  all  the  products  is  $2,250,000.  Oajaca  is 
essentially  an  agricultural  country ;  but  it  has 
likewise  a  large  number  of  manufactures,  the 
more  important  being  soaps,  sugar,  aguar- 
diente or  cane  rum,  beer,  gunpowder,  and  palm- 
leaf  hats;  and  there  are  numerous  flour  mills, 
two  salt  works,  10  tanneries,  and  about  70 


OAK 


551 


looms.  The  school  statistics  in  1873  were  as 
follows:  709  primary  schools,  with  28,166  male 
and  2,089  female  pupils ;  one  female  academy, 
with  826  pupils ;  a  state  literary  institute,  pon- 
tifical seminary,  and  Catholic  college,  having 
504,  62,  and  291  students  respectively.  The 
state  library,  in  the  capital,  contains  13,000  vol- 
umes. Oajaca  is  divided  into  25  districts.  II. 
An  inland  city,  capital  of  the  state,  in  the  de- 
lightful valley  of  the  same  name,  on  the  left 
bank  of  the  Atoyac,  210  m.  S.  E.  of  Mexico  ;  lat. 
17°  10'  K,  Ion.  97°  30'  W. ;  pop.  about  25,000. 
The  streets  are  spacious  and  regular,  and  the 
houses  substantially  built,  and  for  the  most  part 
neat  in  appearance,  though  many  of  them  are 
of  adobe.  The  principal  buildings  are  the  ca- 
thedral, the  Santuario  de  la  Soledad  and  other 
churches,  and  convents,  gorgeously  decorated, 
the  cabildo  or  city  hall,  and  the  episcopal  palace. 
There  are  several  handsome  squares  or  plazas, 
embellished  with  trees  and  flowers;  and  the 
surrounding  country  is  exceedingly  picturesque, 
being  literally  covered  with  gardens  and  cochi- 
neal groves.  Education  is  zealously  promoted. 
The  general  hospital  is  said  to  be  one  of  the 
best  organized  in  the  republic.  The  chief  oc- 
cupations of  the  people  are  the  manufacture  of 
sugar,  beer,  indigo,  cane  rum,  and  especially  of 
cacao,  for  which  this  city  is  celebrated,  and  the 
preparation  of  cochineal.  Palm-leaf  hats  are 
extensively  made,  and  silk  weaving  employs  a 
small  number  of  hands.  Oajaca  was  injured 
by  an  earthquake  on  May  11,  1870. 

OAK  (Ang.  Sax.  ac\  the  English  name  of 
trees  of  the  genus  quercus.  Some  botanists 
place  all  the  trees  and  shrubs  which  have 
their  unisexual  flowers  in  catkins  in  one  family, 
the  amentacea,  while  others,  including  Ameri- 
can authorities,  make  several  families,  placing 
quercus,  the  oak,  fagus,  the  beech,  castanea, 
the  chestnut,  and  two  less  known  genera,  in  a 
family  by  themselves,  the  cupuUfera,  which 
thus  restricted  comprises  trees  (rarely  shrubs) 
the  fruit  of  which  consists  of  nuts  contained 
in  an  involucral  cup  (whence  the  name)  or  de- 
hiscent capsule.  The  genus  quercus  consists 
of  trees  and  shrubs  with  alternate  simple  leaves 
and  monoecious  flowers ;  the  staminate  flowers 
are  in  slender,  usually  pendulous,  often  inter- 
rupted catkins,  the  bracts  or  catkin  scales  fall- 
ing early,  their  flowers  consisting  of  five  to 
twelve  stamens  within  a  two-  to  eight-parted 
calyx.  The  fertile  or  female  flowers  are  soli- 
tary or  clustered;  they  have  a  three-celled 
ovary  with  two  ovules  in  each  cell,  and  a  three- 
lobed  stigma,  and  are  surrounded  by  an  invo- 
lucre of  small  imbricated  scales ;  in  fruit  the 
ovary  becomes,  by  abortion  of  two  of  the  cells 
and  all  but  one  of  the  ovules,  a  one-seeded  nut 
(acorn),  surrounded  at  its  base  by  a  woody 
cup,  which  is  formed  by  the  enlarged  and  in- 
durated scales  of  the  involucre  to  the  ovary. 
In  his  elaboration  of  the  genus,  Alphonse  de 
Candolle  gives  more  than  250  accepted  species 
of  quercus,  some  of  which  have  several  well 
marked  varieties,  and  a  number  of  doubtful 


species.  Oaks  are  found  over  nearly  the  whole 
northern  hemisphere,  except  the  extreme 
north,  and  in  the  tropics  along  the  Andes  and 
in  the  Moluccas.  There  are  both  deciduous 
and  evergreen  species,  presenting  a  wonderful 
difference  in  their  leaves  and  general  aspect, 
some  being  small  shrubs,  but  all  readily  recog- 
nized by  their  peculiar  fruit,  consisting  of  an 
acorn  and  a  cup,  which  never  completely  en- 
closes the  nut.  Some  of  the  oaks  furnish  val- 
uable timber,  and  one  species  yields  cork.  (See 
CORK.)  Tannic  and  gallic  acids  are  abundant 
in  the  oaks,  and  the  bark  of  many  is  valuable 
for  tanning,  while  in  some  these  principles  are 
developed  in  a  remarkable  degree  in  the  galls 
produced  by  the  punctures  of  insects.  (See 
GALLS.)  The  nuts  not  only  supply  human 
food,  but  that  of  various  animals.  In  England 
in  early  times  the  acorns  were  regarded  as  the 
most  useful  product  of  the  tree,  and  wooded 
property  was  valued  according  to  the  number 
of  swine  it  would  support.  In  some  of  our 
western  states  the  mast,  or  "  shack,"  is  an  im- 
portant element  in  the  production  of  pork.  In 
the  Atlantic  states  there  are  about  20  accepted 
species  of  oak,  with  about  as  many  sub-species 
or  varieties.  The  species  vary  so  much  that 
the  genus  is  puzzling  to  botanists,  and  its  diffi- 
culties are  increased  by  the  production  of  seve- 
ral natural  hybrids.  The  character  of  the  wood 
is  affected  by  the  soil  and  locality  in  which 
the  trees  grow,  and  lumbermen  make  distinc- 
tions not  recognized  by  botanists.  In  some  of 
our  oaks  the  flowers  of  spring  perfect  their 
fruit  the  same  autumn ;  hence  the  acorns  ap- 
pear upon  the  wood  of  the  season's  growth,  in 
the  axils  of  the  leaves,  and  often  raised  on  a 
peduncle  or  stalk.  These  are  called  annual- 
fruited  oaks,  and  the  group  is  also  marked  by 
other  characters :  the  leaves  when  not  entire 
have  their  lobes  or  teeth  destitute  of  bristle- 
like  points;  the  abortive  ovules  are  found 
under  the  seed ;  the  kernel  is  often  sweet,  and 
the  timber  is  more  valuable  than  that  of  the 
next  section.  The  biennial-fruited  oaks  per- 
fect their  acorns  the  year  after  flowering. 
After  the  staminate  flowers  fall,  the  pistils  un- 
dergo little  change,  but  remain  until  the  fol- 
lowing spring,  when  they  mature  and  ripen 
about  18  months  after  blossoming.  In  these 
oaks  the  ripe  fruit  is  found  below  the  growth 
of  the  season  ;  the  peduncles  are  short  or  none, 
and  the  kernel  bitter ;  the  abortive  ovules  are 
at  the  top  of  the  seed ;  the  leaves  when  not 
entire  have  their  lobes  terminated  by  bristle- 
like  points.  Each  of  these  sections  is  subdi- 
vided into  several  smaller  groups,  character- 
ized by  the  foliage. — Beginning  with  the  an- 
nual-fruited species,  the  white  oak  (Q.  alba)  is 
one  of  the  most  useful  as  well  as  most  generally 
distributed.  In  this,  as  in  others,  the  leaves 
present  much  variety,  and  trees  growing  side 
by  side  often  have  leaves  sufficiently  unlike  to 
belong  to  different  species;  they  are  always 
deeply  lobed,  with  the  lobes  obtuse ;  they  are 
pubescent  below  when  young,  smooth  when 


552 


OAK 


old,  shining  green  on  the  upper  and  pale  on  the 
under  surface ;  the  acorns  are  about  an  inch 
long,  in  a  hemispherical  saucer-shaped  cup, 
which  is  roughened  with  rounded  tubercles ; 


White  Oak  (Quercus  alba). 

the  kernel  is  usually  sweet,  but  varies  in  dif- 
ferent trees,  and  the  better  kinds  when  roasted 
are  not  an  unwelcome  substitute  for  chestnuts ; 
the  tree  fruits  so  seldom  that  it  is  the  popular 
notion  that  it  bears  only  once  in  seven  years. 
It  is  found  as  far  north  as  Lake  Winnipeg,  and 
extends  to  Florida  and  the  gulf  states.  The 
wood  of  the  white  oak,  on  account  of  its  hard- 
ness, toughness,  and  durability,  is  regarded  as 


White  Oak  Tree. 


fitted  to  a  greater  variety  of  uses  than  that  of 
any  other  tree  except  the  white  pine;  it  is 
largely  employed  in  ship  building,  carriage  and 
wagon  making,  and  cooperage,  and  for  various 


agricultural  implements.  Among  its  minor 
uses  is  the  making  of  coarse  baskets,  as  the 
wood  of  young  trees  is  easily  divided  into 
splints  of  great  flexibility  and  strength ;  similar 
splints  are  used  for  chair  bottoms.  The  bark 
is  valuable  for  tanning,  and  on  account  of  its 
astringency  is  used  in  medicine  both  internally 
and  as  a  bath.  As  a  fuel  white  oak  is  much 
inferior  to  hickory,  but  it  makes  excellent  char- 
coal. The  white  oak  is  long-lived,  and  speci- 
mens supposed  to  have  been  in  existence  be- 
fore the  settlement  of  the  country  are  still 
standing ;  it  is  of  slow  growth,  but  does  not 
cease  to  grow  as  it  gets  larger.  On  account  of 
the  great  value  of  the  wood,  the  trees  are  rap- 
idly disappearing,  and  no  provision  is  made  for 
future  supplies.  As  an  ornamental  tree  the 
white  oak  is  much  esteemed.  In  autumn  the 
leaves  turn  to  a  characteristic  purplish  color, 
and  remain  upon  the  tree  until  a  new  growth 
begins  in  spring.  The  post  oak  (Q.  obtusilobd), 
also  called  rough  and  box  white  oak,  is  smaller, 


Post  or  Rough  White  Oak  (Quercus  obtusiloba). 

with  a  denser  foliage,  and  is  easily  distinguish- 
ed by  its  leaves,  which  are  pale  and  rough 
above  and  yellowish  downy  beneath  ;  their  up- 
per lobes  are  much  larger  than  the  lower,  and 
one-  to  three-notched ;  the  acorn  is  one  half  to 
three  fourths  of  an  inch  long,  ovoid,  with  a 
deep  saucer-shaped  cup  one  third  to  one  half 
its  length,  and  a  sweet  kernel.  This  tree  is 
found  from  New  England  southward,  prefer- 
ring poor  and  dry  soils,  and  in  the  western 
states  it  is  found  on  the  tracts  of  poor  land 
known  as  post-oak  barrens.  It  rarely  grows 
over  40  or  50  ft.  high  and  12  to  18  in.  in  diam- 
eter ;  it  has  such  a  tendency  to  branch,  pro- 
ducing even  when  growing  thickly  branches 
very  low  down,  that  it  does  not  afford  tim- 
ber of  much  length ;  its  wood  is  fine-grained, 
strong,  yellowish,  and  regarded  as  more  dura- 
ble than  any  other  except  the  live  oak;  its 
durability  when  used  for  posts  has  given  it  its 
common  name ;  it  is  considered  the  best  wood 


OAK 


553 


for  staves,  and  is  used  for  knees  in  ship  build- 
ing. The  burr  oak  (Q.  macrocarpa),  closely  re- 
lated to  the  two  preceding  species,  is  in  some 
localities  known  as  the  over-cup,  and  in  others 


Burr  or  Over-cup  Oak  (Quercus  macrocarpa). 

as  the  mossy-cup  white  oak ;  it  is  of  medium 
height  with  irregular  branches ;  its  large  leaves 
are  obovate  in  general  outline,  deeply  lobed  be- 
low the  middle,  often  nearly  to  the  midrib,  and 
broader  and  more  entire  to  ward  the  apex,  smooth 
and  dark  green  above,  and  downy  or  light-col- 
ored beneath.  The  acorn  is  broadly  ovate,  1  to 
H  in.  long,  and  wholly  or  partly  immersed  in 
its  cup,  which  is  thick  and  woody,  and  very 
conspicuous,  not  only  on  account  of  its  size,  but 
from  being  covered  with  prominent  scales,  the 
upper  of  which  terminate  in  leafy  points,  to 
form  a  mossy  fringe  to  the  edge  of  the  cup ; 
the  relative  size  of  the  acorn  to  the  cup  varies 
greatly.  The  burr  oak  is  much  more  abun- 
dant in  the  western  than  in  the  Atlantic  states, 
and  in  richer  soils  than  the  white  and  post 
oaks.  When  it  has  room  to  develop  it  forms 
a  handsome  tree ;  and  as  it  grows  more  rapidly 
than  most  other  oaks,  it  is  well  adapted  to  or- 
namental planting,  while  the  value  of  its  tim- 
ber, being  nearly  equal  to  that  of  white  oak, 
renders  it  desirable  for  forest  planting.  As  its 
wood  is  preferred  for  making  the  treenails  or 
wooden  pins  used  in  ship  building,  this  spe- 
cies is  in  some  parts  of  New  England  called 
pin  oak,  a  name  which  properly  belongs  to 
another  species.  The  southern  over-cup  oak 
(Q.  lyrata)  is  found  in  swamps  along  rivers 
from  North  Carolina  south  and  west,  where 
it  forms  a  large  tree,  70  to  80  ft.  high,  with  its 
seven  to  nine  triangularly  lobed  leaves  crowd- 
ed at  the  ends  of  the  branches.  The  acorns 
are  an  inch  long  and  considerably  broader, 
and  enclosed  in  a  cup  which  is  clothed  with 
rugged  scales  and  almost  conceals  the  nut. — 
In  the  group  of  chestnut  oaks  the  leaves  are 
not  lobed  (except  slightly  in  one  species),  but 
are  coarsely  sinuate-toothed,  and  white  or 


whitish-downy  beneath  ;  the  cup  hoary,  hemi- 
spherical or  somewhat  depressed,  about  half 
as  long  as  the  oblong-ovoid  edible  acorn.  The 
swamp  white  oak  (Q.  bicolor)  is  found  in  low 
grounds,  especially  in  the  northern  and  west- 
ern states,  and  frequently  attains  a  large  size ; 
its  leaves  are  intermediate  between  the  chest- 
nut and  white  oaks,  being  sometimes  simply 
sinuate  on  the  margin,  and  at  others  more 
pinnatifid  than  toothed,  but  in  all  cases  wedge- 
shaped  at  the  base,  and  hoary  beneath  with 
a  soft  down.  After  flowering  the  foot  stalk 
elongates,  and  when  the  fruit  is  mature  is  2 
or  3  in.  long,  or  longer  than  the  petioles,  and 
bears  one  or  two  acorns  an  inch  long ;  the  cup 
has  its  upper  scales  awn-pointed,  and  some- 
times forming  a.mossy  fringe  around  the  edge. 
The  wood  is  brownish,  heavy,  and  compact; 
its  uses  are  similar  to  those  of  white  oak.  The 
chestnut  oak  (Q.  prinus)  has  given  botanists 
much  trouble  on  account  of  its  variable  char- 
acter. The  leading  form  is  popularly  known 


Swamp  White  Oak  (Quercus  bicolor). 

as  the  swamp  chestnut  oak  ;  it  has  obovate  or 
oblong  leaves  undulately  toothed  on  the  mar- 
gin, minutely  downy  beneath,  with  10  to  16 
pairs  of  straight  rather  prominent  primary 
ribs.  The  fruit-bearing  stalk  is  shorter  than 
the  petioles;  the  acorn  is  an  inch  or  less  in 
length,  with  a  thick  cup  covered  with  hard 
stout  scales.  This  is  found  from  Pennsylvania 
southward,  and  is  most  plentiful  in  the  Caro- 
linas  and  Georgia,  inhabiting  moist  and  dry 
soil,  and  differing  much  in  size  and  the  qual- 
ity of  its  wood  according  to  its  situation.  It 
makes  durable  rails.  A  variety  of  this  is  the 
rock  chestnut  oak  (var.  monticola},  given  in 
some  works  as  a  species  (Q.  montana);  it  is 
found  in  or  near  the  mountains,  from  Ver- 
mont southward,  and  forms  a  tree  30  or  40  ft. 
high ;  it  has  large  acorns,  like  the  preceding, 
and  more  chestnut-like  leaves;  it  produces 
greatly  superior  timber,  and  is  highly  esteemed 
as  fuel.  It  is  a  most  valuable  tree  for  plant- 


554: 


OAK 


ing  upon  rocky  hillsides,  in  situations  which 
can  never  be  cultivated.  Another  variety  is 
the  yellow  chestnut  oak  (var.  acuminata), 
which  is  the  quercus  castanea  of  Muhlenberg 


Kock  Chestnut  Oak  (Quercus  prinus,  var.  monticola). 

and  other  authors.  It  has  leaves  more  like 
the  chestnut  than  the  others,  as  they  are  on 
slender  petioles  and  oblong  or  lanceolate  from 
a  rounded  base,  equally  and  sharply  toothed 
and  with  very  straight  veins.  The  acorns  are 
rather  small,  very  sweet,  with  a  thin  hemi- 
spherical cup,  having  appressed  scales.  This 
variety  is  a  handsome  tree  60  to  TO  ft.  high ; 
it  is  more  abundant  in  the  middle  states  than 
northward,  and  ex- 
tends to  Florida.  Its 
wood  is  very  yellow, 
strong,  and  durable. 
Not  only  is  there 
some  confusion  in 
the  botanical  nomen- 
clature of  oaks,  but 
the  common  names 
are  carelessly  applied ; 
in  the  western  states 
the  yellow  chestnut 
oak  is  called  chinqua- 
pin oak,  a  name  that 
belongs  to  the  variety 
humilis  mentioned 
below.  Another  va- 
riety of  Q.  prinus  is 
Michaux's.  oak  (var. 
MicTiauxii  of  Chap- 
man), a  large  tree 
found  in  low  grounds 
from  South  Carolina 
to  Florida  ;  it  has 
smaller  and  more  rigid 

leaves  than  the  rock  chestnut  oak,  velvety 
underneath,  and  obtuse  or  slightly  cordate  at 
base,  with  a  nut  1£  in.  long.  The  small- 
est variety  of  this  species,  the  chinquapin 


oak  (var.  humilis),  is  sometimes  called  the 
dwarf  chestnut  oak.  It  is  the  smallest  of 
the  northern  oaks,  being  usually  2  or  3  ft. 
high,  and  seldom  above  5  ft.  Some  botanists 


Live  Oak  (Quercus  virens). 

regard  this  as  a  distinct  species,  and  it  has 
several  different  botanical  names.  It  is  found 
from  southern  New  England  and  New  York 
south  and  westward  in  sandy  barrens,  where  it 
often  forms  the  sole  vegetation  of  many  acres. 
It  produces  its  small  acorns  very  abundantly, 
and  affords  food  for  animals. — The  live  oak 
(Q.  mrens)  also  belongs  to  the  annual-fruited 
oaks,  and  is  distinguished  from  all  the  eastern 


Live  Oak  Tree. 


species  of  this  section  by  its  thick,  evergreen 
leaves,  which  are  entire,  or  in  one  variety  with 
spiny  teeth.  Its  leaves  are  2  to  4  in.  long, 
oblong,  obtuse,  smooth  and  shining  above,  and 


OAK 


555 


as  well  as  the  branchlets  hoary  beneath ;  the 
fruit  stalk  is  conspicuous,  bearing  one  to  three 
fruits;  acorn  oblong,  chestnut-brown,  with  a 
top-shaped,  hoary  cup.  This  is  usually  a  large, 
much-branched  tree,  found  from  Virginia  to 
.Texas,  and  seldom  more  than  50  m.  inland  from 
the  coast ;  it  also  extends  into  Mexico  and  Cen- 
tral America,  and  is  found  in  some  of  the  West 
India  islands.  The  wood  of  this  species  is  yel- 
lowish, fine-grained,  and  of  exceedingly  slow 
growth  ;  it  is  considered  of  greater  value  than 
any  other  for  ship  building,  and  is  highly  prized 
by  all  maritime  nations ;  the  tree  usually  branch- 
es low,  and  it  therefore  supplies  an  abundance 
of  knees ;  it  is  also  of  great  value  to  the  wheel- 
wright and  the  millwright.  A  seaside  variety 
(var.  maritima)  has  acute  leaves,  larger  fruit, 
and  does  not  exceed  10  ft.  in  height;  and  a 
still  smaller  form  (var.  dentata)  is  found  in 
the  pine  barrens  of  Florida,  only  1  or  2  ft. 
high,  with  the  earliest  leaves  toothed  and  near- 
ly sessile,  and  the  fruit  short-peduncled  or 


Willow  Oak  (Quercus  phellos). 

nearly  sessile. — The  characters  of  the  biennial- 
fruited  oaks  have  been  described;  these,  like 
the  annual-fruited  species,  are  in  groups,  one 
of  which  is  the  willow  oaks,  which  are  nearly 
or  quite  evergreen  at  the  south,  their  leaves 
generally  entire,  and  the  acorn  globose.  The 
upland  willow  oak  (Q.  cinerea)  is  a  small  worth- 
less tree  of  the  pine  barrens  from  Virginia 
southward,  resembling  the  live  oak,  from  which 
it  is  distinguished  by  its  narrower,  more  downy 
leaves,  and  its  globular  acorn.  The  willow  oak 
(Q.  phellos)  is  distinguished  from  all  other 
oaks  by  its  willow-like  leaves,  which  are  from 
3  to  4  in.  long,  and  smooth  when  old ;  the  flat 
cup  encloses  the  base  of  the  hemispherical  nut. 
It  is  slender,  30  to  50  ft.  high,  and  found  along 
swamps  and  streams  from  Long  island  to  Flor- 
ida ;  its  timber  is  of  little  value  ;  it  is  planted 
in  some  of  the  southern  cities  as  a  shade  tree. 
The  variety  laurifolia  is  a  larger  tree  with 
longer  and  broader  leaves,  and  the  variety 


arenaria  is  a  mere  shrub  with  smaller  leaves. 
The  shingle  oak  (Q.  imbricaria),  also  called  the 
laurel  oak,  has  lance-oblong  leaves,  which  are 
smooth  above  and  downy  beneath;  it  grows 
from  30  to  50  ft.  high,  and  is  found  from  New 
Jersey  south  and  west.  Its  wood,  though  hard, 
is  poor  ;  it  is  used  for  shingles  in  some  of  the 
western  states.  The  water  oak  (Q.  aquatica) 
is  small  and  very  variable,  growing  in  wet 
places  from  Maryland  to  Florida;  it  has  a 
smooth  bark  and  usually  wedge-shaped,  smooth, 
and  shining  leaves,  which  are  sometimes  lobed 
and  bristle-pointed;  the  wood  is  tough  but 
not  durable.  Related  to  the  preceding  in  the 
shape  and  variableness  of  its  foliage  is  the 
black-jack  (Q.  nigra),  which  grows  on  sandy 
barrens  from  southern  New  York  to  Florida, 
and  westward  to  Illinois;  it  is  readily  dis- 
tinguished by  the  wedge-shaped  leaves,  which 
are  conspicuously  broad  at  the  summit  and 
often  bristle-pointed,  shining  above  and  rusty 
beneath;  the  cup  is  top-shaped,  with  coarse 
scales.  This  tree  rarely  exceeds  30  ft.,  and  is 
usually  much  smaller ;  its  wood  is  of  little  value 
save  for  fuel.  Lea's  oak  (Q.  Leana),  Bartram's 
oak  (Q.  heterophylld),  and  several  others,  are 
regarded  as  hybrids  of  the  preceding  biennial 
species  with  others. — The  black  and  red  oaks 
make  another  group  of  biennial  species ;  these 
all  have  pinnatifid  or  lobed,  long-petioled,  de- 
ciduous leaves.  The  smallest  is  the  bear  or 
black  scrub  oak  (Q.  ilicifolia),  which  is  found 
on  rocky  hills  and  sandy  plains  from  New  Eng- 
land to  Kentucky ;  it  is  3  to  8  ft.  high,  with 
obovate  leaves,  ridge-shaped  at  base,  about  five- 
lobed,  and  abundantly  downy  beneath;  acorn 
ovoid,  often  beautifully  striped,  with  a  deep 
orange  kernel ;  as  it  produces  a  great  number 
of  scraggy  branches,  it  has  been  suggested  as  a 


Bear  or  Black  Scrub  Oak  (Quercus  ilicifolia). 

hedge  plant  for  poor  lands.  The  Spanish  oak 
(Q.  falcata)  was  so  called  by  the  Spanish  set- 
tlers in  the  south  from  its  resemblance  to  the 
common  oak  of  Spain;  it  is  distinguished  by 


556 


OAK 


the  falcate  or  scythe-shaped  lobes  of  its  leaves, 
which  are  grayish  or  yellowish-downy  beneath ; 
it  is  found  in  dry  localities  from  New  Jersey 
to  Florida  and  to  Illinois ;  when  growing  alone 
it  is  very  handsome,  sometimes  80  ft.  high; 
its  wood  is  porous  and  unfit  for  barrels  to  con- 
tain liquids,  but  is  sometimes  used  for  felloes ; 
its  bark  is  valuable  for  tanning,  and  is  said  to 
color  the  leather  less  than  that  of  any  other 
oak.  The  remainder  of  this  group  have  their 
much-lobed,  usually  ovate  leaves  smooth  on 
both  sides,  and  turning  some  shade  of  red  in 
autumn.  The  Turkey  or  pine-barrens  scrub 
oak  (Q.  Catesbmi)  grows  in  North  Carolina  and 
southward,  on  land  too  poor  to  sustain  any  other 
vegetation :  it  has  thicker  leaves  than  any  oth- 
ers of  this  group,  and  a  thick  cup  with  coarse 
scales ;  it  is  small  and  of  no  value  save  for  fuel. 
— The  scarlet  oak  (Q.  coccinea)  is  one  of  the 
commonest  species,  and  is  found,  usually  in  dry 
soil,  over  a  wide  range  from  north  to  south  ;  it 
is,  except  northward,  large  and  handsome,  with 
leaves  deeply  pinnatifid,  and  the  lobes  often 
toothed,  bright  green,  shining,  and  in  autumn 
turning  to  a  beautiful  scarlet ;  the  acorn  is  about 
three  fourths  of  an  inch  long,  more  than  half 
covered  by  the  coarsely  scaly  cup  ;  the  scar  of 


Scarlet  Oak  (Quercus  coccinea). 

the  acorn  within  the  cup  as  well  as  its  flesh  is 
white  or  yellowish.  The  black,  quercitron,  or 
yellow-barked  oak,  formerly  regarded  as  a  spe- 
cies, is  now  placed  as  var.  tinctoria  of  the  pre- 
ceding. Although  extreme  forms  are  readily 
distinguished  by  differences  in  the  leaves  and 
fruit,  yet  in  many  cases  it  is  impossible  to  de- 
cide whether  a  specimen  is  a  scarlet  or  a  black 
oak  without  cutting  into  the  bark,  which  in 
the  latter  is  much  thicker,  and  orange-colored 
within ;  the  kernel  of  the  acorn  is  yellowish, 
and  its  seat  within  the  cup  is  orange-colored ; 
in  autumn  the  foliage  turns  a  rich  yellowish 
brown,  russet,  orange,  or  dull  red.  While  the 
wood  of  the  species  is  of  little  value  even  for 
fuel,  that  of  the  variety  is  second  only  to  white 


oak,  and  much  used  by  ship  builders  and  wagon 
makers.  The  bark  contains  much  tannin  and 
an  abundant  coloring  matter  ;  it  is  valuable  for 
tanning  and  dyeing,  for  which  use  large  quan- 
tities are  yearly  exported.  (See  QUERCITRON.) 
There  are  other  forms  of  the  scarlet  oak,  prob-r 
ably  hybrids.  The  red  oak  (Q.  rubra)  has  an 
equally  wide  range  with  the  scarlet  and  black 
oaks,  and  extends  further  north  than  any  other ; 
it  has  less  deeply  lobed  leaves,  which  turn  to 
a  dark  red  before  they  fall,  and  the  acorn  cup 
is  broader  and  shallower.  Its  wood  is  of  little 
value  for  timber  or  fuel,  but  the  tree  itself  is 
very  ornamental. — In  the  states  on  the  Pacific 
coast  each  of  the  groups  here  mentioned  is 
represented  either  by  species  peculiar  to  those 
regions,  or  by  forms  so  like  the  eastern  species 
that  botanists  regard  them  as  varieties ;  the 
oaks  there  are  even  more  variable  than  those 
of  the  Atlantic  coast,  and  as  each  botanist  who 
has  studied  them  has  come  to  different  con- 
clusions from  his  predecessors,  the  subject  is 
somewhat  confused,  and  only  a  few  of  the 
more  striking  species  will  be  mentioned.  Gar- 
ry's oak  {Q.  Garry  ana)  is  found  from  Wash- 
ington territory  southward  to  California,  vary- 
ing in  height  from  30  to  80  ft. ;  it  belongs  to 
the  same  group  with  the  white  oaks,  and  has 
the  under  side  of  the  leaves  covered  with  a 
dense  dingy  down ;  it  branches  low  down,  and 
at  a  distance  a  grove  of  it  looks  like  an  apple 
orchard;  this  is  one  of  the  species  of  which 
the  nuts  are  gathered  for  food  by  the  Indians, 
and  its  wood  is  considered  nearly  equal  to  that 
of  the  white  oak  for  ship  building.  Another 
of  the  white  oak  group  is  Q.  lobata,  given  in 
the  various  reports  as  Q.  Hindsii,  though  the 
former  is  the  older  name ;  this  is  regarded 
as  the  finest  species  on  the  Pacific  coast,  and 
one  of  the  most  abundant ;  it  has  a  thick  and 
rough  bark,  leaves  shaped  much  like  those  of 
our  white  oak,  and  acorns  often  2  in.  long  and 
pointed,  but  varying  in  this  respect.  It  often 
reaches  a  diameter  of  6  to  8  ft.  and  a  height 
of  50  to  75  ft.,  with  wide-spreading  branches  ; 
the  wood  is  brittle  and  porous,  and  the  nut 
edible.  Douglas's  oak  (Q.  Douglasii)  is  small- 
er, but  very  difficult  to  distinguish  from  some 
forms  of  the  preceding.  The  chestnut  oak  of 
California  is  Q.  densiflora,  and  an  evergreen ; 
it  is  a  small  handsome  tree  of  the  foot  hills 
south  of  San  Francisco ;  its  foliage  is  very  vari- 
able, being  sometimes  entire,  but  often  toothed 
like  that  of  the  chestnut,  its  resemblance  to 
that  tree  being  carried  out  in  the  acorn  cup, 
which  is  densely  covered  with  long  spreading 
scales  and  appears  much  like  a  chestnut  burr. 
Another  evergreen  species  is  Q.  clirysolepis, 
which  upon  the  Sierra  Nevada  is  a  mere  shrub, 
but  on  the  foot  hills  is  40  ft.  high,  with  usual- 
ly entire  leaves,  yellowish  downy  beneath  ;  the 
acorn  is  about  an  inch  long,  with  a  remarkably 
thick  and  velvety  cup,  on  account  of  which 
Torrey  called  it  Q.  crassipocula,  and  from  its 
yellowish  pubescence  it  was  named  Q.fulvescens 
by  Kellogg,  both  of  which  names  are  more 


OAK 


557 


recent  than  that  here  adopted.  The  variable 
tree  known  in  California  as  the  scrub  or  ever- 
green oak  is  Q.  agrifolia,  which  extends  from 
the  valley  of  the  Sacramento  to  the  Mexican 


California  Evergreen  Oak  (Quercus  agrifolia). 

border;  it  is,  according  to  locality,  a  large 
shrub  or  a  tree  30  or  40  ft.  high ;  its  leaves, 
which  are  as  variable  as  in  the  other  species, 
are  often  sharply  toothed,  and  the  acorns  elon 
gated,  acute,  and  sometimes  very  narrow,  like 
a  cockspur. — The  European  or  British  oak,  or 
royal  oak  as  it  is  often  called,  appears  to  vary 
quite  as  much  as  some  of  our  species,  different 
forms  having  been  described  as  distinct  species, 
and  botanists  are  not  agreed  in  regard  to  one  of 
the  commonest  and  most  important  European 
plants.  Hooker  and  Bentham  make  but  one 
species,  Q.  robur,  and  place  what  others  call 


European  Oak  (Quercus  robur). 
1.  Var.  sessiliflora.    2.  Var.  pedunculate. 

Q.  sessiliflora  and  Q.  pedunculata  as  varieties 
of  this,  with  the  same  names  for  the  varieties 
as  others  give  to  the  species.  Q.  robur  is  found 
over  the  whole  of  Europe  except  at  the  extreme 


north,  and  extends  into  Asia  along  the  Cauca- 
sus ;  it  is  the  oak  of  poetry  and  history,  and  is 
one  of  the  stateliest  and  longest-lived  of  the 
genus.  It  belongs  to  the  same  section  with 
our  white  oaks,  but  has  smaller  leaves,  which 
are  not  whitened  beneath,  and  they  are  not 
deeply  lobed  ;  the  oblong  acorn  is  over  an  inch 
long,  in  a  short  cup  which  is  covered  with 
short,  obtuse,  closely  imbricated  scales.  In  the 
variety  sessiliflora  the  fruits  are  solitary  or  few 
in  a  cluster,  nearly  sessile  in  the  axils  of  the 
leaves,  which  have  petioles  half  an  inch  to  an 
inch  long,  while  in  the  variety  pedunculata 
the  fruits  are  clustered  above  the  middle  of  a 
slender  stalk,  which  varies  from  1  to  even  6 
in.  long  ;  the  leaves  vary  from  sessile  to  short- 
petioled.  The  first  named  is  more  abun- 
dant in  North  Wales  and  the  hilly  portions 
of  northern  England,  while  the  other  is  the 
commonest  over  the  greater  part  of  England 
and  the  lowlands  of  Scotland.  In  durability 
the  timber  of  the  two  varieties  is  regarded 
as  equal ;  but  as  that  of  the  pedunculate  oak 
shows  more  of  the  silver  grain,  it  is  more  val- 
uable for  cabinet  work  than  the  other.  Each 
of  these  varieties  has  a  dozen  or  more  sub- 
varieties,  marked  by  a  distinct  habit  of  growth 
or  some  striking  form  of  foliage,  which  are 
made  use  of  in  ornamental  planting.  Some  of 
the  oaks  now  standing  in  England  were  old 
trees  at  the  time  of  the  conquest,  and  their  re- 
mains so  long  as  they  retain  any  vitality  are 
cherished  with  reverent  care.  This  oak  suc- 
ceeds remarkably  in  the  United  States,  and  to 
judge  from  the  size  of  the  older  specimens  now 
growing,  it  will  after  some  centuries  become 
even  larger  than  in  its  native  country.  The 
Turkey  oak  (Q.  cerris),  a  native  of  the  south- 
ern parts  of  Europe,  succeeds  well  in  this 
country;  its  short-petioled  leaves  are  deeply 
and  unequally  pinnated,  and  downy  beneath ; 
the  cup  of  the  acorn  is  covered  with  bristly 
scales,  on  which  account  it  is  often  called  in 
England  the  mossy-cup  oak.  This  has  also 
produced  several  varieties,  some  of  singular 
beauty;  some  are  very  spreading,  and  others 
are  almost  evergreen  even  in  America,  hold- 
ing their  foliage  nearly  to  Christmas.  The 
timber  of  the  Turkey  oak  is  regarded  as  equal 
in  value  to  that  of  the  British  oak.  The  com- 
mon evergreen  species  of  Europe  is  the  holm 
or  holly  oak  (Q.  ilex),  abundant  in  the  south- 
ern countries,  especially  in  Italy  and  Spain, 
and  extends  to  northern  Africa  and  to  Asia; 
it  grows  naturally  on  hilly  ground  near  the  sea, 
and  in  England  has  been  found  to  grow  upon 
the  seashore  where  no  other  oak  will  live.  It 
is  a  low  or  middle-sized  tree,  and  is  furnished 
with  branches  down  to  the  ground,  but  if 
pruned  may  be  made  to  grow  much  taller 
with  a  clean  trunk;  its  leaves  are  thick,  and 
either  entire  or  toothed  like  those  of  the  holly ; 
its  wood  is  brown  at  the  heart,  fine-grained, 
hard,  tough,  elastic,  and  remarkably  heavy, 
and  greatly  esteemed  for  ship  building.  It  is 
a  long-lived  tree,  and  is  the  oak  of  Pliny  and 


558 


OAK 


OAK  APPLE 


the  early  historians.  In  England  it  is  used  in 
ornamental  planting  and  for  screens ;  it  is  not 
hardy  in  our  northern  states. — The  acorns  of 
several  Californian  species  furnish  a  large  share 


Valonia  Oak  (Quercus  segilops). 

of  the  winter  food  of  the  Indians  of  the  west- 
ern coast.  They  are  powdered  in  a  mortar, 
and  the  meal,  after  washing  it  to  remove  the 
bitterness,  is  made  into  cakes  or  mush.  An 
evergreen  species,  Q.  ballota,  abundant  in  Al- 
geria and  Morocco,  has  large  nuts  which  are 
eaten  raw  or  roasted.  The  acorns  of  the  Gra- 
rnont  oak  (Q.  Gramuntia)  of  Spain,  when  in 
perfection,  are  regarded  as  even  superior  to 
chestnuts,  and  are  much  eaten.  Besides  the 
use  of  the  bark  in  tanning  (see  LEATHER),  a 
secondary  one  is  of  some  importance  in  horti- 
culture ;  a  mass  of  the  spent  tan  bark  gradual- 
ly ferments  and  gives  off  a  mild  heat,  which, 
though  more  gentle  than  that  from  manure,  is 
long  continued  and  especially  adapted  to  some 
plants,  particularly  the  pineapple.  In  the  va- 
lonia oak  (Q.  c&gilops)  of  the  Grecian  islands 
and  throughout  Greece,  the  tannin  is  so  abun- 
dantly secreted  in  the  acorn  cups  that  these 
form  an  article  of  commerce  under  the  name 
of  valonia;  the  tree  is  large,  with  foliage  much 
like  that  of  our  chestnut  oaks,  and  large  acorns, 
the  cups  of  which  are  about  2  in.  across,  hemi- 
spherical, and  clothed  with  large  reflexed  woody 
scales.  Two  varieties  are  also  known  in  com- 
merce :  camata,  which  is  the  half -grown  acorns 
dried  in  their  cups,  and  camatina,  which  is  the 
undeveloped  acorns  gathered  soon  after  flow- 
ering when  about  the  size  of  large  peas ;  these 
last  are  much  richer  in  tannin  than  the  other 
two.  Besides  the  yellow  dye  of  the  quercitron 
oak,  a  crimson  one  is  furnished  by  Q.  coccifera, 
found  in  the  Levant ;  its  leaves  are  much  in- 
fested by  a  scale  insect,  a  species  of  coccus, 
which  when  it  has  completed  its  growth  has 
every  appearance  of  a  berry,  and  is  known  as 
kermes.  (See  COCHINEAL.)  The  oak  manna 
of  Kurdistan,  usually  ascribed  to  Q.  mannifera, 
is,  according  to  Haussknecht,  afforded  by  Q. 
vallonea  and  Q.  Persica  ;  the  twigs  are  visited 
by  myriads  of  a  small  white  coccus,  and  from 
the  punctures  made  by  these  exudes  a  saccha- 
rine fluid. which  solidifies  in  small  grains  ;  this 
is  collected  by  the  wandering  tribes,  who  use 


it  as  a  substitute  for  sugar. — Oaks  form  very 
long  perpendicular  tap  roots,  and  in  cul- 
tivation when  the  plants  are  a  year  old  they 
should  be  transplanted,  and  at  the  same  time 
the  tap  root  be  shortened  ;  by  frequent  trans- 
planting thereafter,  trees  may  be  obtained  with 
a  good  share  of  small  roots,  and  such  may  be 
removed  without  difficulty.  In  planting  for 
timber  or  for  ornament,  except  in  streets,  the 
surer  way  is  to  put  in  several  acorns  where  the 
trees  are  to  stand,  and  when  the  plants  are  two 
or  three  years  old  remove  all  but  one.  Al- 
though so  hardy  and  robust  when  old,  the  oak 
is  exceedingly  tender  during  its  first  few  years ; 
and  in  England  it  is  customary  to  provide 
"nurse  trees,"  which  shade  and  protect  the 
oaks  until  they  become  thoroughly  established. 
— There  are  many  fine  oaks  in  Japan  and 
northern  China,  as  well  as  in  the  mountainous 
parts  of  Mexico  and  the  Himalayas. 

OAK  APPLE,  the  popular  name  applied  to 
certain  large  excrescences  or  galls  found  upon 
the  leaf,  stems,  or  tender  twigs  of  different  oaks, 
produced  by  the  action  of  insects.  The  oak 
apple  of  Europe,  to  which  the  term  more  par- 
ticularly applies,  is  an  object  familiar  to  every 
English  school  boy,  and  is  produced  by  cynips 
terminalis.  It  is  of  the  size  of  an  ordinary 
apple,  and  is  found  quite  commonly  about 
Easter  time  on  the  tender  shoots  and  twigs 
of  the  common  European  oak  (quercus  rdbur). 
At  this  time  it  presents  the  appearance  of  an 
ordinary  codling  that  has  been  roasted,  being 
of  a  pale,  dingy  buff  color,  of  spongy  consis- 
tence, and  having  an  irregular  and  wrinkled 
surface.  The  American  oak  apple,  which  is 


Gall  Fly  magnified.    The  lines  below  show  the  natural  length 
of  body  and  wings. 

its  analogue,  is  produced  on  the  leaf  stem  of 
the  black  oak  (Q.  tinctoria)  by  cynips  q.  spon- 
gifica.  In  both  these  instances  the  gall  is  pro- 
duced in  the  same  manner  as  the  well  known 
gall  nut  of  commerce.  (See  GALLS.)  With  her 
ovipositor,  admirably  adapted  to  the  purpose, 
the  female  pierces  the  plant  tissues,  and  there- 
in consigns  an  egg,  together  with  a  small  quan- 
tity of  a  peculiar  poisonous  fluid.  Under  the 
influence  of  this  fluid  the  gall  rapidly  devel- 
ops, and  is  generally  fully  formed  before  the 
egg  hatches.  The  egg  is  whitish  in  color  and 
soft.  It  invariably  swells  more  or  less  by  en- 
dosmosis  of  the  surrounding  juices,  and  the 
outer  pellicle  is  so  delicate  that  no  shell  is 


OAK  APPLE 


OAKLAND 


559 


left  in  hatching;  but  the  larva,  or  young 
gall  insect,  seems  rather  to  be  gradually  trans- 
formed from  the  egg.  This  larva  is  whitish, 
very  soft,  and  has  an  inconspicuous  head  and 


American  Oak  Apple,  showing  internal  structure,  the  grub 
in  the  central  cell,  and  the  hole  on  the  side  through  which 
the  perfect  fly  issues. 

no  legs.  The  body  is  more  or  less  cylindrical, 
tapering  to  both  ends,  but  more  especially  be- 
hind, and  lies  in  a  curved  position  within  its 
cell.  As  the  larva  grows  the  gall  substance 
around  its  cell  hardens  into  a  cream-  or  buff- 
colored  shell,  which  partially  separates  from  its 
surroundings.  This  separation  may  perhaps 
be  in  part  explained  by  the  absorption  of  di- 
gested matter,  as  no  faeces  are  found  in  the  cav- 
ity, and,  if  excreted  and  absorbed,  they  would 
naturally  cause  increased  hardening,  and  lessen 
the  influence  of  the  plant  immediately  around 
the  cavity.  The  pupa  state  is  gradually  assum- 
ed, and  the  fly  attains  perfection  and  remains 
in  its  cell  for  some  time  before  eating  its  way 
out  to  liberty  through  the  walls  of  its  gall ;  all 
the  transformations  being  less  sudden  than  in 
the  majority  of  insects,  on  account  of  the  del- 
icacy of  the  successive  skins  to  be  thrown  off. 
The  American  oak  apple  begins  to  develop  as 


Bastard  Oak  Apple. 

soon  as  the  leaves  put  forth  in  spring,  and  when 
mature  has  a  shiny,  rather  smooth,  dingy  buff- 
colored  exterior,  the  space  between  the  central 
cell  and  the  external  rind  being  filled  with  a 
613  VOL.  xii.— 36 


drab-colored  spongy  mass,  which  becomes  more 
solid  and  paler  toward  the  centre.  The  insects 
issuing  from  this  gall  in  early  summer  are  of 
both  sexes,  and  have  been  described  as  cynips 
q.  spongifica  ;  those  issuing  from  it  in  the  fall, 
and  which  have  been  described  as  (7.  q.  acicu- 
lata,  are  larger  and  otherwise  different,  and 
are  all  females.— There  is  another  large  gall 
found  exclusively  on  the  red  oak  (Q.  rubrd), 
which  is  called  the  bastard  oak  apple.  It  differs 
from  the  genuine  American  oak  apple  in  having 
the  central  cell  connected  with  the  rind  by 
slender  radiating  filaments  instead  of  spongy 
matter.  The  insects  produced  from  this  gall, 
and  described  as  cynips  q.  inanis,  are  undis- 
tinguishable  from  the  bisexual  flies  produced  in 
early  summer  from  the  genuine  American  oak 
apple;  a  fact  of  great  biological  significance, 
which  indicates  that  these  galls,  though  so  very 
different  in  structure,  may  be  specifically  rela- 
ted.— These  oak  apples  are  (as  are  indeed  all 
galls)  the  result  of  the  combined  action  of  an 
animal  and  a  vegetal  organism,  and  must  ne- 
cessarily cease  to  exist  if  either  of  the  organ- 
isms which  cooperate  to  produce  them  -were 
swept  from  existence ;  yet  the  study  of  galls 
belongs  to  the  entomologist  rather  than  to  the 
botanist,  and  those  of  this  country  have  been 
investigated  especially  by  Baron  Osten-Sacken, 
H.  F.  Bassett,  Prof.  0.  V.  Riley,  and  the  late 
Dr.  Harris  and  Mr.  B.  D.  Walsh,  whose  dis- 
coveries present  some  of  the  most  remarkable 
facts  in  insect  biology,  and  afford  striking  ex- 
amples of  dimorphism,  of  parthenogenesis,  and 
of  alternation  in  generation.  Not  all  the  in- 
sects found  in  oak  apples  are  gall  flies ;  parasi- 
tic insects  deposit  their  eggs  in  the  forming  ap- 
ple, and  their  larvae  live  at  the  expense  of  the 
grub  of  the  true  gall  maker.  Several  species, 
called  inquilineSy  devour  the  gall  substance  at 
the  peril  of  the  young  of  the  true  architect; 
while  others  take  possession  of  the  old  and 
deserted  galls. 

OAKELEY,  Frederick,  an  English  clergyman, 
born  in  Shrewsbury,  Sept.  5, 1802.  He  gradu- 
ated at  Oxford  in  1824,  became  a  fellow  of 
Balliol  college  in  1825,  prebendary  of  Lichfield 
in  1832,  chaplain  to  Lord  Stanhope  in  1834, 
and  "Whitehall  preacher  for  Oxford  in  1837. 
In  1845  he  became  a  Roman  Catholic,  and  in 
due  time  was  ordained  priest  and  appointed 
missionary  rector  of  St.  John's,  Islington,  and 
in  1852  canon  of  Westminster.  Among  his 
numerous  works  are:  "Whitehall  Sermons" 
(1839) ;  "A  Letter  on  submitting  to  the  Cath- 
olic Church"  (1845);  "Practical  Sermons" 
(1848);  "Order  and  Ceremonial  of  the  Most 
Holy  and  Adorable  Sacrifice  of  the  Mass" 
(1848;  2d  ed.,  1859;  translated  into  Italian); 
"  The  Church  of  the  Bible  "  (1857) ;  "  Histori- 
cal Notes  on  the  Tractarian  Movement,  A.  D. 
1833-'45"  (1865);  "Letters  on  Dr.  Pusey's 
Eirenicon"  (1866);  "Lyra  Liturgica"  (1867); 
and  "  The  Priest  on  the  Mission  "  (1871). 

OAKLAND,  a  S.  E.  county  of  Michigan,  drain- 
ed by  branches  of  the  Clinton  and  Huron  riv- 


560 


OAKLAND 


OAT 


ers  and  other  streams ;  area,  900  sq.  m. ;  pop. 
in  1870,  40,876.  The  surface  is  undulating 
and  in  the  north  hilly,  and  the  soil  is  generally 
fertile  and  well  cultivated.  About  50  small 
lakes  are  scattered  over  the  surface.  The 
Detroit  and  Milwaukee  and  the  Flint  and  Pere 
Marquette  railroads  pass  through  it.  The  chief 
productions  in  1870  were  1,142,623  bushels  of 
wheat,  1,143,443  of  Indian  corn,  752,359  of 
oats,  133,867  of  barley,  42,588  of  buckwheat, 
707,936  of  potatoes,  1,654,621  Ibs.  of  butter, 
703,876  of  wool,  81,300  of  hops,  and  79,709 
tons  of  hay.  There  were  12,991  horses,  13,668 
milch  cows,  14,110  other  cattle,  162,852  sheep, 
and  19,873  swine ;  8  manufactories  of  agricul- 
tural implements,  29  of  carriages  and  wagons, 
6  of  plaster,  14  of  saddlery  and  harness,  5  of 
sash,  doors,  and  blinds,  11  of  cooperage,  7  of 
tin,  copper,  and  sheet-iron  ware,  4  of  woollen 
goods,  12  iron  founderies,  23  flour  mills,  and 
3  saw  mills.  Capital,  Pontiac. 

OAKLAND,  a  city  of  Alameda  co.,  California, 
on  the  E.  shore  of  San  Francisco  bay,  here  7 
m.  wide,  opposite  San  Francisco,  at  the  ter- 
minus of  the  Central  Pacific  railroad ;  pop.  in 
1860,  1,549;  in  1870,  10,500;  in  1875,  about 
22,000.  It  occupies  a  beautiful  site,  and  derives 
its  name  from  a  grove  of  evergreen  oaks  in 
which  it  was  originally  built,  but  beyond  which 
it  has  now  expanded.  The  streets  are  broad, 
well  shaded,  sewered,  and  lighted  with  gas,  and 
water  is  supplied  from  a  creek  5  m.  distant.  In 
the  vicinity  are  charming  drives.  Oakland  is  a 
favorite  residence  of  persons  doing  business  in 
San  Francisco,  and  is  much  resorted  to  from 
that  city  for  its  drives  and  fine  scenery.  At 
Berkeley,  4m.  K,  is  the  university  of  Cali- 
fornia. The  state  institution  for  the  deaf, 
dumb,  and  blind,  near  by,  was  burned  in  Janu- 
ary, 1875.  San  Antonio  creek,  a  small  bay  or 
estuary  on  the  S.  front  of  the  city,  forms  a 
good  harbor,  but  it  is  obstructed  by  a  bar  at 
its  mouth,  preventing  the  passage  of  large  ves- 
sels at  low  tide.  The  western  water  front  is 
shallow,  and  here  a  pier,  along  which  the  Cen- 
tral Pacific  railroad  runs  to  connect  with  the 
ferry  steamers  for  San  Francisco,  projects  for 
2  m.  into  the  bay.  Besides  railroad  tracks, 
this  pier  contains  a  broad  carriageway,  a  pas- 
senger depot,  warehouses,  &c.,  and  has  three 
large  docks.  Oakland  has  three  savings  banks, 
with  a  joint  capital  of  $3,000,000;  graded  pub- 
lic schools,  including  a  high  school,  with  an 
average  attendance  of  3,000  pupils ;  three  daily 
and  three  weekly  newspapers,  and  15  churches. 
It  is  the  seat  of  the  Pacific  theological  seminary 
(Congregational),  organized  in  1866,  and  hav- 
ing in  1873-'4  7  instructors,  13  students,  and 
two  libraries  of  3,500  volumes  each.  Oakland 
was  incorporated  as  a  city  in  1854. 

OASIS,  a  name  given  by  the  ancients  to  the 
fertile  spots  in  the  Libyan  desert,  and  now  be- 
come a  general  term  for  those  situated  in  any 
desert.  It  is  derived  from  an  Egyptian  word 
preserved  in  the  Coptic  udh,  and  signifying  an 
inhabited  place,  as  there  the  caravans  halted 


in  their  journeys  between  eastern  and  west- 
ern Africa.  Anciently  they  were  supposed  to 
be  islands,  rising  from  an  ocean  of  san'd ;  but 
generally  they  are  depressions  in  the  midst  of 
a  table  land  resting  on  a  bed  of  limestone, 
whose  precipitous  sides  encircle  the  hollow 
plain,  in  the  centre  of  which  is  a  stratum  of 
sand  and  clay,  retaining  the  water  flowing 
from  the  surrounding  cliffs.  On  the  cultiva- 
ted portions  date  palms,  rice,  barley,  wheat, 
and  millet  are  cultivated.  The  Libyan  oases 
were  never  permanently  occupied  until  after 
the  conquest  of  Egypt  by  the  Persians.  Un- 
der the  Ptolemies  and  the  Ca3sars  they  were 
occupied  by  Greeks  and  Eomans,  and  were 
places  of  banishment  for  state  criminals ;  later 
they  were  places  of  refuge  from  persecution. 
In  the  Sahara  desert  upward  of  30  oases  are 
enumerated,  of  which  about  20  are  inhabited. 
The  most  celebrated  are  the  following,  all  in 
the  Libyan  desert.  1.  Ammonium,  the  modern 
Siwah,  the  most  remote  from  the  Nile,  in  lat. 
29°  N.,  Ion.  26°  E.,  contains  the  ruins  of  the 
temple  of  Ammon,  and  the  supposed  "  Foun- 
tain of  the  Sun,"  whose  waters  were  warm  in 
the  morning  and  evening  and  cold  at  midday. 
This  oasis  is  remarkable  for  the  productiveness 
of  the  soil,  which  is  strongly  impregnated  with 
salt.  It  has  several  towns,  the  principal  of 
which  is  Siwah  el-Kebir,  and  its  inhabitants 
are  subjects  of  Egypt.  (See  SIWAH.)  2.  Oasis 
Minor,  the  modern  Bahryeh,  is  S.  E.  of  Siwah, 
in  lat.  28°  30'  N.,  and  contains  temples  and 
tombs  belonging  to  the  era  of  the  Ptolemies. 
It  was  also  under  the  government  of  the 
Eomans,  and  was  then  distinguished  for  its 
wheat ;  but  now  it  produces  principally  fruits. 
3.  Oasis  Trinytheos,  the  modern  Dakhel,  in 
lat.  25°  30',  W.  of  ancient  Thebes.  The  ear- 
liest monuments  are  those  of  the  Romans,  and 
there  are  artesian  wells.  4.  Oasis  Magna,  the 
modern  Khargeh,  S.  E.  of  the  preceding,  and 
S.  W.  of  Thebes,  is  about  90  m.  W.  of  the 
Nile,  with  which  it  is  parallel.  It  is  about 
80  m.  long  and  10  m.  broad,  stretching  from 
lat.  25°  to  26°  N".  It  is  sometimes  called  the 
oasis  of  Thebes ;  by  Josephus  it  is  denominated 
"  the  Oasis,"  and  by  Herodotus  "  the  city  Oasis  " 
and  the  "  island  of  the  blessed."  It  had  a  tem- 
ple 468  ft.  long,  dedicated  to  Amun-ra,  and 
after  the  Christian  era  abounded  in  churches 
and  monasteries.  There  are  in  the  Libyan 
desert  several  other  oases  of  considerable  im- 
portance, among  them  Augila,  S.  of  Barca, 
and  Farafrah,  between  Siwah  and  Dakhel,  in 
lat.  27°.  Farafrah  was  visited  by  Rohlfs  in 
December,  1873,  and  Dakhel  in  the  following 
January.  Many  oases  contain  stagnant  lakes, 
from  which  feverish  exhalations  arise. 

OAT  (Ang.  Sax.  ata,  a  word  which  formerly 
meant  food),  a  grass  of  the  genus  avena,  and 
especially  the  cultivated  avena  sativa,  the  com- 
mon oat.  The  genus,  which  is  the  type  of  a 
sub-tribe  of  grasses,  the  avenece,  has  a  pan- 
icled  inflorescence,  with  its  spikelets  several- 
flowered,  the  glumes  large  and  exceeding  the 


OAT 


561 


florets ;  the  lower  palet  many-nerved,  two- 
cleft  at  the  acute  tip,  and  bearing  a  long,  usu- 
ally bent  or  twisted  awn  on  the  back  below  the 
cleft ;  grain  oblong-linear,  grooved  on  one  side, 
hairy  at  the  top,  or  sometimes  entirely,  sur- 
rounded by  the  upper  palet,  but  not  adherent 
to  it.  The  cultivated  oat  is  an  annual,  but  the 
genus  contains  perennial  species.  As  with  oth- 
er cereals,  the  wild  state  of  the  cultivated  oat 
is  not  known,  though  it  is  not  unlikely  that  it 
is  a  form  of  the  wild  oat  produced  by  cultiva- 
tion. The  oat  is  especially  a  northern  grain, 
reaching  its  greatest  perfection  in  cold  climates, 
and  in  southern  countries  rapidly  degenerating. 
The  heavy  seed  brought  from  the  north  of  Eng- 
land and  Scotland  to  this  country  gives  a  much 
lighter  grain  than  the  original.  The  legal  bush- 
el of  oats  in  the  different  states  and  territories 
varies  from  30  to  35  Ibs.,  the  majority  having 
it  fixed  at  32  Ibs. ;  some  of  the  imported  oats 
weigh  from  40  to  50  Ibs.  the  measured  bushel. 
The  varieties  are  numerous,  but  seedsmen  do 
not  offer  more  than  half  a  dozen.  There  are 
white  and  black  varieties,  and  those  with  and 
without  awns.  A  very  popular  variety  in  both 
England  and  this  country  is  the  potato  oat, 
a  large,  plump,  white  grain,  so  called  because 
it  was  derived  from  a  stalk  found  in  a  potato 
field;  the  black  Poland  is  another  esteemed 
variety,  and  new  ones  are  offered  every  year. 
Oats  succeed  on  a  great  diversity  of  soils,  and 
in  this  country  they  need  to  be  sowed  as 
early  as  the  ground  can  be  worked,  that  their 
growth  may  not  be  checked  by  hot  weather ; 
from  two  to  four  bushels  of  seed  are  sown  to 
the  acre,  and  the  crop  is  harvested  when  the 
grain  has  passed  the  milk  state.  Oats  are  more 
generally  used  as  food  for  animals  in  this 
country  than  in  any  other.  They  consist  of  22 
to  28  per  cent,  of  husk ;  the  larger  and  plump- 
er the  grain,  the  less  refuse.  Deprived  of  their 
integuments,  oats  are  called  groats  or  grits, 
and  the  Embden  and  other  groats  are  the  same 
crushed  to  various  degrees  of  fineness.  Oat 
meal  is  prepared  by  grinding  the  kiln-dried 
grain;  its  composition,  as  determined  by 
Letheby,  is:  nitrogenous  matter,  12*6;  carbo- 
hydrates, 63-8;  fatty  matter,  5'6;  mineral 
matter,  3 ;  water,  15.  Oats  are  regarded  as 
less  nutritive  than  wheat,  but  their  content  of 
nitrogenous  principles  is  rather  larger  and  of 
carbonaceous  somewhat  less  than  in  that  grain. 
The  skinless  oat,  a  different  species  from  the 
common  one,  is  A.  nuda  of  Europe ;  it  has 
narrower  and  somewhat  roughish  leaves,  three 
or  four  florets  in  each  spikelet,  and  the  grain 
quite  loose  in  the  upper  palet.  This  is  much 
esteemed  in  Ireland  and  some  other  parts  of 
Europe,  but  its  culture  has  not  been  successful 
in  this  country,  and  the  same  may  be  said  of 
other  real  or  supposed  species.  The  entire  pro- 
duction of  oats  in  the  United  States  returned 
by  the  census  of  1870  was  282,107,157  bush- 
els. The  states  producing  more  than  5,000,- 
000  bushels  each  were  as  follows :  Illinois, 
42,780,851  bushels;  Pennsylvania,  36,478,085; 


Wild  Oat  (Avena  fatua). 


New  York,  35,293,625;  Ohio,  25,347,549; 
Iowa,  21,005,142;  Wisconsin,  20,180,016;  Mis- 
souri, 16,578,313 ;  Minnesota,  10,678,261 ; 
Michigan,  8,954,466 ;  Indiana,  8,590,409 ;  Vir- 
ginia, 6,857,555;  and  Kentucky,  6,620,103. 
— The  wild  oat 
of  Europe  and 
that  of  Califor- 
nia are  the  same, 
A.  fatua;  this 
has  a  very  loose 
panicle,  with  the 
inner  palet  and 
also  the  grain 
clothed  with 
long  stiff  hairs, 
especially  to- 
ward the  base, 
and  the  outer 
palet  also  hairy 
with  a  stout 
awn,  twice  its 
own  length,  bent 
about  the  middle 
and  twisted  near 
the  base ;  the 
hairy  florets  with 
long  awns  have 
the  appearance 
of  an  insect. 
This  oat  occurs 

in  all  parts  of  Europe  as  a  weed  in  cultivated 
fields,  and  in  California  it  occupies  wide  tracts 
of  country  to  the  exclusion  of  other  plants,  and 
plays  an  important  part  in  agriculture.  It  is 
of  little  value  for  its  grain,  but  when  cut  before 
it  has  begun  to  ripen  it  makes  valuable  hay. 
The  experiments  of  Prof.  J.  Buckman  at  the 
royal  agricultural  college,  England,  show  that 
this  may  be  the  original  of  the  cultivated  pat ; 
he  found  that  seeds  of  this  gathered  when  ripe, 
and  sown  the  next  spring,  produced  plants 
bearing  grain  different  from  those  from  self- 
sown  seeds ;  and  by  continuing  this  and  care- 
fully selecting  he  in  a  few  years  produced  grain 
undistinguishable  from  that  of  some  cultivated 
varieties. — The  animated  oat  (A.  sterilis)  is  a 
native  of  Barbary,  and  its  seeds  are  sold  by 
the  seedsmen ;  it  has  remarkably  long,  strong, 
and  much  twisted  awns,  bent  at  right  angles. 
The  two-flowered  spikelets  show  two  awns 
and  appear  wonderfully  like  an  insect.  The 
awns  are  exceedingly  hygrometric,  and  with 
the  changes  of  moisture  in  the  atmosphere  twist 
and  untwist;  when  the  seed  falls  and  comes 
in  contact  with  the  moist  earth,  it  is  enabled 
to  travel  quite  a  distance  by  the  propulsion 
given  to  it  by  the  twisting  and  untwisting  of 
the  awns.  If  a  spikelet  of  this  oat  be  mois- 
tened and  laid  upon  a  table,  its  motions  are  so 
life-like  as  to  cause  great  amusement.  Several 
years  ago  so-called  barometers  were  sold  in 
which  a  hand  attached  to  an  awn  of  this  oat 
was  moved  to  point  to  "  rainy,"  "  clear,"  &c. ; 
but  of  course  it  was  not  a  barometer,  but  only 
a  poor  hygrometer. — About  70  species  of  avena 


562 


GATES 


OATH 


are  enumerated,  only  two  of  which  are  natives 
of  this  country  (A.  striata  and  A.  Smithii), 
and  they  have  no  economical  value.  A.  pra- 
tensis,  the  perennial  oat,  and  A.  flavescens,  the 
yellow  oat,  are  common  in  the  pastures  of  Eu- 
rope. Oat  grass  (arrhenatherum  avenaceum) 
is  much  like  an  oat,  but  has  its  lower  floret 
staminate  only ;  it  belongs  to  the  same  sub- 
tribe  with  avena,  and  was  formerly  called  A. 
elatior.  It  is  a  native  of  Europe,  and  was  in- 
troduced to  our  farmers  50  years  ago  with  the 
absurd  name  of  Andes  grass ;  it  is  again  re- 
ceiving the  attention  of  farmers. 
GATES,  Titns,  the  contriver  of  the  "popish 

£lot,"  born  in  England  about  1620,  died  in 
ondon,  July  23,  1705.  He  was  the  son  of  a 
clergyman,  was  educated  at  Cambridge,  took 
orders,  and  held  several  curacies,  but  lost  them 
by  committing  perjury  in  two  malicious  pros- 
ecutions. Subsequently  he  was  dismissed  in 
disgrace  from  a  chaplaincy  in  the  navy. 
With  a  Dr.  Tonge,  Teonge,  or  Tongue,  he  con- 
cocted a  plan  for  informing  against  Eoman 
Catholics,  in  regard  to  whom  there  was  a 
strong  popular  feeling  of  distrust.  In  1677  he 
professed  to  be  a  Catholic,  but  was  succes- 
sively expelled  from  the  Jesuit  colleges  at  Val- 
ladolid  and  St.  Omer.  He  returned  to  England 
in  June,  1678,  and  drew  up  a  narrative  of  a 
Jesuit  conspiracy  to  murder  the  king  and  sub- 
vert the  Protestant  religion.  Tonge  laid  it 
before  the  king,  who  paid  no  attention  to  it. 
Nevertheless  Oates  enlarged  the  story  until  it 
comprehended  a  vast  scheme  for  the  seizing  of 
the  kingdom  by  the  Jesuits,  and  implicated  all 
the  principal  Catholic  gentlemen  in  England, 
and  even  the  queen ;  and  he  swore  to  the  truth 
of  it  before  Sir  Edmondbury  Godfrey.  A  war- 
rant was  issued  for  seizing  persons  and  papers, 
but  the  only  evidence  found  was  the  expression 
in  the  papers  of  the  duchess  of  York's  secre- 
tary of  a  hope  for  the  speedy  reestablishment 
of  the  Catholic  religion.  Within  a  month  Sir 
Edmondbury  Godfrey  died,  whether  by  murder 
or  suicide  was  unknown,  and  a  great  demon- 
stration was  made  at  his  funeral.  Thence  arose 
an  excitement  such  as  had  never  been  known 
in  London,  in  which  both  government  and 
people  seemed  to  lose  their  senses.  Catholics 
were  arrested  and  their  houses  searched,  White- 
hall was  fortified,  the  streets  were  patrolled, 
and  popish  assassins  were  supposed  to  be  lurk- 
ing in  every  shadow.  Oates  was  lodged  in 
Whitehall,  had  guards  assigned  him,  and  re- 
ceived a  pension  of  £1,200  per  annum.  The 
party  opposed  to  the  court  used  the  plot  for  po- 
litical purposes,  and  the  court  has  been  strongly 
suspected  of  getting  it  up  for  its  own.  In 
November,  1678,  the  trials  of  the  accused  Cath- 
olics began ;  and  numbers  of  them  were  con- 
victed, amid  the  applause  of  the  populace.  At 
the  end  of  two  years  the  bad  character  of  Oates 
and  the  improbability  of  his  story  began  to  be 
considered ;  and  when  Lord  Stafford  was  exe- 
cuted for  complicity  in  the  plot,  in  December, 
1680,  public  feeling  began  to  turn.  In  a  civil 


suit  for  defamation  brought  against  Oates  by 
the  duke  of  York,  the  jury  gave  £100,000  dam- 
ages, and  Oates  was  imprisoned  as  a  debtor. 
Soon  after  the  accession  of  James  II.,  in  1685, 
he  was  convicted  of  perjury  on  two  indict- 
ments, and  was  sentenced  to  pay  a  fine  of  2,000 
marks,  and  to  be  pilloried,  whipped,  imprisoned 
for  life,  and  pilloried  five  times  a  year  in  differ- 
ent parts  of  the  kingdom.  He  was  nearly 
killed  in  the  first  pillory,  and  his  partisans 
raised  a  riot  for  his  rescue.  At  the  whipping 
he  received  1,700  blows,  and  had  to  be  drawn 
away  on  a  sledge.  Yet  he  survived  it  all,  and 
on  the  accession  of  William  of  Orange  his  sen- 
tence was  annulled,  and  he  afterward  received 
a  pension  of  £5  a  week. 

OATH,  a  solemn  act  by  which  one  calls  God 
to  witness  the  truth  of  an  affirmation  or  the 
sincerity  of  a  promise.  In  all  times  and  among 
all  nations  men  have  agreed  in  reposing  singular 
trust  in  declarations  made  under  such  a  sanction. 
In  primitive  and  in  all  purer  states  of  society, 
solemn  oaths,  it  would  seem,  have  been  uni- 
versally taken  in  the  name  of  superior  be- 
ings. Among  the  Jews,  the  Greeks,  and  the 
Romans  there  came  to  be  a  familiar  distinction 
between  their  greater  and  their  lesser  oaths. 
The  same  is  probably  true  of  other  nations. 
The  less  solemn  forms  of  adjuration  included 
oaths  by  sacred  objects,  or  by  things  peculiarly 
dear  to  those  who  employed  them.  Thus,  the 
Jews  swore  by  Jerusalem  and  by  the  temple ; 
the  Greeks  as  well  as  the  Romans  by  the  souls 
of  the  dead,  by  the  ashes  of  their  fathers,  by 
their  life  or  the  lives  of  their  friends,  by  their 
heads,  and  their  right  hands.  These  forms 
had  their  origin  partly  too,  perhaps,  in  the  cus- 
tom of  touching,  during  the  recital  of  the  usual 
formula,  some  object  sacred  to  or  suggestive 
of  the  divinity  invoked ;  so  that,  as  during  the 
administration  of  the  oath  the  swearer  laid 
his  hand  upon  a  crucifix  as  a  sacred  symbol,  or 
touched  the  altar  while  he  swore  by  the  God 
in  whose  honor  it  was  raised,  he  came  at  last 
to  swear  not  by  the  divinity,  but  by  the  altar 
or  the  "good  rood"  itself.  When  the  Jew 
took  his  most  solemn  oath,  he  laid  his  hand 
upon  the  book  of  the  law  and  swore  by  the 
God  of  Israel ;  but  the  ordinary  oaths  were  by 
heaven,  the  altar,  or  the  temple.  Public  oaths 
were  administered  in  Athens  in  the  names 
of  Jupiter,  Neptune,  and  Minerva ;  purgato- 
ry oaths  were  taken  in  the  names  of  Jupiter, 
Neptune,  and  Themis ;  and  judges  swore  by 
Jupiter,  Ceres,  and  Helios.  Numa  command- 
ed the  Romans  to  swear  by  Fides.  After  the 
murder  of  Caesar,  the  senate  decreed  that  the 
citizens  should  swear  by  his  genius.  It  was 
subsequently  common  to  swear  by  the  majesty 
or  by  the  life  or  welfare  of  the  emperor.  The 
ancient  Scandinavians  and  Germans  swore  by 
their  gods.  Among  both  races  it  was  custom- 
ary, while  repeating  the  oath,  to  rest  the  hand 
on  some  special  object.  This  was  sometimes 
significant  of  the  god  addressed,  and  sometimes 
reminded  the  swearer  of  the  punishment  which 


OATH 


OBADIAH 


563 


followed  perjury.  The  Scandinavians  touched 
a  bloody  ring  held  by  the  priest.  The  Germans 
swore  by  their  swords  or  beards.  In  early 
Christian  times  oaths  were  administered  in 
chapels  and  other  holy  places,  at  the  altars, 
which  for  the  occasion  were  rendered  more 
sacred  by  placing  upon  them  holy  relics.  In 
modern  times  the  Germans  have  sworn  by  God, 
and  sometimes  also  by  the  holy  evangel.  Ro- 
man Catholics  add  an  invocation  of  the  saints. 
— It  is  sometimes  laid  down  that  in  the  defini- 
tion of  an  oath  two  things  are  to  be  distin- 
guished: 1,  the  invocation  by  which  God  is 
called  to  witness  the  truth  of  what  is  sworn ; 
and  2,  the  imprecation  by  which  God  is  called 
on  to  punish  falsehood.  But  many  writers  of 
authority  define  an  oath  without  any  mention 
of  imprecation.  Thus  Cicero  speaks  of  an 
oath  as  an  affirmation  under  the  sanction  of 
religion;  and  more  explicitly  Voet,  in  his 
"Commentaries  upon  the  Pandects,"  writes 
that  it  is  a  religious  affirmation  of  the  truth,  or 
an  invocation  of  the  name  of  God  in  witness 
of  the  truth.  A  Spanish  jurist,  Perez,  defines 
an  oath  as  an  affirmation  on  any  subject  by  the 
name  of  God  and  some  sacred  thing ;  and  the 
author  of  Fleta  as  the  affirmation  or  negation 
of  some  point  confirmed  by  the  attestation  of 
a  holy  thing.  Coke  uses  similar  language  to 
these.  As  a  witness  in  taking  an  oath  must 
-be  understood  to  make  a  formal  and  solemn 
appeal  to  the  Supreme  Being  for  the  truth  of 
the  evidence  which  he  is  about  to  give,  atheists, 
who  deny  the  existence  of  a  Supreme  Being, 
and  such  infidels  as  profess  a  religion  which 
does  not  bind  them  to  speak  the  truth,  could 
not  by  the  common  law  be  witnesses.  It  was 
laid  down  in  the  leading  and  interesting  case 
of  Omichund  v.  Barker,  that  the  competency 
of  a  witness  in  regard  to  his  religious  opinions 
should  be  tested  by  the  questions  whether  he 
believed  in  a  God,  in  the  obligation  of  an  oath, 
and  in  a  future  state  of  rewards  and  punish- 
ments. But  it  is  not  now  required  that  the 
witness  believe  in  future  punishment.  Gen- 
erally a  disbelief  in  a  future  state  goes  only  to 
affect  the  credibility  of  the  witness;  but  he 
will  be  admitted  to  testify  under  oath  if  only 
he  believes  in  the  existence  of  a  God  who  will 
punish  crime,  it  matters  not  whether  in  this 
life  or  in  another.  If,  on  being  questioned, 
the  witness  reply  that  the  nsual  form  of  the 
oath  will  be  binding  on  his  conscience,  it  would 
be  irrelevant  and  unnecessary  to  examine  him 
further  as  to  his  belief.  What  this  may  be  is 
immaterial ;  for  if  he  takes  the  oath,  he  is  un- 
derstood to  assume  its  religious  obligations, 
and  subject  himself  to  the  legal  penalties  which 
are  inflicted  on  perjury  if  he  speak  falsely. 
The  English  statute  17  and  18  Victoria,  c.  25, 
permits  those  who  from  conscientious  mo- 
tives should  be  unwilling  to  take  an  oath,  to 
make  instead  their  solemn  affirmation.  The 
same  indulgence  is  granted  by  statutes  in  the 
United  States ;  and  in  some  of  the  states  there 
are  even  further  relaxations  of  the  ancient  rules. 


(See  EVIDENCE.)  The  form  of  administering 
the  oath  is  in  every  case  that  which  most  for- 
cibly impresses  on  the  swearer  the  obligation 
of  the  oath,  or  in  other  words  is  most  bind- 
ing on  his  conscience.  Jews  are  sworn  there- 
fore on  the  Pentateuch,  Mohammedans  on  the 
Koran,  and  those  of  other  faiths  with  such 
forms  or  ceremonies  as  they  may  deem  most 
binding. — Of  the  various  kinds  of  oaths,  the 
promissory,  assertory,  decisory,  and  calumnice 
causa  are  most  frequently  met  with.  Promis- 
sory oaths  refer  to  future  acts,  like  those  taken 
by  public  officers  for  the  guaranty  of  their 
faithful  performance  of  official  duties ;  or  they 
attend  the  promise  to  execute  some  contract  or 
undertaking.  Assertory  or  affirmative  oaths 
establish  the  certainty  of  a  present  or  past 
fact.  To  this  class  belong  the  various  forms 
of  decisory  oaths ;  for  example,  the  voluntary, 
when,  as  in  the  civil  law,  one  asserts  the  jus- 
tice of  his  claim ;  or  the  necessary,  when  the 
judge  calls  in  one  of  the  contesting  parties  to 
swear  to  a  matter  doubtful  to  him,  in  order  to 
assist  his  determination  of  the  cause.  But  the 
decisory  oath  by  excellence  is  perhaps  that  in 
the  civil  law,  which  one  party  offers  to  the 
other,  for  the  decision  of  the  matter  in  dis- 
pute ;  that  is  to  say,  a  party  whose  proof  is  de- 
fective may  tender  an  oath  to  his  adversary, 
offering  to  submit  to  whatever  he  shall  thus 
declare  touching  the  matter.  If  the  fact  in 
question  lie  particularly  within  the  knowledge 
of  the  latter,  he  must  swear,  or  the  plaintiff's 
general  allegations  will  be  regarded  as  proved. 
If  the  fact  lie  within  the  knowledge  of  both 
parties,  he  to  whose  oath  it  was  referred  may 
elect  either  to  swear  or  to  refer  the  matter 
back  to  the  party  who  first  tendered  the  oath. 
If  he  refuse  to  do  either,  the  fact  alleged  is 
held  to  be  confessed  and  proved.  In  the.  Ro- 
man system,  when  an  action  was  brought, 
either  party  must,  at  the  other's  request,  take 
an  oath  that  he  did  not  maintain  or  defend 
the  cause  calumnies  causa;  that  is,  for  the 
mere  sake  of  harassing  his  opponent.  If  the 
party  challenged  took  the  oath,  the  other  could 
bring  no  action  against  him  for  reckless  liti- 
gation. Before  Justinian  this  procedure  was 
optional,  but  he  made  it  a  necessary  prelimi- 
nary to  bringing  or  defending  any  action. — 
Extra-judicial  oaths,  that  is  to  say,  those  which 
are  taken  without  authority  of  law,  as  for  in- 
stance by  members  of  secret  voluntary  asso- 
ciations, are  possessed  of  no  legal  force  what- 
ever, and  their  falsity  subjects  the  party  ta- 
king them  to  no  penalties.  The  taking  of  such 
oaths,  however,  is  sometimes  made  a  statutory 
misdemeanor. 

OAXACA.    See  OAJAOA. 

OBADIAH,  the  fourth  in  order  of  arrange- 
ment of  the  minor  Hebrew  prophets,  who 
lived  probably  at  the  time  of  the  Babylonish 
captivity,  prophesying  about  588  B.  0.,  though 
another  opinion  gives  him  an  earlier  date.  The 
book  of  Obadiah  is  the  shortest  in  the  Old 
Testament,  containing  a  single  chapter  of  21 


564 


OBER-AMMERGAU 


OBITER  DICTUM 


verses.  It  speaks  of  the  capture  of  Jerusalem, 
and  denounces  the  Edoniites  for  their  enmity 
to  Jerusalem  in  the  day  of  her  calamity.  It  is 
like  an  amplification  of  the  last  five  verses  of 
the  book  of  Amos,  which  it  follows  in  the  He- 
brew canon. — A  special  commentary  on  Oba- 
diah  was  published  by  Caspari  (Leipsic,  1842). 

OBER-AMMERGAU,  a  village  of  Upper  Bava- 
ria, in  the  valley  of  the  Ammer,  46  m.  S.  "W. 
of  Munich;  pop.  about  1,100,  who  are  chiefly 
engaged  in  carving  on  wood.  It  is  celebrated 
for  the  decennial  performance  on  12  consecu- 
tive Sundays,  in  the  summer  season,  of  a  play 
representing  the  passion  and  death  of  Christ, 
in  which  350  actors  are  employed,  besides  80 
members  of  the  orchestra  and  chorus,  all  se- 
lected from  the  villagers,  several  of  whom  dis- 
play great  dramatic  power  and  genius.  The 
performances  generally  last  from  8  A.  M.  to 
4  P.  M.  A  considerable  portion  of  the  space 
allotted  to  the  theatre  is  uncovered.  There  is 
room  for  from  5,000  to  6,000  spectators,  but 
the  attendance  is  generally  much  larger,  inclu- 
ding visitors  from  foreign  countries.  The  per- 
formance in  1870,  interrupted  by  the  Franco- 
German  war,  was  resumed  in  1871.  It  is  the 
only  important  passion  or  miracle  play  which 
continues  to  be  performed.  It  originated  in  a 
vow  taken  by  the  population  in  1634  to  perform 
it  every  ten  years,  in  the  event  of  their  esca- 
ping from  the  plague  which  then  prevailed. — 
See  Das  Passionspiel  in  Oberammergau,  by 
Devrient  (Leipsic,  1851);  Das  Ammergauer 
Passionspiel  im  Jahre  1870,  by  Holland  (Miin- 
ster,  1870) ;  and  "  The  Homes  of  Ober-Ammer- 
gau,"  with  etchings  and  notes,  by  Eliza  Greato- 
rex  (New  York,  1873). 

OBERLIN,  a  village  of  Lorain  co.,  Ohio,  on 
the  Lake  Shore  and  Michigan  Southern  rail- 
road, 105  m.  N.  "N".  E.  of  Columbus,  and  34  m. 
by  rail  W.  S.  W.  of  Cleveland;  pop.  in  1870, 
2,888.  It  is  principally  noted  as  the  seat  of 
Oberlin  college,  founded  in  1833  and  named 
after  J.  F.  Oberlin.  This  institution,  under 
the  direction  of  the  Evangelical  Congregation- 
alists,  admits  students  without  distinction  of 
sex  or  color,  occupies  eight  commodious  build- 
ings, and  has  a  library  of  12,000  volumes.  It 
embraces  theological,  college  (classical),  scien- 
tific, ladies',  classical  preparatory,  and  English 
preparatory  departments,  and  a  conservatory 
of  music.  The  number  of  students  in  the  the- 
ological department  in  1874-'5  was  39 ;  college, 
159;  scientific,  62 ;  ladies',  170;  classical  pre- 
paratory, 210;  English  preparatory,  481 ;  con- 
servatory of  music,  347 ;  total,  deducting  repe- 
titions, 1,330  (697  males  and  633  females).  The 
whole  number  of  instructors  was  33.  In  the 
theological  department  tuition  and  room  rent 
are  free.  The  number  of  alumni  of  the  college 
is  719 ;  theological  department,  295 ;  scientific 
department,  2 ;  ladies'  department,  572.  The 
village  has  a  national  bank,  several  manufacto- 
ries, a  weekly  newspaper,  and  five  churches. 

OBERLIN,  Jean  Frederic,  a  French  philanthro- 
pist, born  in  Strasburg,  Aug.  31,  1740,  died  at 


Waldbach,  in  the  Steinthal  (Ban  de  la  Roche), 
June  1,  1826.  He  was  educated  at  Strasburg, 
was  for  seven  years  a  private  tutor,  and  in  1767 
became  pastor  of  the  poverty-stricken  villages 
in  the  Steinthal,  Alsace.  The  result  of  his  60 
years'  labor  there  was,  that  good  roads,  bridges, 
and  dwellings  were  constructed,  fine  schools 
and  comfortable  hospitals  established,  and  the 
agricultural  products  of  the  district  greatly  im- 
proved and  increased,  while  the  moral  condi- 
tion of  the  inhabitants  was  equally  advanced. 
One  of  the  many  biographies  of  Oberlin  is  by 
H.  Ware,  jr.  (Boston,  1845). 

OBI,  or  Ob,  a  river  of  Siberia,  formed,  at 
about  lat.  52°  K,  Ion.  85°  20'  E.,  by  the  junc- 
tion of  the  Katunya  and  Biya,  which  rise  in 
the  Altai  mountains.  It  pursues  a  circuitous 
but  generally  N".  W.  course  to  about  lat.  61°, 
where  it  is  joined  by  the  Irtish  from  the  south, 
whence  it  runs  N.  W.  and  N.  to  Obdorsk,  lat. 
66°  40',  where  it  separates  and  flows  E.  into 
the  gulf  of  Obi  by  three  mouths  after  a  course 
of  about  3,000  m.,  including  its  head  waters. 
Besides  the  Irtish,  which  after  receiving  the 
Tobol  is  larger  than  the  river  into  which  it 
flows,  the  principal  tributaries  are  the  Tom, 
Tchulim,  and  Vakh.  Fish  are  abundant  in  all 
these  rivers.  The  gulf  of  Obi  is  an  inlet  from 
the  sea  of  Kara,  which  lies  between  Nova 
Zembla  and  the  mainland.  It  is  of  irregular 
form,  extending  between  lat.  66°  30'  and  72° 
30'  K,  and  Ion.  68°  and  77°  E. 

OBION,  a  N.  W.  county  of  Tennessee,  bor- 
dering on  Kentucky,  and  intersected  in  the  S. 
E.  by  the  Obion  river  ;  area,  about  500  sq.  m. ; 
pop.  in  1870,  15,584,  of  whom  2,182  were 
colored.  Its  surface  is  low  toward  the  west 
and  elevated  and  undulating  in  the  east,  and 
the  soil  is  fertile.  The  Mobile  and  Ohio  and 
the  Nashville,  Chattanooga,  and  St.  Louis  rail- 
roads intersect  it.  The  chief  productions  in 
1870  were  91,139  bushels  of  wheat,  917,445  of 
Indian  corn,  21,919  of  oats,  26,501  of  Irish 
and  33,607  of  sweet  potatoes,  227,660  Ibs.  of 
butter,  17,082  of  wool,  645,937  of  tobacco, 
and  2,256  bales  of  cotton.  There  were  3,742 
horses,  1,671  mules  and  asses,  3,716  milch  cows, 
1,169  working  oxen,  5,219  other  cattle,  10,505 
sheep,  and  44,137  swine.  Capital,  Troy. 

OBITER  DICTUM  (Lat.,  something  said  by  the 
way  or  incidentally),  in  law,  an  opinion  which 
a  judge  in  deciding  a  cause  expresses  on  a  point 
not  necessary  to  the  judgment.  Such  an  ex- 
pression of  opinion  is  usually  to  be  avoided,  as 
it  cannot  be  supposed  to  have  received  from 
counsel  or  court  the  investigation  and  reflec- 
tion bestowed  upon  the  points  actually  in- 
volved in  the  case,  and  would  consequently  be 
likely  to  be  more  or  less  crude  and  ill-consid- 
ered. It  is  liable  to  the  objection,  also,  that  it 
is  an  opinion  in  advance  of  any  actual  contro- 
versy presenting  it,  and  without  a  hearing  of 
such  parties  as  may  be  concerned.  Such  an 
opinion,  therefore,  from  however  respectable 
a  source,  is  not  admitted  to  possess  the  force 
and  be  entitled  to  the  authority  of  a  precedent. 


OBLATES 


O'BRIEN 


565 


OBLATES  (Lat.  oblatus,  offered),  two  congre- 
gations of  priests  and  one  of  nuns  in  the  Ro- 
man Catholic  church.  I.  Oblates  of  St.  Charles, 

founded  in  Milan  by  St.  Charles  Borromeo, 
archbishop  of  that  city,  in  1570,  to  form  a 
body  of  missionaries  for  home  work  among 
the  neglected  classes.  They  were  their  found- 
er's idea  of  the  perfection  of  secular  priests, 
working  round  the  bishop  as  their  head,  and 
differing  in  this  from  the  religious  orders  and 
congregations,  which  are  independent  of  the 
bishop.  They  were  called  by  St.  Charles  "  Ob- 
lates of  St.  Ambrose,"  the  name  by  which  they 
continued  to  be  known  during  his  lifetime. 
He  drew  up  their  constitutions,  which  were 
revised  by  St.  Philip  N~eri  and  St.  Felix  Canta- 
lici,  and  approved  repeatedly  by  the  holy  see. 
They  had  many  establishments  in  Milan,  Ve- 
rona, and  other  parts  of  northern  Italy.  Dio- 
cesan congregations  were  formed  on  this 
model  in  various  parts  of  Europe,  especially 
the  missionaries  or  Oblates  of  St.  Irenseus  at 
Lyons.  In  London,  under  the  direction  of 
Cardinal  Wiseman,  Dr.  (afterward  Archbish- 
op) Manning  and  the  Rev.  Herbert  Yaughan 
(afterward  bishop  of  Salford),  with  five  other 
priests,  founded  an  establishment  of  Oblates  of 
St.  Charles,  in  St.  Charles's  college  at  Bays- 
water.  They  at  present  possess  five  houses  in 
London,  and  serve  four  city  missions.  They 
make  an  "  oblation  "  or  vow  of  obedience  to 
the  bishop,  the  vow  of  poverty  being  voluntary. 
— Attached  to  the  London  Oblates,  but  distinct 
from  them  in  idea  and  institution,  is  "  St. 
Joseph's  Society  of  the  Sacred  Heart  for 
Foreign  Missions,"  with  a  central  house  at 
Mill  Hill,  near  London,  and  intrusted  by  Pius 
IX.  with  the  spiritual  care  of  the  American 
freedmen.  All  missionaries  educated  by  St. 
Joseph's  society  leave  Europe  for  life,  devoting 
themselves  to  extra-European  races.  They 
make  vows  of  obedience,  and  bind  themselves 
to  practise  evangelical  poverty,  and  to  go 
wherever  sent.  This  society  counts  at  present 
(March,  1875)  12  priests  and  30  students  in 
divinity,  from  men  of  all  nations.  They  have 
three  missions  to  blacks  exclusively,  in  Balti- 
more, Charleston,  and  Louisville.  Bishop 
Vaughan  of  Salford  is  the  superior  general. 
II.  Oblates  of  Mary  Immaculate,  a  society  of  reg- 
ular clerks,  founded  at  Aix,  France,  in  1815, 
by  Charles  J.  E.  de  Mazenod,  afterward  bishop 
of  Marseilles.  At  first  they  were  auxiliaries 
to  the  diocesan  clergy ;  but  as  their  numbers 
increased  they  assumed  the  direction  of  eccle- 
siastical seminaries,  penitentiaries,  and  chari- 
table establishments,  and  undertook  foreign 
missions.  They  were  approved  by  Pope  Leo 
XII.,  Feb.  17,  1826.  They  spread  throughout 
France,  Great  Britain,  Ireland,  the  British 
colonies,  the  islands  of  the  Pacific,  and  the 
United  States.  Called  to  Canada  in  1841,  they 
immediately  occupied  in  the  extreme  north 
and  west  of  British  America  the  old  Jesuit 
missionary  posts,  and  extended  their  labors  to 
the  remotest  tribes.  In  Canada  they  have 


several  colleges,  seminaries,  and  academies, 
with  a  constantly  increasing  body  of  priests. 
They  also  have  numerous  establishments  in 
northern  New  York,  Minnesota,  Texas,  and 
Washington  territory.  III.  Oblates  Sisters  of 
Providence,  a  sisterhood  of  colored  women, 
founded  at  Baltimore  in  1825,  by  the  Rev.  H. 
Joubert,  for  educating  colored  girls,  taking 
charge  of  colored  orphans,  and  attending  to  the 
general  needs  of  the  colored  population.  They 
were  approved  by  Gregory  XVI.  in  1831. 
Their  mother  house  is  in  Baltimore. 
OBLIGATION.  See  BOND,  CHAETEE,  and 

CONTEACT. 

OBOE.    See  HAUTBOY. 

^  OBOLUS,  a  small  coin  of  ancient  Greece,  one 
sixth  of  a  drachm,  equal  in  value  to  about  2*6 
cents.  In  the  best  times  of  Athens  it  was 
made  of  silver  only,  but  later  of  bronze. 

OBRENOVITCH.    See  SEEVIA. 

O'BRIEN,  a  1ST.  W.  county  of  Iowa,  watered 
by  the  Little  Sioux  river  and  Willow  creek ; 
area,  576  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  715.  The  sur- 
face consists  of  rolling  prairies ;  the  soil  is  fer- 
tile. The  Sioux  City  and  St.  Paul  railroad 
crosses  the  IS".  W.  corner.  The  chief  produc- 
tions in  1870  were  4,648  bushels  of  wheat,  500 
of  Indian  corn,  8,909  of  oats,  and  404  of  barley. 
The  value  of  live  stock  was  $41,490.  Capital, 
O'Brien. 

O'BRIEN,  William  Smith,  an  Irish  patriot,  born 
in  county  Clare,  Oct.  17, 1803,  died  in  Bangor, 
North  Wales,  June  17, 1864.  He  was  educated 
at  Harrow  and  Cambridge,  in  1827  entered 
parliament  for  the  borough  of  Ennis,  and  in 
1832  was  returned  for  county  Limerick,  a  con- 
stituency which  he  continued  to  represent  for 
many  years.  He  strenuously  opposed  the  pas- 
sage of  the  Irish  arms  act,  August,  1843,  and 
became  an  active  member  of  the  repeal  asso- 
ciation. In  May,  1846,  for  refusing  to"  serve 
on  committees  of  the  house,  he  was  confined 
for  several  days.  On  the  introduction  of  John 
O'Connell's  peace  resolutions  into  the  repeal 
association,  in  July,  1846,  he  left  that  body, 
with  the  "  Young  Ireland  "  party.  The  French 
revolution  of  1848  gave  an  ultra  tone  to  his 
views,  and  shortly  after  that  event  he  made  a 
violent  speech  in  the  house  of  commons,  threat- 
ening to  establish  a  republic  in  Ireland.  In 
April  he  accompanied  a  deputation  sent  by  the 
"Irish  Confederation"  to  Paris,  to  request  aid 
on  behalf  of  the  "  oppressed  nationality  of  Ire- 
land," and  received  abundant  expressions  of 
sympathy  from  Lamartine  and  his  coadjutors, 
but  no  direct  offers  of  assistance.  Returning 
home  in  May,  he  aided  in  organizing  a  national 
convention  of  the  Irish  people,  which  was  not 
permitted  to  assemble.  In  the  same  month  he 
was  brought  to  trial,  together  with  Thomas 
Francis  Meagher,  on  a  charge  of  sedition,  but 
escaped  conviction.  His  zeal  soon  hurried 
him  into  overt  acts,  and  in  July  he  attempted 
a  rising  among  the  peasantry  of  Ballingarry, 
which  was  promptly  suppressed.  On  Aug.  5 
he  was  arrested  near  Thurles  and  convey e_d  to 


566 


OBSERVANTS 


OBSERVATORY 


Dublin.  He  was  tried  at  Clonmel  on  a  charge 
of  high  treason,  convicted,  and  sentenced 
to  death  (Oct.  9) ;  but  the  sentence  was  com- 
muted to  transportation  for  life.  In  July,  1849, 
he  embarked  for  Tasmania,  where  he  remained 
till  1856,  when  the  pardon  accorded  to  the  Irish 
agitators  of  1848  enabled  him  to  return  home. 
In  1859  he  visited  the  United  States,  and  after 
his  return  took  no  prominent  part  in  public 
affairs.  When  the  civil  war  broke  out  in  the 
United  States  in  1861,  he  published  a  manifesto 
expressing  his  strong  sympathy  for  the  se- 
ceding states,  and  counselling  his  countrymen 
not  to  commit  themselves  in  favor  of  the  Union. 

OBSERVANTS.     See  FKANCISCANS. 

OBSERVATORY,  a  place  for  making  observa- 
tions upon  any  great  class  of  natural  phenom- 
ena. Observatories  are  of  three  kinds :  mag- 
netical,  for  observing  the  phenomena  of  ter- 
restrial magnetism ;  meteorological,  for  obser- 
ving the  phenomena  of  atmospheric  changes; 
and  astronomical,  for  observations  of  the  heav- 
enly bodies.  In  an  astronomical  observatory 
it  is  necessary  that  there  should  be  a  fixed  sup- 
port for  the  instruments,  and  exemption  from 
tremors  and  atmospheric  disturbances.  To  se- 
cure the  first,  the  instruments  are  to  be  firmly 
planted  on  stone  piers,  completely  isolated  from 
all  other  bases  of  support  and  from  the  build- 
ing. To  secure  the  second,  a  situation  is  to  be 
chosen  secluded  from  ways  of  travel  and  busi- 
ness. It  is  important  that  the  locality  be  dry, 
of  equable  temperature,  as  nearly  exempt  as 
possible  from  fogs,  clouds,  &c.,  and  screened 
from  high  winds  so  far  as  is  consistent  with 
a  free  view  of  the  horizon.  The  instruments 
on  which  exact  astronomy  is  founded  are  the 
transit  and  its  clock  for  obtaining  and  keeping 
exact  time,  the  transit  circle,  and  the  mural 
circle  for  measuring  the  meridian  distances  of 
stars  from  the  zenith.  There  are  also  several 
other  principal  instruments,  viz. :  the  equato- 
rial telescope,  which  can  be  directed  to  any  part 
of  the  heavens ;  the  heliometer,  for  taking  the 
most  difficult  micrometric  measurements ;  and 
the  altitude  and  azimuth  circle,  for  determining 
these  elements  of  a  star's  place.  Every  well 
equipped  observatory  has  also  a  variety  of  lesser 
instruments.  Barometers,  psychrometers,  ther- 
mometers, chronometers,  &c.,  are  important 
accessories.  Of  the  more  ancient  instruments 
the  zenith  sector  and  the  mural  quadrant  are 
no  longer  in  use,  and  the  transit  circle  is  grad- 
ually replacing  the  mural  circle  in  all  the  lead- 
ing observatories.  The  American  method  of 
recording  observations  by  means  of  electro- 
magnetism  introduced  a  novel  and  elegant  kind 
of  apparatus  among  the  equipments  of  the 
observatory,  and  greatly  increased  the  efficien- 
cy of  the  labors  of  the  practical  observer. — 
The  first  epoch  of  modern  practical  astrono- 
my begins  with  the  labors  of  Tycho  Brahe 
at  his  castle  of  Uranienborg  near  Copenhagen 
(1580).  But  Uranienborg  has  disappeared; 
hardly  its  site  is  known.  Of  the  great  astro- 
nomical institutions  extant,  the  observatory  of 


Paris  is  the  oldest.  Built  in  1667-'71  by  order 
of  Louis  XIV.,  and  designed  by  Claude  Per- 
rault,  the  famous  architect  of  the  Louvre,  it 
was  an  edifice  of  great  magnificence,  but  ill 
adapted  to  the  purpose  for  which  it  was  in- 
tended. Domenico  Cassini,  an  Italian,  was  its 
first  director.  Here  Picard  labored  from  1673 
till  his  death  about  1682;  and  in  recent  times 
this  institution  attained  a  high  degree  of  effi- 
ciency under  the  directorship  of  Arago.  It  is 
now  directed  by  Leverrier.  The  royal  observa- 
tory at  Greenwich  began  operations  in  1676, 
with  Flamsteed  for  astronomer  royal.  Sir 
G.  B.  Airy,  the  present  incumbent,  has  held 
the  office  since  1835.  The  Tusculan  obser- 
vatory in  Copenhagen  was  built  in  1704,  for 
Roemer,  the  discoverer  of  the  velocity  of  light. 
Peter  the  Great  caused  an  observatory  to  be 
erected  in  1725  at  his  capital,  and  the  French 
astronomer  De  Lisle  was  invited  to  be  its 
director.  The  emperor  Nicholas  built  another 
in  1839  at  Pulkova,  a  small  town  10  m.  S. 
of  St.  Petersburg,  on  a  scale  of  unprecedented 
magnificence.  The  cost  was  about  $500,000, 
and  $50,000  is  annually  appropriated  from  the 
imperial  treasury  for  its  maintenance.  It  is 
the  best  endowed  and  the  most  perfectly  or- 
ganized of  all  continental  observatories.  At- 
tached to  it  are  a  very  fine  library  and  work- 
shops for  repairs  and  alterations  in  the  instru- 
ments. Wilhelm  Struve,  its  first  director,  has 
given  a  complete  description  of  this  establish- 
ment {Description  de  V  observatoire  astrono- 
mique  central  de  Pullcowa,  2  vols.  fol.,  St.  Pe- 
tersburg, 1845).  It  is  at  present  under  the 
management  of  his  son,  Otto  Struve.  The  ob- 
servatory at  Dorpat  (founded  about  1811)  was 
the  scene  of  the  elder  Struve's  researches  in 
sidereal  astronomy,  and  of  the  no  less  useful 
labors  and  speculations  of  Madler  in  the  same 
department.  The  observatory  of  Konigsberg 
(1813),  under  Bessel,  became  second  to  none 
during  the  present  century  for  its  contributions 
toward  the  improvement  of  every  branch  of 
astronomy.  The  observatory  of  Berlin  (about 
1834)  is  important  on  account  of  the  labors  of 
Encke.  Here  the  planet  Neptune  was  first 
seen  by  Dr.  Galle,  Sept.  23,  1846.  Of  the 
British  public  establishments  of  the  first  class, 
there  are,  besides  that  at  Greenwich  already 
mentioned,  the  Radcliffe  observatory  at  Oxford 
(1774),  under  the  directorship  of  the  Rev.  R. 
Main  since  1859 ;  that  at  the  cape  of  Good 
Hope  (1821),  memorable  for  the  successful  re- 
searches of  Prof.  Henderson  of  Edinburgh  in 
determining  the  parallax  of  Alpha  Centauri, 
and  which  was  under  the  direction  of  Sir  R. 
Maclear  from  1833  to  1870,  when  he  was  suc- 
ceeded by  Mr.  E.  Stone  of  Greenwich ;  that  at 
Cambridge  (1824),  under  Prof.  Adams,  as  suc- 
cessor to  Prof.  Challis ;  the  royal  observatory 
of  Edinburgh  (about  1825),  under  Prof.  Piazzi 
Smyth  since  1844 ;  and  the  royal  observatory 
of  Dublin  (1774)  under  Mr.  R.  S.  Bale.  The 
university  of  Oxford  has  decided  (1875)  to 
found  a  second  observatory.  There  are  many 


OBSERVATORY 


OBSIDIAN  AND  PUMICE        567 


other  European  observatories  justly  famous, 
including  those  of  Abo,  Altona,  Athens,  Bonn, 
Bremen,  Breslau,  Brussels,  Buda,  Florence, 
Gottingen,  Hamburg,  Leipsic,  Munich,  Rome, 
Santiago,  Gotha,  Upsal,  and  Vienna.  The 
English  have  also  observatories  at  Madras,  at 
Sydney  (formerly  at  Paramatta)  and  at  Mel- 
bourne. Numerous  private  observatories  in 
various  parts  of  the  British  empire  have  en- 
riched science  with  many  brilliant  discoveries. 
Thus,  Lord  Rosse  erected  at  Parsonstown, 
county  Louth,  Ireland,  the  most  stupendous 
instrument  known.  Lassell,  with  his  beauti- 
ful reflector  established  at  Liverpool,  was  the 
first  to  detect  a  satellite  of  Neptune,  and  con- 
tests with  the  Bonds  at  Cambridge,  Mass., 
the  honor  of  the  discovery  of  Hyperion,  the 
seventh  in  order  of  the  satellites  of  Saturn. 
At  the  private  observatory  of  George  Bishop, 
in  Regent's  park,  London  (1836),  J.  R.  Hind 
has  labored  since  1844  with  great  success.  To 
these  may  be  added  Admiral  Smyth's  obser- 
vatory at  Bedford,  now  dismantled ;  Sir  John 
Herschel's  late  establishment  at  Feldhuysen, 
Cape  of  Good  Hope ;  and  those  of  Messrs.  Car- 
rington,  Dawes,  Cooper,  and  others.  A  tele- 
scope of  25  in.  aperture  (by  Cook),  finished  in 
1868,  is  destined  for  the  island  of  Madeira.  A 
new  observatory,  under  Prof.  "Winnecke,  was 
established  in  1874  at  the  university  of  Stras- 
burg.  An  observatory  especially  for  observa- 
tions of  the  sun  is  constructing  at  Potsdam. 
A  new  observatory  nearly  finished  (1875)  is  to 
replace  the  old  in  Vienna. — The  first  telescope 
used  in  the  United  States  for  astronomical 
purposes  was  set  up  in  1830  at  Yale  college. 
The  first  observatory  building  was  erected  in 
1836  at  Williams  college,  Mass.,  by  Prof.  Hop- 
kins. Two  years  later  the  Hudson  observatory 
was  organized  in  connection  with  the  Western 
Reserve  college,  Ohio,  under  Prof.  Loomis  as 
director.  About  the  same  time  the  high  school 
observatory  at  Philadelphia  was  established, 
which  introduced  a  class  of  instruments  supe- 
rior to  any  before  employed.  The  West  Point 
observatory,  under  Prof.  Bartlett,  and  the  naval 
observatory  at  Washington,  under  Capt.  Gilliss, 
soon  followed.  The  latter  is  now  (1875)  under 
the  superintendence  of  Rear  Admiral  Davis. 
In  1874  it  was  supplied  with  a  refractor  (by 
Alvan  Clark)  having  an  object  glass  26  in.  in 
aperture,  and  being  probably  the  most  pow- 
erful refracting  telescope  in  the  world.  At 
Georgetown,  D.  0.,  an  observatory  was  erected 
in  1844,  and  about  the  same  time  that  at  Cin- 
cinnati began  operations  under  Prof.  Mitchel, 
with  instruments  of  admirable  performance. 
The  telescope  and  property  of  this  observatory 
have  been  transferred  to  the  university,  and 
a  site  of  four  acres  for  a  new  observatory 
has  been  selected  at  Mount  Lookout,  near  Lin- 
wood,  6  m.  from  the  city.  The  observatory  at 
Cambridge,  established  a  year  or  two  later,  is 
furnished  with  one  of  the  best  equatorials  in 
the  world.  By  means  of  it  Messrs.  William 
C.  and  George  P.  Bond  added  to  astronomical 


knowledge  a  new  satellite  of  Saturn ;  the  fact 
of  the  semi-transparency  of  the  inmost  zone 
of  the  ring  of  the  same  planet ;  the  conjecture, 
established  by  Prof.  Peirce's  demonstration,  of 
the  non-continuous  nature  of  the  ring ;  im- 
proved accounts  of  the  nebulae ;  and  observa- 
tions of  new  planets,  and  of  the  satellites  of 
Saturn,  Uranus,  and  Neptune.  It  is  now  under 
Prof.  Winlock.  The  Allegheny  (Pa.)  observa- 
tory, under  Prof.  S.  P.  Langley,  is  mainly  de- 
voted to  physical  astronomy,  especially  to  the 
study  of  solar  physics.  At  Ann  Arbor,  Mich., 
an  observatory  was  established  in  1854  on  a 
very  liberal  scale.  Prof.  Watson  is  its  director. 
A  more  recent  establishment  is  the  Dudley  ob- 
servatory at  Albany  (now  a  branch  of  Union 
university,  Schenectady),  the  gifts  to  which 
since  its  foundation  exceed  $200,000.  In  ad- 
dition to  the  foregoing,  celestial  telescopes 
have  been  set  up  at  Nantucket,  Mass.,  where 
Miss  Maria  Mitchell  won  a  European  fame; 
one  at  Vassar  college,  Poughkeepsie,  where 
Miss  Mitchell  is  at  present  professor  of  astron- 
omy ;  near  Darby,  a  few  miles  from  Philadel- 
phia, by  the  late  John  Jackson ;  at  Tuscaloosa, 
Ala. ;  at  Charleston,  S.  C.,  by  Prof.  Lewis  R. 
Gibbes ;  at  New  York  city  by  Mr.  Rutherfurd, 
and  another  by  Mr.  Campbell ;  at  Hastings,  N. 
Y.,  by  Dr.  Henry  Draper ;  at  Newark,  N.  J., 
by  Mr.  Van  Arsdale;  at  Philadelphia,  by  the 
Friends;  at  Amherst  college;  at  Dartmouth 
college,  due  chiefly  to  the  munificence  of 
George  C.  Shattuck  of  Boston,  and  supplied  in 
1871  with  a  new  (Clark)  telescope  of  9-4  in. 
aperture;  and  at  Hamilton  college.  The  last 
has  been  liberally  endowed  by  Edwin  C.  Litch- 
field  of  Brooklyn,  N.  Y.,  and  is  now  known  as 
the  Litchfield  observatory.  The  observatory 
at  Chicago,  where  there  is  a  fine  telescope  18 
in.  in  aperture  (by  Alvan  Clark),  is  under  the 
management  of  Prof.  Safford.  The  observa- 
tory of  the  Sheffield  scientific  school,  Yale  col- 
lege, occupies  two  towers  recently  added  to 
Sheffield  hall,  in  one  of  which  is  mounted  an 
equatorial  telescope  of  9  in.  aperture  (by  Clark), 
and  in  the  other  a  meridian  circle  with  a  side- 
real clock,  both  instruments  given  by  Mr.  Shef- 
field. In  1874  James  Lick  of  San  Francisco 
gave  $700,000  for  a  telescope  and  other  appa- 
ratus for  an  observatory.  The  observatory  of 
the  Argentine  Republic  was  organized  at  Cor- 
dova in  1870,  under  Prof.  B.  A.  Gould,  for- 
merly director  of  the  Dudley  observatory.  An 
observatory  was  established  at  Quito  in  1874, 
Father  Menten  director. 

OBSIDIAN  AND  PUMICE,  two  modifications  of 
feldspathic  or  trachytic  lava,  obsidian  being 
glassy,  while  pumice  is  a  porous,  fibrous,  or 
tumefied  mass.  The  different  conditions  to 
which  the  lava  is  subjected  are  the  cause  of  the 
difference  in  the  two  minerals;  obsidian  is 
produced  by  the  action  of  heat  principally, 
while  pumice  is  the  effect  of  various  external 
agencies,  principally  aqueous  vapor  and  a  cer- 
tain temperature  while  the  lava  is  fluid.  Many 
obsidians  when  ignited  swell  into  a  mass  of 


568 


OBSTETEICS 


pumice,  which  is  like  natural  pumice  in  pro- 
portion to  the  amount  of  alkali  in  the  mineral. 
If  the  obsidian  is  pulverized  it  does  not  swell, 
but  merely  turns  brown.  Obsidian  heated 
above  the"  point  at  which  pumice  is  formed 
melts  into  a  greenish  mass,  so  that  obsidian  is 
often  said  to  be  melted  pumice ;  but  the  obsid- 
ian may  probably  be  formed  without  passing 
through  the  phase  of  pumice.  The  following 
table  by  Abich  gives  the  analysis  of  two  obsid- 
ians and  two  lavas :  1,  obsidian  from  Teneriff  e, 
sp.  gr.  2-528;  2,  pumice  from  Teneriffe,  sp.  gr. 
2-477;  3,  obsidian  from  Lipari,  sp.  gr.  2-370; 
4,  pumice  from  Lipari,  sp.  gr.  2'77 : 


CONSTITUENTS. 

I. 

2. 

3. 

4. 

Silica... 

61-18 

62-25 

74-05 

78-70 

Alumina  
Ferric  oxide  
Manganic  oxide  
Lime  . 

19-05 
4-22 
0-33 
0-59 

16-43 
4-26 
0-23 
0-62 

12-97 
2-78 

'6-12 

12-27 
2-81 

6-65 

Magrnesia 

0'19 

0*79 

0-28 

0*29 

Soda  

10-63 

11-25 

4-15 

4-52 

Potash  

3-50 

2-97 

5-11 

4-73 

Chlorine 

0'30 

)     n    KO 

0-81 

0-31 

Water  

0-04 

>•  0-53 

0-22 

1-22 

Total  

100-03 

99-38 

99-94 

100-00 

— The  characteristics  of  obsidian  are  its  glassy 
lustre,  susceptibility  to  high  polish,  and  hard- 
ness, sufficient  to  scratch  glass.  The  Greeks 
called  it  b^iav6q  Woq,  as  is  supposed  by  some 
from  tyif,  sight,  in  allusion  to  its  translucence. 
Pliny  derives  its  name  from  Obsidius,  who  is 
said  to  have  brought  it  from  Ethiopia.  It  was 
used  by  the  ancients  for  mirrors,  and  for  vari- 
ous ornamental  purposes.  The  Mexicans  used 
it,  under  the  name  of  itzli,  for  knives,  razors, 
and  serrated  weapons  and  implements.  The 
pointed  fragments  were  made  into  arrows.  The 
stone  is  much  used  for  ornamental  purposes, 
particularly  as  mourning  jewelry,  but  from  its 
brittleness  requires  to  be  worked  with  great 
care.  The  iridescent  variety,  which  has  a  pe- 
culiar greenish  yellow  color,  and  commands  a 
high  price,  is  sometimes  cut  in  cdbochon  and 
set  in  rings.  The  colors  of  obsidian  are  nu- 
merous, but  each  specimen  commonly  has  but 
one  shade.  The  characteristics  of  pumice  are 
sponginess  and  lightness,  so  that,  although  the 
specific  gravity  of  the  material  itself  is  as  great 
as  that  of  obsidian,  it  is  often  bulky  enough  to 
float  on  water.  It  is  of  grayish  shades,  passing 
into  yellow  and  brown.  It  is  employed  in  the 
arts,  pulverized  as  a  polishing  material,  and  in 
the  lump  for  grinding  and  smoothing  surfaces. 
Its  chief  source  in  commerce  is  Campo  Bianco, 
one  of  the  Lipari  islands,  where  it  forms  a  hill 
nearly  1,000  ft.  high. 

OBSTETRICS  (Lat.  obstetrfa,  a  midwife),  the 
art  and  science  of  midwifery.  It  has  a  double 
mission :  1,  to  render  possible,  easy,  and  regu- 
lar, exempt  from  all  abnormal  suffering  and  all 
danger,  the  accomplishment  of  the  numerous 
functions  which  directly  or  indirectly  affect 
generation,  from  birth  to  the  age  when  the 
procreative  faculty  becomes  natural  to  the  hu- 


man female ;  2,  to  direct  and  defend  from  all 
harm  the  delicate  and  precarious  health  of  the 
infant  during  its  early  period  of  existence,  and 
particularly  during  lactation.  Labor  is  a  natu- 
ral function,  and  happily  the  intervention  of 
art  is  rarely  demanded.  But  to  foresee,  pre- 
vent, or  remove  all  possible  dangers,  to  over- 
come serious  obstacles  when  they  exist,  to  re- 
solve the  many  difficult  and  trying  questions 
that  may  arise,  demand  skill  and  judgment. 
The  important  part  which  woman  takes  in  gen- 
eration consists  in  successive  acts  which  are 
accomplished  in  her.  One  of  the  germs  or  ova, 
enclosed  in  the  ovary,  receives  through  impreg- 
nation the  power  to  develop  itself,  and  is  then 
transported  to  the  uterus.  This  organ  retains 
the  ovum,  and  furnishes  it  the  materials  for 
its  growth.  It  becomes  first  an  embryo,  and 
next  a  foetus,  when  it  acquires  all  the  necessary 
powers  for  exterior  life.  This  succession  of 
phenomena  constitutes  gestation  or  pregnancy. 
When  these  powers  are  acquired,  the  new  be- 
ing is  expelled  by  a  spontaneous  action  of  the 
same  organ  which  has  contained,  protected, 
and  nourished  it;  and  during  this  expulsion, 
known  by  the  name  of  labor  or  parturition,  in 
order  to  come  to  the  light,  it  is  obliged  to  trav- 
erse the  pelvis,  which  is  not  accomplished  with- 
out pain.  But  after  its  birth  it  still  requires 
for  some  time  the  aid  of  the  breasts,  organs  de- 
signed only  for  this  function,  which  by  the  pro- 
cess of  lactation  furnish  the  necessary  elements 
for  its  nutrition.  The  development  of  these 
phenomena  is  preceded  and  prepared  for  by 
particular  modifications  which  the  ovarian  ves- 
icles undergo.  A  bloody  periodical  discharge, 
called  menstruation,  of  which  the  uterus  is  the 
source,  ordinarily  coincides  with  this  modifica- 
tion of  the  ovarian  vesicles. — Obstetrics  then 
includes :  1,  anatomy,  the  organs  which  con- 
cur to  the  execution  of  the  acts  above  de- 
scribed ;  2,  the  physiological  phenomena,  the 
mode  in  which  these  acts  are  performed ;  and 
3,  the  pathology  of  these  organs.  As  regards 
the  anatomy,  it  is  sufficient  here  to  say  that 
the  female  organs  subservient  to  generation 
are  the  ovaries,  the  principal  function  of  which 
is  the  production  of  the  ovule  or  germ;  the 
Fallopian  tubes,  designed  to  receive  the  ovule 
and  conduct  it  into  the  cavity  of  the  uterus ; 
the  uterus  or  womb,  a  kind  of  receptacle,  whose 
office  it  is  to  contain  the  fecundated  germ  du- 
ring its  period  of  development,  and  to  expel 
it  immediately  afterward ;  and  finally  the  va- 
gina, a  membranous  canal  extending  from  the 
neck  of  the  uterus  to  the  external  organs.  Most 
of  these  organs  are  situated  within  a  large 
cavity,  the  walls  of  which  are  composed  of 
bones  and  soft  parts ;  this  is  termed  the  cavity 
of  the  pelvis.  The  functions  of  these  organs 
are  menstruation,  conception,  gestation  or  preg- 
nancy, and  labor  or  parturition.  These  func- 
tions are  limited  to  certain  periods  of  life,  usu- 
ally from  about  the  15th  to  the  45th  or  48th 
year.  The  generative  faculty  in  women  coin- 
cides with  the  function  of  menstruation.  The 


OBSTETRICS 


569 


earliest  age  at  which  pregnancy  is  positively 
known  to  have  occurred  is  11  years ;  and  the 
latest  period  at  which  parturition  at  the  full 
term  of  gestation  is  recorded  to  have  taken 
place  is  64  years.  The  most  prolific  period, 
according  to  Dr.  Bland,  is  hetween  the  ages  of 
26  and  30  years. — The  signs  of  pregnancy  may 
be  divided  into  two  classes :  1,  those  which  re- 
sult from  the  derangement  of  some  functions, 
as  suppression  of  the  menses,  nausea  and  vomit- 
ing, mammary  pains,  vitiated  tastes,  &c. ;  2, 
those  which  are  to  he  detected  only  by  a  physi- 
cal examination,  as  the  change  of  color  around 
the  nipple,  called  the  areola,  the  enlargement 
of  the  abdomen,  the  movements  of  the  foetus, 
the  position  of  the  uterus  in  the  abdomen,  bal- 
lottement  or  repercussion,  and  the  signs  derived 
from  auscultation,  and  those  ascertained  by 
touch,  of  the  change  in  form,  density,  and  po- 
sition of  the  neck  of  the  womb.  There  are 
some  diseases  which  may  give  rise  to  an  unjust 
suspicion  of  the  existence  of  pregnancy,  par- 
ticularly those  that  produce  enlargement  of 
the  abdomen.  The  chief  of  these  are  spurious 
pregnancy,  a  very  curious  and  not  very  infre- 
quent phenomenon,  ovarian  dropsy  and  drop- 
sy of  the  abdomen,  fibrous  tumors  and  large 
polypi  of  the  uterus,  enlargement  of  the  liver, 
kidney,  spleen,  &c.,  and  distention  of  the  cavi- 
ty of  the  uterus  with  blood,  water,  or  air. — It 
is  usually  admitted  that  the  ordinary  duration 
of  pregnancy  is  ten  lunar  months,  or  about 
nine  calendar  months,  or  from  274  to  280  days ; 
but  it  has  long  been  a  disputed  point  whether 
gestation  may  not  be  protracted  beyond  this 
period.  The  weight  of  authority  is  now  in  favor 
of  the  opinion  that  it  may  in  some  instances 
be  prolonged  to  the  300th  and  even  the  306th 
day.  The  abrupt  termination  of  pregnancy  by 
the  premature  expulsion  of  the  product  of  con- 
ception is  of  frequent  occurrence,  the  number 
of  mothers  who  pass  through  the  child-bearing 
epoch  of  life  without  ever  aborting  being  small. 
The  expulsion  of  the  ovum  may  take  place  at 
any  period  of  gestation.  When  it  occurs  du- 
ring the  first  16  weeks,  it  is  termed  an  abortion; 
when  between  the  end  of  this  period  and  the 
28th  week,  a  miscarriage ;  and  when  after  the 
latter  period,  but  before  the  completion  of  the 
full  term,  a  premature  labor.  When  the  foetus 
is  expelled  before  the  28th  week  of  pregnancy, 
it  either  dies  immediately  or  soon  after  birth. 
The  causes  of  abortion,  miscarriage,  and  pre- 
mature labor  may  be  classified  under  five 
heads,  viz. :  1,  the  accidental ;  2,  some  de- 
ranged state  of  the  mother's  health ;  3,  some 
disease  of  the  uterus  or  its  appendages;  4, 
some  disease  of  the  embryo  or  foetus  or  its 
membranes  ;  5,  when  induced  for  criminal 
purposes,  or  necessary  to  preserve  the  life  of 
the  mother.  The  danger  to  the  life  of  the 
mother  depends  somewhat  upon  the  period 
when  the  abortion  or  miscarriage  occurs.  In 
the  first  or  second  month  the  ovum  with  its 
appendages  generally  escapes  without  pro- 
ducing any  noticeable  illness.  In  the  third  and 


fourth  months  there  is  often  considerable  dan- 
ger from  haemorrhage.  The  danger  then  be- 
comes lessened  after  the  fifth  month.  When 
the  abortion  originates  from  some  slowly 
operating  maternal  or  foetal  disease,  it  is  at- 
tended with  much  less  serious  consequences 
than  when  it  is  produced  suddenly  by  an  acci- 
dent, or  by  the  exhibition  of  some  irritating 
medicines,  or  by  puncturing  the  membranes. 
Tardieu  reports  34  cases  of  criminal  abor- 
tion, 22  of  which  resulted  in  the  death  of  the 
mother.  So,  too,  an  abortion  occurring  du- 
ring the  progress  of  an  acute  inflammation  of 
the  lungs,  brain,  heart,  liver,  or  bowels,  forms 
a  highly  dangerous  complication. — The  condi- 
tion of  pregnancy  occasionally  results  in  a  salu- 
tary change  in  the  entire  system  of  the  moth- 
er, better  health  being  then  enjoyed  than  at 
any  other  period.  But  in  a  majority  it  indu- 
ces disagreeable  symptoms,  amounting  merely 
to  discomfort  in  some  individuals ;  in  others, 
so  great  as  to  injure  the  health  and  even  destroy 
life.  The  diseases  of  pregnancy  are :  lesions  of 
digestion,  as  anorexia  or  loss  of  appetite,  vom- 
iting, sometimes  so  persistent  as  to  destroy 
life,  constipation,  diarrhoea ;  lesions  of  the 
circulation,  as  plethora,  hydrsemia,  varices, 
haemorrhoids;  lesions  of  the  secretions  and 
excretions,  as  ptyalism,  albuminuria,  an&mia, 
leucorrhcea,  dropsy  of  the  cellular  tissue, 
dropsy  in  the  great  cavities  of  the  body,  drop- 
sy of  the  amnion  (a  morbid  collection  of  water 
in  the  uterus) ;  lesions  of  locomotion,  as  relax- 
ation of  the  pelvic  articulations,  inflammation 
of  the  pelvic  articulations ;  lesions  of  innerva- 
tion,  as  modifications  of  the  organs  of  sense, 
blindness,  deafness,  vertigo,  syncope,  pruritus 
of  the  vulva;  and  displacements  of  the  ute- 
rus.— Labor  or  parturition  consists  in  the 
spontaneous  or  artificial  expulsion  of  a  viable 
foetus  through  the  natural  parts.  Previous  to 
the  commencement  of  labor,  some  precursory 
phenomena  appear,  in  some  cases  during  the 
last  fortnight  of  pregnancy,  in  others  only  five 
or  six  days  before  labor  commences.  They 
result  from  the  dilatation  of  the  internal  ori- 
fice of  the  womb.  The  uterus,  which  before 
extended  up  to  the  stomach,  sensibly  sinks 
lower,  the  mechanical  obstruction  to  respira- 
tion is  removed,  the  stomach  is  no  longer 
oppressed,  but  the  bladder  and  rectum  become 
irritable,  and  locomotion  is  more  difficult.  The 
physiological  phenomena  of  labor  are  divided 
into  three  stages :  the  first  stage  ends  with  the 
dilatation  of  the  mouth  of  the  womb,  the  second 
with  the  expulsion  of  the  foetus,  and  the  third 
with  the  delivery  of  the  placenta  or  after-birth. 
The  symptoms  of  the  first  stage  are  intermit- 
tent pains,  resulting  from  the  uterine  contrac- 
tions, discharge  of  a  glairy  mucus,  formation 
of  a  bag  of  waters,  and  gradual  dilatation  of 
the  neck  of  the  womb.  The  pains  of  the  first 
stage  are  usually  borne  with  more  impatience 
than  those  of  the  second.  The  cries  which  ac- 
company them  are  sharp,  and  resemble  those 
of  any  other  species  of  suffering ;  those  of  the 


570 


OBSTETRICS 


second  stage  seem  to  be  suppressed  like  those 
of  a  person  carrying  a  heavy  burden.  The  use 
of  the  glairy  discharge  is  to  moisten  and  lubri- 
cate the  parts  over  which  the  child  has  to  pass, 
to  increase  their  suppleness  and  extensibility, 
and  make  it  more  easy  for  the  ovum  to  slide 
over  the  surfaces.  "Where  these  discharges  fail 
to  take  place,  the  dilatation  of  the  mouth  of 
the  womb  is  always  more  painful  and  slower, 
and  the  organs  are  more  disposed  to  become 
inflamed.  The  name  of  bag  of  waters  is  given 
to  a  protuberance  formed  by  the  membranes 
in  the  upper  part  of  the  vagina  during  labor. 
During  the  presence  of  a  pain,  it  is  hard,  tense, 
and  elastic ;  after  the  contraction  is  over,  it 
becomes  wrinkled  and  contracts  or  disappears. 
It  eventually  breaks,  sometimes  early  in  the 
first  stage,  and  in  other  cases  not  until  late  in 
the  second  stage,  when  the  contained  fluid 
escapes.  The  duration  of  labor  is  exceedingly 
variable,  even  when  no  obstacle  opposes  its 
natural  course.  Some  women  are  delivered  in 
an  hour  or  two,  others  only  after  several  days ; 
and  between  these  two  extremes  there  is  every 
intermediate  grade.  In  the  first  confinement, 
the  average  length  of  labor  is  usually  from  10 
to  12  hours ;  but  in  at  least  one  case  out  of 
five  it  may  not  terminate  under  15, 18,  or  even 
24,  and  this  without  any  injury  whatever  re- 
sulting either  to  the  mother  or  child.  Women 
who  have  had  children  are  delivered  much 
sooner,  only  suffering,  in  ordinary  cases,  about 
6  or  8  hours.  The  duration  of  the  first  stage 
is  to  the  second  as  2  or  even  3  to  1 ;  but  this 
law  is  subject  to  many  exceptions.  The  third 
stage  ought  to  be  completed  within  30  min- 
utes.— To  understand  the  mechanical  phenom- 
ena of  labor,  it  is  necessary  first  to  define  the 
terms  presentation  and  position.  We  desig- 
nate by  the  term  presentation  the  part  of  the 
child  that  first  offers  at  the  entrance  of  the 
pelvic  cavity ;  and  by  the  term  position,  the 
relations  of  the  presenting  part  to  the  differ- 
ent points  of  the  entrance  to  the  pelvis.  The 
attitude  of  the  child  in  the  uterine  cavity  is  in 
a  great  majority  of  cases  such  that  the  direc- 
tion of  the  trunk  is  parallel  with  that  of  the 
mother,  and  one  extremity  forms  the  most  de- 
pendent part.  If  the  head  is  flexed,  it  is  called 
a  vertex  presentation.  If  the  head  is  extended 
back,  the  chin  far  removed  from  the  breast,  it 
is  a  face  presentation.  When  the  other  ex- 
tremity presents,  the  legs  are  usually  flexed  on 
the  thighs  and  the  latter  on  the  abdomen  ;  the 
whole  breech  may  therefore  offer  at  the  en- 
trance of  the  pelvis,  or  one  or  both  feet  or 
knees.  As  the  mechanism  of  labor  must  be 
the  same  in  all  these  cases,  they  are  all  in- 
cluded under  the  term  pelvic  presentations. 
But  it  may  happen  that,  instead  of  one  of  the 
extremities  offering,  some  portion  of  the  trunk 
may  offer,  the  child  lying  transversely  in  the 
uterus,  and  this  may  be  either  some  point  of 
the  right  half  or  of  the  left  half  of  the  trunk. 
We  have  then  five  primary  presentations,  one 
of  the  head,  one  of  the  face,  one  for  the  pelvic 


extremity,  one  for  the  right  lateral  plane,  and 
one  for  the  left  lateral  plane.  The  presenta- 
tion of  the  head  is  incomparably  more  frequent 
than  all  the  others.  According  to  Mme.  Boi- 
vin,  in  20,357  cases  it  occurred  in  19,730.  The 
foetus  presents  by  the  face,  on  an  average,  once 
in  250  labors.  The  pelvic  presentation  occurs 
once  in  30  or  35  labors.  The  trunk  presen- 
tations are  a  little  less  rare  than  the  face,  oc- 
curring about  once  in  200  cases.  As  a  law  it 
may  be  said  that  trunk  presentations  always 
demand  the  interposition  of  art  to  accomplish 
delivery.  The  other  presentations  generally 
terminate  spontaneously.  In  order  that  a  la- 
bor may  terminate  without  foreign  aid,  there 
must  be  on  the  part  of  the  mother  no  fault  or 
deformity  of  the  pelvis,  no  serious  affection  of 
the  womb,  and  the  organ  must  possess  a  certain 
energy ;  the  general  powers  of  the  system  must 
not  have  been  exhausted  either  by  a  profuse 
haemorrhage  or  any  long  continued  disease ; 
there  must  be  no  affection  making  it  danger- 
ous for  the  woman  to  give  herself  up  fully  to 
the  efforts  that  she  is  compelled  to  make ;  and 
no  accident  must  supervene  during  the  labor. 
On  the  part  of  the  child,  it  is  important  that 
it  should  descend  with  the  head,  the  face,  the 
feet,  the  knees,  or  the  breech  foremost,  and 
that  it  should  not  be  of  a  size  disproportionate 
to  the  capacity  of  the  pelvis.  About  one  case 
in  30  requires  in  some  form  artificial  aid  to 
complete  a  happy  delivery. — The  obstetric  op- 
erations required  for  cases  of  difficult  and  dan- 
gerous labor,  either  to  save  the  life  of  the  moth- 
er or  child  or  both,  are  :  1,  induction  of  prema- 
ture labor,  an  operation  of  great  importance 
and  value  in  certain  cases ;  2,  version  or  turn- 
ing, that  manual  operation  by  which  one  pre- 
sentation is  substituted  for  another  less  favor- 
able ;  3,  the  vectis,  to  correct  malpositions  or 
aid  the  natural  rotations  of  the  head ;  4,  deliv- 
ery by  forceps ;  5,  craniotomy,  an  operation  by 
which  the  life  of  the  child  is  sacrificed  in  order 
to  save  the  mother;  6,  the  Caesarean  section, 
in  which  the  child  is  extracted  through  an  in- 
cision in  the  walls  of  the  abdomen  and  uterus. 
The  dangerous  complications  which  may  arise 
in  connection  with  labor  are  i  prolapse  of  the 
cord  or  funis,  an  accident  very  fatal  to  the 
child ;  flooding  or  haemorrhage ;  retention  of 
the  placenta  ;  convulsions ;  rupture  of  the  ute- 
rus ;  lacerations  of  the  vagina  or  perineum ; 
and  inversion  of  the  uterus. — The  progress  of 
obstetrical  science  and  the  improvement  in 
the  art  have  been  very  marked  in  recent 
times.  According  to  Tanner,  "  the  20th  annual 
report  of  the  registrar  general  of  births,  deaths, 
and  marriages  in  England  shows  that  in  the 
year  1847  the  birth  of  every  10,000  living  chil- 
dren was  the  death  of  60  mothers,  whereas  in 
1857  it  was  only  fatal  to  42 ;  hence  18  mother? 
are  now  saved  in  every  10,000  children  born. 
Since  1848  the  decline  has  been  progressive, 
the  numbers  per  10,000  being  61,  58,  55,  52, 
47,  47,  44,  and  42  in  1857."  Among  the  most 
striking  modern  improvements  in  obstetrical 


O'CALLAGHAN 

science  and  practice  may  be  mentioned  the 
application  of  auscultation  to  obstetrics;  a 
more  perfect  knowledge  of  the  mechanism  of 
labor,  and  of  the  management  of  placenta  prce- 
ma ;  the  introduction  of  anaesthetics ;  the  in- 
duction of  premature  labor ;  an  increased  fre- 
quency in  the  use  of  the  forceps,  and  a  less  fre- 
quent resort  to  craniotomy ;  and  the  substitu- 
tion of  version  in  cases  where  either  craniotomy 
or  the  long  forceps  were  formerly  employed. 

O'CALLAGHAJV,  Edmund  Bailey,  an  American 
author,  born  in  Mallow,  county  Cork,  Ireland, 
about  1804.  After  residing  two  years  in  Pa- 
ris, he  went  in  1823  to  Quebec,  where  he  was 
admitted  to  the  practice  of  medicine  in  1827. 
From  1834  to  1837  he  edited  the  "Montreal 
Vindicator,"  and  in  1836  he  was  a  member  of 
the  assembly  of  Lower  Canada.  He  removed 
to  New  York  in  1837,  received  the  honorary 
degree  of  M.  D.  from  the  university  of  St. 
Louis,  Mo.,  in  1846,  and  subsequently  that  of 
LL.  D.  from  St.  John's  college,  Fordham.  He 
was  keeper  of  the  historical  manuscripts  in 
the  office  of  the  secretary  of  state  at  Alba- 
ny from  1848  to  1870,  when  he  returned  to 
New  York.  During  his  residence  in  Albany  he 
translated  several  volumes  of  the  Dutch  rec- 
ords in  the  secretary  of  state's  office.  His 
principal  publications  are :  "  History  of  New 
Netherland"  (2  vols.  8vo,  1845-'8) ;  "Jesuit 
Relations  of  Discoveries  "  (1847)  ;  "  Docu- 
mentary History  of  New  York  "  (4  vols.  4to, 
1849-'51);  "Documents  relating  to  the  Co- 
lonial History  of  New  York"  (11  vols.  4to, 
1855-'61);  "  Commissary  Wilson's  Orderly 
Book"  (1857)  ;  "  Orderly  Book  of  Gen.  John 
Burgoyne"  (I860);  "Journals  of  the  Legis- 
lative Councils  of  New  York  "  (2  vols.),  and 
"  Origin  of  the  Legislative  Assemblies  of  the 
State  of  New  York"  (1861)  ;  "A  List  of  the 
Editions  of  the  Holy  Scriptures  and  parts 
thereof  printed  in' America  previous  to  1860" 
(1861);  "The  Register  of  New  Netherland, 
1626-'74;"  "Voyages  of  the  Slavers  St.  John 
and  Arms,"  and  "Voyage  of  George  Clarke 
to  America  "  (1867)  ;  "  Historical  Manuscripts 
relating  to  the  War  of  the  Revolution  "  (2  vols., 
1868) ;  "  Laws  and  Ordinances  of  New  Nether- 
land,  1638-74  "(1869). 

OCCAM,  or  Ockham,  William  of,  an  English 
scholastic  philosopher,  born  at  Occam  in  Sur- 
rey about  1270,  died  in  Munich,  April  7,  1347. 
He  was  of  humble  parentage,  was  educated  at 
Merton  college,  Oxford,  and  was  appointed  in 
1302  first  prebendary  of  Bedford,  and  in  1305 
of  Stowe.  On  the  controversy  between  Philip 
the  Fair  and  Boniface  VIII.  he  opposed  the 

Eretensions  of  the  pope.  In  1319  he  resigned 
is  livings  and  became  a  Franciscan  monk.  He 
was  sent  to  Paris  to  complete  his  studies  under 
Duns  Scotus,  his  old  master  at  Oxford,  whose 
most  formidable  adversary  he  afterward  be- 
came. Having  obtained  his  doctor's  degree, 
he  taught  theology  with  such  success  as  to  win 
the  appellation  of  "the  invincible  doctor,"  and 
subsequently  was  a  strenuous  adversary  of  the 


OCEAN 


571 


papal  claims  of  sovereignty  over  secular  prin- 
ces. In  1322,  in  the  general  Franciscan  chap- 
ter assembled  at  Perugia,  he  argued  against 
Pope  John  XXII.  that  Christian  priests  nei- 
ther individually  nor  in  community  should  be 
the  possessors  of  property.  His  manifesto, 
entitled  Disputatio  super  Potestate  Ecclesias- 
tica  Prcelatis  atque  Principibus  Terrarum 
commissa,  was  condemned  by  the  pope;  but, 
supported  by  Michael  of  Cesena,  general  of  his 
order,  he  continued  to  assail  the  practices  of 
the  holy  see.  In  the  same  year  he  was  ap- 
pointed provincial  of  the  Franciscans  in  Eng- 
land, and  while  there  advocated  his  anti-papal 
doctrines  with  still  greater  freedom.  Sum- 
moned with  his  disciples  in  1327  by  Pope  John 
XXII.  before  the  court  of  Avignon,  he  fled  to 
the  court  of  the  emperor  Louis  the  Bavarian, 
where  he  remained  till  his  death.  In  his  age 
he  was  the  champion  of  the  Franciscans  and 
the  nominalists  against  the  Dominicans  and 
the  realists.  His  philosophical  and  theological 
writings  are  :  Quodlibeta  Septem  (Paris,  1487; 
Strasburg,  1491) ;  Summa  totius  Logices,  or 
Tractates  Logices  in  tres  paries  dimsus  (Paris, 
1488;  Venice,  1591 ;  Oxford,  1675);  Quces- 
tiones  in  Libros  Physicorum  (Strasburg,  1491 
and  1506) ;  Qucestiones  et  Decisiones  in  quatuor 
Libros  Sententiarum  (Lyons,  1495) ;  Centilo- 
ffium  Theologicum  (Lyons,  1496) ;  Expositio 
Aurea  super  tota  Arte  Vetere  (Bologna,  1496)  ; 
Opus  nonaginta  Dierum  contra  Errores  Joan- 
nis  XXII  de  Utili  Dominio  Rerum  Ecclesiasti- 
carum  (Lyons,  1495  and  1496,  and  also  in  Gol- 
dast's  MonarcMa  Romani  Imperil,  3  vols.  fol., 
Hanover,  1611-'14)  ;  and  the  above  mentioned 
Disputatio  (Paris,  1598,  and  in  the  Monarchia). 

OCCOM,  Samson,  an  Indian  preacher,  born  at 
Mohegan,  New  London  co.,  Conn.,  about  1723, 
died  at  New  Stockbridge,  N.  Y.,  in  July,  1792. 
When  19  years  old  he  entered  the  Indian  school 
of  Mr.  Wheelock  at  Lebanon,  and  remained 
there  four  years.  In  1748  he  kept  a  school 
in  New  London,  but  shortly  after  removed  to 
Montauk,  Long  Island,  where  he  taught  and 
preached.  In  1766  Mr.  Wheelock  sent  him  to 
England  as  an  agent  for  Moor's  Indian  charity 
school.  Being  the  first  Indian  preacher  who 
had  visited  that  country,  he  attracted  large  au- 
diences and  obtained  gifts.  He  wrote  an  account 
of  the  Montauk  Indians,  still  in  manuscript. 

OCEAN,  the  great  body  of  salt  water  which 
surrounds  the  continents  and  covers  more  than 
three  fifths  of  the  whole  surface  of  the  globe. 
By  the  configuration  of  the  lands  which  rise 
above  its  surface,  it  is  partially  separated  into  g- 
number  of  divisions,  known  by  distinct  names, 
as  the  Atlantic,  Pacific,  Indian,  Arctic,  and 
Antarctic  oceans,  which  are  separately  treat- 
ed, the  last  two  in  the  article  POLAR  SEAS. 
The  Antarctic  is  divided  from  the  adjoining 
oceans,  not  by  intervening  bodies  of  land,  but 
by  the  imaginary  line  of  the  Antarctic  circle. 
The  nearly  landlocked  arms  of  the  ocean  are 
designated  as  seas,  bays,  and  gulfs.  All  these 
bodies  of  water  are  united  together  in  one 


572 


OCEAN 


great  system,  and  are  kept  of  nearly  uniform 
composition,  notwithstanding  numerous  local 
causes  of  change,  chiefly  by  means  of  great 
currents  which  circulate  through  them.  Some 
of  these  currents  are  of  vast  extent,  spread- 
ing over  a  large  part  of  the  oceans  to  which 
they  belong,  and  with  but  slight  variations 
they  move  without  cessation  in  the  great  sys- 
tem of  the  circulation  of  the  waters.  A  prin- 
cipal characteristic  of  the  water  of  the  ocean 
is  its  saltness.  This  is  owing  to  various  saline 
matters,  prominent  among  which  are  chlorides, 
chiefly  chloride  of  sodium  or  common  salt. 
There  are  several  sulphates,  carbonates,  iodides, 
and  bromides,  all  the  saline  matter  forming 

it  in  solution.  Prof.  Henry  Wurtz  suggested 
in  the  "  American  Journal  of  Mining"  in  1868 
that  gold  be  sought  for  in  sea  water,  and  Son- 
stadt  has  since  found  a  little  less  than  one  grain 
to  the  ton  of  water,  held  in  solution  by  iodide 
of  calcium.  Silver  deposited  on  the  old  cop- 
pering of  ships  has  been  extracted  in  quanti- 
ties sufficient  to  make  its  separation  profitable, 
and  it  has  been  computed  that  the  whole  ocean 
holds  in  solution  about  2,000,000  tons  of  silver. 
A  more  exact  analysis  will  be  given  in  the  ar- 
ticle WATER.  The  proportion  of  salt  varies 
in  different  places,  sometimes  exceeding  4  per 
cent.  It  is  large  where  the  water  is  deepest, 
but  does  not  increase  with  the  depth.  Though 
inland  seas  generally  contain  less  salt,  the  Med- 
iterranean contains  more  of  it  than  the  ocean 
itself;  the  specific  gravity  of  its  water  east  of 
the  straits  of  Gibraltar  has  been  found  to  be 
1-0338,  while  that  of  water  from  the  ocean 
west  of  the  straits  was  1-0294.  The  specific 
gravity  of  sea  water  near  the  equator  is  about 
1-0277.  Prof.  Forchhammer  of  the  university 
of  Copenhagen,  between  the  years  1840  and 
1864,  made  numerous  analyses  of  sea  water 
from  various  parts  of  the  globe,  and  embodied 
his  investigations  in  a  communication  which 
appeared  in  the  "  Philosophical  Transactions  " 
of  London  for  1865.  He  found  that  the  polar 
currents  contain  less  salt  than  the  equatorial, 
and  that  the  proportion  of  saline  matter  in  the 
Mediterranean  was  3-793  per  cent. ;  in  the  Ca- 
ribbean sea,  3-610 ;  and  in  the  Red  sea,  4-306. 
He  divided  the  whole  ocean  into  17  regions, 
from  each  of  which  he  made  numerous  analy- 
ses. The  saline  elements  of  the  water  may  be 
derived  from  geological  formations  consisting 
in  great  part  of  such  elements;  but  strata  of 
this  character  always  bear  evidence  of  being 
deposited  from  ancient  oceans,  so  that  this  de- 
rivation throws  no  light  upon  the  real  source 
of  the  salt.  In  different  parts  of  the  ocean 
various  substances  introduced  by  great  rivers 
modify  locally  the  composition  of  its  waters ; 
and  from  the  strata  beneath  the  sea  there  no 
doubt  emanate  mineral  springs,  such  as  appear 
upon  the  land.  Springs  of  fresh  water  are 
known  in  many  places  to  rise  up  through  the 
salt  water,  and  some  of  them  even  furnish  sup- 
plies to  vessels.  It  is  supposed  that  the  devel- 


opment of  animal  life,  particularly  the  forma- 
tion of  coral,  tends  to  preserve  the  equableness 
of  the  salinity  of  the  ocean,  and  also  its  purity. 
(See  CORAL.) — The  color  of  the  sea,  commonly 
described  as  bluish  green,  is  by  no  means  uni- 
form, and  the  causes  of  the  changes  of  its  hue 
have  until  recently  been  unexplained.  In  the 
tropics  it  is  at  one  time  an  indigo  blue,  then  a 
deep  green;  and  upon  some  coasts  a  reddish 
or  purplish  hue  is  observed.  The  cause  of  the 
color  is  now  regarded  as  depending  on  the  ac- 
tion of  suspended  particles  of  solid  matter  on 
the  light  which  traverses  the  water.  Light  on 
entering  the  water  is  refracted,  and  therefore 
more  or  less  resolved  into  its  primary  colors, 
especially  if  the  water  is  of  sufficient  depth. 
The  red,  orange,  and  yellow  rays  do  not  pene- 
trate the  water  to  so  great  a  depth  as  the  blue 
and  violet.  Now  the  presence  of  minute  solid 
particles  causes  some  of  the  light  after  enter- 
ing the  water  to  be  reflected,  and  the  color  of 
this  reflected  light  will  depend  upon  the  depth 
at  which  the  reflection  takes  place.  If  the 
particles  are  large  and  freely  reflect  from  a 
moderate  depth,  they  will  also  prevent  reflec- 
tion from  a  greater  depth,  so  that  the  rays 
coming  to  the  eye  of  the  observer  will  be 
green ;  but  if  the  particles  in  the  upper  strata 
are  minute  and  the  reflection  is  from  a  con- 
siderable depth,  the  color  will  be  more  nearly 
a  pure  blue.  The  subject  was  experimentally 
examined  by  Prof.  Tyndall  while  making  a 
voyage  in  a  steamer.  His  assistant  cast  a 
white  plate  attached  to  a  cord  into  the  water 
to  a  moderate  depth,  and  when  it  reached  the 
proper  point  of  observation  its  color  was 
green,  although  that  of  the  water  was  blue. 
The  phosphorescence  of  the  sea  is  another  of 
its  characteristics.  This  varies  under  different 
circumstances,  and  is  owing  to  the  presence  of 
myriads  of  invertebrate  animals,  some  of  which 
are  microscopic,  while  others  are  of  consid- 
erable size,  as  the  jelly  fishes.  In  the  fiords 
on  the  coast  of  Norway  the  crystal  clearness 
of  the  water  is  wonderful ;  at  the  depth  of  20 
or  25  fathoms  small  objects  may  be  discerned 
upon  the  sandy  bottom,  apparently  magnified 
by  the  water  itself. — The  depth  of  the  ocean 
is  very  uncertain,  and  has  been  greatly  over- 
rated. The  difficulties  of  deep-sea  soundings 
are  referred  to  in  the  article  ATLANTIC  OCEAN. 
With  reference  to  organic  life  at  various  depths, 
see  DREDGING  (DEEP-SEA).  The  extent  of  the 
surface  of  the  ocean  is  estimated  to  be  about 
146,000,000  sq.  m.,  or  nearly  three  fourths  of 
the  whole  earth's  surface. 

OCEAN,  an  E.  county  of  New  Jersey,  border- 
ing on  the  Atlantic,  and  drained  by  Metetecunk 
and  Toms  rivers  and  several  creeks ;  area,  about 
550  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  13,628.  A  sand 
beach  from  %  to  1  m.  wide  extends  along  the 
coast,  and  between  it  and  the  mainland  are  two 
lagoons,  Barnegat  bay  and  Little  Egg  Harbor 
inlet.  The  surface  is  level,  and  much  of  it 
covered  with  pine  forests ;  the  soil  is  light  and 
sandy.  Iron  is  found  and  manufactured  in 


OCEANA 

large  quantities  in  the  north.  It  is  intersected 
by  the  New  Jersey  Southern  railroad  and  the 
Toms  River  hranch,  and  the  Tuckerton  and 
Oamden  and  Amboy  railroads.  The  chief  pro- 
ductions in  1870  were  9,273  bushels  of  wheat, 
13,768  of  rye,  106,969  of  Indian  corn,  10,228 
of  oats,  52,719  of  Irish  and  8,760  of  sweet  po- 
tatoes, 75,926  Ibs.  of  butter,  and  7,348  tons  of 
hay.  There  were  982  horses,  1,755  milch 
cows,  1,348  other  cattle,  1,470  sheep,  and  2,387 
swine ;  4  manufactories  of  brick,  1  of  stone 
and  earthen  ware,  1  of  jute  bagging,  1  iron 
foundery,  5  flour  mills,  and  10  saw  mills. 
Capital,  Toms  River. 

OCEANA,  a  W.  county  of  Michigan,  on  Lake 
Michigan,  drained  by  White  and  Marquette 
rivers  and  other  streams ;  area,  780  sq.  m. ; 
pop.  in  1870,  7,222.  It  has  an  undulating  sur- 
face and  a  good  soil.  The  chief  productions  in 
1870  were  20,149  bushels  of  wheat,  40,397  of 
Indian  corn,  11,011  of  oats,  73,007  of  potatoes, 
and  2,369  tons  of  hay.  There  were  433  horses, 
663  milch  cows,  1,133  other  cattle,  526  sheep, 
and  1,603  swine.  Capital,  Hart. 

OCEANIA,  or  Oeeanica,  a  name  applied  by  geog- 
raphers to  a  fifth  division  of  the  globe,  com- 
prising Australia  and  almost  all  the  islands 
lying  between  the  Indian  ocean  and  the  China 
sea,  on  the  west,  and  the  American  continent, 
on  the  east.  It  is  subdivided  into  Malaysia, 
embracing  the  Sunda  islands,  Borneo,  Celebes, 
the  Moluccas,  and  the  Philippines ;  Australa- 
sia, embracing  Australia,  Papua,  New  Zealand, 
&c. ;  and  Polynesia,  embracing  all  the  islands 
N.  E.  and  E.  of  Malaysia  and  Australasia. 
Some  geographers  apply  the  name  Micronesia 
to  the  northern  division  of  Polynesia,  and 
Melanesia  to  the  northeastern  division  or  the 
whole  of  Australasia. 

OCEAMS,  in  ancient  mythology,  the  god  of  the 
water  (the  river  Oceanus)  which  was  believed 
to  encircle  the  earth.  According  to  Hesiod, 
he  was  the  son  of  Uranus  and  Gaea  (Heaven 
and  Earth),  and  was  the  eldest  of  the  Titans. 
He  was  said  to  have  3,000  daughters  by  Tethys 
(the  Oceanids),  and  as  many  sons. 

OCELLUS  LUCAMS,  a  Greek  Pythagorean  phi- 
losopher, born  in  Lucania  in  Italy,  and  supposed 
to  have  flourished  in  the  5th  century  B.  C. 
The  works  attributed  to  him  were  "  On  Law," 
"  On  Kingly  Rule  and  Piety,"  and  "  On  the 
Nature  of  the  Whole"  (of  Things).  In  the 
last,  which  is  the  only  one  that  has  come  down 
to  us,  it  is  argued  that  the  whole  (r6  nav  or 
6  /c<te/zof)  had  no  beginning,  and  will  have  no 
end.  Tennemann  pronounces  it  apocryphal. 
The  best  editions  are  by  A.  F.  W.  Rudolphi 
(Leipsic,  1801-'8),  and  Mullach  (Berlin,  1846). 
Ocellus  was  translated  into  English  by  Thomas 
Taylor  in  1831. 

OCELOT,  an  American  group  of  medium-sized 
cats,  of  slender  and  elegant  proportions,  with- 
out tufts  to  the  ears,  and  with  more  or  less 
elongated  and  connected  spots  diverging  in 
longitudinal  rows  backward  and  downward 
from  the  shoulders,  of  a  yellowish  color  bor- 


OCELOT 


573 


dered  with  black.  The  common  ocelot  (felis 
pardalis.  Linn.)  is  about  3  ft.  long  to  the  base 
of  the  tail,  the  latter  being  about  15  in.  addi- 
tional j  the  general  color  is  grayish,  with  large 


Common  Ocelot  (Felis  pardalis). 

fawn-colored,  black-bordered  spots,  forming 
oblique  bands  on  the  flanks ;  ears  black,  with  a 
white  spot  below  ;  chin  and  throat  white,  with 
a  black  bar  beneath  the  former  and  another 
under  the  neck  ;  two  black  lines  on  the  side  of 
the  forehead  and  two  behind  each  eye ;  under 
surface  white,  with  irregular  black  patches ; 
tail  above  black,  with  narrow  bands  of  white. 
Specimens  vary  much  in  their  markings,  in 
the  tinge  of  the  tawny  spots,  in  the  chain-like 
character  of  the  streaks,  and  in  the  spots  and 
blotches  on  the  legs.  It  is  found  in  Brazil 
and  Guiana,  and  in  Mexico  and  the  south- 
western United  States.  The  head  is  short,  the 
neck  long  and  thin,  the  body  slender,  tail  mod- 
erate, and  hair  soft  and  not  very  thick.  It  is 
called  leopard  and  tiger  cat  in  Texas  and  Mexi- 
co, is  rather  nocturnal  in  habit,  and  climbs 
trees  in  pursuit  of  small  animals  and  birds; 
though  active  and  muscular,  it  is  easily  tamed, 


Margay  (Felis  tigrina). 

and  is  gentle  and  playful  in  captivity,  unless 
fed  on  raw  meat  exclusively ;  it  is  very  grace- 
ful and  quick  in  its  movements,  and  when  pur- 
sued takes  to  a  tree ;  it  is  seldom  seen  on  the 


574 


OCHRA 


O'CONNELL 


open  plains,  preferring  woods  and  thickets. 
From  its  smallness,  it  is  little  to  be  feared  by 
the  herdsman;  but  from  the  beauty  and  value 
of  the  skin,  it  is  always  killed  when  an  oppor- 
tunity occurs.  In  the  linked  ocelot  (F.  catena- 
ta,  H.  Smith),  by  many  considered  a  mere  vari- 
ety of  the  last,  the  markings  are  more  length- 
ened, the  ground  color  more  reddish,  and  the 
body  and  limbs  stouter.  The  long-tailed  ocelot 
(F.  macroura,  Neuwied)  is  often  grayish  tawny 
yellow,  paler  below,  with  irregular  unenclosed 
longitudinal  markings  on  the  body ;  of  a  total 
length  of  44  in.,  the  tail  forms  about  19,  and  is 
semi-annulated,  black  at  the  tip.  Another  al- 
lied species,  inhabiting,  like  all  the  above,  South 
America,  is  the  margay  (F.  tigrina,  Linn.) ;  it 
is  18  in.  long,  with  a  tail  of  8  in.;  the  color  is 
tawny  yellow,  with  black  lines  and  bands  upon 
the  head,  neck,  and  throat ;  the  open  spots  of 
the  body  enclose  a  reddish  centre,  and  are  sur- 
rounded by  a  black  line  ;  the  limbs  are  spotted 
and  the  tail  ringed  with  black. 

OCHRA.     See  OKEA. 

OCHRE,  earthy  oxide  of  iron  employed  with 
oil  as  a  paint.  When  obtained  as  a  native 
product  it  is  intermixed  with  argillaceous  or 
calcareous  earth ;  and  it  is  also  prepared  by  the 
decomposition  and  oxidation  of  pyritous  ores. 
Deposits  of  it  are  produced  about  springs  that 
flow  from  rocky  beds  which  contain  decom- 
posed iron  pyrites.  The  color  of  the  material 
varies  with  the  degree  of  oxidation  of  the  iron, 
and  may  be  changed  by  heat  from  yellow  to 
brown  and  red.  The  earthy  matters  present 
also  affect  its  color,  and  these  may  be  partial- 
ly or  wholly  removed  by  washing,  the  heavy 
sediments  remaining  behind.  For  the  finer 
varieties  of  ochre  these  sediments  are  ground 
in  mills.  Ochres  are  sold  under  a  variety  of 
names.  The  coarser  sorts  are  sometimes  known 
as  stone  ochres.  A  kind  from  the  Persian  gulf 
is  called  Indian  red.  There  are  also  the  Span- 
ish brown,  a  yellow  variety  known  as  the 
French  ochre,  the  Oxford  and  Roman  ochres 
of  brownish  yellow  colors,  and  others  distin- 
guished merely  by  the  names  of  their  colors. 
Dr.  Thomson  says  the  term  ochre  is  applied  to 
native  oxides  of  cerium,  molybdenum,  lead, 
tungsten,  chromium,  and  uranium. 

OCKLEY,  Simon,  an  English  orientalist,  born 
in  Exeter  in  1678,  died  at  Swavesey,  Cam- 
bridgeshire, Aug.  9,  1720.  He  was  educated 
at  Queen's  college,  Cambridge,  and  became 
vicar  of  Swavesey  in  1705  and  professor  of 
Arabic  at  Cambridge  in  1711.  His  principal 
work,  compiled  from  Arabic  manuscripts  in 
the  Bodleian  library,  is  a  "  History  of  the 
Saracens  "(2  vols.  8vo,  1708-'18).  He  dates 
the  second  volume  from  Cambridge  castle, 
where  he  was  imprisoned  for  debt.  His  other 
works  include  Introductio  ad  Linguas  Orien- 
tales  (1706)  and  a  new  translation  from  the 
Arabic  version  of  the  second  "  Apocryphal 
Book  of  Esdras  "  (1716). 

OCMULGEE,  a  river  of  Georgia,  about  200  m. 
long,  formed  by  three  branches,  the  South, 


Yellow,  and  Ulcofauhachee,  which  rise  in  the 
N.  part  of  the  state  and  unite  at  the  S.  corner 
of  Newton  co.  It  flows  in  a  S.  S.  E.  direction 
till  toward  its  termination,  when  it  sweeps 
round  in  a  curve  to  the  N.  N.  E.,  and  joins  the 
Oconee  at  the  S.  extremity  of  Montgomery  co., 
where  the  two  form  the  Altamaha.  It  receives 
the  Little  Ocmulgee,  its  principal  tributary, 
about  10  m.  from  its  mouth.  It  is  navigable  for 
steamboats  of  light  draught  to  Macon,  where 
there  is  a  fall  affording  great  water  power. 

OCONEE,  the  N.  W.  county  of  South  Carolina, 
bounded  1ST.  by  North  Carolina,  E.  by  the  Keo- 
wee  river,  and  separated  from  Georgia  on  the 
west  by  the  Chattooga  and  Tugaloo  rivers; 
area,  about  550  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  10,536, 
of  whom  2,422  were  colored.  The  N.  part  is 
hilly  and  mountainous ;  the  rest  is  rolling  and 
undulating.  The  soil  of  the  valleys  is  fertile. 
The  Blue  Ridge  railroad  terminates  at  Wal- 
halla,  and  the  Atlanta  and  Richmond  Air  Line 
railroad  crosses  the  county.  The  chief  pro- 
ductions in  1870  were  10,533  bushels  of  wheat, 
138,903  of  Indian  corn,  8,950  of  sweet  potatoes, 
810  bales  of  cotton,  8,029  Ibs.  of  wool,  and 
23,660  of  rice.  There  were  818  horses,  1,578 
milch  cows,  3,270  other  cattle,  4,858  sheep, 
and  6,502  swine.  Capital,  Walhalla. 

OCONEE,  a  river  of  Georgia,  which  rises  in 
Hall  co.,  in  the  N".  E.  part  of  the  state,  and 
flows  in  a  S.  S.  E.  direction  until  its  junction 
with  the  Ocmulgee  to  form  the  Altamaha.  Its 
total  length  is  about  250  m.,  and  it  is  navigable 
to  Milledgeville,  100  m.  above  its  mouth. 

O'CONNELL,  Daniel,  an  Irish  statesman,  born  at 
Carhen,  near  Cahirciveen,  county  Kerry,  Aug. 
6, 1775,  died  in  Genoa,  May  15, 1847.  He  was 
the  eldest  son  of  Morgan  O'Connell,  a  Catholic 
gentleman.  At  the  age  of  13  Daniel  was  sent 
to  a  school  at  Redington,  Long  Island,  near 
Cove,  or  Queenstown  as  it  is  now  called.  Here 
he  remained  about  a  year,  and  in  1791  he  was 
sent  to  the  Jesuits'  college  of  St.  Omer  in 
France,  where  he  first  gave  indication  of  talent. 
In  the  following  year  he  spent  a  short  time  at 
the  English  college  in  Douai ;  but  on  the  out- 
break of  the  reign  of  terror  he  returned  home. 
He  was  called  to  the  bar  in  1798,  and  soon 
became  distinguished  as  a  brilliant  and  suc- 
cessful advocate.  .He  had  no  sympathy  with 
the  violent  revolutionary  spirit  of  the  period, 
which  in  fact  throughout  his  life  he  opposed, 
in  accordance  with  his  well  known  saying  that 
"he  would  accept  of  no  social  amelioration  at 
the  cost  of  a  single  drop  of  blood."  His  first 
political  speech  was  made  at  Dublin,  Jan.  13, 
1800,  at  a  meeting  of  Catholics  to  petition 
against  the  proposed  legislative  union  between 
Great  Britain  and  Ireland ;  the  meeting  was 
broken  up  by  the  military.  From  this  period 
dates  his  career  as  a  public  agitator.  In  a  few 
years  he  was  in  good  practice  and  had  gained 
a  high  reputation  as  a  barrister.  He  then  be- 
came gradually  absorbed  in  politics,  and  was 
soon  the  acknowledged  leader  of  political  re- 
form in  Ireland.  He  devoted  himself  with 


O'CONNELL 

surprising  force  and  energy  to  the  question  of 
the  claims  of  the  Roman  Catholics  of  Ireland 
to  political  equality  with  Protestants.  In  1815 
O'Connell,  having  in?  one  of  his  speeches  ap- 
plied the  term  "  beggarly  "  to  the  corporation 
of  Dublin,  was  challenged  by  Mr.  D'Esterre,  a 
member  of  the  city  government.  A  duel  en- 
sued, and  D'Esterre  received  a  wound  of  which 
he  died.  For  this  event  O'Connell  always  ex- 
pressed the  deepest  sorrow,  and  he  never  again 
accepted  or  offered  a  challenge.  In  1828  the 
agitation  of  the  Catholic  emancipation  bill 
reached  its  greatest  height  under  the  direc- 
tion of  the  Catholic  association.  In  June  of 
that  year  O'Connell  was  elected  to  parliament 
from  the  county  Clare  by  a  large  majority. 
On  proceeding  to  take  his  seat,  he  refused  as 
a  Roman  Catholic  to  take  the  test  oaths  which 
had  been  framed  for  the  express  purpose  of 
excluding  those  who  held  his  faith.  His  firm 
attitude  on  this  point  commanded  general  at- 
tention, and  led  to  protracted  and  animated 
discussions  both  in  parliament  and  before  the 
people.  The  agitation  in  Ireland,  under  his 
guidance,  rose  to  such  a  height  that  at  length 
the  great  leaders  of  the  conservative  party,  Sir 
Bobert  Peel  and  the  duke  of  Wellington,  re- 
solved to  concede  emancipation  to  the  Catholics. 
Parliament  met  Feb.  6,  1829 ;  the  speech  from 
the  throne  recommended  a  final,  equitable,  and 
satisfactory  adjustment  of  the  Catholic  claims; 
in  the  course  of  the  session  the  last  of  the  civil 
disabilities  to  which  the  Catholics  had  been  so 
long  subject  were  repealed ;  and  in  May  O'Con- 
nell took  his  seat.  In  1830  he  declined  the 
representation  for  Clare,  and  was  elected  for 
Kerry.  He  represented  Dublin  from  1832  to 
June,  1835,  and  again  in  1837.  In  the  latter 
part  of  1835  he  was  elected  for  Kilkenny,  and 
in  1841  for  the  county  Cork,  and  in  the  same 
year  lord  mayor  of  Dublin.  He  proclaimed 
that  a  repeal  of  the  legislative  union  between 
Great  Britain  and  Ireland  was  the  only  means 
of  obtaining  justice  for  the  latter  kingdom. 
To  compensate  him  for  the  loss  of  his  income 
as  a  lawyer,  and  to  reward  his  public  services, 
an  annual  subscription  was  organized  among 
the  Irish  people,  under  the  denomination  of 
"rent,"  and  paid  to  O'Connell.  In  1842  and 
1843  immense  gatherings,  or  monster  meetings 
as  they  were  called,  were  held  by  the  repealers 
on  the  royal  hill  of  Tara,  the  Curragh  of  Kil- 
dare,  the  Rath  of  Mullaghmast,  and  other  his- 
torical places.  Some  of  these  assemblages  were 
estimated  at  500,000  persons.  The  liberator,  as 
O'Connell  was  now  familiarly  called,  appeared 
at  them,  making  the  most  exciting  speeches, 
but  taking  extreme  care  in  action  to  keep  his 
followers  within  the  bounds  of  law.  At  length 
he  called  a  monster  meeting  at  Clontarf  near 
Dublin  on  Sunday,  Oct.  8,  1843  ;  and  the  prep- 
arations for  it,  including  a  body  of  "repeal 
cavalry,"  had  such  a  military  air  that  the  gov- 
ernment thought  it  time  to  interfere.  On  Oct. 
7  a  proclamation  was  issued  declaring  the  pub- 
lic peace  endangered  by  these  meetings,  and 
614  VOL.  xii. — 37 


O'CONNOR 


575 


warning  all  persons  to  keep  away  from  Clon- 
tarf. O'Connell  countermanded  the  meeting, 
and  the  people  generally  stayed  away.  On 
Oct.  14  he  was  arrested  by  order  of  the  gov- 
ernment, together  with  his  son  and  eight  of 
his  coadjutors,  on  charges  of  conspiracy,  se- 
dition, and  unlawful  assembling.  They  were 
tried  and  found  guilty.  O'Connell  was  sen- 
tenced to  imprisonment  for  twelve  months  and 
to  pay  a  fine  of  £2,000,  and  was  bound  over 
to  keep  the  peace  for  seven  years.  An  appeal 
was  made  to  the  house  of  lords,  and  the  de- 
cision of  the  Irish  judges  was  reversed.  This 
trial  gave  a  death-blow  to  the  repeal  move- 
ment. For  a  while  the  monster  meetings  con- 
tinued, but  very  soon  dissensions  broke  out 
between  O'Connell  and  some  of  his  associates 
belonging  to  the  party  of  "Young  Ireland," 
who  scoffed  at  his  renunciation  of  physical 
force  in  seeking  political  reforms.  He  grew 
anxious  and  feeble  and  at  length  ill,  and  had  to 
abandon  political  agitation  altogther,  to  which 
indeed  the  famine  now  creeping  over  Ireland 
put  a  sudden  stop.  At  length  his  physicians 
directed  that  newspapers  should  be  kept  from 
him,  and  no  one  admitted  to  his  presence  who 
would  speak  of  Ireland.  Early  in  1847  he 
set  out  on  a  pilgrimage  to  Rome,  hoping  to 
die  there  with  the  blessing  of  the  pope ;  but 
he  sank  too  rapidly,  and  died  on  the  way  at 
Genoa.  His  heart  was  embalmed  and  carried 
to  Rome,  and  his  body  taken  back  to  Ire- 
land.— See  the  "Life  and  Speeches  of  Dan- 
iel O'Connell,"  by  his  son  John  O'Connell, 
M.  P.  (2  vols.,  London,  1846),  and  "  The  Lib- 
erator, his  Life  and  Times,"  by  L.  F.  Cusack 
(London,  1872). 

O'COMOR,  Arthur,  a  leader  in  the  Irish  re- 
bellion of  1798,  born  in  1763,  died  near  Ne- 
mours, France,  April  25,  1852.  He  was  ad- 
mitted to  the  bar  in  1788,  became  a  member 
of  the  Irish  parliament,  and  made  a  speech  in 
favor  of  Catholic  emancipation,  which  so  of- 
fended his  uncle,  Lord  Longueville,  that  he  dis- 
inherited him.  Joining  the  United  Irishmen, 
he  became  one  of  their  directory  of  five.  He 
was  twice  arrested,  and  once  tried  for  high 
treason,  but  was  acquitted.  He  took  up  his 
residence  in  France,  and  in  1 804  was  created 
by  Napoleon  lieutenant  general,  and  subse- 
quently general  of  division.  In  1807  he  mar- 
ried the  daughter  of  the  philosopher  Condor- 
cet,  whose  works  he  is  said  to  have  edited. 
He  published  "Letters  to  the  Earl  of  Carlisle, 
in  reply  to  Earl  Fitz William's  two  Letters  on 
the  State  of  Ireland  "  (1795)  ;  "  Letters  to  Earl 
Camden  "  (1798) ;  "  The  Present  State  of  Great 
Britain"  (1804);  and  a  volume  against  the 
Bourbons  and  monarchy  in  general  (1830). 

0'COMOR,  Feargus  Edward,  a  British  agitator, 
born  at  Dangan  Castle,  county  Meath,  Ireland, 
in  1796,  died  at  Netting  Hill,  near  London, 
Aug.  30, 1855.  He  was  returned  to  parliament 
for  the  county  of  Cork  in  1832,  but  on  his  re- 
election in  1835  he  was  unseated  as  disqualified. 
He  then  joined  in  the  agitation  for  the  rights 


576 


O'CONNOR 


OCTOPUS 


of  the  lower  classes,  made  many  public  ad- 
dresses, edited  the  "  Northern  Star,"  and  was 
regarded  as  the  head  of  the  chartist  party, 
which  returned  him  to  parliament  for  Notting- 
ham in  1847.  On  the  failure  of  his  efforts,  he 
visited  America,  but  became  insane  in  1852, 
and  spent  the  rest  of  his  life  in  an  asylum. 

O'COMOR,  William  Douglas,  an  American  au- 
thor, born  in  Boston,  Mass.,  in  1833.  He 
studied  art  for  several  years  in  Boston,  but  in 

1853  became  associate  editor  of  the    "Com- 
monwealth "  newspaper  in  that  city.     From 

1854  to  1860  he  was  connected  editorially  with 
the  "Saturday  Evening  Post"  in  Philadelphia. 
In  1861  he  became  corresponding  clerk  of  the 
lighthouse  board  at  Washington,  and  in  1873 
was  appointed  chief  clerk.     He  resigned  this 
post  in  1874,  and  became  librarian  of  the  trea- 
sury department.     He  has  published    "  Har- 
rington,"   a  romance  (Boston,  I860);  "The 
Good  Gray  Poet,"  a  pamphlet  in  vindication 
of  Walt  Whitman  (New  York,    1866);    and 
"  The  Ghost "  (New  York,   1867) ;    besides 
numerous  poems  and  stories  contributed  to 
magazines,  the  most  noted  of  the  latter  being 
"  The  Carpenter  "  and  "  What  Cheer?  " 

O'CONOR,  Charles,  an  American  lawyer,  born 
in  New  York  in  1804.  Shortly  before  his  birth 
his  father  emigrated  from  Ireland,  and  soon 
after  his  arrival  lost  a  handsome  property  which 
he  had  inherited.  This  prevented  the  son  from 
receiving  a  liberal  education ;  but  he  learned 
at  school  the  primary  English  branches,  and 
received  some  instruction  in  Latin  from  his 
father,  who  also  procured  for  him  lessons  in 
French.  He  studied  law,  and  in  1824  was  ad- 
mitted to  the  bar.  His  first  reported  argument 
is  in  the  case  of  Divver  v.  McLaughlan,  in  the 
supreme  court  in  1829.  His  chief  cases  are 
the  slave  Jack  case  (1835),  the  Lispenard  will 
case  (1843),  the  Forrest  divorce  case  (1851),  the 
Mason  will  case  (1853),  the  Lemmon  slave  case 
(1856),  the  Parish  will  case  (1862),  and  the 
litigation  concerning  the  Jumel  estate ;  and  he 
has  been  employed  in  many  other  important 
cases,  some  of  which  involved  sums  varying 
from  $100,000  to  millions.  He  was  prominent 
in  prosecuting  the  so-called  "  ring  "  cases  against 
the  late  municipal  officers  of  New  York  in  1873. 
A  zealous  democrat,  he  has  been  repeatedly 
urged  by  his  party  to  accept  nominations  to 
the  highest  offices,  but  refused.  He  consented 
to  serve  for  15  months  as  United  States  district 
attorney  for  New  York  under  President  Pierce, 
and  was  a  member  of  the  New  York  state  con- 
stitutional conventions  of  1846  and  1864.  He 
was  nominated  for  the  presidency  by  the  labor 
reform  convention  in  Philadelphia,  Aug.  22, 
1872,  and  by  the  so-called  straight-out  demo- 
crats in  Louisville,  Ky.,  Sept.  3.  He  declined 
both  nominations,  but  in  the  subsequent  presi- 
dential election  received  29,489  votes. 

OCONTO,  a  N.  E.  county  of  Wisconsin,  bound- 
ed N.  E.  by  Michigan,  from  which  it  is  separa- 
ted mostly  by  the  Menominee  river,  and  S.  E. 
by  Green  bay ;  area,  2,268  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870, 


8,321.  It  is  drained  by  the  Oconto,  Peshtego, 
Wolf,  and  other  rivers,  and  is  covered  with 
pine  forests.  It  is  intersected  by  the  Wiscon- 
sin division  of  the  Chicago  and  Northwestern 
railroad.  The  chief  productions  in  1870  were 
22,113  bushels  of  wheat,  25,481  of  oats,  36,300 
of  potatoes,  46,300  Ibs.  of  butter,  and  3,566 
tons  of  hay.  There  were  352  horses,  522  milch 
cows,  746  other  cattle,  274  sheep,  and  729 
swine.  Capital,  Oconto. 

OCOSINGO,  a  town  in  the  Mexican  state  of 
Chiapas,  65  m.  S.  E.  of  Ciudad  Keal;  pop. 
about  4,000.  It  derives  its  principal  interest 
from  a  series  of  extraordinary  aboriginal  monu- 
ments in  its  vicinity,  which  closely  resemble 
those  of  Palenque.  They  have  been  in  part 
described  by  Mr.  Stephens  in  his  "Incidents 
of  Travel  in  Central  America,"  and  by  Capt. 
Dupaix  in  his  report  to  the  Spanish  crown  on 
the  antiquities  of  Mexico. 

OCTAVIA,  sister  of  the  emperor  Augustus  and 
wife  of  Mark  Antony,  died  in  11  B.  0.  She 
was  married  to  Claudius  Marcellus,  from  whom 
Julius  Caesar  was  anxious  to  have  her  divorced, 
that  she  might  marry  Pompey;  but  the  lat- 
ter declined,  and  she  continued  to  live  quietly 
with  her  husband  until  his  death  in  41  B.  0. 
The  alliance  between  Octavius  and  Antony  was 
now  strengthened  by  the  marriage  of  Octavia 
to  the  latter.  She  accompanied  her  husband 
on  his  eastern  expedition,  and  by  her  media- 
tion effected  a  reconciliation  between  him 
and  her  brother  in  37.  Antony,  now  underta- 
king an  expedition  against  the  Parthians,  fell 
again  under  the  influence  of  Cleopatra;  and 
when  in  35  Octavia  went  to  the  East  with 
reinforcements  of  men  and  money,  he  accept- 
ed the  aid,  but  refused  to  meet  her.  On  her 
arrival  home  she  would  not  take  any  part 
against  her  husband,  but  remained  at  his  house 
and  educated  his  children ;  yet  in  32  Antony 
sent  her  a  bill  of  divorce.  After  his  death  she 
brought  up  his  children  by  Fulvia,  and  even 
those  by  Cleopatra.  Octavia  had  five  children, 
three  by  Marcellus  and  two  daughters  by  An- 
tony ;  from  the  two  latter  were  descended  the 
emperors  Caligula,  Claudius,  and  Nero.  She 
was  possessed  of  great  accomplishments,  and 
was  universally  considered  the  superior  of 
Cleopatra  in  beauty. 

OCTAVIUS.    See  AUGUSTUS. 

OCTOBER  (Lat.  octo,  eight),  the  tenth  month 
of  the  year.  In  the  Roman  calendar  it  was 
originally  the  eighth,  whence  its  name,  which 
it  retained  after  the  beginning  of  the  year  had 
been  changed  from  March  to  January.  It  was 
sacred  to  Mars. 

OCTOPUS,  or  Poulpe,  a  cephalopod  mollusk, 
having  a  round  purse-like  body,  without  fins, 
and  eight  arms  united  at  the  base  by  a  web, 
by  opening  and  shutting  which  it  swims  back- 
ward, after  the  manner  of  the  jelly  fishes. 
Each  arm  has  a  double  alternate  series  of  suck- 
ers, by  which  they  seize  their  prey,  and  moor 
themselves  to  submarine  objects.  Swimming 
is  also  effected,  backward,  forward,  or  side- 


OCTOPUS 


577 


wise,  by  jets  from  the  siphon,  which  may  be 
turned  in  any  direction ;  they  can  also  crawl, 
looking  like  tipsy  spiders,  on  their  long  flexible 
arms,  in  the  manner  shown  in  the  third  engra- 
ving. They  are  solitary,  active,  and  voracious, 
seeking  their  food  chiefly  at  night.  They  are 


Common  Poulpe  (Octopus  vulgaris). 

the  polypi  of  Homer  and  Aristotle.  There  are 
more  than  40  species  of  octopods,  found  princi- 
pally in  the  temperate  and  tropical  seas,  though 
some  are  met  with  in  cold  waters ;  they  vary 
in  size  from  an  inch  to  5  ft.  in  length  of  body, 
the  arms  being  as  much  more.  The  common 
poulpe  (0.  vulgaris),  of  the  European  seas,  has 
the  body  about  as  large  as  the  clenched  fist, 
with  the  arms  expanding  3  or  4  ft.  The  0. 
tuberculatm  of  the  Mediterranean  has  a  rough 
body  about  5  in.  long,  and  the  arms  20  to  24 
in. ;  it  is  often  exposed  for  sale  in  the  markets 


Octopus  tuberculatuB. 

of  Naples  and  Smyrna.  Species  of  the  same 
size  abound  in  the  Pacific,  and  are  eaten  in  the 
Hawaiian  and  other  islands,  and  in  the  East 
Indies.  In  tropical  America  they  grow  very 
large;  one  was  found  dead  on  the  beach  at 
Nassau,  Bahamas,  10  ft.  long,  each  arm  mea- 


suring more  than  5  ft.,  and  estimated  to  weigh 
about  250  Ibs. ;  and  they  are  believed  to  exist 
there  even  larger  than  this.  In  cold  waters 
they  are  small  and  not  to  be  feared  by  man ;  but 
in  the  tropics,  as  on  the  coast  of  Brazil,  the 
large  species  are  very  powerful  and  dangerous. 


An  Octopus  crawling. 

The  common  poulpe  of  the  French  coast  has 
given  rise  to  the  mythical  "  devil  fish  "  intro- 
duced by  Victor  Hugo  in  the  "  Toilers  of  the 
Sea."  The  novelist  has  mixed  up  a  polyp  and  a 
poulpe,  misled  by  the  name  given  by  Aristotle, 
and  thus  manufactured  an  impossible  creature. 
The  kraken  of  the  Scandinavian  nations  is  a 
mythical  immense  octopod,  for  which  the  re- 
cent discovery  of  a  gigantic  cephalopod  on  the 
coast  of  Newfoundland  seems  to  afford  a  foun- 
dation in  truth.  (See  SQUID.)  The  genus  eledone 
differs  from  octopus  chiefly  in  having  only  a 
single  series  of  suckers  on  each  arm.  All  the 
species  have  an  ink  bag,  by  the  contents  of 
which  the  surrounding  water  is  discolored,  en- 
abling them  to  escape  their  cetacean  and  other 
enemies.  For  details  of  structure,  see  CEPHA- 
LOPODA.— The  only  species  known  on  the  Amer- 


Octopus  Bairdii  (life  size). 

ican  coast,  north  of  Cape  Hatteras,  is  the  one 
discovered  in  1872  in  the  deep  waters  of  the 
bay  of  Fundy  by  Prof.  Verrill,  and  named  by 
him  octopus  Bairdii;  several,  all  males,  were 
dredged  during  that  summer  in  75  to  200  fath- 
oms, on  shelly,  muddy,  and  sandy  bottoms* 


578 


O'CURRY 


ODD  FELLOWS 


The  largest  had  a  body  2  in.  long  and  1£  in. 
wide,  with  arms  2£  in.  long;  the  color  pale 
bluish  white,  translucent,  with  specks  of  light 
and  dark  brown.  The  body  was  short  and 
thick,  dotted  with  erectile  tubercles,  broadly 
rounded  posteriorly ;  head  almost  as  broad  as 
body,  swollen  and  rough  about  the  eyes ;  arms 
of  about  equal  length,  relatively  short,  stout, 
and  tapering,  and  webbed  for  the  basal  third. 
Each  arm  had  two  rows  of  60  to  65  acetabula 
or  suckers ;  the  right  arm  of  the  third  pair,  for 
about  a  third  of  its  length,  was  modified  into 
a  large  spoon-shaped  organ  for  reproduction, 
evidently  not  to  be  detached  from  the  animal, 
as  in  many  male  cephalopoda.  The  females,  in 
this  class  generally  by  far  the  more  numerous, 
were  not  seen,  but  were  probably  considerably 
larger  than  the  males.  Several  were  kept  in 
confinement  in  tanks,  and  were  most  active  at 
night.  It  was  seen  that  when  they  were  swim- 
ming by  the  basal  web  and  the  siphon,  after 
each  contraction  of  these  parts  and  daring  the 
motion  backward,  the  arms  wer.e  held  straight 
forward  in  a  compact  bundle  ;  the  only  way  in 
which  they  could  swim  forward  seemed  to  be 
by  ejecting  jets  of  water  from  the  siphon  curved 
backward.  The  southern  American  species  are 
very  much  larger,  and  very  different. 

O'CCRRY,  Eugene,  an  Irish  archaeologist,  born 
at  Dunaha,  near  Oarrigaholt,  county  Clare,  in 
1796,  died  in  Dublin,  July  30,  1862.  He  was 
an  assistant  in  the  antiquarian  department  of 
the  government  ordnance  survey  of  Ireland 
from  1834  to  1841,  when  he  was  employed  by 
the  royal  Irish  academy  and  by  Trinity  college, 
Dublin,  in  transcribing  and  cataloguing  their 
Gaelic  MSS.  He  also  rendered  valuable  assis- 
tance in  the  publication  of  the  Irish  archaeolo- 
gical society,  and  was  a  member  of  the  council 
of  the  Celtic  society.  In  1853  he  was  engaged 
with  Dr.  O'Donovan,  under  the  Brehon  law 
commission,  to  transcribe  and  translate  ancient 
laws  from  originals  in  Trinity  college  and  the 
British  museum ;  these  he  had  himself  in  great 
part  discovered,  and  he  was  the  first  modern 
scholar  able  to  decipher  and  explain  them. 
(See  BREHON  LAWS.)  In  1854,  on  the  estab- 
lishment of  the  Roman  Catholic  university  in 
Dublin,  he  was  appointed  to  the  chair  of  Irish 
history  and  archaeology.  He  translated  "  Bat- 
tle of  the  Magh  Leana,  together  with  the  Court- 
ship of  Mornera  "  (Dublin,  1855),  and  published 
his  "Lectures  on  the  Manuscript  Materials  of 
Ancient  Irish  History  (1861). 

CD.     See  REIOHENBACH,  KARL. 

ODD  FELLOWS,  Independent  Order  of,  a  secret 
charitable  society,  existing  chiefly  in  Great 
Britain  and  the  United  States.  I.  MANCHESTER 
UNITY.  From  societies  of  mechanics  and  la- 
borers which  existed  in  London  in  the  latter 
part  of  the  18th  century,  calling  themselves 
"  Ancient  and  Honorable  Loyal  Odd  Fellows," 
and  holding  convivial  meetings,  sprang  the 
"Union  Order  of  Odd  Fellows,"  which  had 
its  seat  of  government  in  London  and  spread 
rapidly  to  other  English  cities.  From  attempts 


to  abolish  its  convivial  character  arose  a  schism 
which  culminated  in  1813,  when  several  se- 
ceding lodges  formed  the  Manchester  unity. 
In  1825  a  central  standing  committee  was  es- 
tablished in  Manchester  to  govern  the  order  in 
the  interim  between  the  sessions  of  the  grand 
lodge  or  national  movable  committee,  as  it  is 
termed,  and  the  Manchester  unity  still  consti- 
tutes the  main  body  of  British  odd  fellows.  It 
numbers  about  500,000  members.  II.  AMERI- 
CAN. Thomas  Wildey  and  four  others  organ- 
ized Washington  lodge  No.  1,  in  Baltimore, 
Md.,  April  26,  1819,  to  work  according  to  the 
usages  of  the  London  or  union  order.  A  lodge 
was  organized  in  Boston,  Mass.,  March  26, 
1820,  and  one  in  Philadelphia,  Dec.  26,  1821, 
both  of  which  received  grand  charters  from 
Baltimore  in  June,  1823.  At  the  same  time  a 
grand  charter  was  granted  to  the  past  grands 
in  New  York.  Since  then  the  order  has  been 
established  in  every  state  and  territory  of  the* 
Union.  There  were  in  the  United  States  and 
Canada  at  the  date  of  the  last  report  48  grand 
lodges,  36  grand  encampments,  5,486  subordi- 
nate lodges,  1,512  subordinate  encampments, 
and  512  Rebekah  degree  lodges.  Candidates 
for  admission  to  the  order  must  be  free  white 
males  of  good  moral  character,  21  years  of  age 
or  over,  who  believe  in  a  Supreme  Being,  the 
creator  and  preserver  of  the  universe.  Fidel- 
ity not  only  to  the  laws  and  obligations  of  the 
order,  but  to  the  laws  of  God,  the  laws  of 
the  land,  and  all  the  duties  of  citizenship,  is 
strictly  enjoined;  but  the  order  is  a  moral, 
not  a  religious  organization.  Its  secrecy  con- 
sists solely  in  the  possession  of  an  unwritten 
and  unspoken  language,  intelligible  only  to  its 
members,  which  serves  simply  for  mutual  rec- 
ognition. Five  or  more  members  may  con- 
stitute a  subordinate  lodge,  whose  functions 
are  chiefly  administrative ;  it  provides  the 
means  to  meet  the  claims  of  its  sick  and  dis- 
tressed members,  to  bury  the  dead,  to  relieve 
the  widow,  and  to  educate  the  orphan.  The 
by-laws  constitute  the  legal  contract  between 
the  initiate  and  the  lodge.  To  the  lodge  be- 
long a  series  of  degrees,  known  as  the  initia- 
tory, white,  pink,  blue,  green,  and  scarlet,  rep- 
resenting a  code  of  moral  lessons.  In  1851 
the  degree  of  Rebekah  was  adopted  by  the 
grand  lodge  of  the  United  States,  for  the  use 
of  ladies  legally  connected  with  subordinate 
lodges  by  male  membership.  The  lodge  is  of- 
ficered by  a  noble  grand,  vice  grand,  secretary, 
and  treasurer,  elected  semi-annually.  The 
grand  lodge  consists  of  the  past  grands  of  its 
subordinate  lodges  in  good  standing,  or  it  may 
be  made  a  representative  body.  It  is  officered 
by  a  grand  master,  deputy  grand  master,  grand 
warden,  grand  secretary,  and  grand  treasurer, 
elected  annually.  Subordinate  encampments 
are  composed  of  scarlet-degree  members  in 
good  standing  in  subordinate  lodges.  The 
beneficial  feature  of  the  order  is  optional  with 
them.  They  have  the  exclusive  right  to  con- 
fer the  patriarchal,  golden  rule,  and  royal  pur- 


ODENSE 


ODESCALOHI 


579 


pie  degrees,  and  are  officered  by  a  chief  patri- 
arch, high  priest,  senior  warden,  scribe,  trea- 
surer, and  junior  warden.  All  past  chief  patri- 
archs in  good  standing  are  members  of  grand 
encampments.  The  grand  encampment  meets 
annually,  and  is  officered  by  a  grand  patriarch, 
grand  high  priest,  grand  senior  warden,  grand 
scribe,  grand  treasurer,  and  grand  junior 
warden,  elected  annually.  The  grand  lodge 
and  grand  encampment  derive  their  revenues 
from  charter  fees  and  percentage  on  lodge  or 
encampment  revenues,  or  a  per  capita  tax. 
The  grand  lodge  of  the  United  States,  the 
supreme  head  of  the  order  there  and  in  Can- 
ada, is  composed  of  representatives  elected  bi- 
ennially by  state  and  provincial  grand  lodges 
and  grand  encampments.  Its  elective  officers 
are  a  grand  sire,  deputy  grand  sire,  grand  sec- 
retary, and  grand  treasurer,  elected  biennial- 
ly. Its  seat  of  government  is  at  Baltimore. 
On  Dec.  31,  1873,  it  had  414,815  lodge  mem- 
bers and  80,131  encampment  members.  The 
aggregate  relief  for  1873  was  $1,490,274  72, 
and  the  total  revenue  of  subordinates  $4,434,- 
001  08.  Its  revenue  is  derived  from  a  direct 
tax  of  $75  for  each  representative,  and  the 
profit  on  the  manufacture  and  sale  of  books 
and  supplies.  Since  1843  the  order  in  Amer- 
ica has  had  no  connection  with  that  in  Great 
Britain.  There  are  organizations  of  odd  fel- 
lows in  Germany,  Switzerland,  Australia,  South 
America,  and  the  Hawaiian  islands,  working  un- 
der charters  received  from  the  American  order. 

ODEIVSE,  a  seaport  and  next  to  Copenhagen 
the  most  important  town  of  Denmark,  capital 
of  the  island  of  Funen,  on  a  small  river  which 
falls  into  a  bay  of  the  same  name  about  a  mile 
from  the  town,  86  m.  W.  S.  W.  of  Copen- 
hagen; pop.  in  1871,  16,470.  It  is  a  prosper- 
ous trading  town,  and  one  of  the  oldest  places 
in  Denmark.  It  is  the  seat  of  the  governor 
and  of  a  Lutheran  bishop,  and  has  a  royal  cas- 
tle, a  large  hospital,  and  an  agricultural  and 
literary  society.  Its  cathedral,  founded  in 
1086  and  completed  in  1301,  contains  the 
tombs  of  several  Danish  kings.  The  town  has 
distilleries,  founderies,  and  woollen  mills.  It 
is  said  to  have  been  founded  by  Odin. 

ODEJVWALD,  a  mountain  region  of  Germany, 
in  southern  Hesse  and  the  adjoining  parts  of 
Baden  and  Bavaria,  between  the  river  Neckar, 
which  separates  it  from  the  Black  Forest,  and 
the  Main,  which  separates  it  from  the  Spessart. 
It  includes  the  sources  of  various  small  tribu- 
taries of  the  Ehine,  Neckar,  and  Main.  The 
beautiful  region  known  as  the  Bergstrasse,  or 
mountain  road,  in  which  are  the  towns  of  Ben- 
sheim,  Darmstadt,  and  Langen,  extends  along 
its  W.  border ;  and  in  various  parts  of  the  dis- 
trict there  are  many  interesting  ruins  of  the 
Roman  period.  The  highest  mountain  of  the 
Odenwald  is  the  Hardberg,  which  rises  to  the 
height  of  about  2,000  ft. 

ODEOJT  (Gr.  udelov,  from  «(?#,  song),  a  kind  of 
public  building  used  by  the  ancient  Greeks  for 
musical  contests,  and  occasionally  for  other 


purposes.  In  its  general  plan  it  resembled  the 
theatre,  and  sometimes  it  served  as  a  place 
of  rehearsal  for  the  choruses.  Hence  it  was 
smaller  than  the  theatre,  and  was  roofed  over. 
The  earliest  was  that  called  the  Skias  in  Sparta, 
built  by  the  Samian  architect  Theodorus  about 
650  B.  C.  There  was  also  an  ancient  one  at 
Athens,  in  the  S.  E.  part  of  the  city,  near  the 
Ilissus.  A  much  larger  and  finer  one  was 
erected  by  Pericles  at  the  base  of  the  S.  E. 
part  of  the  acropolis,  and  in  the  immediate 
vicinity  of  the  great  theatre.  It  was  burned 
at  the  capture  of  the  city  by  Sulla,  and  restored 
by  Ariobarzanes  II.,  king  of  Cappadocia. 
Athens  contained  two  other  odeons,  one  of 
which  has  sometimes  been  confounded  wiih 
the  Pnyx;  the  other,  a  magnificent  building, 
capable  of  containing  8,000  persons,  was  erect- 
ed by  Herodes  Atticus  below  the  S.  W.  part  of 
the  acropolis,  where  its  ruins  are  still  visible. 
Many  other  cities  of  Greece  and  its  colonies 
also  had  buildings  of  this  class.  The  first 
odeon  in  Borne  was  built  by  Domitian. 

ODER  (anc.  Viadrus),  a  river  of  Germany, 
rising  in  Moravia,  14  m.  E.  N.  E.  of  Olmiitz, 
about  2,100  ft.  above  the  level  of  the  sea. 
It  flows  N.  E.  through  Austrian  Silesia,  then 
through  Prussian  Silesia  and  Brandenburg  in 
a  tortuous  but  generally  N.  W.  course  to  near 
lat.  53°  N.,  where  it  changes  its  direction  to 
N.  N.  E.  and  flows  through  Pomerania  and  the 
Grosses  Haff  into  the  Baltic.  Its  whole  course 
is  about  550  m.,  and  it  is  navigable  for  about 
400  m.  to  Breslau  for  vessels  of  50  tons,  and 
for  smaller  craft  to  Batibor,  about  100  m.  fur- 
ther. The  chief  tributaries  from  the  right  are 
the  Malapane,  Bartsch,  and  Warthe,  and  from 
the  left  the  Oppa,  Silesian  Neisse,  "Weistritz, 
Katzbach,  Bober,  and  Bohemian  Neisse.  The 
chief  towns  on  its  banks  are  Ratibor,  Kosel, 
Oppeln,  Brieg,  Breslau,  Glogau,  Frankfort, 
Kustrin,  and  Stettin. 

ODESCALCHI,  a  noble  Italian  family,  originally 
from  Como. — MAEO'  ANTONIO,  born  in  Como 
about  1620,  was  a  cousin  of  Pope  Innocent  XI. 
(Benedetto  Odescalchi).  He  entered  the  priest- 
hood, and  after  his  cousin's  promotion  to  a 
cardinalate  went  to  Rome  to  reside ;  but  he  re- 
fused all  honors  and  preferments,  and  devoted 
himself  to  works  of  charity.  In  1656  he  turned 
his  house  into  a  hospital,  and  received  there 
the  poor  and  the  destitute  of  all  nations.  He 
subsequently  bought  some  adjacent  houses,  and 
enlarged  his  hospital,  until  it  contained  1,000 
beds.  At  his  death  in  1670  he  bequeathed  all 
his  property  to  it,  and  Innocent  XI.  not  long 
afterward  enlarged  it  to  the  capacity  of  3,000 
beds.  It  is  now  known  as  the  hospital  of  St. 
Gall.— TOMMASO,  a  kinsman  of  the  preceding, 
died  in  1692.  He  was  appointed  almoner  of 
Innocent  XI.,  and  determined  to  erect  an  asy- 
lum for  children.  He  began  with  38,  and 
through  the  liberality  of  the  pope  the  number 
was  soon  increased  to  70.  In  1686  he  laid  in 
the  Trastevere  the  foundation  of  a  large  hospi- 
tal, which  he  named  San  Michele,  to  be  occu- 


580 


ODESSA 


pied  solely  by  vagrant  boys,  who  were  to  be 
educated  and  taught  the  weaver's  trade.  At 
his  death  he  left  considerable  funds  for  its 
further  endowment ;  and  its  scope  and  objects 
have  since  been  largely  extended. — The  char- 
acter of  the  family  seems  not  to  have  been 
changed  by  the  lapse  of  years,  for  in  1816  an 
industrial  school  for  poor  girls  was  founded  at 
Borne  by  CARLO  ODESOALOHI,  who  was  cardi- 
nal vicar  under  Gregory  XVI.,  abdicated  his 
rank  and  became  a  Jesuit  in  1842,  and  died  in 
1848. — Another  distinguished  member  of  this 
family  was  BALTASSAEE  ODESOALOHI,  duke  of 
Oeri,  who  was  born  in  Rome  in  1748,  and  died 
there  in  1810.  He  was  a  great  patrcn  of  learn- 
ing, founded  in  his  house  the  accademia  degli 
occulti,  and  published  a  volume  of  poetry  and 
Istoria  deW  accademia  de*  Lincei  (Rome,  1806). 
— The  present  prince  BALTASSAEE  ILL  (born 
in  1844)  is  a  devoted  partisan  of  Garibaldi. 

ODESSA,  a  city  of  Russia,  in  the  government 
of  Kherson,  on  the  shore  of  a  bay  in  the  N.  W. 


part  of  the  Black  sea,  between  the  mouths  of 
the  rivers  Dniester  and  Dnieper,  90  m.  W.  by 
S.  of  Kherson,  and  385  m.  N.  N.  E.  of  Con- 
stantinople ;  lat.  46°  29'  K,  Ion.  30°  44'  E. ; 
pop.  in  1867,  121,335,  including  many  Greeks, 
Armenians,  Jews,  and  Italians.  It  is  the  seat 
of  the  governor  general  of  New  Russia  and 
Bessarabia,  and  of  a  Greek  archbishop.  The 
town  stands  on  a  broad  plateau,  to  which  it 
descends  almost  perpendicularly,  and  commu- 
nicates with  the  beach  by  a  wide  stairway  of 
200  steps.  On  the  edge  of  the  plateau  extends 
a  boulevard  lined  with  handsome  buildings, 
and  adorned  with  monuments.  In  the  rear  the 
plateau  spreads  out  into  vast  steppes  almost 
destitute  of  vegetation,  from  which  in  summer 
dense  clouds  of  dust  are  blown.  The  streets 
are  wide,  laid  out  at  right  angles,  and  macad- 
amized, and  there  are  several  squares  .well 
planted  with  trees.  The  town  is  defended  by 
a  fort  at  the  S.  E.  extremity,  and  by  several 
batteries  along  the  shore ;  and  the  ground  be- 


Odessa. 


tween  the  town  and  the  harbor  is  occupied  by 
barracks.  The  anchorage  is  good,  and  an  in- 
ner harbor  capable  of  accommodating  300  ves- 
sels at  the  quays  has  been  formed  by  two 
moles.  The  port  is  generally  closed  by  ice 
two  months  of  the  year.  The  prosperity  of 
Odessa  as  the  principal  grain-exporting  port  of 
the  Black  sea  has  been  lately  much  increased 
by  railway  communication  with  Moscow  and 
St.  Petersburg,  and  by  numerous  steamboat 
lines.  Since  the  close  of  1873  the  city  has 
been  supplied  with  water  pumped  from  the 
Dniester  by  powerful  works  26  m.  distant. 
The  city  contains  a  fine  cathedral,  31  churches 
and  12  synagogues,  several  hospitals  and  thea- 
tres, an  archaeological  museum,  and  a  univer- 
sity founded  in  1865,  which  in  1874  had  39 


instructors  and  257  students.  There  are  about 
500  granaries.  The  number  of  vessels  that 
arrived  in  1872  was  1,253,  tonnage  722,979; 
cleared,  1,286,  tonnage  752,816.  The  trade  is 
mainly  in  grain,  tallow,  timber,  and  wool.  In 
1872  the  exports  were  valued  at  $34,360,000, 
of  which  $25,580,000  was  in  wheat.  The 
value  of  imports  for  the  year  was  $40,720,000. 
— In  1792  Catharine  II.  selected  the  site  of 
Odessa,  and  the  town  was  founded  in  1794, 
several  regiments  being  employed  in  construct- 
ing public  works.  Alexander  I.  continued  the 
work,  Odessa  improving  chiefly  during  the 
governorship  of  the  duke  of  Richelieu,  to 
whom  a  monument  has  been  erected.  The 
same  czar  in  1817  declared  the  town  a  free 
port  for  30  years. 


ODEVAERE 


O'DONNELL 


581 


ODEVAERE,  Josephns  Dionysius,  a  Flemish 
painter,  born  in  Bruges,  Oct.  2,  1778,  died  in 
Brussels  in  February,  1830.  He  studied  paint- 
ing in  Bruges  and  in  Paris,  and  in  1804  ob- 
tained the  great  prize  of  the  French  academy 
of  painting  for  a  picture  of  the  death  of  Pho- 
cion.  A  pension  from  the  same  institution  en- 
abled him  to  study  in  Rome  from  1805  to  1812, 
and  in  1814  he  settled  in  Brussels.  Among  his 
paintings  are  the  "  Peace  of  Utrecht "  (1814) 
and  the  "  Battle  of  Waterloo  "  (1817). 

ODILON  BARROT.     See  BAEEOT. 

ODIN,  the  principal  god  of  Scandinavian  my- 
thology. He  is  said  to  dwell  in  Asgard,  with 
the  twelve  yEsir,  many  of  whom  are  his  chil- 
dren. He  rules  the  heavens;  the  clouds  and 
the  wind  are  subject  to  him.  Frigga,  his  fa- 
vorite goddess,  controls  nature,  and  Freyja, 
who  is  also  sometimes  represented  as  his 
spouse,  is  the  custodian  of  the  dead.  Saga, 
the  goddess  of  poetry,  is  Odin's  offspring. 
Being  the  god  of  storm,  Odin  is  also  the  god 
of  war,  and  directs  the  course  of  battles  by 
the  Valkyries,  virgin  goddesses,  who  take  the 
slain  to  Valhalla  to  lead  an  immortal  life  of 
joy  and  festivity  in  the  company  of  Odin. 
As  the  father  of  poetry  he  rewards  the  real 
poets  with  a  draught  from  the  wine  Odroeh- 
ris.  He  is  the  inventor  of  runic  writing. 
Odin  is  also  an  omniscient  god,  and  the  ra- 
vens Herginn  and  Muninn,  generally  perched 
on  his  shoulders,  are  sent  out  in  all  direc- 
tions to  inform  him  of  passing  events.  He 
was  worshipped  by  all  the  North  Germanic 
races,  and  he  reappears  among  the  Saxons  and 
Low  Germans  by  the  name  of  Wuotan  and 
Wotan.  (See  MYTHOLOGY.) — The  Odin  of  my- 
thology is  considered  to  be  connected  with 
Odin  the  conqueror,  who  ruled,  according  to 
tradition,  in  the  time  of  Pompey  over  a  por- 
tion of  Scythia,  near  the  Black  sea.  Driven 
out  of  his  territory,  he  is  said  to  have  advanced 
to  the  northernmost  countries  of  Europe  and 
Asia,  and  to  have  conquered  Denmark  and  the 
Scandinavian  peninsula. 

ODOACER,  king  of  Italy,  put  to  death  A.  D. 
493.  He  was  the  son  of  Edecon,  a  minister  of 
Attila  and  chief  of  a  tribe  of  Scyrri.  Hav- 
ing led  a  roving  life  in  Pannonia  and  Nori- 
cum,  Odoacer  went  to  Italy,  entered  the  ser- 
vice of  the  western  empire,  and  speedily  rose 
to  high  command.  After  the  abdication  of 
Nepos  and  the  elevation  to  the  imperial  throne 
of  Romulus,  called  in  derision  Augustulus,  the 
Heruli  and  other  barbarian  mercenaries  de- 
manded as  a  reward  for  their  services  a 
third  part  of  the  lands  of  Italy.  When  this 
was  refused,  the  soldiers  chose  Odoaoer  for 
their  leader,  who  drove  Orestes,  the  father  of 
Augustulus,  to  Pavia,  stormed  that  city,  and 
compelled  Augustulus  to  abdicate  (476).  Odo- 
acer made  Ravenna  his  capital,  and,  though 
styled  king  of  Italy,  never  assumed  the  purple, 
and  had  no  coins  struck  in  his  name.  But  he 
ruled  the  country  mildly,  enforced  the  laws, 
nnd  protected  the  frontiers  from  the  barbarians 


of  Gaul  and  Germany.  Although  an  Arian, 
he  did  not  molest  the  church.  He  ceded  the 
Roman  possessions  beyond  the  Alps  to  Euric, 
king  of  the  Visigoths,  subdued  Dalmatia,  and 
defeated  and  captured  Fava,  king  of  the  Rugi- 
ans,  in  Noricum.  At  length  Theodoric,  leader 
of  the  Ostrogoths,  descended  from  the  Julian 
Alps,  and  defeated  him  near  Aquileia  and  at 
Verona,  and  defeated  another  army  encamped 
on  the  banks  of  the  Adige.  Odoacer  retired  to 
Ravenna,  and  for  three  years  held  out  against 
his  rival,  but  finally  capitulated  on  condition 
of  ruling  with  equal  authority  with  Theodoric 
over  Italy.  Only  a  few  days  had  passed  when 
Odoacer  was  killed  by  the  order  of  his  associ- 
ate, and  his  troops  were  massacred. 

ODOMETER  (Gr.  666s,  a  road,  and  ^T/XW,  a 
measure),  an  instrument  for  determining  the 
distances  passed  over  in  travelling,  also  known 
as  pedometer,  perambulator,  &c.  Odometers 
attached  to  the  wheels  of  carriages  were  em- 
ployed by  the  ancient  Romans.  This  kind  of 
odometer  records  by  a  mechanical  contrivance 
the  number  of  revolutions  of  a  wheel  in 
passing  from  one  place  to  another.  The 
odometer  carried  by  pedestrians,  and  designed 
for  recording  the  number  of  steps,  is  generally 
called  a  pedometer.  It  resembles  a  watch  in 
size  and  shape,  and  may  be  worn  in  the  vest 
pocket.  Its  machinery  is  so  constructed  that 
by  the  rising  and  sinking  of  the  body  with 
each  step  a  lever  is  made  to  vibrate,  which 
moves  the  index  hand  connected  with  it. 

O'DOMELL,  Leopold  (Span.  O'DONEL,  LEO- 
POLDO),  count  of  Lucena  and  duke  of  Tetuan, 
a  Spanish  soldier,  born  in  Santa  Cruz,  island 
of  Teneriffe,  Jan.  12,  1809,  died  at  Biarritz, 
France,  Nov.  5,  1867.  He  was  the  son  of  a 
Spanish  general  who  was  descended  from  an 
Irish  family  that  emigrated  after  the  battle  of 
the  Boyne.  Leopold  entered  the  army,  and 
at  the  age  of  23  attained  the  rank  of  colo- 
nel. The  Carlist  war,  in  which  he  sided  with 
the  young  queen,  first  brought  him  promi- 
nently into  notice ;  and  for  his  services  in 
raising  the  siege  of  Lucena  he  was  created 
count,  and  received  the  command  of  the  army 
of  the  centre.  He  subsequently  attached  him- 
self to  the  cause  of  the  queen  mother  Christina, 
with  whom,  on  the  elevation  of  Espartero  to 
the  regency,  he  was  obliged  to  take  refuge  in 
France.  In  1841  he  was  permitted  to  return 
to  Spain  upon  pledging  his  fealty  to  the  gov- 
ernment; but  he  almost  immediately  headed 
an  insurrection  in  Navarre.  Defeated  at  Pam- 
plona, he  again  fled  to  France.  On  the  over- 
throw of  Espartero  in  1843  he  returned  to  Spain, 
and  was  appointed  captain  general  of  Cuba, 
where  he  is  said  to  have  amassed  a  fortune.  Af- 
ter his  return  from  Cuba  he  busied  himself  again 
with  political  intrigues,  and  on  threatening  to 
exert  his  influence  against  the  government  was 
appointed  by  Narvaez  director  general  of  the 
infantry,  which  office  he  retained  till  1851. 
During  the  Sartorius  ministry  he  became  so 
deeply  implicated  against  the  court  and  Queen 


582 


O'DONOVAN 


(EDEMA 


Christina,  that  at  the  commencement  of  1854 
he  was  proscribed ;  but  in  June  he  headed  a 
revolt  and  fought  an  indecisive  battle  at  Vical- 
baro.  He  then  effected  a  union  with  iheprogre- 
sista  party,  and  issued  a  manifesto  demanding 
the  restitution  of  the  constitution  of  1837,  the 
emancipation  of  Queen  Isabella,  the  perpetual 
banishment  of  the  queen  mother,  the  ameliora- 
tion of  the  laws  regulating  the  elections  and 
the  press,  the  reduction  of  taxes,  and  other 
popular  measures.  At  this  crisis  Espartero 
was  invited  by  the  queen  to  form  a  ministry, 
and  O'Donnell  received  the  portfolio  of  the 
war  department,  and  was  appointed  a  marshal. 
In  July,  1856,  he  succeeded  Espartero  as  pres- 
ident of  the  council,  and  at  once  declared 
Spain  under  martial  law,  closed  the  cortes,  and 
abolished  the  national  guard.  Insurrections 
followed,  which  were  generally  suppressed; 
but  Narvaez  plotted  against  him,  and  obliged 
him  to  resign  in  October.  He  returned  to 
power  in  1858,  and  in  1859  was  at  once  prime 
minister  and  commander-in-chief  of  the  forces 
engaged  in  the  war  in  Morocco.  For  his  ser- 
vices in  the  latter,  which  was  decided  by  the 
victory  at  Tetuan  and  the  surrender  of  that 
city  (February,  1860),  he  was  created  duke. 
In  February,  1863,  he  resigned,  but  was  re- 
called in  June,  1865.  He  now  endeavored  to 
restore  tranquillity  and  to  carry  out  many  re- 
forms, and  procured  the  acknowledgment  of 
the  kingdom  of  Italy  notwithstanding  the  op- 
position of  the  court.  The  extremists  of  all 
parties  united  against  him.  Insurrections  were 
frequent,  and  much  blood  was  shed  in  sup- 
pressing them.  In  July,  1866,  the  queen  called 
upon  Narvaez  to  form  a  new  ministry  from  the 
reactionary  party.  O'Donnell  went  to  France, 
and  remained  there  until  his  death. 

O'DONOVAN,  John,  an  Irish  archaeologist,  born 
at  Atatee  More,  county  Kilkenny,  July  9, 
1809,  died  in  Dublin,  Dec.  9,  1861.  He  was 
employed  in  the  ordnance  survey  of  Ireland, 
and  in  1847  was  called  to  the  bar,  but  never 
practised.  In  1849,  on  the  establishment  of 
Queen's  college,  Belfast,  he  was  made  pro- 
fessor of  history  and  archeology.  He  was  en- 
gaged in  translating  MSS.  under  the  Brehon 
law  commission.  For  some  years  before  his 
death  he  received  an  annual  pension  of  £50. 
He  published  "  A  Grammar  of  the  Irish  Lan- 
guage "  (8vo,  London,  1845)  ;  "  The  Book  of 
Eights  "  (1847) ;  and  his  principal  work,  "  The 
Annals  of  Ireland,  by  the  Four  Masters,  from 
the  earliest  Historic  Period  to  A.  D.  1616,"  the 
Irish  text  from  the  original  manuscripts  with 
an  English  translation  and  notes  (3  vols.  4to, 
Dublin,  1848-'51 ;  7  vols.  4to,  1856). 

ODYSSEY.     See  HOMER. 

(ECOLAMPADIUS,  or  Oekolampad,  Johannes,  a 
German  reformer,  whose  real  name  was  Huss- 
gen  or  Heussgen,  born  at  Weinsberg,  Swabia, 
in  1482,  died  in  Basel,  Nov.  23,  1531.  His 
father  was  a  merchant.  He  studied  juris- 
prudence at  Bologna  and  theology  at  Heidel- 
berg, was  tutor  to  the  son  of  the  elector  pala- 


tine, and  then  held  a  benefice  founded  by  his 
parents,  but  resigned  both  functions  to  con- 
tinue his  theological  studies.  He  was  an  ad- 
mirer of  Erasmus,  went  to  Basel  in  1515, 
and  assisted  him  in  his  "  Annotations  on  the 
New  Testament."  About  the  end  of  1518  he 
was  invited  to  Augsburg.  He  found  the  city 
excited  by  a  recent  conference  between  Lu- 
ther and  the  papal  legate,  and  declared  for  the 
reformer.  A  violent  dispute  ensued,  and  he  re- 
tired in  1520  to  a  convent  of  the  monks  of  St. 
Bridget,  near  Augsburg.  He  stood  at  this  time 
midway  between  Luther  and  Rome,  desiring 
a  "  certain  purified  Catholicism,"  but  was  in- 
clining more  and  more  toward  the  side  of  the 
reformation.  He  left  the  convent  in  February, 
1522,  went  to  the  castle  of  Ebernburg,  where 
for  a  time  he  was  preacher  to  Franz  von  Sick- 
ingen,  and  in  November  was  at  Basel,  where 
he  officiated  as  curate  of  St.  Martin's.  In  1523 
the  government  council  appointed  him  Scrip- 
ture reader  to  the  university,  which  refused  to 
acknowledge  him.  Still  he  addressed  large 
audiences,  and  in  1525  was  regularly  appointed 
curate  of  St.  Martin's.  He  led  the  discussion 
at  the  conference  in  Baden,  in  1526,  against 
Eck,  and  was  distinguished  there  for  his  mild- 
ness and  ability.  He  had  written  against  the 
celibacy  of  the  clergy,  and  about  1530  he  mar- 
ried Wilibrandis,  daughter  of  a  knight  of  the 
emperor  Maximilian.  He  supported  Zwingli 
in  his  dispute  with  Luther  respecting  the  real 
presence  in  the  Lord's  supper,  and  published 
a  treatise  entitled  De  genuina  Verlorum  Do- 
mini, Hoc  est  Corpus  meum,  Expositione  (1525), 
in  which  he  maintained  the  word  corpus  to  be 
only  symbolical.  He  was  called  the  Melanch- 
thon  of  Switzerland.  He  was  a  tall,  handsome 
man,  of  a  patriarchal  presence.  His  widow 
became  the  wife  of  his  friend  Capito,  after 
whose  death  she  married  Bucer.  (Ecolampa- 
dius's  principal  works  are :  Annotationes  in 
Genesin;  Exegemata  in  Librum  Jol ;  Com- 
mentariorum  in  Esaiam  libri  VI. ;  De  Ritu 
Paschali;  and  Quod  non  sit  onerosa  Chris- 
tianis  Confessio.  His  life  has  been  written  by 
Hess  (Zurich,  1791),  Herzog  (Basel,  1843),  and 
Hagenbach  (Elberfeld,  1859). 

(ECUMENICAL  COUNCIL.     See  COUNCIL. 

(EDEMA  (Gr.  6«%a,  from  oidetv,  to  swell),  a 
swelling  occasioned  by  the  infiltration  of  se- 
rum into  the  areolar  tissue  of  a  portion  of  the 
body.  The  term  oedema  generally  refers  to 
cases  in  which  the  serous  infiltration  is  local, 
as  oedema  of  the  face,  of  the  extremities,  of 
the  lungs;  anasarca  to  those  in  which  it  is 
general,  invading  the  areolar  tissue  of  the 
whole  body.  Anything  which  interferes  with 
the  return  of  the  venous  blood  from  a  part 
may  produce  oedema;  thus  in  pregnant  wo- 
men the  pressure  of  the  uterine  tumor  upon 
the  great  veins  within  the  abdomen  may 
cause  oedema  of  the  lower  extremities;  and 
in  feeble  persons  the  same  result  follows  the 
long  maintenance  of  the  upright  position,  the 
blood  having  to  return  against  the  force  of 


(EDEMA 

gravity.  Obliteration  of  any  of  the  large  ve- 
nous trunks  by  adhesive  inflammation  is  fol- 
lowed by  oedema  of  the  parts  whose  blood  was 
returned  by  the  obliterated  trunk ;  thus  phleg- 
masia  dolens  is  caused  by  inflammation  and 
plugging  up  of  the  femoral  or  iliac  veins.  The 
pressure  of  an  aneurism  or  other  tumor  within 
the  chest,  upon  the  vena  cava  or  vena  innoini- 
nata,  may  produce  oedema  of  one  half  or  the 
whole  of  the  upper  part  of  the  body.  Para- 
lyzed limbs  frequently  become  oedematous  from 
the  venous  circulation  no  longer  being  aided  by 
the  contraction  of  the  muscles  of  the  part. 
Certain  conditions  of  the  blood,  such  as  exist 
in  chlorosis  and  scurvy,  are  favorable  to  the 
occurrence  of  oedema.  In  all  these  instances 
the  oedema  is  of  a  passive  kind ;  but  the  same 
symptom  occurs  as  an  attendant  on  some  forms 
of  inflammation,  particularly  a  variety  of  ery- 
sipelas, hence  termed  oedematous  erysipelas. 
In  all  instances  oedema  is  simply  a  symptom 
produced  by  different  causes,  and  is  to  be  treat- 
ed according  to  the  cause  by  which  it  is  pro- 
duced. Two  varieties  of  oedema,  that  of  the 
glottis  and  that  of  the  lungs,  from  their  im- 
portance arising  from  the  nature  of  the  organs 
affected,  deserve  special  mention. — (Edema  of 
the  glottis  may  occur  from  exposure  to  cold 
and  moisture,  as  a  consequence  of  tonsillitis 
and  other  affections,  the  inflammation  extend- 
ing to  the  larynx,  or  in  the  course  of  various 
diseases,  as  erysipelas,  typhoid  fever,  &c.  The 
patient  is  conscious  of  an  increasing  impedi- 
ment in  his  respiration,  and  of  a  sense  of  stric- 
ture about  the  larynx.  There  is  a  dry  hoarse 
cough  coming  on  in  paroxysms,  with  fits  of 
suffocation,  while  the  voice  is  hoarse,  whisper- 
ing, and  finally  extinct.  Inspiration  is  pro- 
longed and  difficult,  while  expiration  is  com- 
paratively unaffected.  Sometimes,  but  not  in- 
variably, there  is  soreness  of  the  throat  and 
difficulty  of  swallowing.  The  pulse,  at  first 
unaffected,  as  the  difficulty  of  breathing  in- 
creases becomes  small  and  frequent,  and  the 
body  is  bathed  in  perspiration.  Death  from 
suffocation  sometimes  takes  place  a  few  hours 
after  the  commencement  of  the  attack.  On 
post-mortem  examination  the  cellular  tissue 
underneath  the  mucous  membrane  lining  the 
glottis  is  found  infiltrated  by  serum,  narrowing 
the  opening  of  the  glottis  and  causing  a  sort  of 
valvular  action  in  inspiration.  When  violent 
the  disease  rarely  leaves  much  time  for  treat- 
ment. Schonlein  of  Berlin  first  suggested  the 
operation,  but  Dr.  Gurdon  Buck  of  New  York 
was  the  first  to  carry  it  into  effect,  and  has  re- 
lieved numerous  cases  of  this  affection  by  nick- 
ing the  oedematous  mucous  membrane,  and  thus 
giving  exit  to  the  effused  serum  which  is  the 
cause  of  the  difficulty.  When  Dr.  Buck's  op- 
eration does  not  succeed,  recourse  must  be  had 
to  tracheotomy. — (Edema  of  the  lungs  occurs  in 
heart  disease  as  a  consequence  of  the  embar- 
rassed condition  of  the  circulation  through  the 
lungs,  in  albuminuria  (see  ALBUMINURIA),  in 
typhus  and  typhoid  fevers,  in  anaemia,  and  in 


(EDIPUS 


583 


pneumonia  and  bronchitis.  Its  symptoms  are 
difficulty  of  breathing,  in  some  cases  extreme, 
and  a  sensation  of  weight  or  constriction  in 
the  chest.  There  is  teasing  cough  with  a  watery 
and  sometimes  viscid  expectoration.  On  phys- 
ical examination  the  percussion  note  is  but 
slightly  affected ;  auscultation  gives  a  smooth, 
moist,  fine,  sub-crepitant  rhonchus.  The  treat- 
ment is  that  of  dropsy. 

OEDENBURG  (Hung.  Soprony}.  I.  A  county 
of  W.  Hungary,  bordering  on  Lower  Austria 
and  the  counties  of  Wieselburg,  Eaab,  Vesz- 
pre"m,  and  Eisenburg;  area,  1,277  sq.  m.;  pop. 
in  1870,  230,158.  The  western  and  northern 
districts  are  mountainous  and  wooded,  while 
the  southern  and  eastern  are  level  and  fertile. 
It  is  watered  by  the  rivers  Eaab,  Eabnitz,  and 
Leitha.  One  of  the  largest  lakes  of  Hungary, 
the  Neusiedler  lake,  is  in  this  county.  The 
chief  products  are  wheat,  fruit,  wine,  tobacco, 
and  coal.  lit  A  town,  capital  of  the  county, 
near  the  Neusiedler  lake,  on  a  branch  of  the 
Vienna  and  Cilli  railway,  37  m.  S.  S.  E.  of 
Vienna;  pop.  in  1870,  21,108,  chiefly  Germans. 
It  is  neatly  built,  and  has  several  fine  churches, 
both  Catholic  and  Lutheran,  colleges  of  both 
creeds,  convents,  hospitals,  barracks,  a  mili- 
tary academy,  a  theatre,  and  a  curious  watch 
tower  which  anciently  formed  part  of  its  forti- 
fications. It  has  manufactures  of  cotton,  wool- 
len, &c.,  and  an  active  trade  in  wine. 

(EDIPUS,  a  mythological  king  of  Thebes,  son 
of  Laius  and  Jocasta.  An  oracle  having  in- 
formed Laius  that  he  should  be  killed  by  his 
son,  the  infant  was  exposed  on  Mt.  Cithseron 
with  his  feet  pierced  and  bound  together.  He 
was  found  by  a  shepherd  and  brought  to  King 
Polybus  of  Corinth,  who  being  childless  adopt- 
ed him  and  called  him  (Edipus  from  his  swollen 
feet.  He  grew  up  in  ignorance  of  his  birth, 
and  once  being  taunted  with  not  being  the'son 
of  the  king,  he  consulted  the  oracle  at  Delphi, 
which  answered :  "  Avoid  the  soil  of  thy  coun- 
try, or  thou  wilt  be  the  murderer  of  thy  father 
and  the  husband  of  thy  mother."  Supposing 
Corinth  was  meant,  he  determined  not  to  re- 
turn. On  the  road  between  Delphi  and  Daulis 
he  met  Laius,  and  was  ordered  by  the  chari- 
oteer to  make  way ;  an  affray  ensued,  in  which 
he  killed  both  his  father  and  the  charioteer.  At 
this  time  the  sphinx  was  laying  waste  the  ter- 
ritory of  Thebes,  proposing  a  riddle  to  every 
passer-by,  and  devouring  all  who  were  unable 
to  solve  it.  The  Thebans  offered  the  crown 
and  the  hand  of  Queen  Jocasta  in  marriage  to 
him  who  should  free  the  country  from  the 
monster.  (Edipus  undertook  the  task,  and  the 
following  riddle  was  given  him:  "A  being 
with  four  feet  has  two  feet  and  three  feet,  and 
only  one  voice ;  but  its  feet  vary,  and  when  it 
has  most  it  is  weakest."  (Edipus  answered 
that  it  was  man,  who  in  infancy  crawls  upon  all- 
fours,  in  manhood  walks  erect,  and  in  old  age 
supports  himself  by  a  staff.  The  sphinx  here- 
upon destroyed  herself,  and  (Edipus  obtained 
the  crown  and  married  his  mother,  who  bore 


584 


OEHLENSCHLlGER 


(ENOTHERA 


him  two  sons,  Eteocles  and  Polynices,  and  two 
daughters,  Antigone  and  Ismene.  A  pesti- 
lence desolating  the  land  on  account  of  this  in- 
cestuous alliance,  the  oracle  ordered  the  expul- 
sion of  the  murderer  of  Laius ;  and  a  procla- 
mation was  issued  announcing  a  curse  upon 
the  unknown  criminal,  and  declaring  him  an 
exile.  (Edipus  was  informed  by  the  prophet 
Tiresias  that  he  himself  was  the  parricide  and 
the  husband  of  his  mother.  Jocasta  hanged 
herself,  and  (Edipus  put  out  his  eyes.  After 
this,  according  to  one  form  of  the  legend, 
(Edipus  was  driven  from  Thebes  by  his  sons 
and  Oreon,  his  brother-in-law,  and  under  the 
guidance  of  his  daughter  Antigone  went  to 
Attica.  According  to  another,  he  became  de- 
pendent upon  his  sons,  on  whom  he  imprecated 
a  curse,  praying  to  the  gods  that  there  might 
be  endless  war  between  them,  and  that  they 
might  perish  each  by  the  hand  of  the  other. 
After  Eteocles  and  Polynices  had  slain  one 
another,  Oreon  succeeded  to  the  throne  and 
drove  out  (Edipus,  who  finally  reached  the 
groves  of  the  Eumenides,  near  Colonus  in  At- 
tica, where  he  was  received  with  distinguished 
honor  by  Theseus.  There  he  died,  and  his 
burial  place  was  concealed  by  the  Eumenides, 
whose  favor  he  had  conciliated.  The  tragedies 
of  ^Eschylus  and  Euripides  founded  upon  this 
legend  are  lost ;  but  two  by  Sophocles  remain, 
entitled  "  (Edipus  Tyrannus  "  and  "  (Edipus  at 
Oolonus."  Seneca  also  wrote  one,  and  in  mod- 
ern times  Corneille  and  Voltaire. 

OEHLENSCHLAGER,  Adam  Gottlob,  a  Danish 
poet,  born  in  Copenhagen,  Nov.  14,  1779,  died 
there,  Jan.  20,  1850.  His  father  was  steward 
of  the  royal  palace  of  Frederiksborg,  where  the 
son  spent  his  early  life.  He  was  sent  to  school 
at  Copenhagen  at  the  age  of  12,  and  soon  after 
began  to  write  verses  and  plays  which  were 
performed  by  himself  and  his  schoolmates. 
His  acquaintance  with  the  brothers  Oersted  led 
to  his  studying  law  in  the  university  of  Copen- 
hagen. In  1803  he  published  a  volume  of 
poetry,  containing  the  play  of  "  The  Eve  of  St. 
John,"  which  with  his  drama  of  "  Aladdin " 
procured  him  a  travelling  stipend  from  the  gov- 
ernment. In  Germany  he  mastered  the  Ger- 
man language,  into  which  he  translated  his 
works.  At  Halle  he  wrote  "  Hakon  Jarl,"  the 
first  and  one  of  the  finest  of  his  purely  Scan- 
dinavian tragedies  (English  translation  by  F. 
0.  Lascelles,  London,  1874) ;  and  at  Paris  he 
produced  "Palnatoke,"  considered  by  some 
his  masterpiece,  and  "Axel  and  Valborg," 
all  dramas  of  powerful  interest.  At  Rome, 
where  he  became  intimate  with  Thorwaldsen, 
he  composed  "  Correggio,"  which  became  very 
popular  on  the  Danish  and  German  stage  (Eng- 
lish translation  by  Theodore  Martin,  1854). 
Oehlenschlager  returned  to  Denmark  in  1810, 
and  soon  afterward  became  professor  of  es- 
thetics at  the  university  of  Copenhagen.  His 
works  include  novels,  poems,  translations,  and 
a  great  variety  of  miscellanies.  On  his  first 
visit  to  Sweden  in  1829  he  received  a  brilliant 


ovation,  and  his  70th  birthday  was  celebrated 
with  a  grand  festival  in  Copenhagen.  Of  his 
24  tragedies,  on  which  his  fame  chiefly  rests,  19 
are  devoted  to  Scandinavian  subjects.  In  ad- 
dition to  those  mentioned,  the  most  striking 
are  "  Canute  the  Great,"  "  The  Varangians  in 
Constantinople,"  "Land  Found  and  Lost," 
illustrating  the  early  voyages  of  the  Northmen 
to  America,  "  Dina,"  and  "  Tordenskjold."  In 
his  Nordens  Guder  ("Gods  of  the  North"), 
published  in  1819,  he  collected  the  scattered 
legends  of  the  Eddas.  An  English  metrical 
translation  of  this  by  W.  E.  Frye  was  published 
in  Paris  in  1845.  Oehlenschlager  also  transla- 
ted the  "Midsummer  Mght's  Dream"  and 
Beskow's  Swedish  dramas  into  Danish,  and 
Holberg's  "Danish  Theatre"  into  German. 
His  collected  works  in  Danish,  including  his 
Erindringer  or  "Recollections,"  an  autobiog- 
raphy, amount  to  41  volumes;  those  in  Ger- 
man of  all  kinds  to  21.  A  critical  edition  of 
his  Poetuke  Skrifter  was  published  by  Lieben- 
berg  in  Copenhagen  (32  vols.,  1857-'65),  and 
a  German  edition  of  his  Lebenserinnerungen 
at  Leipsic  (4  vols.,  1850-'51). 

OELS,  a  town  of  Prussian  Silesia,  in  a  valley 
on  the  Oelsa,  10  m.  N.  E.  of  Breslau;  pop.  in 
1871,  8,124.  It  contains  a  mediaeval  castle,  in 
a  park  surrounded  by  a  wall  and  moat,  with 
gardens  and  a  picture  gallery ;  a  Catholic  and 
four  Protestant  churches,  a  synagogue,  a  Prot- 
estant gymnasium,  a  theatre,  and  a  retreat  for 
the  widows  of  clergymen.  There  are  exten- 
sive manufactories  of  cloth.  In  the  vicinity 
are  the  villages  and  ducal  villas  of  Wilhel- 
minenort  and  Sibyllenort.  It  is  the  capital  of  a 
mediatized  principality,  formerly  a  duchy,  in- 
cluding Oels-Bernstadt,  besides  the  circles  of 
Oels  and  Trebnitz,  the  domain  of  Medzibor, 
and  the  town  and  district  of  Konstadt ;  aggre- 
gate pop.  about  170,000.  The  duchy  of  Oels 
originally  belonged  to  the  dukes  of  Silesia,  and 
after  passing  through  many  hands  the  right  of 
succession  to  it  was  conceded  by  Frederick  the 
Great  in  1785  to  the  duke  Frederick  William 
of  Brunswick,  who  fell  in  1815  in  the  battle  of 
Quatre-Bras.  His  son  Charles  ceded  it  in  1824, 
under  the  name  of  Brunswick-Oels,  to  his  broth- 
er William,  the  present  duke  of  Brunswick. 

(BVOTUEK  A  (Gr.  oZvof,  wine,  and  %a,  a  hunt, 
the  roots  of  some  species  being  supposed  to 
provoke  a  relish  for  wine),  a  genus  of  plants 
known  as  evening  primrose,  and  belonging  to 
the  family  onagracea.  The  family  is  showy, 
and  includes  the  well  known  Fuchsia,  gaura, 
Clarlcia,  and  others  cultivated  for  their  flowers. 
The  genus  cenothera,  except  one  Tasmanian  spe- 
cies, is  purely  extra-tropical  American,  and  in- 
cludes about  100  species,  all  herbs,  or  at  most 
slightly  woody  at  base ;  the  flowers  have  a  f  our- 
lobed  calyx,  four  petals,  eight  stamens,  and  one 
style,  with  a  knob-like  or  f  our-lobed  stigma ;  the 
parts  of  the  flower,  being  adherent  to  the  ova- 
ry, appear  as  if  situated  at  the  top  of  it ;  the 
fruit  is  sometimes  woody,  variously  shaped,  and 
usually  four-celled,  with  numerous  seeds.  The 


(ENOTHERA 

common  evening  primrose  ((E.  liennis}  is  found 
almost  all  over  North  America,  and  being  so 
widely  distributed  presents  a  number  of  well 
marked  varieties ;  it  is  a  biennial  with  a  strong 
fleshy  root  and  stems  3  to  5  ft.  high ;  leaves 


OERSTED 


585 


Lamarck's  Evening  Primrose  (CEnothera  biennis,  var.  La- 
marckiana). 

ovate-lanceolate,  often  obscurely  toothed  and 
hairy  or  nearly  smooth ;  the  flowers  are  in  a 
terminal  leafy  spike,  large,  yellow,  and  fragrant. 
In  this  as  in  others  of  the  genus,  the  flowers 
open  only  at  twilight,  and  fade  the  next  morn- 
ing; the  opening  takes  place  suddenly.  Several 
varieties  of  this  are  in  cultivation.  The  largest 
and  finest,  called  (E.  Lamarckiana,  branches 
abundantly  at  the  base,  and  forms  a  fine  pyra- 
midal plant  with  very  numerous  flowers  3  or  4 
in.  in  diameter;  the  sudden  opening  of  these 
at  nightfall  is  strikingly  beautiful.  The  corn- 


Missouri  Evening  Primrose  (CEnothera  macrocarpa). 

mon  form  is  cultivated  in  Europe,  especially 
in  Germany,  for  its  roots,  and  known  as  Ger- 
man rampion ;  the  root  is  10  to  12  in.  long, 
sometimes  with  lateral  fibres  and  very  white 


within ;  its  cultivation  is  like  that  of  the  par- 
snip and  similar  vegetables.  The  roots,  which 
have  a  nutty  flavor,  are  boiled  and  dressed  as 
salad,  or  served  with  white  sauce  like  salsify, 
and  are  regarded  as  more  easily  digestible  by 
weak  stomachs  than  most  other  vegetables.  In 
this  country  it  is  hardly  known  in  cultivation. 
The  Missouri  evening  primrose  ((E.  Missouri- 
ensis)  has  a  large  fleshy  perennial  root,  from 
which  proceed  numerous  prostrate  spreading 
stems,  bearing  ashy-green  leaves  and  bright 
yellow  flowers  4  to  6  in.  across;  this  (some- 
times called  (E.  macrocarpa)  is  the  largest- 
flowered  of  all  the  species.  There  is  a  group 
of  white-flowered  cenotheras  which  turn  rose- 
colored  in  fading ;  some  prostrate  species  of 
this  group  are  very  abundant  on  the  western 
plains ;  during  the  day  their  dull  leaves  are  not 
noticeable,  but  as  night  approaches  the  travel- 
ler is  surprised  to  see  the  sterile  soil  suddenly 
bloom  out  with  a  profusion  of  these  flowers. 
Another  group  consists  of  yellow-flowered 
species  which  open  in  bright  sunshine,  and  are 
called  sun-drops ;  (E.  fruticosa  and  (E.  linearis, 
both  common  wild  species,  and  occasionally 
cultivated,  are  examples  of  these.  There  is  a 
very  distinct  set  of  species  on  the  Pacific  coast, 
which  from  some  differences  in  the  structure 
have  been  placed  in  a  different  genus,  Godetia, 
a  name  by  which  they  are  retained  in  floricul- 
tural  works  and  seed  catalogues,  though  bota- 
nists regard  them  as  a  section  of  cznothera. 
These  have  white,  rose-colored,  or  purple  pe- 
tals, which  are  often  fringed  on  the  margin. 
Not  only  are  the  original  species  cultivated, 
but  several  well  marked  varieties  have  been 
obtained  by  cultivation.  The  (E.  grandiflora, 
which  has  recently  been  introduced  into  culti- 
vation under  the  name  of  Godetia  Whitneyi, 
is  a  native  species  having  bluish  flowers  with 
a  dark  crimson  spot  in  the  centre,  and  is  "quite 
as  showy  as  any  of  the  florists'  varieties ;  the 
godetias  are  all  annuals. 

OERSTED,  Anders  Sandoe,  a  Danish  statesman, 
born  at  Rudkjoping,  in  the  island  of  Langeland, 
Dec.  21,  1778,  died  in  Copenhagen,  May  1, 1860. 
He  was  educated  at  the  university  of  Copen- 
hagen, where  he  became  intimate  with  Oeh- 
lenschlager,  whose  sister  he  married.  He  at- 
tained eminence  as  a  jurist,  held  various  public 
offices,  and  in  1825  became  attorney  general. 
He  was  a  member  of  the  cabinet  from  1841  to 
1848,  and  in  1853  became  prime  minister.  On 
the  question  of  the  king's  right  to  grant  new 
constitutions  to  Holstein  and  Schleswig  without 
consulting  the  diet,  the  ministry  was  over- 
thrown in  December,  1854.  Articles  of  im- 
peachment were  then  preferred  against  Oersted 
and  his  colleagues,  but  they  were  acquitted. 
He  wrote  Eunomia  (4  vols.,  1815-'22) ;  Haand- 
log  over  den  danslce  og  norslce  LovJcyndigTied 
(6  vols.,  1822-'35)  ;  an  autobiography  (4  vols., 
1851-'7)  ;  and  several  works  on  philosophy. 

OERSTED,  Hans  Christian,  a  Danish  natural 
philosopher,  brother  of  the  preceding,  born 
at  Rudkjoping,  Aug.  14,  1777,  died  in  Copen- 


586 


OERTEL 


OETINGER 


hagen,  March  9,  1851.  He  was  the  son  of  a 
druggist.  At  the  university  of  Copenhagen 
he  took  a  prize  for  an  essay  on  "  The  Limits 
of  Poetry  and  Prose."  He  had  become  imbued 
with  the  modern  German  philosophy  through 
the  lectures  of  Steffens,  and  on  taking  his  doc- 
tor's degree  presented  a  dissertation  on  the 
"Architectonics  of  Natural  Metaphysics,"  a 
study  of  the  laws  of  physics  and  their  higher 
relations  as  the  products  of  reason.  In  1800 
he  took  charge  of  a  pharmacy,  devoted  his 
attention  to  galvanism,  and  made  important 
discoveries  with  respect  to  the  action  of  acids 
during  the  production  of  galvanic  electricity. 
In  1801-'3  he  studied  and  travelled  in  Ger- 
many, France,  and  the  Netherlands,  and  on  re- 
turning to  Copenhagen  lectured  on  electricity 
and  cognate  sciences.  A  selection  from  his 
scientific  papers  written  about  this  time  has 
been  published  under  the  title  of  "  The  Soul 
in  Nature  "  (London,  1852).  In  1806  he  became 
professor  of  physics  in  the  university  of  Co- 
penhagen, and  in  1809  published  the  first  edi- 
tion of  his  "  Manual  of  Mechanical  Physics." 
In  1812  he  revisited  Germany,  and  published 
at  Berlin  a  work  tending  to  show  the  identity 
of  magnetism  and  electricity.  His  discovery 
of  this  identity  was  made  in  the  winter  of 
1819-'20.  (See  ELEOTKO-MAGJSTETISM,  vol.  vi., 
p.  513.)  In  July,  1820,  Oersted  promulgated 
his  discovery  in  a  Latin  tract  entitled  Experi- 
ments circa  Efficaciam  Oonflictus  Electrici  in 
Acum  Magneticam.  The  French  institute  pre- 
sented Oersted  with  a  prize  worth  3,000  francs ; 
the  royal  society  of  London  gave  him  the  Cop- 
ley medal;  and  by  common  consent  he  was 
elevated  to  the  first  rank  of  scientific  men.  He 
made  scientific  journeys  at  intervals  to  various 
parts  of  Europe,  and  founded  the  magnetic  ob- 
servatory of  Copenhagen,  and  also  the  Danish 
society  for  the  diffusion  of  natural  science.  In 
1844  appeared  the  second  edition  of  his  "  Man- 
ual of  Mechanical  Physics,"  which  contained 
accounts  of  his  experiments  on  the  compressi- 
bility of  water  and  air.  He  also  devoted  some 
time  to  politics  and  light  literature,  and  pub- 
lished a  poem  entitled  "The  Balloon."  The 
50th  anniversary  of  his  connection  with  the 
university  was  celebrated  with  a  national  jubi- 
lee, Nov.  7,  1850.  Throughout  his  scientific 
career  Oersted  labored  to  show  that  the  laws 
of  nature  must  harmonize  with  reason,  even 
representing  the  practice  of  science  to  be  a 
religious  worship.  As  a  lecturer  he  possessed 
great  merit,  and  was  one  of  the  first  to  give 
popular  lectures  to  ladies  on  scientific  sub- 
jects, and  to  urge  the  establishment  of  female 
colleges.  A  complete  edition  of  his  works 
was  published  in  Copenhagen  (9  vols.,  1850- 
'51).  Several  of  them  have  been  translated 
into  foreign  languages. 

OERTEL,  Phfflpp  Friedrich  Wilhelm  (better 
known  by  his  nom  de  plume  W.  O.  VON  HOKN), 
a  German  author,  born  at  Horn,  near  Simmern, 
Aug.  15,  1798,  died  in  Wiesbaden,  Oct.  14, 
1867.  He  was  the  son  of  a  clergyman,  studied 


theology  at  Heidelberg,  was  in  charge  of  a 
parish  at  Mannebach  from  1820  to  1835,  was 
ecclesiastical  superintendent  at  Sobernheim 
from  1835  to  1863,  and  subsequently  resided 
at  Wiesbaden.  He  was  a  voluminous  writer 
of  popular  stories,  and  his  Gesammelte  Erzah- 
lungen  (13  vols:,  Wiesbaden,  1850-'59)  has 
passed  through  numerous  editions. 

OUSEL,  an  island  in  the  Baltic,  at  the  mouth 
of  the  gulf  of  Riga,  in  the  Russian  government 
of  Livonia ;  length  about  60  m.,  breadth  from  3 
to  50  m. ;  area,  1,200  sq.  m. ;  pop.  about  46,000, 
mainly  Lutherans.  It  has  a  bold,  high  coast, 
and  a  diversified  surface.  The  climate  is  more 
temperate  than  on  the  mainland,  but  violent 
storms  are  frequent  in  spring  and  autumn.  The 
soil  is  not  naturally  fertile,  but  is  watered  by 
many  small  streams.  A  great  part  of  the  island 
is  covered  with  forests,  and  much  of  it  is  used 
as  pasture.  Grain  is  raised  for  exportation. 
The  only  important  manufacture  is  tar.  The 
fisheries,  chiefly  of  seals,  are  valuable.  Oesel 
once  belonged  to  the  Teutonic  knights,  but  was 
seized  by  the  Danes  at  an  early  period,  and 
ceded  by  them  to  Sweden  in  1645.  In  the  be- 
ginning of  the  18th  century  Russia  took  pos- 
session of  it,  and  in  1721  it  was  formally  ceded 
to  that  power.  Chief  town,  Arensburg. 

OESTERLEY,  Karl,  a  German  painter,  born  in 
Gottingen  in  1805.  He  studied  in  Gottingen, 
Dresden,  and  Italy,  and  became  a  professor  at 
Gottingen  in  1829.  He  subsequently  perfected 
his  art  in  Dusseldorf,  Munich,  and  Paris,  and 
became  painter  to  the  court  of  Hanover.  He 
resigned  his  chair  at  Gottingen  in  1863.  Among 
his  best  known  cartoons  are  "The  Daughter  of 
Jephthah,"  "  Lenore,"  illustrating  Burger's  bal- 
lad, "  The  two  Brides,"  "  The  awakened  Dorn- 
roschen"  (1861),  "Hans  Memling"  (1865),  and 
many  altarpieces. 

OETINGER,  Friedrich  Christoph,  a  German  theo- 
logian, born  at  Goppingen,  Wtirtemberg,  May 
6,  1702,  died  at  Murrhardt,  Feb.  10, 1782.  He 
was  educated  at  Tubingen,  Jena,  and  Leipsic, 
was  for  a  time  tutor  at  Tubingen,  and  assisted 
Count  Zinzendorf  in  his  project  of  translating 
the  Bible.  In  1738  he  was  appointed  pastor 
at  Hirschau.  He  became  a  convert  to  the  doc- 
trines of  Jacob  Boehm,  and  attempted  to  ar- 
range a  system  of  theology  on  the  mystical 
interpretation  of  Scripture.  In  1765  he  pub- 
lished his  Theologia  ex  Idea  Vita  Deducta 
(Frankfort ;  translated  into  German  by  Ham- 
berger,  1852),  in  which  he  set  forth  his  pe- 
culiar notions.  He  assails  the  philosophy  of 
Wolf  because  he  has  converted  the  terms  life, 
kingdom,  spirit,  to  which  the  Scriptures  attach 
a  definite  meaning,  into  abstract  ideas,  from 
which  he  develops  a  system  of  idealism  which 
resolves  everything  into  mere  symbolism.  He 
translated  several  of  Swedenborg's  works  into 
German  (2  vols.  8vo,  Leipsic,  1765).  His  own 
views  were  expressed  in  his  "Heavenly  and 
Earthly  Philosophy,"  which  was  condemned 
by  his  ecclesiastical  superiors ;  but  the  duke  of 
Wurtemberg  took  him  under  his  protection, 


OETTINGEN 

and  he  was  made  prelate  and  ecclesiastical 
councillor  at  Murrhardt,  a  post  which  he  held 
until  his  death.  He  exerted  a  great  influence 
on  the  spiritual  thought  of  Germany.  He  wrote 
several  philosophical  and  cabalistic  works,  and 
devoted  much  time  to  the  study  of  the  trans- 
mutation of  metals.  His  autobiography  was 
published  at  Stuttgart  in  1845,  and  a  complete 
edition  of  his  works  has  been  collected  and  ed- 
ited by  Ehmann  (Reutlingen,  1852  etseq.\  who 
published  also  his  life  and  letters  in  1859. 

OETTINGEN,  a  mediatized  county  of  Germany, 
which  existed  in  the  Riesgau,  Swabia,  as  early 
as  the  13th  century,  and  is  divided  at  present 
between  the  Spielberg  and  Wallerstein  lines, 
the  territory  belonging  partly  to  Bavaria  (since 
1806)  and  partly  to  Wiirtemberg  (since  1810). 
Wallerstein,  the  principal  town  of  the  latter 
branch,  is  situated  in  the  Bavarian  district  of 
Swabia  and  Neuburg,  and  celebrated  for  its  pal- 
ace and  its  library  of  100,000  volumes. — Prince 
LTJDWIG  KEAFT  ERNST  VON  OETTINGEN- WAL- 
LEESTEIN,  a  Bavarian  statesman,  born  at  Wal- 
lerstein Jan.  31,  1791,  died  in  Lucerne,  Switz- 
erland, July  22,  1870.  He  lost  his  seat  in  the 
Bavarian  diet  in  1823,  on  account  of  his  oppo- 
sition to  the  government,  and  his  right  to  the 
succession  as  prince  by  marrying  in  the  same 
year  the  daughter  of  his  gardener.  In  1828  he 
was  restored  to  his  seat  in  the  diet,  and  in  1831 
he  became  minister  of  the  interior,  but  was 
soon  succeeded  by  his  adversary  Abel.  He  was 
employed  in  diplomatic  missions  in  1843-'4, 
and  formed  with  Berks  in  1847  the  so-called 
Lola  cabinet.  Subsequently  he  figured  in  the 
chamber  as  a  liberal,  but  his  influence  was  im- 
paired by  his  want  of  consistency,  and  he  was 
arrested  for  debt.  On  his  release  in  1863  he 
was  obliged  to  seek  refuge  in  Lucerne.  His 
nephew,  Prince  Charles  (born  in  1840),  is  the 
present  heir  of  the  house. 

OETTINGER,  Ednard  Maria,  a  German  author, 
born  of  Jewish  parents  in  Breslau,  Nov.  19, 
1808,  died  June  26,  1872.  He  completed  his 
education  in  Vienna,  adopted  the  Roman  Cath- 
olic religion,  and  became  a  journalist,  editing 
various  journals,  mostly  humorous,  in  Berlin, 
Munich,  Hamburg,  Mannheim,  and  Leipsic. 
He  wrote  several  romances,  including  "The 
Ring  of  Nostradamus  "  (1838),  "  Uncle  Zebra  " 
(1842-'3),  "  The  Grammar  of  Marriage  "  (1844), 
"  Sophie  Arnould  "  (1847),  "  Potsdam  and  Sans- 
Souci"  (1848),  and  "Jerome  Napoleon  and  his 
Capri"  (1853).  Among  his  bibliographical 
works  are  Archives  historiques  (1841),  and 
Bibliographic  biographique  (1850 ;  enlarged 
ed.,  Brussels,  1854).  His  last  years  were  spent 
in  poverty  and  blindness.  He  left  an  unfin- 
ished work  entitled  Le  moniteur  des  dates. 

OFEN.     See  BUDA. 

OFFA,  a  king  of  Mercia,  Britain,  who  reigned 
for  about  40  years  in  the  second  half  of  the 
8th  century.  He  conquered  various  territories, 
and  compelled  the  king  of  Kent  to  acknowledge 
his  authority.  Charlemagne  called  him  the 
most  powerful  of  the  Christian  kings  of  the 


OFFENBURG 


587 


West,  and  maintained  friendly  relations  with 
him  except  during  a  short  period  when  the 
traders  in  Offa's  dominions  committed  depre- 
dations upon  Frankish  merchants.  At  the  in- 
stigation of  Cynedrida,  his  wife,  he  put  to  death 
Ethelbert,  king  of  East  Anglia,  and  seized  his 
states.  He  soon  died,  overcome  by  remorse, 
and  was  succeeded  by  his  son  Egferth,  who 
reigned  only  a  few  months.  Offa  compiled  the 
laws  of  his  dominions,  which  are  mostly  in- 
cluded in  the  Anglo-Saxon  code  of  Alfred  the 
Great. — See  "Essay  on  the  Life  and  Institu- 
tions of  Oft'a,"  by  Mackenzie  (London,  1840). 

OFFENBACH,  the  chief  manufacturing  town 
of  the  grand  duchy  of  Hesse,  Germany,  on  the 
S.  bank  of  the  Main,  4  m.  E.  of  Frankfort; 
pop.  in  1871,  22,691.  It  contains  a  castle,  and 
has  manufactories  of  cottons  and  woollens, 
carriages,  cards,  musical  instruments,  jewelry, 
and  other  wares. 

OFFENBACH,  Jacques,  a  French  composer,  born 
of  German-Jewish  parents  in  Cologne,  June 
21,  1819.  He  was  a  student  at  the  Paris  con- 
servatory from  1835  to  1837,  and  began  his 
career  as  a  player  upon  the  violoncello.  His 
first  published  compositions  were  music  to  La 
Fontaine's  fables.  In  1847  he  became  leader 
of  the  orchestra  at  the  Theatre  Francais.  In 
1855  he  opened  the  Bouffes  Parisiens  on  the 
Champs  £lys6es  as  a  summer  theatre,  transfer- 
ring his  company  in  the  winter  to  the  Theatre 
de  Comte  in  the  passage  Choiseul.  In  1873 
he  became  director  of  the  Gaite  theatre.  His 
career  since  the  opening  of  the  Bouffes  Pari- 
siens has  been  one  of  great  prosperity  and  pop- 
ularity. His  Orphee  aux  enfers  ran  for  300 
successive  nights  when  first  produced,  and  his 
operas  have  been  performed  throughout  Eu- 
rope and  America.  For  the  copyright  of  his 
spectacular  opera  bouife  "  Whittington  and  his 
Cat,"  produced  at  the  Alhambra  theatre,  Lon- 
don, Christmas,  1874,  he  received  £3,000.  He 
was  the  first  to  bring  to  the  treatment  of  bur- 
lesque the  ingenuity  and  elaboration  which 
other  composers  have  given  to  more  serious 
works.  His  rank  as  a  composer  is  by  no  means 
proportionate  to  the  popularity  he  has  obtained. 
His  training  was  incomplete ;  his  melodies, 
though  rhythmical,  are  trivial ;  and  the  struc- 
ture of  his  operas  is  founded  for  the  most  part 
upon  dance  measures,  bright  and  pleasant,  but 
of  little  musical  value.  On  several  occasions 
he  has  endeavored  to  produce  a  higher  class  of 
compositions,  and  he  wrote  as  operas  comiques 
Barcouf  and  Robinson  Crusoe.  But  he  failed 
in  these  attempts,  and  returned  to  the  opera 
bouffe.  His  best  known  productions  in  addi- 
tion to  those  above  named  are  La  belle  Eelene 
(1864),  Barbe-Eleue  (1866),  La  grande  duchess* 
(1867),  La  Perichole  and  Genevieve  de  Bra- 
bant  (1868),  Les  brigands  and  La  princesse  dt 
Trebizonde  (1869),  La  jolie  parfumeuse  (1873), 
and  Madame  Varchiduc  (1 874). 

OFFENBURG,  a  town  of  Baden,  at  the  entrance 
of  the  Kinzig  valley,  40  m.  S.  W.  of  Carlsruhe ; 
pop.  in  1871,  5,756.  It  has  a  Catholic  gymna- 


588 


OFTERDINGEN 


OGLE 


slum,  a  female  seminary  in  connection  with  a 
convent,  and  an  active  trade  in  grain  and  wine. 
A  statue  of  Sir  Francis  Drake  was  erected  here 
in  1853,  in  honor  of  his  introduction  of  pota- 
toes into  Europe.  In  the  vicinity  is  the  reno- 
vated castle  of  Ortenberg.  Offenburg  was  once 
a  free  imperial  city.  It  suffered  much  from 
wars  in  the  17th  century.  The  French  were  de- 
feated here  by  the  imperialists,  Sept.  24,  1707. 

OFTERDINGEN,  Heinrieh  Yon,  a  German  min- 
strel, who  flourished  about  1200.  He  was  a 
native  of  Saxony,  but  is  believed  to  have  spent 
much  of  his1  life  at  the  court  of  Austria,  and 
is  one  of  the  reputed  authors,  according  to 
Simrock,  of  the  second  part  of  the  Wartburg- 
Jcrieg,  and  according  to  Spaun  of  the  Nibe- 
lungenlied;  but  he  had  nothing  to  do  with  the 
latter,  and  his  connection  with  the  former  and 
other  works  is  also  contested.  He  is  repre- 
sented in  the  poem  of  the  Sangerlcrieg  as  one 
of  the  great  minstrels  in  the  poetical  contest 
at  the  Wartburg,  and  his  fame  has  been  revived 
in  modern  times  by  Novalis,  who  made  him 
the  hero  of  an  unfinished  romance. 

OG,  king  of  Bashan,  one  of  the  two  kings  of 
the  Amorites  who  withstood  the  invasion  of 
the  Israelites  under  Moses.  He  was  utterly 
defeated  at  Edrei,  his  threescore  cities  were  ta- 
ken, and  his  kingdom  was  given  to  the  half 
tribe  of  Manasseh.  He  was  a  giant,  his  iron 
bedstead,  which  was  kept  in  Rabbath-Ammon, 
being  9  cubits  long  and  4  broad.  Many  stories 
in  regard  to  his  great  size  are  also  found  in 
rabbinical  and  Mohammedan  writers. 

OGDENSBURG,  a  city  of  St.  Lawrence  co., 
New  York,  port  of  entry  of  the  district  of  Os- 
wegatchie,  situated  on  the  St.  Lawrence  river, 
at  the  mouth  of  the  Oswegatchie,  72  m.  below 
Lake  Ontario  and  4  m.  above  the  rapids,  at  the 
terminus  of  the  Rome,  Watertown,  and  Og- 
densburg  railroad,  and  of  a  division  of  the  Ver- 
mont Central  railroad,  175  m.  N.  W.  of  Al- 
bany ;  pop.  in  1860,  7,409 ;  in  1870,  10,076, 
of  whom  4,072  were  foreigners ;  in  1874,  11,- 
340.  It  is  regularly  laid  out  and  handsomely 
built,  and  the  streets  are  lined  with  maples, 
from  which  circumstance  it  derives  the  title  of 
"  Maple  City."  It  is  lighted  with  gas,  and  is 
supplied  with  water  on  the  Holly  plan  by  14 
m.  of  water  mains.  The  public  buildings  are 
the  town  house,  eight  large  brick  and  stone 
school  houses,  six  churches,  and  the  edifice 
(costing  $275,000)  occupied  by  the  custom 
house,  post  office,  and  the  United  States  court. 
Three  ferry  steamers  run  to  Prescott,  Can- 
ada, on  the  opposite  bank  of  the  St.  Law- 
rence, and  there  is  a  line  of  23  steamers  to 
Chicago.  The  commerce  of  Ogdensburg  is  im- 
portant. The  receipts  of  grain  amount  to 
about  5,000,000  bushels  annually,  and  of  lum- 
ber to  about  75,000,000  feet.  The  value  of 
exports  to  foreign  ports  (Canada)  for  the  year 
ending  June  30,  1874,  was  $741,497;  of  im- 
ports from  Canada,  $1,977,751.  The  entrances 
in  the  foreign  trade  were  434,  of  88,380  tons; 
clearances,  434,  of  88,856  tons;  entrances  in 


the  coastwise  trade,  620,  of  176,957  tons; 
clearances,  620,  of  177,897  tons;  belonging  in 
the  district,  85  vessels,  of  3,636  tons.  The 
water  power  is  excellent,  and  is  employed  in 
the  production  of  flour,  rough  and  planed  lum- 
ber, shingles,  and  staves.  About  300,000  bar- 
rels of  flour  and  10,000,000  feet  of  lumber  are 
annually  manufactured.  There  are  three  pri- 
vate banks,  a  public  school  library  of  3,500 
volumes,  and  three  newspapers.  The  public 
schools  are  graded  and  have  an  average  at- 
tendance of  1,020  pupils.  Ogdensburg  is  the 
residence  of  a  Roman  Catholic  bishop.  It  was 
founded  in  1749,  incorporated  as  a  village  in 
1817,  and  as  a  city  in  1868. 

OGEMAW,  a  K  E.  county  of  the  S.  peninsula 
of  Michigan,  drained  by  Rifle  river  and  other 
streams ;  area,  576  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  12. 
The  surface  is  rolling,  with  a  general  slope  to 
the  S.  E.  The  soil  is  fertile. 

OGGIONE,  or  Vggione,  Marco  da,  an  Italian 
painter,  born  at  Oggione,  near  Milan,  about 
1470,  died  in  1530.  He  was  a  pupil  of  Leonar- 
do da  Vinci.  His  chief  works  are  the  frescoes 
executed  for  the  church  della  Pace  in  Milan,  but 
he  is  perhaps  best  known  by  his  celebrated  copy 
of  Da  Vinci's  "Last  Supper,"  executed  about 
1510,  now  in  the  royal  academy  in  London. 

OGILBY,  John,  a  Scottish  poet,  born  in  Edin- 
burgh in  1600,  died  in  London,  Sept.  4,  1676. 
While  a  boy  he  removed  with  his  parents  to  Lon- 
don, where  he  subsequently  became  a  dancing 
master.  Through  the  earl  of  Strafford  he  was 
appointed  master  of  the  revels  in  Ireland,  and 
built  a  theatre  in  Dublin ;  but  the  civil  wars 
having  ruined  his  prospects,  he  returned  to 
England,  and  studied  at  Cambridge.  He  pub- 
lished various  metrical  translations,  including 
one  of  Homer,  which  was  a  favorite  with 
Pope  in  his  younger  days.  At  the  restoration 
he  was  reappointed  master  of  the  revels  in 
Ireland,  but  was  ruined  by  the  fire  of  London. 
He  published  nine  volumes  of  a  descriptive 
"  Geography  of  the  World,"  to  be  disposed  of 
by  lottery ;  of  these,  "America"  (fol.,  Lon- 
don, 1671)  is  curious  and  valuable. 

OGILYIE,  John,  a  Scottish  poet,  born  in 
Aberdeen  in  1733,  died  at  Midmar,  Aberdeen- 
shire,  in  1814.  He  was  educated  at  Mari- 
schal  college,  Aberdeen,  and  in  1759  was  set- 
tled as  minister  of  the  parish  of  Midmar.  He 
wrote  "  The  Day  of  Judgment,"  a  poem  (1758) ; 
"Providence,  an  Allegorical  Poem"  (1763); 
and  "  Solitude,  or  the  Elysium  of  the  Poets  " 
(1765).  A  collection  of  his  poems  was  pub' 
lished  in  1769.  His  critical  and  theological 
works  include  "  An  Inquiry  into  the  Causes  of 
Scepticism  and  Infidelity  in  all  Times  "  (1783), 
and  "  The  Theology  of  Plato  compared  with 
the  Principles  of  the  Oriental  and  Grecian 
Philosophers  "  (1793). 

OGLE,  a  N.  county  of  Illinois,  intersected  by 
Rock  river ;  area,  about  576  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in 
1870,  27,492.  The  surface  is  rolling,  and  the 
soil  very  fertile.  It  is  traversed  by  the  Illinois 
Central  and  the  Chicago  and  Iowa  railroads. 


OGLETHORPE 


OHIO 


589 


The  chief  productions  in  1870  were  502,618 
bushels  of  wheat,  157,504  of  rye,  1,787,066  of 
Indian  corn,  141,540  of  oats,  317,462  of  bar- 
ley, 207,784  of  potatoes,  95,138  Ibs.  of  wool, 
425,700  of  flax,  875,056  of  butter,  43,422  of 
cheese,  and  41,637  tons  of  hay.  There  were 
13,525  horses,  12,932  milch  cows,  21,965  other 
cattle,  18,295  sheep,  and  33,489  swine;  10 
manufactories  of  carriages  and  wagons,  1  of 
dressed  flax,  7  of  saddlery  and  harness,  8  of 
tin,  copper,  and  sheet-iron  ware,  2  flour  mills, 
and  1  planing  mill.  Capital,  Oregon. 

OGLETHORPE,  a  N.  E.  county  of  Georgia, 
bounded  N.  by  the  Broad  river  and  two  of  its 
branches,  and  S.  W.  by  the  Oconee ;  area,  480 
sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  11,782,  of  whom  7,141 
were  colored.  It  has  a  hilly  surface  and  a 
generally  fertile  soil.  It  is  intersected  by  the 
Athens  branch  of  the  Georgia  railroad.  The 
chief  productions  in  1870  were  28,958  bushels 
of  wheat,  181,386  of  Indian  corn,  22,880  of 
oats,  21,532  of  sweet  potatoes,  106,249  Ibs. 
of  butter,  and  5,907  bales  of  cotton.  There 
were  1,438  horses,  7,538  cattle,  4,314  sheep, 
and  9,354  swine.  Capital,  Lexington. 

OGLETHORPE,  James  Edward,  founder  of  the 
colony  of  Georgia,  born  in  London,  Dec.  21, 
1688,  died  at  Cranham  hall,  Essex,  June  30, 
1785.  He  was  commissioned  an  officer  in  the 
queen's  guards  in  1714,  and  as  one  of  Prince 
Eugene's  aides-de-camp  participated  in  the  cam- 
paigns against  the  Turks  in  1716-'17,  and  took 
an  active  command  at  the  celebrated  siege  and 
battle  of  Belgrade.  He  returned  in  1722  to  Eng- 
land, and  in  the  same  year  was  elected  to  par- 
liament from  Hazelmere,  which  he  represent- 
ed for  32  years.  He  made  a  successful  effort 
in  parliament  to  improve  the  condition  of  the 
poor  debtors  confined  in  the  London  prisons, 
and  projected  a  plan  for  a  colony  in  North 
America  to  serve  as  an  asylum  for  the  op- 
pressed Protestants  of  Germany  and  other  con- 
tinental states,  "  and  for  those  persons  at  home 
who  had  become  so  desperate  in  circumstances 
that  they  could  not  rise  and  hope  again  with- 
out changing  the  scene  and  making  trial  of  a 
different  country."  The  unoccupied  territory 
between  Carolina  and  Florida  was  selected  for 
the  experiment.  In  June,  1732,  21  "  trustees 
for  founding  the  colony  of  Georgia  "  were  in- 
corporated by  letters  patent ;  and  in  January, 
1733,  a  party  of  colonists,  under  the  guidance 
of  Oglethorpe,  who  was  appointed  governor  of 
the  colony,  arrived  at  Charleston.  The  narra- 
tive of  his  career  in  Georgia,  until  his  final  re- 
turn to  England  in  1743,  will  be  found  in  the 
article  GEORGIA.  During  the  invasion  of  the 
young  pretender  iu  1745  he  was  appointed  a, 
major  general.  His  conduct  was  repeatedly 
the  subject  of  official  inquiry,  but  he  was  ac- 
quitted. In  1765  he  received  the  rank  of  gen- 
eral of  all  his  majesty's  forces. 

OGLIO  (anc.  Ollius),  a  river  of  northern  Italy, 
flowing  through  Lombardy.  It  rises  in  the 
Rhsetian  Alps  at  the  foot  of  Mount  Tonale,  in 
the  N.  E.  part  of  the  province  of  Bergamo, 


flows  S.  W.  and  afterward  S.  E.,  passes  through 
Lake  Iseo,  and  afterward  separating  the  prov- 
inces of  Bergamo  and  Cremona  from  those  of 
Brescia  and  Mantua,  and  receiving  the  waters 
of  the  Mella  and  the  Chiese  from  the  north, 
joins  the  Po  near  Borgoforte,  and  10  m.  S.  W. 
of  Mantua.  It  is  about  150  m.  long. 

OGOB1Y,  or  Ogowai,  a  large  river  of  western 
Africa,  near  lat.  1°  S.,  flowing  into  the  Atlan- 
tic through  an  extensive  delta,  of  which  the 
principal  branches  are  the  Nazareth,  with  its 
mouth  in  lat.  0°  41'  S. ;  the  Mexias,  in  lat.  0° 
56'  S. ;  and  the  N'pooloonai,  reaching  the  sea 
in  lat.  1°  17'  S.  through  the  mouth  of  the 
Fernand  Vaz,  with  which  river  it  unites  about 
10  m.  inland.  It  was  discovered  by  Du  Chail- 
lu  in  1856,  and  is  formed,  about  100  m.  from 
the  seaboard  and  about  40'  S.  of  the  equator, 
by  the  junction  of  the  Okanda,  supposed  to 
be  the  main  stream,  from  the  northeast,  with 
the  N'gooyai,  from  the  south.  It  has  been  ex- 
plored by  French  government  expeditions  as 
far  as  this  point,  up  to  which  it  is  navigable 
in  the  rainy  season.  Even  in  the  dry  season, 
when  its  level  is  15  ft.  lower,  it  is  practicable 
for  light-draught  steamers  up  to  Goombi,  a 
town  of  the  Gamma  people,  95  m.  from  the 
mouth.  About  40  m.  from  the  coast  the  Ogobay 
receives  the  outflow  of  a  large  lake  10m.  wide, 
communicating  with  it  on  the  S.  bank  by  a 
stream  5  m.  long.  According  to  Du  Chaillu, 
the  Okanda  and  N'gooyia,  which  unite  to  form 
the  Ogobay,  are  the  only  rivers  that  break 
through  the  coast  chain  of  mountains,  and  be- 
tween the  Niger  and  the  Congo  there  is  no 
other  known  river  that  brings  down  so  large 
a  quantity  of  water  as  the  Ogobay. 

OGYGES,  a  mythical  king  of  Greece.  During 
his  reign  occurred  the  deluge  which  is  called 
after  him  the  Ogygian.  According  to  one  tra- 
dition, he  was  the  son  of  Bceotus,  was  king  of 
the  Hectenes,  and  the  first  ruler  of  Boeotia, 
which  was  named  from  him  Ogygia.  The  oldest 
gate  of  Thebes  was  called  the  Ogygian  gate. 
He  is  likewise  described  as  king  of  Attica, 
and  father  of  Eleusis  and  also  of  Dseira.  By 
Strabo  and  Polybius  he  is  spoken  of  as  the 
last  king  of  Achaia,  and  according  to  some 
legends  he  was  an  Egyptian  monarch. 

OHIO,  one  of  the  central  states  of  the  Ameri- 
can Union,  the  fourth  admitted  under  the  con- 
stitution, lying  between  lat.  38°  27'  and  41° 
57'  N.,  and  Ion.  80°  34'  and  84°  49'  W. ;  greatest 
length  from  E.  to  "W.  225  m.,  greatest  breadth 
from  N.  to  S.  about  200  m. ;  area,  39,964  sq. 
m.  It  is  bounded  N.  by  Michigan  and  Lake 
Erie,  E.  by  Pennsylvania  and  West  Virginia, 
S.  by  West  Virginia  and  Kentucky,  and  W.  by 
Indiana.  The  Ohio  river  extends  along  half 
of  its  E.  and  the  whole  of  its  S.  boundary, 
having  a  course  along  the  borders  of  the  state 
of  436  m.  The  lake  shore  of  Ohio  has  an 
extent  of  230  m.,  giving  the  state  a  whole 
navigable  water  frontier  of  666  m.  Ohio  is 
divided  into  88  counties,  viz. :  Adams,  Allen, 
Ashland,  Ashtabula,  Athens,  Auglaize,  Bel- 


590 


OHIO 


mont,  Brown,  Butler,  Carroll,  Champaign, 
Clarke,  Clermont,  Clinton,  Columbiana,  Co- 
shocton,  Crawford,  Cuyahoga,  Darke,  Defi- 
ance, Delaware,  Erie,  Fairfield,  Fayette,  Frank- 
lin, Fulton,  Gallia,  Geauga,  Green,  Guernsey, 
Hamilton,  Hancock,  Hardin,  Harrison,  Henry, 
Highland,  Hocking,  Holmes,  Huron,  Jackson, 
Jefferson,  Knox,  Lake,  Lawrence,  Licking, 
Logan,  Lor  am,  Lucas,  Madison,  Mahoning, 
Marion,  Medina,  Meigs,  Mercer,  Miami,  Mon- 
roe, Montgomery,  Morgan,  Morrow,  Muskin- 
gum,  Noble,  Ottawa,  Paulding,  Perry,  Picka- 
way,  Pike,  Portage,  Preble,  Putnam,  Richland, 
Ross,  Sandusky,  Scioto,  Seneca,  Shelby,  Stark, 
Summit,  Trumbull,  Tuscarawas,  Union,  Van 
Wert,  Vinton,  Warren,  Washington,  Wayne, 
Williams,  Wood,  and  Wyandot.  Columbus, 
the  capital  (pop.  in  1870,  31,274),  is  near  the 
centre  of  the  state;  Cincinnati  (pop.  in  1870, 
216,239)  is  the  largest  city.  The  other  cities, 
with  their  population  according  to  the  census 
of  1870,  are  Akron,  10,006;  Bellair,  4,033; 
Canton,  8,660;  Chillicothe,  8,920;  Circleville, 
5,407;  Cleveland,  92,829;  Dayton,  30,473; 
Delaware,  5,641;  Fremont,  5,455;  Gallipolis, 
3,711;  Hamilton,  11,081;  Ironton,  5,686; 
Lancaster,  4,725;  Lima,  4,500;  Mansfield, 
8,029;  Marietta,  5,218;  Massillon,  5,185; 
Mount  Vernon,  4,876;  Newark,  6,698;  Piqua, 
5,967;  Pomeroy,  5,824;  Portsmouth,  10,592; 
Sandusky,  13,000;  Springfield,  12,652;  Steu- 
benville,  8,107;  Tiffin,  5,648;  Toledo,  31,584; 
TJrbana,  4,276;  Warren,  3,457;  Wooster, 
5,419;  Xenia,  6,377;  Youngstown,  8,075; 
Zanesville,  10,011.  The  population  of  the 
state,  and  its  rank  in  the  Union  according  to 
the  federal  census,  has  been  as  follows : 


YEAR. 

Whit*. 

Colored. 

Total. 

Rank. 

1800 

45028 

837 

45365 

18 

1810  

228,861 

1,899 

230760 

13 

1820  

576  572 

4723 

581  295 

5 

1830 

928  329 

9574 

937  903 

4 

1840 

1  502  122 

17345 

1  519  467 

3 

1850  

1,955,050 

25,279 

1  980  329 

3 

1860  .. 

2  302  808 

36673 

2  339  511 

3 

1870 

2  601  946 

63213 

2665260 

3 

The  total  for  1860  includes  30  Indians,  and 
that  for  1870  30  Indians  and  1  Chinaman.  Of 
the  total  population  in  1870,  1,337,550  were 
males  and  1,327,710  females;  2,292,767  were 
of  native  and  372,493  of  foreign  birth.  Of 
the  natives,  1,842,313  were  born  in  the  state, 
17,382  in  Indiana,  26,230  in  Kentucky,  23,292 
in  Maryland,  13,390  in  Massachusetts,  13,239 
in  New  Jersey,  67,594  in  New  York,  149,784 
in  Pennsylvania,  and  62,936  in  Virginia  and 
West  Virginia.  Of  the  foreigners,  12,988  were 
born  in  British  America,  36,561  in  England, 
82,674  in  Ireland,  7,819  in  Scotland,  12,939 
in  Wales,  182,897  in  Germany,  and  12,727  in 
Switzerland.  The  density  of  population  was 
66-69  persons  to  a  square  mile.  There  were 
521,981  families  with  an  average  of  5-11  per- 
sons each,  and  495,667  dwellings  with  an 
average  of  5-38  to  each.  The  increase  of  pop- 


ulation from  1860  to  1870  was  13-92  per  cent. 
There  were  425,466  males  and  420,505  females 
from  5  to  18  years  of  age,  501,750  males  from 
18  to  45,  and  592,350  male  citizens  21  years 
old  and  upward.  The  total  number  attending 


State  Seal  of  Ohio. 

school  was  645,639.  There  were  92,720  per- 
sons 10  years  of  age  and  over  unable  to  read, 
and  173,172  unable  to  write.  Of  the  latter, 
134,102  were  of  native  and  39,070  of  foreign 
birth ;  125,495  were  21  years  old  and  over,  in- 
cluding 41,439  white  males  and  68,449  white 
females,  and  7,531  colored  males  and  8,076 
colored  females.  During  the  year  ending  June 
1,  1870,  6,383  paupers  were  supported  at  a 
cost  of  $566,280;  and  2,860  native  and  814 
foreign  paupers  were  receiving  support,  June 
1,  1870.  In  1874  there  were  6,001  paupers 
supported  by  the  state.  The  number  of  per- 
sons convicted  of  crime  during  the  year  end- 
ing June  1,  1870,  was  2,560;  1,405  were  in 
prison  at  that  date.  The  number  convicted  in 
1874  was  2,682.  Of  the  total  population  10 
years  old  and  over  (1,953,374),  there  were 
engaged  in  all  occupations  840,889;  in  agri- 
culture, 397,024,  including  191,063  laborers 
and  202,425  farmers  and  planters ;  in  profes- 
sional and  personal  services,  168,308,  of  whom 
3,572  were  clergymen,  53,599  domestic  ser- 
vants, 68,518  laborers  not  specified,  2,563  law- 
yers, 4,638  physicians  and  surgeons,  and  12,- 
084  teachers  not  specified ;  in  trade  and  trans- 
portation, 78,547;  and  in  manufactures,  me- 
chanical and  mining  industries,  197,010.  Ac- 
cording to  the  census  of  1870,  the  total  num- 
ber of  deaths  in  that  year  was  29,568,  or  1*11 
per  cent,  of  the  population.  Consumption  was 
the  cause  of  17'8  per  cent,  of  all  deaths,  and 
pneumonia  of  6-8  per  cent.,  the  number  of 
deaths  being  5,255  from  the  former  and  1,997 
from  the  latter  disease.  During  the  year  end- 
ing March  31,  1873,  there  were  reported  26,- 
460  marriages,  58,977  births,  and  27,112  deaths. 
Of  the  deaths  24,890  were  from  ordinary 
causes,  1,531  from  epidemic  or  uncommon  dis- 
eases, and  691  from  violence  and  accident. — 
Though  the  topography  of  Ohio  is  marked  by 


OHIO 


591 


no  striking  features,  its  surface  is  pleasingly 
diversified.  The  general  aspect  is  that  of  a 
plateau  whose  average  elevation  is  300  to  500 
ft.  above  Lake  Erie,  which  lies  565  ft.  above 
the  sea.  The  highest  point  in  the  state  is  in 
Logan  co.,  1,540  ft.,  and  the  lowest  the  shore 
of  the  Ohio  near  Cincinnati,  433  ft.  above  the 
sea.  The  numerous  draining  streams  have 
deeply  excavated  and  eroded  this  plateau,  giv- 
ing the  surface  an  alternation  of  hills  and 
valleys  and  a  general  rolling  character.  The 
most  prominent  feature  in  the  topography  is 
the  great  divide  separating  the  drainage  of 
Lake  Erie  from  that  of  the  Ohio.  This  passes 
diagonally  across  the  state  from  Trumbull  co. 
in  the  northeast  to  Mercer  and  Darke  cos.  in 
the  west,  with  an  average  altitude  of  about  600 
ft.  above  Lake  Erie.  From  the  summit  of  the 
watershed  the  surface  slopes  gradually  north- 
ward to  the  lake  and  southward  to  the  Ohio, 
and  is  more  or  less  eroded  by  the  draining 
streams.  Many  of  these  streams  flow  in  valleys 
200  to  300  ft.  in  depth,  and  the  Ohio  river  oc- 
cupies an  excavated  trough  500  to  600  ft.  below 
the  summits  of  the  adjacent  hills.  The  streams 
flowing  southward  to  the  Ohio  are  the  longest 
and  deepest,  as  the  Mahoning,  Muskingum, 
Hockhocking,  Scioto,  Little  Miami,  and  Great 
Miami  rivers.  The  Muskingum  is  made  nav- 
igable by  slackwater  improvements  to  Dresden, 
a  distance  of  95  m.  from  its  mouth .  The  shorter 
watershed  on  the  N".  side  of  the  divide  is  drained 
by  the  Chagrin,  Cuyahoga,  Rocky,  Black,  Ver- 
milion, Huron,  Sandusky,  Portage,  and  Mau- 
mee  rivers,  none  of  which  are  navigable  for 
any  distance  from  the  lake.  Bounded  on  its 
northern  margin  by  Lake  Erie,  and  on  its 
southern  by  the  navigable  waters  of  the  Ohio 
river,  Ohio  possesses  water  communication 
through  the  Erie  canal  and  St.  Lawrence  river 
with  the  Atlantic  ocean,  and  through  the  Mis- 
sissippi with  the  gulf  of  Mexico.  The  outline 
of  the  lake  shore,  though  but  little  interrupted, 
affords  several  harbors,  as  Ashtabula,  Cleve- 
land, Black  river,  Sandusky,  and  Toledo.  The 
Ohio  river,  130  ft.  below  Lake  Erie  at  Cincinna- 
ti, and  100  ft.  above  at  the  crossing  of  the  Ohio 
and  Pennsylvania  line,  is  navigable  for  light- 
draught  vessels  to  Pittsburgh,  excepting  during 
dry  seasons. — The  soil  of  Ohio  is  universally 
fertile,  though  over  more  than  one  half  of  the 
state  it  is  of  foreign  origin,  being  derived  from 
the  clays  and  gravels  of  the  drift.  The  uplands 
are  especially  adapted  to  the  growth  of  wheat, 
and  for  a  long  time  Ohio  was  the  largest  grain- 
producing  state.  The  southern  slopes  of  the 
watershed  are  best  fitted  for  the  growth  of 
grain,  while  the  northern  slopes  are  well  suited 
for  grazing  and  dairy  lands;  and  the  bottom 
lands  of  the  larger  rivers  are  among  the  richest 
corn-growing  regions  of  the  world.  Though 
more  wheat  is  produced  in  the  S.  "W.  part  than 
in  any  other  equal  area  in  the  state,  it  is  more 
particularly  the  product  of  the  Maumee  region 
of  the  northwest  and  the  Muskingum  region  of 
the  southeast.  The  clay  soils  of  the  northeast, 
615  VOL.  xii.— 38 


or  "Western  Reserve,  form  the  great  dairy  re- 
gion of  the  west,  and  furnish  19,000,000  of  the 
20,000,000  Ibs.  of  cheese  made  annually  in  the 
state.  The  bottom  lands  of  the  larger  rivers, 
as  those  of  the  Miami,  the  Scioto,  and  Muskin- 
gum, are  rich  alluvial  soils,  and  as  well  adapted 
to  the  growth  of  Indian  corn  as  any  portion  of 
the  middle  states.  The  rocks  underlying  the 
area  drained  by  the  Miami  are  calcareous,  and 
the  soil  produced  from  them  is  of  great  fertil- 
ity, being  in  fact  an  extension  of  the  famous 
blue-grass  region  of  Kentucky.  Grape  culture 
has  received  careful  attention  in  the  valley  of 
the  Ohio  and  on  the  shores  and  islands  of  Lake 
Erie,  and  large  quantities  of  wine  are  annually 
produced  there.  Heavy  crops  of  apples,  peach- 
es, and  other  fruits  are  also  gathered,  especially 
in  the  Miami  region  and  on  the  shores  of  the 
lake.  Originally  almost  the  entire  area  of  the 
state  was  covered  by  forests  of  oak,  chestnut, 
maple,  &c.,  on  the  highlands,  and  elm,  beech- 
es, ash,  &c.,  on  the  lowlands,  though  in  the 
northwest  there  are  prairies  of  limited  extent. 
The  wild  animals,  as  the  deer,  wolf,  bear,  rac- 
coon, and  fox,  which  once  abounded  in  the  state, 
have  almost  entirely  disappeared. — The  geologi- 
cal structure  of  Ohio  exhibits  no  great  breaks 
of  the  strata,  and  the  sedimentary  rocks  which 
underlie  the  state  show  only  a  slight  inclina- 
tion from  the  horizontal.  The  chief  disturb- 
ing element  is  the  Cincinnati  arch  or  anticli- 
nal, which  extends  from  the  islands  of  Lake 
Erie  to  Cincinnati,  and  beyond  into  Kentucky 
and  Tennessee.  From  this  arch  the  strata  dip 
westward  to  the  Illinois  coal  field,  and  south- 
eastward under  the  Alleghany  coal  basin.  A 
study  of  the  composition  of  this  anticlinal 
shows  that  its  elevation  must  have  occurred 
at  the  close  of  the  lower  Silurian  and  previous 
to  the  commencement  of  the  upper  Silurian 
age,  thus  establishing  the  fact  that  the  Illinois 
and  Alleghany  coal  fields  were  separate  and 
distinct  basins  during  the  deposition  of  their 
strata.  The  geological  formations  exposed  in 
the  state  are  the  lower  Silurian,  upper  Silu- 
rian, Devonian,  carboniferous,  and  drift.  The 
oldest  rocks  are  those  of  the  lower  Silurian 
age  which  are  exposed  at  and  near  Cincinnati, 
called  the  Cincinnati  group,  the  equivalents  of 
the  Trenton  and  Hudson  formations  of  New 
York.  These  are  composed  of  beds  of  lime- 
stone and  clay  or  marl,  and  in  the  richness 
and  variety  of  their  fossil  remains  are  une- 
qualled by  any  other  known  locality.  Their 
maximum  thickness  exposed  near  Cincinnati 
is  about  1,000  ft.  Of  the  formations  of  the 
upper  Silurian  age,  the  Clinton  and  Niagara 
limestones  lie  around  and  thin  out  upon  the 
lower  Silurian  area,  and  are  exposed  at  differ- 
ent points  on  the  crown  of  the  Cincinnati  arch 
toward  the  lake.  The  Salina  group,  the  for- 
mation containing  the  salt  at  Syracuse,  N.  Y., 
appears  at  Sandusky,  30  to  40  ft.  in  thickness, 
where  it  carries  valuable  beds  of  gypsum,  but 
thins  out  toward  the  southwest  and  soon  dis- 
appears. The  waterlime,  which  represents  the 


592 


OHIO 


Helderberg  of  New  York,  is  very  largely  de- 
veloped jn  the  western  part  of  the  state  and  on 
the  islands  of  Lake  Erie.  It  flanks  both  sides 
of  the  Cincinnati  arch,  and  its  thickness  near 
the  lake  is  about  100  ft.  The  base  of  the 
Devonian  system,  the  Oriskany,  is  recogniz- 
able in  a  few  places  as  a  saccharoidal  sand- 
stone, 3  to  10  ft.  thick.  The  corniferous  lime- 
stone, the  chief  element  of  the  Devonian  in 
Ohio,  forms  two  belts  of  outcrop  on  opposite 
sides  of  the  Cincinnati  arch,  one  extending 
from  Sandusky,  where  it  is  about  100  ft.  thick, 
thinning  put  southward  toward  Columbus  and 
disappearing  in  Pickaway  co.  The  other  belt 
crosses  the  N.  W.  corner  of  the  state  diago- 
nally from  Michigan  near  Toledo  to  the  Indiana 
line  near  Van  Wert.  The  surface  rock  of 
Kelley's  island  is  also  formed  of  corniferous 
limestone.  It  is  largely  quarried  at  Kelley's 
island,  Sandusky,  Columbus,  and  elsewhere 
for  building  stone  and  lime,  and  the  state  house 
at  Columbus  is  built  of  it.  The  corniferous  at 
Delaware  and  Sandusky  also  yields  interesting 
fossil  fish  remains,  such  as  macropetalicJithys 
and  onychodus.  The  Hamilton  is  exhibited  in 
but  few  localities  as  a  thin  bed  of  marly  lime- 
stone overlying  the  corniferous.  The  Huron 
or  black  shale,  the  equivalent  of  the  Genesee 
and  lower  part  of  the  Portage  of  New  York, 
is  a  mass  of  black  bituminous  shale  300  ft. 
thick  containing  10  to  20  per  cent,  of  carbon- 
aceous matter.  It  occupies  the  entire  N.  W. 
corner  of  the  state  and  a  belt  10  to  20  m.  wide 
extending  from  the  mouth  of  the  Huron  river 
on  Lake  Erie  to  the  Ohio.  It  contains  the  re- 
mains of  huge  fossil  fishes,  dinichthys,  and  is 
the  source  of  the  oil  and  gas  of  Pennsylvania 
and  parts  of  Ohio.  The  Erie  shale,  the  upper 
member  of  the  Devonian  and  the  continuation 
of  the  Portage  and  Chemung  of  western  New 
York,  is  a  mass  of  argillaceous  shale  bordering 
the  lake  shore  from  the  Pennsylvania  line, 
where  it  is  1,000  ft.  thick,  to  the  Vermilion 
river,  where  it  has  thinned  out  and  disappeared. 
Nearly  the  entire  E.  half  of  this  state  is  un- 
derlaid by  the  members  of  the  carboniferous 
system,  which  here  form  the  N.  W.  border  of 
the  great  Alleghany  coal  field.  The  base  of 
this  system  is  composed  of  the  shales  and  sand- 
stones of  this  Waverley  group,  which  are  the 
western  continuation  of  the  "  vespertine "  of 
Pennsylvania.  The  Berea  grit,  a  sandstone 
stratum  of  the  Waverley,  is  extensively  quar- 
ried at  Berea,  Amherst,  Independence,  &c.,  in 
the  N.  part,  and  at  Buena  Vista  in  the  S.  part 
of  the  state,  from  which  places  it  is  largely 
exported  for  building  purposes  and  grindstones. 
The  S.  E.  third  of  the  state  is  occupied  by  the 
coal  measures,  which  are  underlaid  at  places 
by  the  conglomerate,  especially  in  the  N.  part, 
where  it  is  locally  175  ft.  thick ;  and  also  by 
the  carboniferous  limestone,  which  however 
is  rarely  over  20  ft.  thick,  and  does  not  extend 
N.  of  the  central  part  of  the  state.  The  coal 
measures  are  composed  of  strata  of  shale,  sand- 
stone, coal,  limestone,  and  fire  clay  with  iron 


ores,  with  a  maximum  thickness  of  1,200  ft. 
These  cover  in  Ohio  an  area  estimated  at  10,- 
000  sq.  m.  They  are  divided  into  the  lower 
coal  measures,  400  ft.  thick,  the  barren  mea- 
sures, 400  ft.,  and  the  upper  coal  measures, 
300  to  600  ft.  In  the  lower  coal  measures 
there  are  seven  workable  seams  of  coal  of 
general  extent,  varying  in  thickness  from  2$- 
to  13  ft.  The  lowest  and  one  of  the  most  im- 
portant seams  is  coal  No.  1,  the  Brier  Hill, 
Massillon,  and  Jackson  coal.  This  is  an  open- 
burning  block  coal,  2  to  6  ft.  thick,  and  is 
used  extensively  in  the  iron  manufacture  in 
the  Mahoning  and  Tuscarawas  valleys,  and  in 
Jackson  co.  Coal  No.  6  is  one  of  the  most 
extended  and  valuable  seams  in  the  state.  It 
is  of  variable  thickness,  and  in  the  Hocking 
valley  at  Straitsville,  &c.,  attains  a  maximum 
thickness  of  12  to  13  ft.  It  is  generally  a  co- 
king coal,  but  as  best  developed  in,  the  Hock- 
ing valley  is  an  excellent  open-burning  coal. 
The  barren  coal  measures  are  so  called  because 
of  the  absence  from  them  of  any  extended 
workable  coals,  though  locally  seams  occur  of 
value.  The  upper  coal  measures  contain  three 
to  four  workable  seams,  the  lowest  and  most 
important  of  which  is  the  Pittsburgh  coal,  or 
coal  No.  8.  It  occupies  the  district  extend- 
ing from  Steubenville  to  McConnellsville  and 
Pomeroy.  It  is  a  strong  caking  coal,  but  in- 
ferior in  quality  to  the  same  seam  as  developed 
in  S.  W.  Pennsylvania.  The  deposits  of  the 
drift  or  quaternary  cover  about  two  thirds  of 
the  area  of  Ohio,  and  extend  from  the  lake 
southward  to  a  line  irregularly  drawn  from 
the  N.  line  of  Columbiana  co.  on  the  east  to 
Dayton  and  the  Indiana  line  on  the  south- 
west. They  consist  of  heavy  beds  of  clay  (the 
Erie  clay),  sand,  gravel,  and  bowlders,  attain- 
ing sometimes  a  thickness  of  200  ft.,  and  giv- 
ing character  to  the  agriculture  of  large  areas. 
The  underlying  rocks  are  often  found  planed, 
scored,  and  polished  by  glaciers.  An  interest- 
ing feature  in  the  surface  geology  of  Ohio  is 
the  buried  river  channels  and  deeply  excavated 
troughs,  now  filled  wholly  or  partially  by  sand, 
gravel,  &c.,  many  of  which  are  occupied  by 
rivers  now  flowing  far  above  their  old  rocky 
bottoms.  This  points  to  a  time  at  which  the 
land  was  more  elevated  than  at  present,  during 
which  the  river  channels  were  excavated,  and 
to  a  subsequent  period  during  which  the  land 
was  less  elevated,  and  the  channels  were  filled 
up ;  and  it  is  considered  that  the  area  of  the 
state  has  never  been  wholly  submerged  since 
the  close  of  the  carboniferous  age. — The  prin- 
cipal mineral  products  of  Ohio  are  coal,  iron, 
clays,  gypsum,  peat,  salt,  petroleum,  lime,  hy- 
draulic cement,  marl,  and  building  stone.  Coal 
is  the  great  mineral  staple  of  the  state.  The 
distribution  and  quality  of  the  Ohio  coals 
have  been  already  noticed.  The  iron  ores  of 
the  lower  coal  measures  in  the  Hanging  Kock 
region,  in  Lawrence,  Jackson,  and  Scioto  cos., 
are  of  great  value,  and  sustain  an  iron  man- 
ufacture of  large  extent.  Blackband  ore  is 


OHIO 


593 


found  in  one  or  two  localities  in  1ST.  E.  Ohio, 
associated  with  coals  No.  1  and  No.  4 ;  but  the 
most  important  deposit  overlies  coal  No.  7,  at 
the  base  of  the  barren  measures,  in  Tuscarawas 
and  Stark  cos.,  where  it  attains  a  maximum 
thickness  of  16  ft.  It  is  there  of  considerable 
economic  value,  and  is  used  in  the  manufac- 
ture of  iron  at  Massillon,  Dover,  and  Port  Wash- 
ington. The  ores  chiefly  used  in  the  exten- 
sive iron  manufactures  of  Ohio,  which  ranks 
second  among  the  iron-producing  states,  are 
obtained  from  the  Lake  Superior  region,  whence 
they  are  shipped  to  and  distributed  from  Cleve- 
land. Several  varieties  of  fire  clay  underlie  the 
coal  seams,  and  at  certain  horizons  clays  are  ob- 
tained which  are  valuable  hi  the  manufactures 
of  pottery,  fire  brick,  &c. ;  as  those  under  coal 
No.  3  and  coal  No.  5,  which  are  largely  used 
on  the  upper  Ohio  and  elsewhere  in  the  E. 
part  of  the  state.  The  products  manufactured 
from  these  clays  reach  an  annual  value  of  over 
$1,000,000.  Some  of  the  finest  building  stones 
found  in  the  country  are  obtained  from  the 
sandstones  of  the  Waverley  group  at  Amherst 
and  Berea  in  northern  Ohio,  and  from  Waver- 
ley  and  Buena  Vista  in  the  S.  part  of  the  state. 
From  all  these  localities  large  quantities  of  free- 
stone, as  well  as  flagging  and  grindstones,  are 
exported  to  other  states.  The  cornif  erous  lime- 
stone has  already  been  mentioned;  and  the 
sandstones  of  the  coal  measures  also  yield  good 
building  stone.  Large  quantities  of  white 
limestone  have  been  taken  from  the  great 
quarries  in  Montgomery  and  adjacent  counties. 
Gypsum  is  mined  from  the  Salina  group  at 
Sandusky,  and  is  used  both  for  architectural 
purposes  and  as  a  dressing  for  land.  Salt  is 
produced  in  many  localities,  as  at  Pomeroy  in 
Meigs  co.,  in  Athens,  Morgan,  and  Tuscarawas 
cos.,  derived  mainly  from  the  rocks  of  the  Wa- 
verley  group.  Oil  is  obtained  in  small  quanti- 
ties from  Mecca,  Trumbull  co.,  Grafton,  Lo- 
rain  co.,  and  Liverpool,  Medina  co.,  from  the 
"Waverley ;  and  more  abundantly  in  southern 
Ohio  on  Duck  creek,  Noble  co.,  from  the  coal 
measures,  though  its  source  is  in  the  deeper 
strata  of  the  Devonian.  Lime  of  excellent 
quality  is  made  from  the  Niagara  and  cornif  er- 
ous limestones  in  many  localities  in  the  western 
half  of  the  state.  Hydraulic  cement  is  made 
in  Belmont,  Lucas,  and  Auglaize  cos.  At 
Barnesville  in  the  former  county  12,337  bar- 
rels were  made  in  1873,  of  a  quality  equal  to 
any  produced  in  this  country. — The  climate  is 
pleasant  and  healthful.  There  are  great  and 
rapid  changes  in  temperature,  but  the  con- 
stantly varying  winds  prevent  long  continued 
extremes.  In  1874  the  mean  temperature  for 
the  year  was  49 '76°  at  Cleveland,  lat.  41° 
30',  and  55-24°  at  Cincinnati,  lat.  39°  6';  the 
amount  of  rainfall  was  38-43  inches  at  the  for- 
mer and  33-38  inches  at  the  latter  city. — Ohio 
holds  a  very  high  rank  as  an  agricultural  state. 
Its  broad  area  of  fertile  valleys  and  undulating 
and  table  lands,  its  extensive  hills,  so  favorable 
for  raising  sheep  and  other  stock  on  a  large 


scale,  its  great  shipping  facilities  on  the  north- 
ern and  southern  borders,  and  its  network  of 
railroads,  afford  unusual  advantages  for  this 
industry.  According  to  the  federal  census  of 
1870,  Ohio  ranked  first  among  the  states  in 
the  production  of  wool,  flax,  flax  seed,  and 
maple  molasses ;  next  to  Illinois  and  New  York 
in  the  extent  of  improved  land  in  farms  and  in 
the  total  value  of  farm  productions ;  to  New 
York  in  the  cash  value  of  farms  and  the  value 
of  orchard  and  forest  products ;  to  Illinois  in 
the  amount  of  wheat  produced  and  the  value 
of  animals  slaughtered  or  sold  for  slaughter; 
to  Pennsylvania  in  the  production  of  clover 
seed ;  to  Illinois  and  Iowa  in  Indian  corn ;  to 
Vermont  and  New  York  in  maple  sugar ;  and 
to  Indiana  in  sorghum  molasses.  According 
to  returns  made  by  the  state  authorities  in 
1874,  Ohio  ranked  fifth  among  the  states  in 
the  production  of  wheat  and  oats,  third  in  In- 
dian corn,  and  sixth  in  barley.  In  regard  to 
the  production  of  wheat,  Ohio  may  be  divided 
into  three  districts  stretching  across  the  state 
from  E.  to  W.  In  1873  the  average  yield  per 
acre  was  14'02  bushels  in  the  northern,  12-61 
in  the  central,  and  10'36  in  the  southern  dis- 
trict. More  than  a  fifth  of  the  entire  wool 
clip  of  the  country  in  1870  was  produced  in 
Ohio,  which  contained  more  than  a  sixth  of  all 
the  sheep  in  the  United  States.  In  1874  there 
were  more  sheep  reported  in  California  than 
in  Ohio,  but  their  value  was  less.  Of  the 
27,133,034  Ibs.  of  flax  produced  in  the  Uni- 
ted States  in  1870,  17,880,624  Ibs.  were  the 
product  of  Ohio.  As  a  dairy  state  Ohio  with 
New  York  and  Pennsylvania  is  in  the  first 
rank.  In  1870  each  of  the  latter  states  con- 
tained more  milch  cows  and  produced  more 
butter  than  Ohio ;  but  in  the  amount  of  cheese 
produced  and  the  quantity  of  milk  sold  Ohio 
ranked  next  to  New  York.  The  leading  dairy 
counties  are  in  the  N.  E.  part  of  the  state, 
known  as  the  "Western  Eeserve,  the  most  im- 
portant being  Lorain,  Trumbull,  Ashtabula, 
Geauga,  Portage,  Medina,  Cuyahoga,  Summit, 
and  Ashland.  During  the  14  years  ending 
with  1873  the  average  annual  production  of 
butter  was  37,613,639  Ibs.,  and  of  cheese  23,- 
981,990  Ibs.  According  to  the  federal  cen- 
sus of  1870,  the  state  contained  in  farms  14,- 
469,133  acres  of  improved  land,  6,883,575  of 
woodland,  and  359,712  of  other  unimproved 
land.  The  total  number  of  farms  was  195,953, 
containing  an  average  of  111  acres  each;  7,028 
contained  from  3  to  10  acres,  13,794  from  10 
to  20,  55,286  from  20  to  50,  71,066  from  50  to 
100,  48,072  from  100  to  500,  454  from  500  to 
1,000,  and  69  had  over  1,000  acres.  The  cash 
value  of  farms  was  $1,054,465,226  ;  of  farming 
implements  and  machinery  $25,692,787;  total 
amount  of  wages  paid  during  the  year,  inclu- 
ding value  of  board,  $16,480,778 ;  total  estima- 
ted value  of  all  farm  productions,  including 
betterments  and  additions  to  stock,  $198,256,- 
907  ;  orchard  products,  $5,843,679 ;  produce  of 
market  gardens,  $1,289,272;  forest  products, 


594 


OHIO 


$2,719,140;  home  manufactures,  $1,371,409; 
animals  slaughtered  or  sold  for  slaughter,  $40,- 
498,375  ;  value  of  all  live  stock,  $120,300,528. 
In  1873  the  assessors  returned  18,575,239  acres 
of  taxable  lands,  including  8,535,917  cultiva- 
ted, 4,855,425  in  pasture,  4,085,969  woodland, 


and  541,022  other  land  unproductive.  It  was 
believed,  however,  that  the  actual  amount  was 
about  36  per  cent,  more  than  that  reported. 
The  chief  crops,  as  returned  by  the  federal 
census  of  1870  and  by  the  state  authorities  for 
the  three  following  years,  were  as  follows : 


PRODUCTS. 

1870. 

1871. 

1872. 

1873. 

Federal 

census. 

Total 

production. 

No.  of 
acres 
sown. 

Average 
production 
per  acre. 

Total 
production. 

No.  of 
acres 
sown. 

Average 
production 
per  acre. 

Total 
production. 

No.  of 
acres 
sown. 

Average 
product'n 
per  acre. 

Wheat  bush     

27,882,159 
67,501,144 
846,890 
25,347,549 
1,715,221 
180,341 
11,192,814 
230,295 
2,289,565 
151,166 
17,880,624 
631,894 
18.741,973 

22,274,878 
98,363,060 
428,014 
82,696,127 
1,941,240 
177,938 
8,755,198 
207,676 
1,928,221 
884,974 
24,477,361 
738,384 
36,177,680 

1,667,659 
2,682,165 
87,207 
1,000,122 
81,252 
14,972 
100,680 
2,693 
1,831,975 

13-27 
86-67 
11-50 
82-69 
28-89 
11-88 
87 
77 
1-05 

18,087,664 
103,053,234 
295,843 
25,825,742 
1,528,266 
266,807 
7,882,297 
215,023 
1,763,950 
308,903 
9,060,588 
457,379 
34,900,990 

1,611,217 
2,520,253 
25,166 
971,494 
72,483 
84,882 
105,896 
3,026 
l,815,55t 

11-22 
40-89 
11-75 
26-58 
21-08 
7-65 
73-96 
71 
1-02 

21,974,885 
84,049,328 
291,829 
20,501,904 
1,074,906 
213,074 
5,966,316 
170,370 
1,870,212 
205,944 
5,070,788 
167,510 
39,572,558 

1,742,756 
2,400,295 
27,927 
791,927 
49,872 
21,002 
78,199 
2,701 
1,966,315 

12-61 
35-07 
10-45 
25-87 
21-55 
10-14 
76-55 
63-07 
1-05 

Indian  corn,  bush  
Eye  bush 

Oats,  bush  

Barley,  bush    

Buckwheat,  bush  
Potatoes,  Irish,  bush  

"        sweet,  bush  
Hay  tons 

Grass  and  clover  seed,  bush. 
Flax,  Ibs  

I  85,863 
23,862 

12:53 

j-  72,076 
46,221 

'7:55 

j-  43,650 
43,850 

'9:02 

Flaxseed  bush. 

Tobacc®  Ibs 

The  counties  having  the  greatest  extent  of  culti- 
vated land  are  Richland,  Seneca,  Wayne,  Darke, 
Fairfield,  and  Montgomery,  the  total  number 


of  acres  under  crops  in  these  six  counties  be- 
ing 999,925.  Other  agricultural  productions 
have  been  reported  as  follows : 


PRODUCTIONS. 

1870. 
Federal  census. 

1871. 

1872. 

1873. 

Wool  Ibs 

20  539  643 

16  139  881 

17  586  209 

17175465 

Hops  Ibs. 

101,236 

Butter   Ibs                                                         ... 

50266872 

44  994  152 

45  418  066 

43  583  865 

Cheese,  Ibs  , 

24,153,876 

82,394,152 

84,403,857 

86  668  530 

Milk,  gallons  sold  

22,275,344 

Maple  su^ar  Ibs          

8,469,128 

1,832896 

2  690  Oil 

2,150,072 

"     molasses,  galls  

852,612 

271,113 

536,320 

376'84S 

Sorghum  sugar,  Ibs  

25,505 

84,599 

86,84(J 

"        molasses,  galls  

2,023,427 

1,817,042 

968,130 

692,814 

Honey  Ibs 

763124 

Wax,  Ibs 

22488 

Orchards,  acres 

m      f      877,297 

883,647 

391  550 

885,829 

Apples  bush        

2   .     11  012  582 

10  437  437 

21  632  475 

11  848  431 

Peaches  bush 

5®         809639 

860530 

405  619 

94516 

2  2  -         67  047 

126  982 

153968 

80033 

Vineyards,  acres  

®  £           10,890 

11,219 

is'in 

19660 

Grapes  Ibs     

"ff*     15858719 

19  292  980 

10016427 

6607653 

Wine  galls 

OQ          2  577  907 

1  031  923 

425  923 

208  289 

The  number  of  domestic  animals  reported  by 
the  federal  census  of  1870,  and  the  number 
and  value  returned  for  taxation  in  1874,  were 
as  follows : 


ANIMALS. 

1870. 

1 

574. 

Number. 

Value. 

Horses  

704,664 

729  803 

$45  932  868 

Mules  and  asses  

16,065 

25,345 

1,778,181 

Cattle  

1,673,864 

27,917,537 

Milch  cows  

654,390 

Working  oxen 

28606 

Other  cattle. 

843425 

Sheep..  .  . 

4,928,635 

4,383,868 

10,452  067 

Swine... 

1,728.968 

1,915,220 

6,152,875 

— Ohio  possesses  great  natural  advantages  as  a 
manufacturing  state,  and  holds  a  very  high  rank 
in  this  respect.  According  to  the  federal  cen- 
sus of  1870,  it  ranked  after  New  York,  Penn- 
sylvania, and  Massachusetts  in  the  amount  of 
capital  employed  in  manufactures  and  the  value 
of  products ;  first  in  the  value  of  wooden  ware ; 


next  to  Illinois  in  agricultural  implements  and 
distilled  liquors ;  to  New  York  in  cooperage, 
linseed  oil,  and  factory  cheese ;  to  Pennsylvania 
in  iron  ore  and  coal  oil;  to  New  York  and 
Pennsylvania  in  iron  castings,  forged  and  rolled 
iron,  sash,  doors,  and  blinds,  soap  and  candles, 
tin,  copper,  and  sheet-iron  ware,  and  malt ;  to 
Illinois  and  Missouri  in  bituminous  coal  and 

Sork  packed;  and  to  California  and  Missouri 
i  vinous  liquors.  It  also  ranked  among  the 
first  in  malt  liquors,  machinery,  mining,  and 
leather.  The  total  number  of  manufacturing 
establishments  of  all  kinds  was  22,773,  having 
4,586  steam  engines  of  129,577  horse  power, 
and  2,157  water  wheels  of  44,746  horse  power, 
and  employing  137,202  hands,  of  whom  119,680 
were  males  above  16  years  of  age,  11,575  fe- 
males above  15,  and  5,941  youths.  The  capital 
employed  amounted  to  $141,923,964;  wages, 
$49,066,488;  materials,  $157,131,697;  products, 
$269,713,610.  The  leading  industries  are  rep- 
resented in  the  following  table : 


OHIO 


595 


INDUSTRIES. 

No.  of 

establish- 
ments. 

Steam 
engines, 
horse 
power. 

Water 
wheels, 
horse 
power. 

Hands 
employed. 

Capital. 

Wages. 

Value  of 
materials. 

Value  of 
products. 

Agricultural  implements  

219 
2,406 
2,358 
279 
831 
1,613 
1,221 
11 
195 
773 
25 
658 
1,896 
558 
55 
58 
88 
10 
65 
215 
58 
495 
887 
63 
199 
88 
142 
2,228 
142 
13 
72 
84 
79 

118 

58 
11 
28 
17 
20 
17 
43 
787 
40 
142 
42 
170 
652 
85 
406 
191 

8,581 
45 
48 
250 
516 
800 
231 
467 
817 

'885 
963 
18,884 
2,299 
575 
1,693 
11,186 
1,477 
10,158 
2,858 
968 
1,622 
210 
2.710 
1,257 

2,883 
86,698 
1,750 
732 
1,265 
189 
1,010 

172 

106 

108 
866 
1,288 
883 
16 
425 

'849 
8,423 
267 

482 
77 
206 
6 
2,689 

283 

"8 

"28 

"46 
"56 

26,564 
193 
48 
145 
100 

'453 
82 
94 

'265 
4 

"95 
9,690 
528 

"20 
80 
70 

'277 

819 
965 

"46 
250 

"19 
"19 

1,873 

5,124 
4,270 
6,738 
975 
2,409 
4,924 
5,094 
1,462 
759 
10,632 
270 
8,206 
8,932 
4,996 
1,275 
1,301 
4,670 
870 
4,582 
8,073 
1,987 
1,265 
796 
735 
1,805 
124 
1,095 
8,225 
2,254 
1,862 
2,311 
166 
927 

677 

830 
148 
202 
785 
868 
134 
1,488 
1,999 
487 
2,078 
407 
1,244 
2.818 
1,042 
2,499 
2,169 

$7,570,320 
1,089,692 
2,058,067 
495,522 
633,660 
1,086,777 
2,964,783 
1,355,970 
474,970 
4,696,727 
757,000 
1,108,957 
11,334,952 
5,004,465 
610,600 
1,803,450 
6,636,659 
841,241 
7,437,826 
5,656,879 
2,616,750 
2,171,108 
1,057,783 
2,829,700 
5,887,272 
869,900 
1,212,902 
6,188,179 
8,895,885 
2,447,284 
2,826,120 
965,228 
1,085,125 

661,445 

8,792,490 
601,000 
1,090,967 
1,604,800 
876,000 
417,400 
1,768,400 
632.828 
1,085,904 
2,428,523 
1,085,150 
751,700 
1,598,433 
570,980 
826,869 
2,962,169 

$2,841,518 
518,222 
1,747,310 
284,582 
462,758 
1,481,134 
1,671,070 
917,565 
116,635 
2,486,829 
157,859 
1,105,530 
965,724 
2,106,971 
382,071 
548,647 
2,791,560 
198.140 
2,035^520 
1,757,300 
1,100,866 
879,178 
251,413 
369,987 
748,540 
25,300 
491,263 
1,584,759 
1,244,978 
1,117,110 
1,301,649 
75,801 
410,396 

278,590 

341,964 
71,822 
76,590 
806,273 
144,776 
63,780 
948,521 
419,097 
161,420 
949,374 
166,518 
417,508 
711,421 
269,700 
769,937 
554,680 

$5,240,550 
988,602 
2,834,261 
1,288,604 
294,420 
8,277,849 
1,537,164 
1,865,679 
1,875,711 
7,496,501 
4,496,163 
1,729,417 
26.498,777 
1,784,459 
419,106 
665,190 
8,435,585 
1,607,402 
7,056,405 
8,569,086 
1,195,424 
2,768,493 
2,933,218 
4,371,289 
2,711,270 
179,775 
1,599,615 
4,913,328 
1,880,596 
1,130,889 
2,656,409 
943,818 
439,674 

502,865 

9,370,626 
1,553,186 
1.537,290 
1,511,148 
792,664 
269,442 
958,444 
992,922 
862,922 
1,780,236 
2,837,625 
250,070 
1,458,534 
1,469,626 
973,174 
1,895,622 

$11,907,366 
8,099,476 
6,559,946 
2,202,818 
1,252,657 
6,805,653 
5,049,580 
2,555,855 
2,287,804 
12,367,440 
5,888,478 
3,554,171 
31,692,210 
5,794,876 
998,209 
1,712,208 
13,033,169 
2,097,848 
10,956,988 
7,818,102 
8,221,298 
8,714,232 
8,522,100 
7,022,656 
5,753,666 
809,875 
2,519,745 
10,102,780 
4,198,912 
2,248,149 
4,801,841 
1,129,696 
1,112,072 

1,108,961 

10,655,950 
1,702,843 
1,840,000 
2,219,880 
1,224,253 
1,004,200 
2,896,720 
2,074,268 
773,492 
8,416,998 
2,976,544 
970,749 
8,214,285 
2,380,583 
2,668.183 
3,187,815 

Blacksmithing  

Boots  and  shoes. 

Bread,  crackers,  and  other  bakery  products. 
Brick  

Carpentering  and  building 

Carriages  and  wagons 

Cars,  freight  and  passenger  

Cheese  

Clothing,  men's 

Coal  oil,  rectified  

Cooperage  

Flouring  and  grist-mill  products  
Furniture,  not  specified 

'*        chairs  

Hubs  and  wagon  materials  

Iron,  rolled  and  forged. 

"     nails  and  spikes,  cut  and  wrought  
"     pigs  

"     castings,  not  specified  

"          "         stoves,  heaters,  and  hoi.  ware. 
Leather,  tanned  

"         curried  

Liquors,  distilled  

"        malt  

"        vinous  . 

Lumber,  planed  

"       sawed      ... 

Machinery,  not  specified  

"          railroad  repairing.  . 

"         steam  engines  and  boilers 

Malt 

Marble  and  stone,  work  not  specified 

"         "         monuments  and  tomb-  j 
stones  j 

Meat,  packed  pork  

Oil,  animal 

"  linseed  

Paper,  printing 

"      wrapping  .  .  „  

Patent  medicines  and  compounds  
Printing  and  publishing,  not  specified  
Saddlery  and  harness  

Salt. 

Sash,  doors,  and  blinds  

Soap  and  candles  

Stone  and  earthen  ware 

Tin,  copper,  and  sheet-iron  ware  
Tobacco,  chewing,  smoking,  and  snuffing  .  . 
"       cigars  .   . 

Woollen  goods 

Besides  the  above,  there  were  535  establish- 
ments engaged  in  mining,  having  121  steam 
engines  of  4,143  horse  power,  and  employing 
11,241  hands,  about  one  half  of  whom  are  em- 
ployed under  ground.  The  capital  invested 
amounted  to  $9,017,197,  and  the  annual  prod- 
ucts to  $7,751,544.  Among  the  latter  were 
2,527,285  tons  of  bituminous  coal,  valued  at 
$5,482,952;  316,529  of  iron  ore,  $960,984; 
petroleum,  $228,488;  and  stone,  $1,079,120. 
According  to  returns  by  the  state  authorities, 
55,316,666  bushels  of  coal  were  mined  in  1871, 
110,438,754  in  1872,  and  87,794,240  in  1873. 
The  counties  in  which  the  largest  amounts 
were  produced  in  the  last  named  year  were 
Stark,  10,002,642  bushels;  Perry,  9,979,056; 
Trumbull,  8,217,248;  Athens,  7,803,637;  Co- 
lumbiana,  6,728,570;  Meigs,  5,757,203;  Sum- 
mit, 5,395,444;  and  Wayne,  5,189,018.  There 
were  336,758  tons  of  iron  ore  mined  in  1872, 
and  332,972  in  1873,  more  than  half  being  the 
product  of  Lawrence  and  Jackson  cos.  The 
production  of  pig  iron  was  reported  by  the 
American  iron  and  steel  association  at  399,743 


tons  in  1872,  and  406,029  in  1873,  which  was 
about  one  seventh  of  the  entire  product  of  the 
United  States.  The  number  of  stacks  in  1873 
was  988.  In  1873  the  assessors  reported  44 
rolling  mills,  including  15  manufacturing  rails, 
4  Bessemer  steel  rails,  and  7  other  kinds  of 
steel.  The  reported  production  of  salt  was 
4,154,187  bushels;  petroleum,  1,315,660  gal- 
lons; lime,  488,331  barrels;  water  cement, 
12,377  barrels;  stone  ware,  4,525,300  gallons. 
In  extent  of  pork  packing  Ohio  ranks  above  all 
other  states  except  Illinois.  During  the  win- 
ter season  of  1874-'5  there  were  packed  871,- 
736  hogs,  weighing  in  the  aggregate  241,737,- 
547  Ibs.,  the  average  gross  weight  being  277'3 
Ibs.  each.  The  total  product  of  lard  was  35,459,- 
594  Ibs.;  value  of  hogs  packed,  $16,597,490. 
Among  the  other  products  were  465,075,171 
Ibs.  of  green  sides,  186,030,068  of  shoulders, 
and  162,776,309  of  hams.  The  chief  seat  of 
this  industry  is  Cincinnati,  where  the  number 
of  hogs  packed  was  560,164.  (See  CINCIN- 
NATI.)— Ohio  has  three  United  States 'customs 
districts,  Miami,  Sandusky,  and  Cuyahoga,  the 


596 


OHIO 


ports  of  entry  being  Toledo,  Sandusky,  and 
Cleveland.  Cincinnati  is  a  port  of  delivery  in 
the  district  of  Louisiana.  By  act  of  congress 
of  July,  1870,  it  is  also  made  a  port  of  entry, 
where  merchandise  may  be  entered  without 
appraisement  at  the  port  of  first  arrival.  The 
value  of  the  merchandise  thus  transported  du- 
ring the  year  ending  June  30, 1874,  was  $111,- 
576 ;  that  entered  from  other  districts  amount- 
ed to  $75,435.  The  imports  and  domestic  ex- 
ports in  the  three  customs  districts  during  the 
year  ending  June  30,  1874,  were  as  follows : 


DISTRICTS. 

Imports. 

Domestic 
export!. 

Cuyahoga  .... 

$449  118 

$1  426  990 

Miami 

79018 

l'836'825 

Sandusky  

26,240 

'264'914 

Total  

$554,376 

$8  528,729 

The  number  of  vessels  and  tonnage  that  en- 
tered and  cleared  in  the  foreign  trade,  and  the 
whole  number  registered,  enrolled,  and  licensed 
in  each  district,  were  as  follows : 


DISTRICTS. 

ENTERED. 

CLEARED. 

REGISTERED,  AC. 

No. 

Tons. 

No. 

Tons. 

No. 

Tons. 

Cuyahoga.  .  . 
Miami  
Sandusky  .. 

Total  

924 
802 
136 

198,676 
69,517 
12,089 

947 
286 
155 

189,587 
71,339 
14,332 

10 

2,320-20 

1,362 

280,282 

1,388 

275,258 

10 

2,320-20 

The  number  of  vessels  engaged  in  the  coastwise 
trade  and  those  built  in  the  different  districts 
were  as  follows : 


DISTRICTS. 

COASTWISE  TRADE. 

BUILT. 

ENTERED. 

OLEAEED. 

No. 

Tons. 

No. 

Tons. 

No. 

Tons. 

Cuyahoga  
Miami  
Sandusky  

Total.  .  . 

3,315 
1,962 
3,140 

1,126,839 
441>3 
479,897 

3,418 
1,918 
8,124 

1,170,851 
425,951 
474,602 

20 
6 
2 

11,242-75 
1,807-84 
614-16 

8,417 

2,048,329 

8,460 

2,070,904 

28 

18,664-75 

— The  mileage  of  railroads  in .  Ohio  has  in- 
creased from  36  m.  in  1841  to*  572  in  1851, 
3,024  in  1861,  3,176  in  1865,  3,214  in  1867, 
3,224  in  1869,  3,457  in  1871,  3,787  in  1872,  and 
4,163  in  1873;  and  4,374m.  of  main  line  and 
branches  were  reported  by  the  commissioners 
of  railroads  and  telegraphs,  June  30,  1874,  be- 
sides which  there  were  1,142  m.  of  sidings  and 
other  tracks,  making  the  total  extent  of  track 
5,516  m.  The  total  amount  of  capital  stock 
paid  in  was  $147,902,160;  funded  and  other 
debt,  $151,029,300;  total  stock  and  debt, 
$298,931,461;  number  of  passengers  carried, 
14,886,294;  freight,  26,199,435  tons;  gross 
earnings  on  4,195  m.  operated,  $37,177,129; 
net  earnings,  $10,182,894.  The  lines  in  opera- 
tion in  1874,  with  their  termini  and  number  of 
miles  completed,  are  represented  in  the  follow- 
ing table : 


NAME  OF  CORPORATION. 

TERMINI. 

Miles  in 
operation  in 
the  state  in 
1874. 

Total  length 
between  ter- 
mini when 
different  from 
the  preceding. 

From 

To 

*Ash  tabula,  Youngstown,  and  Pittsburgh  

Ashtabula 

63 
248 

60 

80 
83 

8 

'887 

81 

Atlantic  and  Great  Western  

Salamanca,  N.  Y  
j-  Dayton  

Dayton  .  .   . 

PYtMisinn  J  Bv  means  of  extra  rail  on  Cincinnati, 

JiXtenSlOn  •<          TraTr,!H-/Yn     an  A    T»o     +^n      rwo/1 

Cincinnati  

(  Cleveland  and  Mahoning 

Cleveland 

Sharon  Pa 

Divisions-^  Niles  and  New  Lisbon  
(  Liberty  and  Vienna  

Niles.... 
Girard 

New  Lisbon 

New  Vienna 

Baltimore  and  Ohio  

i  Baltimore,  Pittsburgh,  and  Chicago.  .  . 
Central  Ohio.  .  .  . 

Centreton  . 

Chicago,  111  
Bellaire  . 

95 
137 
116 
44 
4 
20 
60 
21 
87 
141 
148 
130 
15 
45 
188 
119 
50 
74 
145 
13 
109 
43 
82 
76 
13 
82 
7 

269 

"88 

"98 
42 

'263 
'l24 

Columbus  . 

Sandusky,  Mansfield,  and  Newark  
Newark,  Somerset,  and  Straitsville  
Canada  Southern  (branch)  

Sandusky,  .  . 

Newark  

Newark  
Toledo  

Shawmee  

TrentonCrossing,Mich. 
Indiana  state  line  

•(•Cincinnati  and  Indiana  

Cincinnati 

Cincinnati,  Hamilton,  and  Dayton  

Dayton 

1  Cincinnati,  Hamilton,  and  Indianapolis.. 
Leased  -<  Cincinnati,  Richmond,  and  Chicago  
(  Dayton  and  Michigan  

Hamilton  

Indianapolis,  Ind  
Richmond  Ind 

Cincinnati  

Dayton  ... 

Toledo 

"•Cincinnati  and  Muskingum  Valley  

Dresden  Junction  .  .  . 
Springfield  
Carey  

Springfield 

Morrow  

Sandusky 

Cincinnati,  Sandusky,  and  Cleveland  

Branch  

Leased,  Columbus,  Springfield,  and  Cincinnati  

Cleveland,  Columbus,  Cincinnati,  and  Indianapolis-] 
Leased,  Cincinnati  and  Springfield 

Findlay 

Cleveland 

Gallon 

Indianapolis,  Ind  
Springfield 

Delaware  

Springfield  .. 

Cincinnati 

Cleveland,  Mt.  Vernon  and^Delaware 

Hudson 

Leased,  Massillon  and  Cleveland           

Clinton  

Massillon 

*Cleveland  and  Pittsburgh  

Cleveland  

Rochester  Pa 

Eiver  division  . 

Bellaire  
Bayard  

Yellow  Creek  .  .  . 
New  Philadelphia.... 
Athens. 

Tuscarawas  branch  

Columbus  and  Hocking  Valley 

Branch  

Logan  

New  Straitsville  
Union  City,  Ind  
Harrison  

Dayton  and  Union     . 

Dodson 

^Harrison  branch  ,.  

Valley  Junction  

*  Operated  by  the  Pennsylvania  railroad  company. 

t  Operated  by  the  Indianapolis,  Cincinnati,  and  Lafayette  railroad  company. 

$  Operated  by  the  Whitewater  Valley  railroad  company  of  Indiana. 


OHIO 


597 


NAME  OF  CORPORATION. 

TEE 

MINI. 

Miles  in 
operation  in 

Total  length 
between  ter- 

From 

To 

the  state  in 
1874. 

different  from 
the  preceding. 

Iron  .... 

Ironton  

Centre  Station 

14 

Lake  Erie  and  Louisville                                     .     .  . 

Sandusky 

Cambridge  City  Ind 

87 

189 

Lake  Shore  and  Michigan  Southern 

Buflalo  If.  Y 

Chicago  111 

265 

539 

Sandusky  branch  

Elyria  

Milbury 

77 

Franklin  division 

Ashtabula 

Oil  City  Pa 

86 

87 

Leased,  Mahoning  Valley  

Andover  

Youngstown 

88 

Lake  Shore  and  Tuscarawas  Yalley  '.  . 

Black  Eiver  

Uhrichsville 

100 

*Mansfield,  Cold  water,  and  Lake  Michigan 

Mansfield.. 

Allegan  Mich 

64 

223 

§Marietta  and  Cincinnati  

Parkersburg,  W.  Va.. 

Cincinnati. 

201 

Marietta  

Scott's  Lauding 

4 

Branches  ..                        •< 

Portsmouth  ... 

Hamden 

56 

Hillsboro 

21 

.... 

Marietta,  Pittsburgh,  and  Cleveland  

Marietta  

Canal  Dover 

98 

Ohio  and  Mississippi  

Cincinnati. 

St  Louis  Mo 

19 

840 

Ohio  and  Toledo  

10 

Painesville  and  Youngstown  

Painesville.   . 

Youngstown 

50 

64 

*Pittsburgh,  Cincinnati,  and  St.  Louis  ...   . 

Pittsburgh,  Pa. 

125 

198 

Branch 

Junction 

Cadiz 

Q 

i  Columbus,  Chicago,  and  Indiana  Cen-  ( 

Columbus.. 

Chicago  111. 

105 

814 

tral.. 

Bradford  Junction 

82 

106 

Little  Miami 

120 

, 

Xenia  ... 

Springfield 

19 

.... 

Branches  •<  Dayton  and  Xenia 

Dayton 

Xenia 

16 

(  Dayton  and  Western  
,  Fort  Wayne,  and  Chicago.  . 

Dayton  

Pittsburgh  Pa. 

Kichmond,  Ind  
Chicago  111. 

41 

249 

'468 

Branch  *  .    '  .  .             " 

Lawrence  Junct'n  Pa 

17 

Rocky  Eiver 

Cleveland 

Kocky  Eiver 

5 

*  * 

Toledo,  Canada  Southern,  and  Detroit  

Toledo 

Detroit  Mich'  ' 

7 

57 

Toledo,  Tiffin,  and  Eastern      

Tiffin 

Toledo 

42 

Toledo,  Wabash,  and  Western  

Toledo. 

Camp  Point  111 

76 

454 

Ohio  has  654  m.  of  canals  proper,  36  in.  of 
feeders  and  side  cuts,  11  m.  of  reservoirs,  and 
95  m.  of  the  Muskingum  slack- water  improve- 
ment, from  Marietta  to  Dresden,  making  a 
total  of  796  m.  of  artificial  navigation.  The 
first  canal  (the  Ohio)  was  begun  in  1825,  and 
the  last  completed  in  1844.  The  total  cost  of 
all  was  $14,688,666.  The  canals  are  as  follows : 

Ohio,  Cleveland  to  Portsmouth 809  m. 

Trenton  feeder 8 

Dresden  side  cut 2 

Granville  feeder 6 

Columbus  feeder 11 

Miami  and  Erie,  Cincinnati  to  Toledo 246 

Branch  to  Indiana  state  line,  connecting  with  Wa- 
bash and  Erie  canal 18 

Sidney  feeder. .  .• 14 

St  Mary's  reservoir 11 

Walhonding,  Eoscoe  to  Eochester 25 

Hocking,  Carroll  to  Athens 56 

— The  number  of  national  banks  in  the  state 
Nov.  1,  1874,  was  170,  having  a  paid-in  capital 
of  $29,223,000 ;  bonds  on  deposit,  $25,964,750 ; 
circulation  issued,  $34,474,265;  outstanding, 
$23,605,633.  The  circulation  was  $8  68  per 
capita,  1  per  cent,  of  the  wealth  of  the  state, 
and  80'8  per  cent,  of  the  bank  capital.  Besides 
the  above,  21  state  banks  were  reported  in  1874, 
capital  $658,666;  32  savings  banks,  capital  $1,- 
879,324;  and  190  private  banks,  capital  $8,- 
502,414. — The  present  constitution  of  Ohio  was 
adopted  in  1851.  The  right  to  vote  is  secured. 
to  every  white  male  citizen  of  the  United  States 
21  years  of  age,  who  has  resided  one  year  in 
the  state,  30  days  in  the  county,  and  20  in  the 
township,  village,  or  ward,  next  preceding  the 
election.  Colored  citizens  are  entitled  to  vote 
under  the  federal  constitution.  The  general 


elections  are  held  annually  on  the  second  Tues- 
day of  October.  The  general  assembly  consists 
of  a  senate  of  36  members  and  a  house  of  105 
representatives,  both  elected  for  two  years.  Its 
regular  sessions  are  biennial,  beginning  on  the 
first  Monday  of  January  in  even  years.  The 
executive  officers  are  a  governor,  salary,  $4,000 ; 
lieutenant  governor,  $800 ;  secretary  of  state, 
$2,000;  auditor,  $3,000;  treasurer,  $3,000; 
comptroller  of  the  treasury,  $2,000 ;  attorney 
general,  $1,500  and  fees ;  and  commissioner  of 
schools,  $2,000.  All  are  chosen  for  two  years, 
except  the  auditor,  whose  term  is  four,  and  the 
comptroller  and  commissioner  of  schools,  who 
hold  office  for  three  years.  The  board  of 
public  works  comprises  three  members,  who 
are  also  elected.  The  commissioner  of  rail- 
roads and  telegraphs,  the  superintendent  of 
insurance,  supervisor  of  public  printing,  gas 
commissioner,  and  state  and  law  librarians  are 
appointed  by  the  governor.  The  state  board 
of  agriculture  consists  of  ten  members,  five  of 
whom  are  chosen  annually  for  two  years,  at  a 
convention  composed  of  the  presidents  of  the 
county  agricultural  societies.  The  officers  are 
chosen  annually  by  the  board.  The  supreme 
court  consists  of  a  chief  justice  and  four  judges, 
salary  $3,000  each.  It  has  original  jurisdiction 
in  quo  warranto,  mandamus,  habeas^  corpus, 
and  procedendo,  and  appellate  jurisdiction  of 
the  judgments  of  the  district  courts.  Regular 
terms  are  held  annually  in  Columbus,  beginning 
on  the  first  Monday  in  December.  The  state 
is  divided  into  nine  common  pleas  districts,  each 
of  which  is  subdivided  into  three  parts,  each 
part  electing  one  or  more  of  the  judges.  Courts 


§  Including  the  Cincinnati  and  Baltimore  railroad,  which  extends  from  Cincinnati  6  m.  eastward. 


598 


OHIO 


of  common  pleas  are  held  by  one  or  more  of 
the  judges  in  each  county,  and  district  courts 
by  the  common  pleas  judges  of  each  district, 
with  one  judge  of  the  supreme  court.  The 
district  courts  have  original  jurisdiction  similar 
to  that  of  the  supreme  court,  and  appellate 
jurisdiction  of  the  judgments  of  the  common 
pleas.  They  are  composed  of  the  judges  of 
the  common  pleas  in  the  respective  districts 
and  one  of  the  judges  of  the  supreme  court. 
A  court  of  common  pleas  is  held  in  each  coun- 
ty by  a  single  judge,  and  has  original  jurisdic- 
tion when  the  amount  in  controversy  exceeds 
$100,  and  appellate  jurisdiction  from  justices 
of  the  peace  and  probate  courts.  There  are 
special  superior  courts  in  Cincinnati,  Cleveland, 
Dayton,  and  Xenia.  Probate  courts  are  estab- 
lished in  each  county.  Justices'  courts  have 
exclusive  jurisdiction  in  civil  actions  where  the 
amount  does  not  exceed  $100,  and  concurrent 
jurisdiction  with  the  common  pleas  when  the 
amount  is  between  $100  and  $300.  All  judges 
are  elected,  those  of  the  supreme  and  common 
pleas  courts  for  five  years.  The  state  is  di- 
vided into  two  United  States  judicial  districts, 
the  courts  being  held  in  Cincinnati,  Cleveland, 
and  Toledo.  A  married  woman  may  hold,  free 
from  the  interference  of  her  husband  or  his 
creditors,  the  property  belonging  to  her  at  the 
time  of  marriage,  or  afterward  acquired  by 
gift,  bequest,  or  inheritance,  or  by  purchase 
with  her  separate  means,  and  may  dispose  of 
such  property  by  will.  She  has  similar  control 
of  her  earnings.  Divorces  may  be  obtained 
for  three  years'  desertion,  adultery,  impotence, 
extreme  cruelty,  fraudulent  contract,  gross 
neglect  of  duty,  habitual  drunkenness  for  three 
years,  or  imprisonment  under  criminal  sentence. 
Wills,  except  nuncupative,  must  be  in  writing 
and  signed  by  two  or  more  witnesses.  The 
legal  rate  of  interest  is  6  per  cent. ;  not  more 
than  8  per  cent,  may  be  agreed  upon  in  wri- 
ting, but  6  per  cent,  may  be  recovered  on  a  con- 
tract for  more  than  8  per  cent.  Statistics  of 
agriculture,  industry,  &c.,  are  annually  collect- 
ed by  township  assessors  and  published  under 
the  direction  of  the  secretary  of  state.  Ohio  has 
2  senators  and  21  representatives  in  congress, 
and  has  therefore  23  votes  in  the  electoral  col- 
lege.— The  state  funds,  not  including  transfers, 
during  the  year  ending  Nov.  15,  1874,  were: 


FUNDS. 


General  revenue 

Asylum 

Sinking 

State  common  school. . 
National  road 


Total.. 


Receipts. 


$1,024,588 

1,875,889 

1,315,216 

1,535,125 

17,971 


$5,768,789 


Disbursements. 


$725,864 

1,943,338 

910,121 

1,487,562 


Balances, 
Nov.15,1874. 


$193,876 

40,224 

450,570 

127,727 


$5,085,978  |  $812,397 


The  receipts  of  the  general  revenue  fund  in- 
cluded $929,672  from  taxes  and  licenses,  $19,- 
271  insurance  fees,  $24,930  from  board  of  pub- 
lic works,  and  $42,440  from  sale  of  Central 
Ohio  lunatic  asylum  grounds.  Among  the  dis- 


bursements were  $150,278  for  salaries  of  the 
judiciary,  $135,909  for  state  binding,  printing, 
and  stationery,  $127,543  expenses  of  constitu- 
tional convention,  $101,159  for  legislature, 
$44,275  for  public  works,  $37,876  for  clerks 
in  civil  departments,  $31,587  for  salaries  of 
state  officers,  $16,976  for  geological  survey, 
and  $3,000  for  encouragement  of  agriculture. 
The  funded  debt  of  the  state  on  Nov.  15, 1874, 
amounted  to  $7,988,205,  of  which  $22,365  had 
ceased  to  draw  interest  and  $7,965,840  was 
interest-bearing.  The  local  debts  on  Septt  1, 
1874,  were  $21,886,007,  making  the  entire  in- 
debtedness of  the  state  (with  an  irreducible 
debt  of  $4,121,394)  $33,995,606.  The  total 
amount  of  taxable  property  in  1874  was  re- 
turned at  $1,580,379,324,  including  $1,052,- 
257,736  real  estate,  of  which  $354,849,199  was 
in  cities,  towns,  and  villages,  and  personal  prop- 
erty valued  at  $528,121,588.  The  total  tax- 
es levied  on  this  valuation  amounted  to  $26,- 
837,196  (exclusive  of  $777,532  for  delinquent 
taxes  and  forfeitures  of  other  years),  inclu- 
ding $5,050,367  for  state  and  $6,038,750  for 
county  purposes,  and  $15,748,079  township, 
city,  school  and  special  taxes.  The  purposes 
for  which  the  state  tax  was  levied,  with  the 
amounts  and  rates,  were  as  follows : 


FUNDS. 

Rate. 
Mills  on 
the  dollar. 

Amount. 

General  reserve  .'  

•5 

$788  856 

Asylum 

•9 

1  419  941 

Sinking 

'8 

1  262  170 

State  common  school  

1-0 

1  579  400 

Total 

8-2 

$5  050  867 

The  value  of  taxable  property  and  the  amount 
of  taxes  levied  for  a  series  of  years  have  been 
as  follows : 


f« 

Value  of 
realty. 

Value  of 
pertonalty. 

Total  value 
of  taxable 
property. 

State  tax. 

Total 
taxes  on 
duplicate. 

1840 
1850 
1860 
1861 
1862 
1863 
1864 
1865 
1866 
1867 
1S68 
1869 
1870 
1S71 
1872 
1873 
1874 

$85,287,261 
841,888,838 
639,894,311 
643,883,552 
645,670,080 
649,500,022 
655,498,100 
660,557,979 
663,647.542 
673,998,757 
683,452,487 
697,418.203 
707,846,886 
1,025,619.034 
1,030,160,528 
1,041,763,981 
1,052,257,786 

$27,038,895 
98,487,502 
248.408,290 
248,966,532 
243,615,312 
286,871,222 
351,198,016 
409,047,876 
442,561,379 
464,761,022 
460,008,899 
459,762,252 
459,884,861 
476,510,987 
494,159,590 
525,510,708 
528,121,588 

$112,326,156  $564,435 
489,876,340  1,413,830 
888,302.601  8,503,718 
892,850,084  4,056,379 
889,285,292:4,129,473 
936,371,244  '4,722,608 
1,006,696,116:5,329,963 
1,069,605,8555,663,367 
1,106,208,9218,867,167 
1,138,754,7798,981,099 
1,143,461,386  3,997,472 
1,157,180,4554,045,476 
1,168,731.697  4,666,242 
1,502,129,971  4,350,728 
1,524.323,118  4.414,557 
1,567,274,639  5,477,859 
1,580,879,324  5,050,367 

$1,755,589 

4,227,708 
10,817,676 
11,656,814 
10,135,285 
11,859,574 
16,595,639 
20,870,828 
18,868,487 
20,253,615 
20,489,148 
22,232,877 
23,463,631 
22,955,388 
23,248,979 
26,131,358 
26,837,196 

— Ohio  has  made  liberal  provision  for  the  care 
of  its  defective  and  dependent  classes.  Four 
institutions  for  the  insane  are  wholly  and  two 
partially  supported  by  the  state.  The  oldest 
is  the  central  Ohio  hospital,  which  was  opened 
at  Columbus  in  1839.  The  building  was  de- 
stroyed by  fire  in  1868,  and  a  new  one  is  now 


OHIO 


599 


(1875)  in  process  of  construction  on  a  plot  of 
300  acres  of  land  near  the  same  city.  For  15 
years  prior  to  its  destruction  the  average  daily 
number  of  inmates  of  this  institution  was  262. 
The  other  state  hospitals  for  the  insane  are  the 
northern  Ohio,  in  Newburgh,  Ouyahoga  co. ; 
the  southern  Ohio,  in  Dayton,  and  the  south- 
eastern, in  Athens.  The  Longview  lunatic  asy- 
lum, near  Cincinnati,  belongs  to  Hamilton  co., 
but  state  patients  are  received  here,  and  the 
institution  is  supported  in  part  by  legislative 
appropriations,  which  in  1874  amounted  to 
$81,856.  Both  white  and  colored  insane  per- 
sons are  treated  in  this  institution.  The  Lucas 
county  asylum,  known  also  as  the  Northwest- 
ern hospital  for  the  insane,  near  Toledo,  does 
not  belong  to  the  state,  but  receives  state  pa- 
tients. During  the  year  ending  March  31,  1874, 
1,018  were  sent  to  the  hospitals  for  the  insane. 
There  is  also  a  city  institution  for  the  insane 
in  Carthage,  opened  in  1860.  The  state  asylum 
for  idiots  in  Columbus  has  been  in  existence 
since  1857.  The  present  building  was  first  oc- 
cupied in  1868.  (See  IDIOCY,  vol.  ix.,  p.  174.) 
The  asylum  for  the  deaf  and  dumb  and  that 
for  the  blind  are  in  Columbus.  The  former 
had  24  instructors  in  1874,  and  the  latter  14. 
The  soldiers'  and  sailors'  orphans'  home  was  es- 
tablished near  Xenia,  Greene  co.,  in  December, 
1869,  and  was  sustained  by  private  contribu- 
tions till  May  1,  1870,  when  it  became  a  state 
institution.  The  state  reform  school  is  situated 
upon  a  farm  of  1,170  acres  6  m.  S.  of  Lancas- 
ter. The  buildings,  15  in  number  besides  barns 
and  outhouses,  with  the  yards,  lawns,  and  play 
grounds,  occupy  20  acres.  Boys  are  sent  to 
the  institution  by  some  court  of  record  for 


crime  or  misdemeanor,  and  are  here  classed  in 
families  of  50,  each  family  being  under  the 
supervision  of  an  "  elder  brother,"  an  assistant 
elder  brother,  and  a  female  teacher.  Besides 
receiving  instruction,  the  boys  are  employed  in 
farm  work  and  other  industrial  pursuits.  Since 
the  opening  of  the  institution  in  1857,  1,984 
boys  have  been  admitted  and  1,520  discharged, 
the  average  time  of  detention  being  2£  years. 
The  industrial  school  for  girls  is  at  White  Sul- 
phur Springs,  where  the  state  owns  189  acres 
of  land.  The  state  penitentiary  is  in  Colum- 
bus. The  convicts  are  employed  in  various 
manufactures  on  the  direct  account  of  the  state, 
and  their  labor  is  let  out  to  contractors.  By 
good  behavior  and  diligence  in  his  work,  a 
convict  may  diminish  his  sentence  five  days  a 
month,  and  receive  a  portion  of  his  earnings, 
not  exceeding  one  tenth.  If  he  passes  the  entire 
period  of  his  sentence  without  violating  the 
rules  of  the  prison,  he  will  be  restored  to  citi- 
zenship. There  is  a  separate  department  for 
insane  convicts.  The  total  receipts  during  the 
year  ending  Nov.  1,  1874,  were  $177,367,  in- 
cluding $165,207  from  convict  labor;  the  ex- 
penditures were  $171,955,  not  including  $4,362 
expended  in  the  manufacture  of  gas  for  public 
institutions.  During  the  year  509  prisoners 
were  received,  371  were  discharged,  and  there 
were  1,005  in  confinement  at  the  close  of  the 
year.  The  total  disbursements  by  the  state 
on  account  of  the  penitentiary  amounted  to 
$187,103,  besides  $61,576  for  the  prosecution 
and  transportation  of  criminals.  The  condi- 
tion of  the  charitable  and  reformatory  insti- 
tutions for  the  year  ending  Nov.  15,  1874,  is 
given  in  the  following  statement : 


INSTITUTIONS. 

Opened. 

INMATES. 

Current 
expenses  and 
ordinary 
repairs. 

Total 

disbursements 
by  the  state. 

Whole 

No. 

Average 
daily  No. 

Central  Ohio  hospital  for  the  insane 

1839 
1855 
1855 
18T4 
1861 
18T1 
185T 
1829 
1887 
1869 
18£7 
1869 

$304,523 
358,841 
99,396 
220,539 
210,369 
25,278 
97,012 
81,781 
121,067 
83,567 
63,563 
49,728 

527 

960 
708 
785 
174 
886 
468 
169 
555 
636 
166 

253 
526 
426 
582 
100 
352 
400 
109 
520 
450 
143 

$57,741 
99,396 
94,725 
119,424 

25,028 
69,903 
81,781 
40,763 
61,051 
49,901 
20,202 

Southern  "         "           "           "      

Southeastern  Ohio  hospital  for  the  insane  

Longview  asylum  for  the  insane  

Lucas  co.      "  "           "           "      

Asylum  for  idiots 

"       for  deaf  and  dumb  

for  blind  ..  . 

Soldiers1  and  sailors1  orphans1  home  

Reform  school  

Girls1  industrial  home.            .  .                                             ..... 

In  April,  1874,  there  were  reported  in  the 
state,  not  in  any  of  the  above  named  institu- 
tions, 1,347  insane,  1,271  idiotic,  1,039  deaf 
and  dumb,  and  870  blind.  During  the  year 
ending  March  31,  1874,  4,066  paupers  were 
supported  in  county  infirmaries,  besides  1,935 
dependent  persons  otherwise  maintained  by 
counties. — The  first  law  assessing  a  school  tax 
in  Ohio  was  passed  in  1825.  In  1838  the 
school  laws  were  revised,  and  a  state  common 
school  fund  of  $200,000  was  established,  to  be 
distributed  among  the  several  counties  accord- 
ing to  the  number  of  youth  therein.  The  office 
of  state  superintendent  of  common  schools  was 


established  in  1837  and  abolished  in  1840.  In 
1853  the  office  of  state  commissioner  of  com- 
mon schools  was  created.  In  1873  the  school 
acts  were  consolidated  into  a  general  law,  which 
provides  for  the  division  of  the  state  into  school 
districts  of  five  classes.  City  districts  of  the 
first  class  include  cities  having  by  the  census 
of  1870  a  population  of  10,000  or  more,  while 
cities  having  less  than  10,000  inhabitants  con- 
stitute city  districts  of  the  second  class.  Vil- 
lage districts  embrace  incorporated  villages. 
The  territory  not  within  any  of  these  classes 
is  divided  into  special  districts  and  township 
districts.  In  all  of  these  districts  boards  of 


600 


OHIO 


education  are  elected  by  the  people.  Among 
other  duties  they  may  authorize  and  require 
for  school  purposes  a  tax  not  exceeding  seven 
mills  on  the  dollar.  They  may  require  any  lan- 
guage to  be  taught  in  the  schools  under  their 
control,  and  are  required  to  provide  instruction 
in  the  German  language  upon  the  demand  of 
75  freeholders,  representing  not  less  than  40 
pupils  who  desire  and  intend  to  study  both  the 
German  and  English  languages.  Prior  to  1873 
instruction  in  the  German  language  exclusively 
was  given  in  many  of  the  public  schools.  Un- 
der the  new  law  all  branches  must  be  taught 
in  the  English  language.  Boards  of  educa- 
tion are  also  empowered  to  establish  separate 
schools  for  colored  children  when  their  num- 
ber exceeds  20,  and  to  provide  suitable  even- 
ing schools  for  whites.  An  enumeration  of 
all  unmarried  persons  between  6  and  21  years 
of  age  is  required  to  be  made  in  each  district 
annually.  The  state  commissioner  of  com- 
mon schools  is  chosen  by  the  people  for  three 
years,  and  receives  a  salary  of  $2,000  besides 
his  travelling  and  contingent  expenses.  He  is 
required  to  visit  annually  each  judicial  dis- 
trict, and  to  make  a  report  before  Jan.  20.  A 
state  board  of  three  examiners,  appointed  by 
the  state  commissioner  for  two  years,  are  au- 
thorized to  issue  life  certificates  to  teachers 
upon  examination ;  there  are  also  county  ex- 
aminers. .  The  state  common  school  fund  con- 
sists of  the  proceeds  arising  from  the  sale  of 
lands  appropriated  by  congress  for  the  support 
of  schools  and  the  amount  accruing  from  the 
one-mill  tax  on  the  taxable  property  of  the 
state.  The  school  statistics  for  1873-'4,  as  re- 
ported by  the  state  commissioner  of  common 
schools,  are  as  follows  : 

Number  of  persons  between  6  and  21  years  of  age. .       985,947 

White  963,548 

Colored... 


Males 505,001 

Females    430,946 

Number  of  school  districts 1,919 

"       of  school  houses 11,688 

"       of  school  rooms 14,768 

Estimated  value  of  school  houses  and  grounds $18,829,586 

Number  of  teachers  (males  9,911,  females  12,464). .         22,375 
Average  number  of  weeks  the  schools  were  in  sess'n  29 

"      of  pupils  enrolled 707,943 

"      in  daily  attendance 429,630 

Number  of  teachers  in  colored  schools 160 

Pupils 6,131 

Total  revenue  for  school  purposes |8,300,594 

Income  from  mill  tax $1,491,510 

"      from  interest  on  irreducible  funds  and  rents 

of  school  lands $225,523 

Income  from  local  taxes  (average  rate  5-23) $5.960,625 

"      from  sale  of  bonds $899,625 

"      from  fines,  licenses,  &c $223,810 

Total  expenditure .' $8,072,167 

Amount  paid  teachers $4,614,499 

"  "     for  supervision $188,530 

"          "     for  sites  and  buildings  $1,474,082 

"          "    for  interest  on  and  redemption  of 

bonds $516.603 

Amount  paid  for  fuel  and  contingent  expenses $1,328,452 

Average  cost  per  pupil  on  year's  expenditures,  net 

per  capita  on  average  daily  attendance $14  15 

On  enrollment $8  57 

Average  cost  per  pupil  enrolled  including  6  per 

cent,  on  value  of  permanent  improvements. . .         $9  55 

The  number  of  high  schools  reported  was  108, 
having  678  teachers  and  23,372  pupils.     Be- 


sides the  public  schools  above  enumerated, 
there  were  in  the  state  265  instructors  and 
13,066  pupils  in  private  schools.  These 
schools  receive  no  support  from  the  public 
school  funds,  but  boards  of  education  are  re- 
quired to  report  concerning  their  condition. 
Ohio  has  no  state  normal  school;  but  sev- 
eral institutions  not  receiving  public  funds 
are  maintained  for  the  training  of  teachers. 
Chief  among  these  are  the  National  normal 
school  in  Lebanon,  the  Northwestern  Ohio  in 
Ada,  the  Northwestern  in  Fostoria,  the  Ohio 
Central  in  Worthington,  the  Western  Eeserve 
in  Milan,  the  McNeeley  in  Hopedale,  the  Or- 
well normal  institute  in  Orwell,  and  the  nor- 
mal school  in  Cincinnati.  Most  of  these  have 
courses  of  instruction  in  addition  to  the  nor- 
mal. The  most  extensive  of  them  is  the  Na- 
tional normal  school,  opened  in  1856,  which 
has  collegiate  (including  scientific  and  classical 
courses),  teachers',  engineering,  business,  and 
preparatory  departments,  in  all  of  which  there 
were  in  1873-'4  17  teachers,  of  whom  7  were 
females,  and  1,657  pupils,  of  whom  324  were 
females.  During  1873-' 4,  75  teachers'  institutes 
were  held,  and  were  attended  by  8,579  teachers. 
Nothing  is  contributed  by  the  state  to  the  sup- 
port of  this  means  of  training  teachers.  Of 
the  cost  ($15,318)  of  maintaining  these  insti- 
tutes, $11,792  was  taken  from  the  fund  ac- 
cruing from  the  fee  of  50  cents  paid  by  each 
applicant  for  a  teacher's  certificate,  and  $3,332 
was  contributed  by  teachers  and  others.  The 
Ohio  agricultural  and  mechanical  college  has 
been  established  by  means  of  the  congression- 
al land  grant  of  1862,  from  which  a  produc- 
tive fund  of  over  $500,000  has  been  realized. 
The  institution  was  opened  in  Columbus  in 
September,  1873.  The  system  of  instruction 
embraces  three  schools :  1,  exact  sciences,  in- 
cluding mathematics,  civil  engineering,  phys- 
ics and  mechanics,  and  chemistry ;  2,  natural 
history,  comprising  botany,  zoology,  geology, 
and  agriculture ;  3,  letters,  embracing  the  Eng- 
lish, German,  French,  Latin,  and  Greek  lan- 
guages and  literatures.  Social  science  and  po- 
litical economy  are  also  taught.  The  entire 
course  of  instruction  occupies  four  years.  The 
studies  of  the  first  two  years  are  prescribed. 
During  the  remainder  of  the  course  the  student 
has  a  liberty  of  choice  from  six  courses  of 
study.  He  is  required  to  take  at  least  one 
from  each  of  the  schools  above  mentioned, 
and  may  take  all  of  his  remaining  studies  from 
one  school.  Instruction  is  free  to  pupils  of 
both  sexes.  Applicants  for  admission  are  ex- 
amined in  the  ordinary  English  branches.  The 
degrees  of  bachelor  of  arts,  bachelor  of  science, 
and  civil  engineer  are  conferred.  The  institu- 
tion has  a  farm  of  320  acres,  and  valuable  ap- 
paratus and  collections  for  imparting  an  in- 
dustrial and  scientific  education.  In  1874-'5 
there  were  10  instructors  and  75  students. — 
The  colleges  and  professional  schools  of  the 
state,  with  the  number  of  instructors  and  pu- 
pils in  1874-'5,  were  as  follows : 


OHIO 


601 


INSTITUTIONS. 

Where  situated. 

Denominations. 

In  what 
•year 
opened. 

No.  of  in- 
structori. 

Pupils  in 
collegiate 
department. 

Pupils  in 
all  depart- 
ments. 

Antioch  college  

Yellow  Springs.. 
Berea. 

Unitarian  .  . 

1853 
1856 
1872 
1850 
1842 
1831 
1847 
1825 
1864 
1850 
1867 
1825 
1835 
1851 
1858 
1837 
1833 

1804 
1844 
1859 
1847 
1835 
1831 
1870 
1851 
1826 
1856 
1870 
1858 
1845 
1850 

1833 

1856 

1821 
1871 
1842 
1843 
1849 
1819 
1852 
1845 
1872 
1848 

1833 
1851 
1849 
1794 

1830 

1860 
1871 

10 

18 
14 
6 

18 
10 
8 

"7 

8 
13 
10 
15 
16 

68 
3 
6 
12 

11 

4 
16 
27 
4 
16 

"4 

5 

10 

4 

14 
3 
15 

'is 

10 
12 

7 
14 

8 

5 
7 
3 

8 
3 

43 
179 
101 
60 
114 
87 
20 

'S5 
102 
87 

85 
818 
638 

159 

15 
48 
159 

'75 

i59 
155 
10 
66 

'is 

25 
100 
122 

65 

'76 
66 

"TO 

282 

'88 
56 
65 

48 

'so 

48 
25 

120 
288 
180 
80 
220 
162 
82 

iio 

210 
233 
69 
183 
112 
809 
125 
1,830 
50 
109 
376 
217 
205 

272 
806 
25 

183 

'79 
150 
163 
271 

Baldwin  university  

Methodist  Episcopal 

Buchtel  college.  .  .  *  

Universalist 

Capital  university 

Columbus  
Cincinnati 

Evangelical  Lutheran  
Methodist  Episcopal 

Cincinnati  Wesleyan  college  

Denison  university  

Granville 

Baptist 

Farmer's  college.  * 

College  Hill  
New  Athens  
Berea 

United  Presbyterian 

German  Wallace  college  

Heidelberg  college  
Hiram  college 

Tiffin  
Hiram  
Gambier 

Eeformed  

Disciples 

Kenyon  college  

Protestant  Episcopal  
Not  denominational  
Eoman  Catholic  
Methodist  Episcopal 

Marietta  college  

Marietta 

Mount  St.  Mary's  of  the  West  

Cincinnati. 

Mount  Union.... 
New  Concord  
Oberlin  
Iberia 

Muskingum  college  

Not  denominational  
Congregational 

Oberlin  college  

Ohio  Central  college  

United  Presbyterian  

Ohio  university  

Ohio  Wesleyan  university  

Delaware  .  .  , 

Methodist  Episcopal 

One  Study  university  

NewMark'tStat'n 
Westerville 

Methodist  Episcopal 

Otterbein  university  

United  Brethren  in  Christ. 

Eichmond  college  

Eichmond 

St.  Xavier  college  

Eoman  Catholic 

Wooster 

Urbana  university  
Western  Eeserve  college  '  

Urbana  
Hudson.  . 

New  Church  . 

Not  denominational 

Wilberforce  university  .... 

Xenia 

Afric'n  Method't  Episcopal 
Friends 

Wilmington  college  

Willoughby  college  

Willoughby... 
Springfield  
Xenia 

Methodist 

Wittenberg  college. 

Evangelical  Lutheran  
Methodist  Episcopal  

Xenia  college  

SCHOOLS  OF  LAW. 

Law  school  of  Cincinnati  college.  .  .  . 
Ohio  state  and  union  law  school  

SCHOOLS  OF  MEDICINE. 

Cincinnati  college  of  medicine  and 
surgery 

Cincinnati  

Cleveland  

Cincinnati 

Eegular 

Cincinnati  college  of  pharmacy  
Cleveland  medical  college 

Cleveland 

Pharmaceutic  

Eegular 

Eclectic  medical  institute 

Eclectic 

Homoeopathic  hospital  college  
Medical  college  of  Ohio 

u 

Homoeopathic  

Cincinnati  

Eegular  

Miami  medical  college 

Ohio  college  of  dental  surgery.  . 

u 

Dental  

Pulte  medical  college  .  . 

u 

Homoeopathic  

Starling  medical  college  and  hospital 

SCHOOLS  OF  THEOLOGY. 

Lane  theological  seminary 

Columbus  
Cincinnati  

Eegular 

Presbyterian 

Mount  St.  Mary's  of  the  West  
St.  Mary's  theological  seminary  
Theological  seminary  
Theological  seminary  of  the  Evan-  ) 
gelical  Lutheran  ioint  synod  of  > 
Ohio    ....'.......:.,  ....             j 

Eoman  Catholic  
Eoman  Catholic  
United  Presbyterian  

Evangelical  Lutheran  
Eoman  Catholic  

Cleveland  
Xenia  

Columbus 

Carthagena  
Davton..  . 

Theological     seminary     of     St.  [ 

Union  Biblical  seminarv.  .  . 

United  Brethren  in  Christ. 

The  system  adopted  by  the  One  Study  univer- 
sity enables  students  to  complete  one  study  be- 
fore beginning  another.  The  Cincinnati  Wes- 
leyan college  is  exclusively  for  females.  Both 
sexes  are  admitted  to  Antioch,  Hiram,  Mount 
Union,  Oberlin,  Ohio  Central,  One  Study  uni- 
versity, Otterbein,  Richmond,  and  the  univer- 
sity of  Wooster.  Besides  these,  there  are  nu- 
merous seminaries  of  a  high  order  for  the  su-, 
perior  instruction  of  females.  In  addition  to 
the  professional  schools  above  named,  there  is 
a  law  department  in  Wilberforce  university;  a 
medical  department  (in  Cleveland)  of  the  uni- 
versity of  Wooster;  a  college  of  pharmacy 
connected  with  Baldwin  university;  scientific 
departments  of  Denison  university  and  Oberlin 
college;  and  theological  departments  of  Ger- 


man Wallace  college,  Heidelberg  college,  Mount 
St.  Mary's  of  the  West,  Oberlin  college,  Wilber- 
force university,  and  Wittenberg  college.  The 
Toledo  university  of  arts  and  trades  has  recent- 
ly been  organized  for  advanced  artistic  and  in- 
dustrial instruction  of  young  men  and  women. 
The  number  of  libraries  in  1870  was  17,790, 
with  an  aggregate  of  3,687,363  volumes.  Of 
these,  11,765  with  2,353,000  volumes  were  pri- 
vate, and  6,025  with  1,334,363  volumes  other 
than  private;  3  town,  city,  &c.,  61,000;  1,118 
school,  college,  &c.,  426,013;  4,896  Sabbath 
school,  796,650 ;  and  5  circulating,  8,500.  The 
largest  libraries  are  the  public  in  Cincinnati, 
which  in  1874  had  62,000  volumes ;  the  state 
in  Columbus,  39,000 ;  the  mercantile  in  Cin- 
cinnati, 35,500 ;  and  the  library  of  Marietta 


602 


OHIO 


college,  with  26,000  volumes.  St.  Xavier  col- 
lege, Mount  St.  Mary's  of  the  West,  Ohio  Wes- 
leyan  university,  Denison  university,  Western 
Reserve  college,  and  Oberlin  college  have  also 
large  libraries.  The  Cincinnati  law  library 
contains  about  10,000  volumes.  The  whole 
number  of  newspapers  and  periodicals  in  1870 
was  395,  having  an  aggregate  circulation  of 
1,388,367,  and  issuing  annually  98,548,814 
copies.  There  were  26  daily,  with  a  circula- 
tion of  139,705  ;  8  tri-weekly,  13,560;  3  semi- 
weekly,  7,200;  299  weekly,  923,502;  8  semi- 
monthly, 65,050;  47  monthly,  228,750;  2  bi- 
monthly, 2,700;  and  2  quarterly,  7,900.  In 
1874  the  total  number  reported  was  505,  viz. : 
29  daily,  10  tri-weekly,  5  semi-weekly,  386 
weekly,  1  bi-weekly,  12  semi-monthly,  61 
monthly,  and  11  quarterly. — The  total  number 
of  religious  organizations  in  1870  was  6,488, 
having  6,284  edifices  with  2,085,586  sittings, 
and  property  valued  at  $25,554,725.  The  de- 
nominations were  represented  as  follows : 


DENOMINATIONS. 

Organi- 
zations. 

Edifices. 

Sittings. 

Property. 

Baptist,  regular  
"       other  

555 

•  158 
681 
198 
114 
157 
91 
7 
477 
2,161 

8 

628 
164 

2 

• 
288 

295 
1 
4 

78 
2 
88 

545 
157 
610 
195 
112 
140 
91 
7 
476 
2,115 

6 

625 
165 

2 

266 

295 
1 
4 

78 
2 
83 

164,020 
88,850 
167,625 
87,150 
51,150 
83,500 
26,050 
4000 
181,050 
714,146 
1,200 

1,350 

233,945 
60,000 

700 

88,900 

160,700 
800 
2,100 
20,750 
200 
8,600 

$2,538,000 
225,500 
1,366,990 
1,335,585 
1,343,280 
838,500 
218,770 
360,584 
1,392,975 
6,540,910 
14,000 

55,000 

3,580,756 
564,970 

9,500 

887,700 

8,959,970 
1,000 
16,000 
175,950 
600 
84,775 

Christian       

Episcopal,  Protestant  .  .  . 
Evangelical  Association.. 
Friends 

Jewish  

Lutheran 

Methodist 

Moravian  
New  Jerusalem  (Swe-  ) 
denborgian)                 f 

Presbyterian,  regular  
other  
Reformed    church    in  ) 
America  (late  Dutch  V 
Reformed)  .               .  ) 

Reformed  church  in  the  / 
United   States    (late  V 
German  Reformed).  .  ) 
Roman  Catholic  
Second  Advent  
Shaker  

Universalist  

Unknown,  local  missions 
"         union  

— The  first  explorations  in  the  territory  which 
now  constitutes  the  state  of  Ohio  were  made 
by  the  French,  the  discoveries  of  La  Salle  in 
this  region  dating  from  about  1680.  The  ob- 
ject of  the  French  adventurers,  however,  seems 
to  have  been  trade  rather  than  settlement. 
They  were  soon  involved  in  disputes  with  the 
English,  who,  having  obtained  from  their  sov- 
ereign a  grant  covering  part  of  the  territory 
claimed  by  the  French,  sent  out  surveyors,  and 
established  trading  posts  in  the  Ohio  valley. 
It  was  in  the  war  which  broke  out  in  conse- 
quence of  these  conflicting  claims  that  Wash- 
ington first  became  known;  but  neither  his 
abilities  nor  the  operations  of  a  powerful  force 
sent  out  under  Gen.  Braddock  could  overcome 
the  French,  who  kept  possession  of  the  coun- 
try until  Canada  and  the  whole  country  W.  to 
the  Mississippi  were  surrendered  by  the  treaty 
of  1763.  After  the  war  of  the  revolution  dis- 


putes arose  between  several  of  the  states  re- 
specting the  right  of  soil  in  this  territory, 
which  were  only  allayed  by  the  cession  of  the 
whole  to  the  United  States,  Virginia  reserving 
3,709,848  acres  near  the  rapids  of  the  Ohio 
for  her  state  troops,  and  Connecticut  a  tract 
of  3,666,921  acres  near  Lake  Erie  (the  West- 
ern Keserve).  In  1800  jurisdiction  over  these 
two  tracts  was  relinquished  to  the  federal  gov- 
ernment, the  states  retaining  the  right  to 
the  soil,  and  disposing  of  it  in  small  lots  to 
settlers,  while  the  Indian  titles  to  the  rest  of 
the  state  were  bought  up  by  the  general  gov- 
ernment. In  1787  congress  undertook  the 
government,  and  in  1788  the  first  permanent 
settlement  was  made  at  Marietta.  The  first 
years  of  the  Northwest  territory,  as  it  was 
called,  were  harassed  by  Indian  warfare,  which 
was  not  terminated  until  after  the  signal  vic- 
tory of  Gen.  Wayne  in  1794.  In  1799  the 
Northwest  territory  was  organized,  and  short- 
ly afterward  Ohio  was  formed  into  a  separate 
government.  It  was  admitted  into  the  Union 
as  a  state  in  1803.  From  1800  to  1810  the 
seat  of  government  was  in  Chill  icothe,  from 
1810  to  1812  in  Zanesville,  and  from  1812  to 
1816  in  Chillicothe.  Columbus  became  the 
capital  in  1816.  A  convention  to  revise  the 
constitution  assembled  in  Columbus  May  6, 
1850,  and  finally  adjourned  March  10,  1851,  a 
portion  of  the  session  having  been  held  in 
Cincinnati.  The  amended  constitution  was 
ratified  by  the  people  June  17, 1851.  Another 
convention  to  revise  the  constitution  convened 
in  Columbus  May  14,  1873,  and,  having  ad- 
journed to  Cincinnati,  framed  a  new  constitu- 
tion, which  was  rejected  by  the  people  at  the 
election  of  1874.  The  whole  number  of  troops 
furnished  by  Ohio  to  the  Union  army  during 
the  civil  war  was  317,133,  or  239,976  reduced 
to  a  three  years'  standard.  The  first  geologi- 
cal survey  of  Ohio  was  made  in  1837-'8,  under 
the  supervision  of  Prof.  W.  W.  Mather,  chief 
geologist.  A  more  complete  survey  was  begun 
in  1869  and  completed  in  1874,  by  Prof.  J.  S. 
Newberry  as  chief  and  E.  B.  Andrews,  Edward 
Orton,  and  John  H.  Klippart  as  assistant  geolo- 
gists. Besides  the  reports  of  progress  for  1869, 
1870,  and  1871,  two  volumes  of  the  final  re- 
port, each  in  two  parts  (geology  and  palaeon- 
tology), have  been  published.  The  publications 
yet  to  be  made  comprise  a  volume  on  geology, 
one  on  economic  geology,  and  one  on  zoology 
and  botany,  besides  a  geological  map. 

OHIO.  I.  A  K  W.  county  of  West  Virginia, 
bounded  E.  by  Pennsylvania  and  W.  by  the 
Ohio  river,  and  drained  by  Wheeling  and  other 
small  creeks ;  area,  140  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870, 
28,831,  of  whom  444  were  colored.  Its  surface 
is  hilly  and  the  soil  fertile,  especially  along  the 
Ohio.  Most  of  the  land  is  well  adapted  to  pas- 
turage. Mines  of  bituminous  coal  among  the 
hills  are  extensively  worked.  It  is  intersected 
by  the  Baltimore  and  Ohio  railroad.  The  chief 
productions  in  1870  were  42,276  bushels  of 
wheat,  225,465  of  Indian  corn,  97,372  of  oats, 


OHIO  RIVER 


603 


26,967  of  barley,  46,748  of  potatoes,  120,135 
Ibs.  of  butter,  175,124  of  wool,  and  8,389  tons 
of  hay.  There  were  1,637  horses,  1,585  milch 
cows,  1,493  other  cattle,  47,201  sheep,  and 
4,153  swine ;  23  manufactories  of  iron  in  vari- 
ous forms,  and  many  other  manufacturing  es- 
tablishments, chiefly  at  the  capital,  Wheeling. 

II.  A  W.  county  of  Kentucky,  bounded  S.  by 
Green  river,  which  is  here  navigable  by  steam- 
boats, and  intersected  by  Rough  creek  ;  area, 
about  500  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870, 15,561,  of  whom 
1,393  were  colored.    It  has  an  undulating  sur- 
face and  a  fertile  soil,  and  contains  iron  ore  and 
coal.     The  Elizabeth   and   Paducah   railroad 
passes  through  it.     The  chief  productions  in 
1870  were  40,321  bushels  of  wheat,  577,371  of 
Indian  corn,  96,268  of  oats,  28,033  of  Irish 
and  16,870  of  sweet  potatoes,  177,229  Ibs.  of 
butter,  42,567  of  wool,  3,392,633  of  tobacco, 
and  3,564  tons  of  hay.    There  were  5,325  horses, 
3,801   milch  cows,  6,329  other  cattle,  21,308 
sheep,  and  30,646  swine.     Capital,  Hartford. 

III.  A  S.  E.  county  of  Indiana,  bounded  E.  by 
the  Ohio  river,  which  separates  it  from  Ken- 
tucky, and  N.  W.  by  Laughery  creek;  area, 
about  90  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  5,837.      The 
surface  rises  in  some  places  into  high  hills,  but 
in  very  few  places  is  it  too  much  broken  for 
cultivation.     The  soil,  resting  mainly  on  blue 
limestone,  is  fertile.     The  chief  productions  in 
1870  were  61,833  bushels  of  wheat,  12,231  of 
rye,  221,565  of  Indian  corn,  10,224  of  oats, 
13,581  of  barley,  89,379  of  potatoes,  and  6,489 
tons  of  hay.    There  were  1,234  horses,  1,150 
milch  cows,  1,286  other  cattle,  2,742  sheep,  and 
4,342  swine.     Capital,  Rising  Sun. 

OHIO  RIVER,  the  largest  branch  of  the  Mis- 
sissippi river  from  the  east,  known  to  the  early 
French  settlers  as  la  "belle  riviere,  and  famed 
for  the  uniform  smoothness  of  its  current  as 
well  as  for  the  beauty  and  fertility  of  its  val- 
ley. It  is  formed  in  the  "W.  part  of  Pennsyl- 
vania by  the  junction  at  Pittsburgh  of  the 
Monongahela  and  Alleghany  rivers.  By  the 
latter  the  drainage  valley  of  the  Mississippi  is 
extended  into  the  S.  W.  part  of  New  York, 
and  in  Potter  co.,  Pa.,  reaches  a  point  where 
over  an  extent  of  a  few  acres  it  is  a  mere 
chance  whether  the  water  that  falls  upon  the 
surface  reaches  the  ocean  by  the  gulf  of  Mexi- 
co, the  gulf  of  St.  Lawrence,  or  Chesapeake 
bay.  The  course  of  the  Ohio  and  of  all  its 
tributaries,  from  their  sources  W.  of  the  Alle- 
ghanies  to  the  outlet  of  the  river  in  the  Mis- 
sissippi, at  Cairo,  111.,  is  through  a  region  of 
stratified  rocks,  little  disturbed  from  the  hori- 
zontal position  in  which  they  were  deposited, 
and  nowhere  intruded  upon  by  uplifts  of  the 
azoic  formations,  such  as  in  other  regions  im- 
part grandeur  to  the  scenery  and  variety  to  the 
valleys  of  the  rivers.  Over  an  area  of  drainage 
of  the  Ohio  and  its  branches  estimated  at  214,- 
000  sq.  m.,  the  topography  is  uniform  in  its 
principal  features,  and,  though  often  beautiful, 
still  for  the  most  part  tame.  The  valleys  are 
depressions  below  the  general  summit  level  of 


the  country ;  all  of  them  were  eroded  by  cur- 
rents of  water,  and  the  piles  of  strata  present- 
ing no  portions  that  could  resist  the  action  of 
these,  the  descent  of  the  river  beds  is  gentle, 
with  no  sudden  breaks  or  precipitous  falls. 
The  banks,  however,  are  often  steep,  and  in 
many  places,  especially  upon  the  smaller  rivers, 
the  waters  have  worn  a  narrow  passage  be- 
tween vertical  cliffs  of  limestone  to  the  depth 
of  several  hundred  feet  from  their  summits. 
Generally  the  rivers  spread  out  to  considerable 
width,  and  in  dry  seasons  become  shoal  to  the 
serious  impediment  of  navigation.  An  inter- 
esting feature  in  the  banks  of  the  Ohio  is  the 
succession  of  terraces  often  noticed  rising  one 
above  another  at  different  elevations,  and  some- 
times spreading  out  in  broad  alluvial  flats. 
Though  they  are  often  75  ft.  or  more  above 
the  present  mean  level  of  the  river,  they  were 
evidently  formed  by  fluviatile  deposits  made 
in  distant  periods,  when  the  river  flowed  at 
these  higher  levels.  Evidence  is  altogether 
wanting  to  fix  the  date  of  these  periods.  Upon 
the  lower  branches  of  the  river,  at  the  level 
of  present  high  water,  are  mounds  and  earth- 
works wonderful  in  their  numbers  and  extent, 
which  were  constructed,  as  far  as  can  be  ascer- 
tained from  various  proofs,  full  2,000  years 
since,  the  fact  being  thus  established  that  the 
river  must  have  flowed  at  its  present  level  at 
least  so  far  back.  The  city  of  Cincinnati 
stands  upon  two  of  these  terraces,  the  upper 
one  52  ft.  above  the  lower,  and  this  60  ft. 
above  low  water  of  the  river.  In  the  gravel 
of  the  upper  one  have  been  found  the  teeth 
of  an  extinct  species  of  elephant.  Shells  which 
have  been  found  at  corresponding  elevations 
are  of  recent  species,  such  as  are  still  com- 
mon to  the  waters  in  the  neighborhood. — 
The  total  length  of  the  Ohio  river  is  975  m. ; 
but  from  Pittsburgh  to  the  mouth  of  the  river 
in  a  straight  line  it  is  less  than  three  fifths  of 
that  distance.  Its  course  till  it  passes  out  of 
Pennsylvania  is  N.  N.  W.  to  Beaver,  and  thence 
W.  S.  W.  to  the  line  of  the  state  of  Ohio.  It 
then  flows  S.  and  S.  W.  between  Ohio  and 
West  Virginia,  passing  Wheeling,  86  m.  below 
Pittsburgh.  The  general  course  of  the  river 
is  W.  S.  W.  After  passing  between  Ohio  and 
West  Virginia,  it  borders  the  whole  length  of 
Kentucky,  separating  that  state  from  Ohio, 
Indiana,  and  Illinois  on  the  north.  The  width 
of  the  upper  third  of  the  river,  between  Pitts- 
burgh and  Point  Pleasant,  is  1,000  ft.  at  low 
water  and  1,200  ft.  at  high  water,  thence 
gradually  increasing  till  near  the  mouth,  where 
it  is  3,000  ft.  Its  depth  at  different  seasons  is 
very  fluctuating,  the  range  between  high  and 
low  water  being  often  50  and  sometimes  60  ft., 
and  the  usual  range  throughout  the  entire  river 
is  45  ft.  During  portions  of  the  summer  and  in 
the  autumn,  when  the  water  is  low,  the  larger 
steamboats  ascend  no  further  than  Wheeling, 
and  even  below  this  point  they  pass  with  diffi- 
culty, or  are  arrested  by  the  sand  bars,  which, 
with  the  low  sandy  islands,  called  towheads, 


604 


OHM 


OILS  AND  FATS 


badly  obstruct  the  navigation.  At  the  lowest 
stage,  generally  in  August  and  September,  the 
river  may  be  forded  at  several  places  above  Cin- 
cinnati. In  the  winter  it  is  often  frozen  over, 
and  for  several  weeks  floating  ice  prevents  its 
navigation.  The  rate  of  its  current  varies  with 
the  stage  of  the  water  from  1  to  3  m.  an  hour. 
The  only  rapids  are  at  Louisville,  and  these 
are  not  insurmountable  to  all  the  steamboats. 
In  2£  m.  the  fall  is  about  27  ft.  A  canal  was 
long  since  constructed  past  these  rapids  at 
Louisville,  through  which  steamers  of  3,000 
tons  may  pass. — The  country  bordering  the 
Ohio  is  for  the  most  part  a  thriving  agricul- 
tural region,  and  many  prosperous  towns  and 
cities  have  grown  up  within  the  present  cen- 
tury on  its  banks.  Manufactures  are  en- 
couraged by  the  mines  of  coal  and  iron  ore 
that  abound  in  the  country  traversed  by  this 
river  and  its  tributaries,  and  the  products  of 
these  add  largely  to  the  immense  transporta- 
tion carried  on  by  the  boats.  The  character 
and  extent  of  these  operations  are  particularly 
noticed  in  the  descriptions  of  the  several  states 
and  large  towns  on  the  borders  of  the  river. — 
The  tributaries  of  the  Ohio  from  both  sides 
are  numerous,  and  many  of  them  are  impor- 
tant rivers,  as  the  Muskingum  and  Miami  of 
Ohio,  the  Wabash  of  Indiana  and  Illinois,  and 
the  Sandy,  Licking,  Kentucky,  Cumberland, 
Green,  and  Tennessee  of  Kentucky. 

OHM.  I.  Georg  Simon,  a  German  physicist, 
born  in  Erlangen,  March  16,  1787,  died  in  Mu- 
nich, July  7,  1854.  He  was  the  son  of  a  lock- 
smith, and  in  his  boyhood  worked  in  his 
father's  shop.  He  studied  at  Erlangen,  taught 
mathematics  in  various  places,  and  in  1817  was 
appointed  professor  in  the  Jesuit  college  in 
Cologne.  In  1818  he  published  a  work  on  the 
elements  of  geometry.  He  devoted  himself 
particularly  to  the  investigation  of  the  laws 
governing  galvanic  currents,  and  by  a  com- 
bination of  mathematical  and  experimental 
investigation,  carried  on  for  many  years,  he 
at  length  discovered  and  established  the  law 
which  forms  the  basis  of  the  mathematical  the- 
ory of  electricity.  (See  GALVANISM.)  His  dis- 
coveries were  first  announced  in  1825-'6  in 
scientific  journals,  and  more  completely  in  his 
Die  galvanische  Kette,  mathematiscJi  ~bearbeitet 
(Berlin,  1827 ;  translated  into  English  in  Tay- 
lor's "  Scientific  Memoirs,"  vol.  xi.,  London, 
1841).  The  fundamental  theorem  of  his  doc- 
trine is  known  as  "  Ohm's  law."  In  1826  he 
resigned  his  professorship,  and  was  director 
of  the  polytechnic  school  in  Nuremberg  from 
1833  to  1849,  when  he  was  appointed  profes- 
sor of  physics  at  Munich.  In  1841  the  royal 
society  of  London  conferred  upon  him  the 
Copley  medal.  He  also  published  Elemente  der 
analytischen  Geometric  (Nuremberg,  1849), 
Grundzuge  der  PhysiTc  (1854),  and  other  works. 
II.  Martin,  a  German  mathematician,  brother  of 
the  preceding,  born  in  Erlangen,  May  6,  1792, 
died  in  Berlin,  April  1,  1872.  He  studied  at 
the  university  of  Berlin,  and  in  1817  was  ap- 


pointed professor  of  mathematics  and  physics , 
in  the  gymnasium  at  Thorn.  In  1821  he  re- 
moved to  Berlin,  and  in  1839  became  a  full 
professor  in  the  university.  He  delivered 
courses  of  lectures  at  the  academy  of  architec- 
ture from  1824  to  1831,  and  at  the  schools  of 
artillery  and  engineering  from  1833  to  1852 ; 
and  he  also  taught  in  the  military  school  from 
1826  to  1849.  He  published  Versuch  eines 
vollkommen  consequenten  Systems  der  Mathe- 
matik  (9  vols.,  Nuremberg,  1822-'52);  LeTir- 
luch  der  Mechanik  (3  vols.,  Berlin,  1836-'8) ; 
Geist  der  maihematiscJien  Analysis  (2  parts, 
1842-'5  ;  the  first  part  translated  into  English 
by  A.  J.  Ellis,  London,  1843) ;  and  Die  Drei- 
einiglceit  der  Kraft  (Nuremberg,  1856). 

OHMACHT,  Landolin,  a  German  sculptor,  born 
in  Wtirtemberg  about  1761,  died  in  Strasburg, 
March  31, 1834.  He  was  at  first  a  joiner,  stud- 
ied under  Canova  in  Eome,  and  settled  in 
Strasburg  in  1801.  His  principal  works  are: 
"  The  Judgment  of  Paris,"  in  the  royal  garden 
at  Munich ;  the  statue  of  Neptune  at  Mtinster, 
and  that  of  Desaix  between  Kehl  and  Stras- 
burg ;  the  mausoleum  of  the  emperor  Rudolph 
in  the  cathedral  of  Spa ;  the  statue  of  Luther 
at  Weissenburg,  and  that  of  "  Venus  leaving 
her  Bath,"  which  is  regarded  as  his  master- 
piece. Among  his  best  known  busts  are  those 
of  Lavater,  Klopstock,  Raphael,  and  Holbein. 

OILS  AND  FATS,  an  important  natural  group 
of  organic  compounds  found  in  the  various 
parts  of  plants,  particularly  the  seeds,  and  in 
animals,  principally  in  the  adipose  tissues.  (See 
ADIPOSE  SUBSTANCES.)  In  vegetables  there  are 
two  kinds  of  oils,  totally  distinct  and  having  a 
different  chemical  formation,  viz.,:  the  fixed, 
which  are  analogous  to  the  animal  oils  and 
fats,  and  the  volatile  or  essential  oils;  and 
there  is  also  a  class  of  oils  and  fats  which  are 
the  result  of  destructive  distillation.  These 
last  and  the  volatile  oils  will  be  found  treated 
under  the  heads  COAL  PKODTTCTS,  PARAFFINE, 
PETEOLEUM,  and  ESSENTIAL  OILS.  The  natural 
oils  and  fats,  which  alone  are  the  subjects  of 
this  article,  are  now  regarded  as  the  compound 
ethers  of  glycerine,  a  triatomic  alcohol  (see 
GLTOEEINE),  and  may  be  artificially  formed  by 
the  action  of  this  alcohol  upon  certain  mono- 
basic acids.  The  principal  elements  in  their 
composition  are  carbon  and  hydrogen,  oxygen 
entering  as  a  constituent  in  smaller  propor- 
tions ;  the  solidity  of  the  fatty  body  being  gen- 
erally in  proportion  to  the  amount  of  carbon, 
and  its  fluidity  in  proportion  to  that  of  oxygen. 
When  separated  from  the  organism  the  fatty 
bodies  which  are  solid  at  ordinary  tempera- 
tures are  called  fats,  while  those  which  are 
liquid  are  called  oils.  The  fatty  bodies  taken 
from  warm-blooded  animals  are  generally  solid 
at  ordinary  temperatures,  but  those  obtained 
from  fish  and  other  cold-blooded  animals  are 
principally  liquid.  One  of  the  distinguishing 
characteristics  of  the  oils  and  fats  is  that  they 
are  lighter  than  water,  the  specific  gravity  va- 
rying from  0'91  to  0'94.  They  are  chiefly  com- 


OILS  AND  FATS 

posed  of  three  proximate,  principles,  stearine, 
palmitine,  and  oleine,  the  first  two  being  solid 
at  ordinary  temperatures,  the  last  liquid.  The 
mixture  of  the  three  therefore  varies  in  soft- 
ness according  to  the  proportion  of  oleine 
which  it  contains.  These  proximate  principles 
are  compounds  of  the  triatomic  alcohol  glyce- 
rine, acting  as  a  base,  and  stearic,  palmitic, 
and  oleic  acids,  and  may  therefore  be  regarded 
as  organic  salts.  It  is  to  the  investigations  of 
Chevreul,  made  about  1820,  that  we  owe  our 
fundamental  knowledge  of  the  fatty  bodies. 
Since  then  others,  and  particularly  Berthelot, 
have  extended  his  researches,  and  in  the  main 
confirmed  their  correctness.  The  nature  of 
these  bodies  was  well  defined  by  Chevreul,  but 
he  regarded  them  as  compounds  of  stearine, 
oleine,  and  margarine.  It  has  however  been 
shown  by  Heintz  that  Chevreul's  margarine  is 
not  a  simple  fat,  but  a  mixture  of  palmitine 
and  stearine;  for  when  it  is  saponified,  the 
acid  obtained  from  the  soap  is  found  to  be  a 
mixture  of  palmitic  and  stearic  acids.  The 
natural  oils  and  fats  may  be  heated  to  nearly 
500°  F.  without  much  change ;  but  they  can- 
not be  distilled  without  decomposition,  by 
which  they  are  distinguished  from  the  volatile 
oils,  the  latter  evaporating  and  distilling  at  va- 
rious temperatures.  At  about  500°  they  begin 
to  evolve  acrid  and  offensive  vapors,  and  at 
about  600°  they  are  decomposed  with  evolu- 
tion of  gaseous  hydrocarbons.  When  heated 
with  caustic  alkalies  they  undergo  a  peculiar 
change  called  saponification  or  conversion  into 
.  soap,  during  which  process  glycerine  is  libera- 
ted, while  the  alkali  combines  with  the  oleic, 
stearic,  and  palmitic  acids.  (See  SOAP.)  All 
the  natural  oils  and  fats  are  soluble  in  ether, 
and  to  a  certain  extent  in  alcohol.  Oil  of  tur- 
pentine and  benzole  also  readily  dissolve  them, 
and  they  mix  with  each  other  in  all  propor- 
tions.— The  fixed  oils  are  divided  into  drying 
and  non-drying  oils.  Drying  oils  when  ex- 
posed to  the  air  thicken  from  absorption  of 
oxygen,  being  converted  when  spread  upon 
surfaces  into  a  tough  transparent  membrane 
or  varnish.  Linseed,  nut,  hemp,  and  poppy 
oils  belong  to  this  class,  and  contain  an  oleine 
which  differs  from  that  of  the  non-drying  oils, 
yielding  by  saponification,  instead  of  oleic,  lin- 
oleic  acid  or  one  similar  to  it.  (See  DRYING 
OILS,  and  LINSEED  OIL.)  The  non-drying  oils 
are  also  gradually  altered  by  exposure  to  the 
air,  but  in  a  different  way ;  they  lose  much  less 
fluidity,  become  acid,  and  acquire  an  acrid, 
disagreeable  taste.  This  alteration,  however, 
never  takes  place  in  pure  glycerides,  as  pure 
stearine,  palmitine,  or  oleine,  or  mixtures  of 
them ;  but  only  when  other  organic  matters, 
such  as  the  cellular  substance  of  the  plant  or 
animal  in  which  the  oil  naturally  exists,  are 
present.  These  substances  contain  nitrogen, 
and  act  as  ferments,  producing  decomposition 
of  a  part  of  the  fatty  matter  with  which  they 
are  mixed ;  by  this  action  stearic,  palmitic,  and 
oleic  acids  are  set  free,  and  small  quantities  of 


OJIBWAYS 


605 


certain  volatile  acids,  as  butyric,  valerianic, 
and  caproic,  are  formed,  probably  from  atmos- 
pheric oxidation.  By  treatment  with  boiling 
water,  and  afterward  in  the  cold  with  a  weak 
alkaline  solution,  rancid  oils  may  be  purified 
and  restored  to  their  original  condition. — The 
uses  of  the  fatty  oils  are  extensive.  The  dry- 
ing oils  are  used  in  the  preparation  of  paints, 
varnishes,  and  cements.  They  are  also  used 
in  medicine,  often  in  the  forms  of  liniment,  as 
linseed  oil  in  the  lime-water  liniment,  or  the 
linimentum  calcis  of  the  pharmacopoeia,  an 
excellent  application  to  burns  and  abrasions  of 
the  skin.  The  non-drying  oils  are  used  in  the 
manufacture  of  soap,  for  lubricating  machine- 
ry, for  illumination  by  various  methods,  for 
the  preparation  and  preservation  of  food,  and 
also  in  medicine. 

OISE  (anc.  Isara  and  Esia),  a  river  of  France, 
which  rises  in  the  province  of  Hainaut  in  Bel- 
gium, near  the  French  frontier,  flows  S.  W. 
through  the  departments  of  Le  Nord,  Aisne, 
Oise,  and  Seine-et-Oise,  and  joins  the  Seine  12 
m.  K.  W.  of  Paris,  after  a  course  of  about  150 
m.  Its  principal  tributaries  are  the  Noirieu, 
Br£che,  and  Therain  on  the  right,  and  the  Ton, 
Serre,  Lette,  Aisne,  Autonne,  and  Nonette  on 
the  left.  It  communicates  by  canals  with  the 
Somme,  the  Sambre,  and  the  Scheldt.  The 
principal  towns  on  its  banks  are  La  F£re, 
Noyon,  Compidgne,  and  Pontoise. 

OISE,  a  N.  department  of  France,  formed 
from  parts  of  the  old  provinces  of  Isle-de- 
France  and  Picardy,  bordering  on  Somme, 
Aisne,  Seine-et-Marne,  Seine-et-Oise,  Eure, 
and  Seine-Inferieure  ;  area,  2,261  sq.  m. ;  pop. 
in  1872,  396,804.  The  chief  rivers  are  the 
Oise  and  its  tributaries  the  Aisne,  Nonette, 
and  Therain.  The  Epte  passes  through  the  W. 
part,  and  the  Ourcq  through  the  S.  E.  The 
surface  is  low  and  undulating,  and  the-  soil 
consists  in  general  of  strong  clay,  but  there 
are  sandy  barrens.  The  chief  crops  are  wheat, 
flax,  hemp,  and  rape.  The  wine  is  of  inferior 
quality,  and  there  are  few  vineyards.  Wool- 
lens, linen,  canvas,  and  beet  sugar  are  manu- 
factured. The  department  is  divided  into  the 
arrondissements  of  Beauvais,  Clermont,  Com- 
piegne,  and  Senlis.  Capital,  Beauvais. 

OJIBWAYS,  or  Chippewas,  a  tribe  of  the  great 
Algonquin  family,  living  in  scattered  bands  on 
the  shores  of  Lake  Huron  and  Lake  Superior, 
La  Pointe  being  the  central  point.  They  be- 
came known  to  the  French  about  1640,  the 
earliest  band  reached  being  that  at  Sault  Ste. 
Marie,  from  which  fact  they  received  the  name 
Sauteux,  still  applied  to  them  by  the  Canadian 
French.  In  1642  Fathers  Jogues  and  Raym- 
baut  began  a  mission  at  Sault  Ste.  Marie,  where 
they  numbered  2,000.  The  Ojibways  are  tall, 
well  developed,  good-looking,  brave,  expert 
hunters,  little  given  to  agriculture,  and  fond 
of  adventure.  From  early  times  they  were  at 
war  with  the  Foxes,  Sioux,  and  Iroquois.  They 
drove  the  Sioux  from  the  head  waters  of  the 
Mississippi  and  from  the  Red  river  of  the  North, 


606 


OJIBWAYS 


O'KEEFFE 


and  always  defeated  them  in  the  wooded  coun- 
try, though  generally  worsted  on  the  plains. 
Their  numbers  were  so  reduced  by  war  that 
when  the  French  missions  were  restored  about 
1660  only  550  Ojibways  were  found  in  four 
bands  at  the  Sault.  They  contributed  their  quota 
to  many  expeditions  of  the  French,  and  were 
always  devoted  to  them  down  to  the  close  of 
French  rule.  They  took  part  in  Pontiac's  war, 
and  surprised  Mackinaw.  During  the  revolu- 
tionary war  they  were  under  British  influence, 
but  made  peace  by  the  treaties  of  Fort  Mclntosh 
in  1785  and  Fort  Harmar  in  1789.  Subsequently 
they  joined  the  Miamis  in  their  hostilities,  till 
Wayne  reduced  them,  when  they  again  made 
peace  at  Greenville,  Aug.  3,  1795.  Some  of 
them  had  moved  as  far  east  as  Lake  Erie,  but 
they  gave  up  most  of  their  lands  there  in  1805. 
In  the  second  war  with  England  they  were 
again  hostile,  but  they  took  part  in  the  general 
pacification  of  the  tribes  in  1816,  and  the  next 
year  finally  relinquished  all  their  lands  in  Ohio. 
In  1822  there  were  5, 6 69  Ojibways  at  Saginaw, 
8,335  along  the  Lake  Superior  line  from  Mack- 
inaw to  the  Mississippi,  and  550  mixed  with 
other  tribes.  The  limits  of  the  vast  territory 
belonging  to  them  were  fixed  by  treaty  in  1825. 
In  1830  the  United  States  interposed  to  arrest 
the  immemorial  war  between  them  and  the 
Sioux.  Like  other  tribes,  they  gradually  ceded 
lands  to  government,  and  in  1837  and  1842  the 
United  States  agreed  to  pay  them  for  25  years 
$22,000  in  money,  $29,500  in  goods,  and  $18,- 
700  in  other  forms,  as  well  as  a  sum  of  $45,000 
to  the  half-breeds,  besides  paying  off  debts 
against  them  amounting  to  $145,000.  By  1851 
all  but  a  few  bands  had  been  removed  west  of 
the  Mississippi,  and  these  bands  ceded  all  ex- 
cept moderate  reservations.  In  1 86  6  the  Missis- 
sippi bands  numbered  2,166  ;  the  Pillagers  and 
Winnebagoshish,  1,899  ;  the  Red  Lake,  1,183  ; 
the  Pembina,  931 ;  the  Lake  Superior  bands, 
5,558 ;  and  those  mixed  with  other  tribes  prob- 
ably 2,000  more.  These  differed  much  in  their 
state  of  civilization  and  improvement.  The 
Lake  Superior  bands  and  those  in  Michigan 
were  generally  peaceful,  industrious,  and  far 
advanced,  having  been  for  years  under  salutary 
missionary  influence.  The  Red  Lake  band  were 
still  chiefly  hunters,  and  cultivated  little ;  the 
Pembinas  were  much  corrupted  by  bad  whites ; 
the  Pillagers  and  Winnebagoshish  were  rest- 
less and  lawless.  The  Ojibways  of  the  Missis- 
sippi still  possess  large  tracts  of  land,  and  many 
of  the  others  are  scattered  on  reservations, 
amounting  in  all  to  more  than  5,000,000  acres, 
as  established  by  treaties  between  September, 
1854,  and  March,  1867.  The  liability  of  gov- 
ernment to  them  in  1872  was  about  $750,000. 
In  the  Dominion  of  Canada  in  1871  there  were 
1,974  Ojibways  at  Sarnia,  Snake  island,  Rama, 
Sandy  island,  Saugeen,  and  Cape  Croker ;  1,502 
on  the  N.  shore  of  Lake  Superior;  and  some 
mingled  with  other  tribes  on  the  Thames  and 
Walpole  island.  Some  of  the  missions  early 
established  among  the  Ojibways  by  Catholics 


are  still  maintained ;  there  are  also  Methodist, 
Episcopal,  and  Presbyterian  missions  ;  but  most 
of  them  are  still  pagans. — The  manners,  cus- 
toms, traditions,  and  language  of  the  Ojibways 
have  been  investigated  by  many,  and  they  are 
better  known  than  those  of  any  other  tribe. 
Schoolcraft  and  others  popularized  the  infor- 
mation. They  believe  in  Kitche  Manitou,  the 
Great  or  Good  Spirit,  and  Matchi  Manitou,  the 
evil  spirit.  The  Medas  are  a  body  acting  as  a 
priesthood  ;  but  each  one  has  his  own  manitou 
revealed  to  him  in  dreams.  Their  great  mytho- 
logical personage  is  Menabojou,  who  aids  the 
Great  Spirit  in  creating  the  world.  Their  in- 
dustry reached  its  highest  point  in  the  making 
of  mats  and  canoes.  Of  their  language  there 
is  a  dictionary  by  Bishop  Baraga,  grammars 
by  him  and  the  Rev.  G.  A.  Belcourt,  and  trea- 
tises less  complete  by  Schoolcraft  and  others. 
The  number  of  works  printed  in  it,  including 
a  newspaper,  is  large.  Their  history  has  been 
written  vaguely  by  George  Copway,  a  native 
O  jib  way  ("  Traditional  History  of  the  O  jib  way 
Nation,"  Boston,  1851),  and  also  by  Peter 
Jones,  another  member  of  the  tribe  ("History 
of  the  Ojibway  Indians,"  London,  1861). 

OKA,  a  river  of  central  Russia,  one  of  the 
principal  affluents  of  the  Volga.  It  rises  about 
40  m.  S.  of  Orel,  in  the  government  of  the 
same  name,  passes  that  town,  and  flowing 
with  a  swift  current  N.,  N.  E.,  S.  E.,  and  N.  E. 
through  the  governments  of  Tula  and  Kaluga, 
on  the  border  of  Moscow,  and  through  Riazan, 
Tambov,  Vladimir,  and  Nizhegorod,  joins  the 
Volga  at  the  town  of  Nizhni-Novgorod.  Its  to- 
tal course  is  about  800  m.,  almost  all  navigable. 

OKANAGANS,  a  tribe  of  the  Soushwap  branch 
of  the  Selish  family  of  American  Indians,  liv- 
ing on  a  river  that  bears  their  name  in  Wash- 
ington territory,  E.  of  the  Cascade  mountains. 
They  were  called  Cutsanim  by  Lewis  and 
Clarke,  and  have  always  been  friendly.  They 
cultivate  some  corn,  wheat,  and  potatoes,  but 
depend  chiefly  on  fish,  roots,  and  berries. 
They  lost  greatly  by  disease  in  1830.  Missions 
were  established  among  them  in  1846,  when 
they  numbered  685.  They  are  now  reduced 
to  340.  They  had  a  peculiar  weapon  like  a 
slungshot,  a  cylinder  with  a  round  stone  at  the 
end,  both  sewed  in  leather.  One  end  was  fast- 
ened to  the  wrist  when  in  use.  They  strapped 
their  dead  to  trees. 

O'KEEFFE,  John,  an  Irish  dramatist,  born  in 
Dublin,  June  24,  1747,  died  in  Southampton, 
England,  Feb.  4, 1833.  He  wrote  a  comedy  at 
the  age  of  15,  and  was  an  actor  for  12  years. 
In  1781  he  went  to  London,  and  between  that 
year  and  1798  composed  nearly  50  comedies, 
comic  operas,  and  farces.  Several  of  these 
were  very  popular,  especially  "  The  Castle  of 
Andalusia,"  "Wild  Oats,"  "The  Poor  Sol- 
dier," "The  Young  Quaker,"  and  "Peeping 
Tom."  In  his  50th  year  O'Keefe  became  blind. 
In  1826  he  published  his  "Recollections,  or 
Autobiographical  Memoirs."  In  1828  he  re- 
moved to  Southampton. 


OKEGHEM 


OKEA 


607 


OKEGHEM,   or   Ockenheim,    Jan,    a    Flemish 

musician,  born  about  1430,  died  about  1513. 
Most  of  his  life  was  spent  in  France,  where  he 
held  important  civil  offices  under  three  kings. 
The  invention  of  the  canon  and  of  artificial 
counterpoint  has  been  attributed  to  him,  but 
this  is  an  error.  His  masses,  motets,  and  chan- 
sons possess  high  merit.  Pupils  came  to  him 
from  every  part  of  Europe,  among  them  Jos- 
quin  des  Pr6s,  Pierre  de  la  Rue,  Brumel,  Gas- 
pard,  and  Yerbonnet. 

OKEN,  Lorenz,  a  German  naturalist,  born  at 
Bohlsbach,  Wiirtemberg,  Aug.  1,  1779,  died  in 
Zurich,  Aug.  11,  1851.  His  real  name  was 
Lorenz  Ockenfuss,  which  he  abridged  to  Oken 
when  he  became  a  private  teacher  at  Gottin- 
gen.  He  had  studied  natural  history  and  medi- 
cine at  the  university  of  Wtirzburg.  In  his 
Grundriss  der  Naturphilosophie  (8vo,  1802)  he 
maintained  that  animal  classes  are  simply  a  rep- 
resentation of  the  organs  of  sense,  and  divi- 
ded the  animal  kingdom  accordingly  into  five 
classes.  In  Die  Zeugung  (1805)  he  advanced 
the  doctrine  that  all  organic  beings  originate 
from  and  consist  of  vesicles  or  cells.  In  his 
Beitragezurvergleichenden  Zoologie,  Anatomie 
und  Physiologic  (1806)  he  demonstrated  that 
the  intestines  originate  from  the  umbilical  ves- 
icle, and  that  this  corresponds  to  the  vitellus 
or  yolk  bag ;  in  the  same  work  he  described 
the  corpora  Wolffiana  or  primordial  kidneys. 
In  1807  he  became  extraordinary  professor  of 
the  medical  sciences  at  Jena,  his  celebrated  in- 
augural discourse,  Ueber  die  Bedeutung  der 
Schadellcnochen,  being  delivered  in  the  pres- 
ence of  Goethe,  who  as  rector  of  the  university 
had  invited  him  thither,  and  from  whom  he 
has  been  unjustly  accused  of  borrowing  his 
vertebral  theory  of  the  skull.  The  first  edition 
of  his  Lehrbuch  der  NaturpJiilosophie  was 
published  in  1808-'!!,  a  second  in  1831,  and  a 
third  in  1843;  the  last  was  translated  into 
English  by  Dr.  Tulk  (London,  published  by 
the  Ray  society,  1847).  In  1810  he  was  made 
court  councillor,  and  in  1812  ordinary  pro- 
fessor of  natural  sciences  at  Jena.  In  1816  he 
commenced  the  publication  of  his  celebrated 
periodical,  the  Isis,  devoted  principally  to  nat- 
ural science.  His  political  criticisms  led  the 
court  of  Weimar  to  require  him  either  to  sup- 
press the  Isis  or  to  resign  his  professorship ;  he 
chose  the  latter  alternative,  and  published  his 
journal  (prohibited  at  Weimar)  at  Rudolstadt 
uninterruptedly  till  1848.  Accused  in  1819  of 
being  a  member  of  a  forbidden  secret  demo- 
cratic society,  he  was  tried  and  acquitted,  and 
thereupon  retired  to  private  life.  In  1828  he 
resumed  his  occupation  of  private  teacher  in. 
the  newly  established  university  at  Munich, 
and  soon  after  was  appointed  professor  there. 
In  1832,  on  the  proposition  of  the  Bavarian 
government  to  transfer  him  to  a  provincial 
university,  he  resigned  his  appointments,  went 
to  Switzerland,  and  in  1833  was  appointed  pro- 
fessor of  natural  history  in  the  university  of 
Zurich,  which  post  he  retained  until  his  death. 
616  VOL.  xii.— 39 


A  statue  has  been  erected  in  his  honor  in  the 
university  of  Jena.  His  views  on  philosophi- 
cal anatomy  will  be  found  under  that  title. 

OKHOTSK,  a  town  of  Siberia,  Russia,  for- 
merly the  capital  of  a  province  of  the  same 
name,  and  since  1858  of  a  district  in  the  lit- 
toral province  (see  PEIMOESK),  situated  on  a 
narrow  tongue  of  land  projecting  into  the  sea, 
at  the  mouths  of  the  Okhota  and  Kukhtui  riv- 
ers, lat.  59°  21'  K,  Ion.  143°  17'  E. ;  pop.  about 
200.  It  consists  of  a  collection  of  ill  built  log 
houses,  standing  on  a  low  shingly  beach,  and 
contains  a  church  and  a  telegraph  station.  It 
was  formerly  of  considerable  importance,  its 
decay  being  due  to  the  acquisition  of  the 
Amoor  country  by  Russia. 

OKHOTSK,  Sea  of,  an  arm  of  the  K  Pacific 
ocean,  encircled  by  Kamtchatka,  the  Kurile 
islands,  the  Japanese  island  of  Yezo,  the  Rus- 
sian island  of  Saghalien,  and  the  district  of 
Okhotsk.  It  is  about  1,000  m.  long  and  600 
broad,  and  contains  several  islands.  It  forms 
numerous  gulfs,  and  several  rivers  fall  into  it. 
By  the  gulf  of  Amoor,  which  receives  the  river 
of  that  name,  it  communicates  with  the  sea  of 
Japan.  The  shores  are  covered  with  ice  from 
November  to  April,  but  the  main  expanse  con- 
tinues open.  It  is  generally  deep,  without  shoal 
or  sand  bank,  and  is  subject  to  fogs  and  storms. 

OKRA,  the  common  name  for  hibiscus  escu- 
lentus,  a  plant  of  the  mallow  family.  Some 
regard  it  as  a  native  of  the  East  Indies,  but  De 
Candolle  thinks  the  common  name,  also  given 
okkoro,  okro,  and  ockra,  points  to  a  tropical 
American  origin.  It  was  formerly  known  as 
Alelmoschus,  a  genus  so  little  distinct  from 
hibiscus  that  it  is  now  merged  in  it.  Okra  is 


Okra  (Hibiscus  esculentus). 

an  annual  with  the  general  aspect  of  plants  of 
the  mallow  family  ;  its  usually  simple  stem  is 
from  2  to  6  ft.  high,  with  rounded  heart- 
shaped,  five-lobed  leaves,  in  the  axils  of  which 
are  large  yellowish  flowers  with  a  purplish 
centre,  from  which  the  calyx  early  falls  away. 


608 


OKTIBBEHA 


OLBEES 


The  fruit  is  a  narrow,  pyramidal,  ten-angled 
pod,  4  to  8  in.  long,  sharply  pointed,  and  con- 
taining numerous  kidney-shaped  seeds.  There 
are  dwarf  varieties  only  a  little  over  2  ft.  high 
with  shorter  pods.  Okra  is  cultivated  for  its 
young  pods,  which  abound  in  mucilage ;  their 
principal  use  is  to  impart  a  thickening  to  soups 
and  to  form  a  peculiar  southern  dish  called 
gumho.  (See  GUMBO.)  They  are  sometimes 
simply  boiled  and  dressed  like  asparagus,  and 
are  much  esteemed  by  those  accustomed  to 
them.  Okra  will  grow  in  any  good  garden 
soil,  and  may  be  sown  in  place  or  transplanted 
from  a  hotbed,  giving  the  plants  plenty  of 
room.  The  dwarf  varieties  are  best  suited  to 
northern  gardens.  The  pods  must  be  gathered 
when  perfectly  tender,  before  any  woody  fibre 
has  formed  in  them ;  and  if  any  become  too 
old  for  use  they  should  be  removed,  that  the 
plants  may  continue  to  produce.  For  winter 
use  the  pods  are  put  down  in  salt,  the  same  as 
cucumbers,  or  are  sliced  and  dried.  Among 
the  many  substitutes  that  have  been  proposed 
for  coffee  are  the  seeds  of  okra.  The  mallow 
family  generally  have  tough  fibrous  inner  bark, 
and  that  of  the  okra  affords  a  very  handsome 
fibre ;  it  has  been  proposed  for  paper  stock. 

OKTIBBEHA,  a  N.  E.  county  of  Mississippi, 
drained  by  branches  of  the  Tombigbee  river ; 
area,  576  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  14,891,  of 
whom  9,304  were  colored.  The  surface  is 
nearly  level,  and  the  soil  very  productive.  The 
chief  productions  in  1870  were  5,198  bushels 
of  wheat,  334,463  of  Indian  corn,  23,627  of 
sweet  potatoes,  6,288  bales  of  cotton,  48,787 
Ibs.  of  butter,  and  1,329  tons  of  hay.  There 
were  1,237  horses,  1,705  mules  and  asses,  2,296 
milch  cows,  3,877  other  cattle,  2,105  sheep, 
and  14,555  swine.  Capital,  Starkville. 

OLAF,  Saint,  king  of  Norway,  killed  in  bat- 
tle, July  29,  1030.  He  was  the  son  of  Harald 
Granske,  and  grandson  of  Harald  the  Fair- 
Haired,  and  was  educated  by  Sigurd  Syr,  the 
chief  of  an  upland  district,  who  married  the 
young  prince's  widowed  mother.  At  the  age 
of  12  Olaf  commanded  a  piratical  expedition  to 
the  British  coasts,  where  he  assisted  the  An- 
glo-Saxons in  opposing  the  Danes ;  and  at  the 
age  of  16  he  had  been  engaged  in  nine  great 
battles.  In  his  career  as  a  viking  he  visited 
Sweden;  and  once,  being  blockaded  by  the 
Swedes  within  the  Maalar  lake,  he  escaped  by 
cutting  a  canal  to  the  sea.  For  the  next  two 
years  he  infested  the  shores  of  France  and 
Spain ;  and  at  length  returning  to  Norway  du- 
ring the  absence  of  Eric  (1014),  then  engaged 
in  the  wars  of  Canute  in  England,  he  made 
himself  master  of  the  kingdom  to  the  great 
joy  of  the  Christians,  and  soon  rendered  it  in- 
dependent of  both  Sweden  and  Denmark.  In 
his  zeal  for  the  Christian  faith,  he  burned  the 
heathen  temples,  erecting  churches  on  the 
ruins,  and  marched  through  his  dominions  at 
the  head  of  an  army,  compelling  submission  to 
the  new  faith.  He  forbade  all  piracy,  and  en- 
forced his  law  so  rigorously  that,  although  the 


vikings  were  sons  of  his  most  powerful  sub- 
jects, he  punished  the  offenders  with  loss  of 
life  or  limb.  His  severity  provoked  rebellion, 
and  while  quelling  this  he  was  suddenly  at- 
tacked by  Canute  the  Great,  who  laid  claim  to 
Norway,  landed  an  army  at  Drontheim,  and 
conquered  the  kingdom.  Olaf  tied  with  his 
infant  son  Magnus  to  Russia;  but  two  years 
afterward  (1030),  assisted  by  the  king  of  Swe- 
den, he  entered  Norway  from  the  north,  gave 
battle  to  the  Danes  near  Drontheim,  and  fell 
in  the  thick  of  the  fight,  with  most  of  his  fol- 
lowers and  kinsmen.  The  body  of  the  king 
was  secretly  buried  by  one  of  his  adherents. 

OLAM),  an  island  in  the  Baltic,  belonging  to 
Sweden,  from  which  it  is  separated  by  a  nar- 
row strait  called  Calmar  sound ;  area,  519  sq. 
m. ;  pop.  about  40,000.  It  contains  several 
villages,  and  the  town  of  Borgholm,  the  capi- 
tal. The  E.  shores  are  high  and  steep,  and  the 
W.  low.  The  interior  consists  chiefly  of  bar- 
ren sand  hills,  and  in  the  north  there  are  a  few 
small  lakes.  A  great  part  of  the  surface  is 
covered  with  fine  forests ;  and  a  strip  of  land 
along  the  coast  is  cultivated.  Cattle  and  sheep 
are  extensively  reared.  Oland  is  famous  for 
its  diminutive  ponies. 

OLBERS,  Heinrich  Wilhelm  Mattlfans,  a  German 
astronomer,  born  at  Arbergen,  near  Bremen, 
Oct.  11,  1758,  died  in  Bremen,  March  2,  1840. 
He  was  a  practising  physician,  and  made  his 
observations  from  an  upper  chamber  of  his 
dwelling  in  Bremen,  with  an  ordinary  hand 
telescope.  He  applied  himself  especially  to 
the  study  of  comets,  and  in  1779  discovered  a 
method  of  calculating  their  orbits  which  was 
greatly  superior  to  those  previously  in  use. 
He  computed  the  orbits  of  the  comets  of  1781, 
1795,  1798,  1799,  1802,  and  of  the  great  one 
of  1811.  He  also  made  investigations  respect- 
ing the  existence  of  the  small  planets  whose 
orbits  lie  between  Mars  and  Jupiter.  Kepler 
had  suggested  that  a  planetary  body  might  oc- 
cupy this  space  ;  and  with  a  view  of  verifying 
this  suggestion,  an  association  of  24  astrono- 
mers, including  Olbers,  divided  up  the  zodiac 
among  themselves  for  independent  scrutiny. 
On  Jan.  1, 1801,  the  small  planet  Ceres  was  dis- 
covered by  Piazzi  of  Palermo,  who  was  not 
a  member  of  the  association ;  and  on  March 
28,  1802,  Olbers  discovered  in  the  northern 
part  of  the  constellation  Virgo  the  planet  Pal- 
las. This  led  Olbers  to  conjecture  that  they 
were  fragments  of  a  larger  planet  once  ex- 
isting there,  and  that  probably  other  portions 
might  be  found  moving  in  nearly  the  same 
orbit ;  but  he  said  he  advanced  the  hypothe- 
sis merely  to  serve  as  a  guide  in  making  ob- 
servations. (See  ASTEEOIDS.)  He  accordingly 
explored  carefully,  every  month,  the  two  oppo- 
site regions  of  the  heavens  in  which  the  orbits 
of  the  new  planets  intersected,  and  where  he 
supposed  the  fragments  of  the  shattered  planet 
must  pass.  In  September,  1804,  M.  Harding  of 
Bremen  accidentally  discovered  a  third  planet, 
Juno.  Olbers  continued  his  search  with  re- 


OLDCASTLE 


OLD  CATHOLICS 


609 


newed  ardor,  and  on  March  29,  1807,  discov- 
ered a  fourth,  Yesta.  In  March,  1815,  he  dis- 
covered near  Perseus  a  comet  having  no  visible 
nucleus,  and  in  1828  published  a  dissertation 
on  the  possibility  of  a  collision  between  a 
comet  and  the  earth.  His  library,  which  con- 
tained perhaps  the  most  extensive  collection  in 
existence  of  works  in  regard  to  comets,  was 
purchased  by  the  Russian  government  for  the 
observatory  of  Pulkova. 

OLDCASTLE,  Sir  John,  Baron  Cobham,  an  Eng- 
lish reformer,  born  in  the  reign  of  Edward  III., 
executed  Dec.  14,  1417.  He  acquired  the  title 
of  baron  through  his  wife,  the  granddaugh- 
ter and  heiress  of  Lord  Cobham,  and  fought 
with  distinction  in  France.  Having  become 
a  convert  to  the  doctrines  of  Wycliffe,  he  pro- 
moted them  greatly ;  and  when  the  king  rea- 
soned with  him,  he  said :  "  Next  to  God  I  pro- 
fess obedience  to  my  king ;  but  as  to  the  spirit- 
ual dominion  of  the  pope,  I  can  pay  him  no 
obedience."  Thereupon  he  was  confined  in 
the  tower  and  condemned  to  the  flames,  but 
escaped  into  Wales.  A  bill  of  attainder  was 
passed  against  him,  a  reward  of  1,000  marks 
offered  for  his  head,  and  exemption  from  taxes 
promised  to  any  town  that  should  secure  him. 
After  four  years  he  was  discovered  and  carried 
to  London,  where  he  was  hanged  in  chains  on 
a  gibbet  in  St.  Giles's  fields,  and  roasted  to 
death  by  a  fire  kindled  under  him.  He  wrote 
"  Twelve  Conclusions  addressed  to  the  Parlia- 
ment of  England,"  besides  several  religious 
tracts  and  discourses. — See  "  Chronicles  of  the 
Examination  and  Death  of  Sir  John  Oldcastle," 
by  Bishop  Bale  (London,  1554;  reprinted,  1729). 

OLD  CATHOLICS,  the  name  assumed  in  1870 
(after  the  precedent  of  the  Jansenists  of  Hol- 
land) by  members  of  the  Roman  Catholic 
church  who  denied  the  oecumenical  character 
of  the  Vatican  council  and  rejected  its  decrees, 
especially  that  concerning  the  infallibility  of  the 
pope,  as  contrary  to  the  ancient  Catholic  faith. 
Before  this  council  proclaimed  papal  infalli- 
bility as  a  doctrine  of  the  Catholic  church 
(July  18,  1870),  the  majority  of  the  bishops  of 
Germany  and  of  the  Austro-Hungarian  mon- 
archy opposed  its  promulgation  as  inoppor- 
tune ;  but  after  the  council's  decision  nearly  all 
the  bishops  at  once  submitted;  and  at  length 
every  bishop  of  the  Catholic  church  had  given 
in  his  adhesion,  except  a  few  bishops  of  the 
United  Armenian  church,  who  even  before  the 
convocation  of  this  council  had  fallen  out  with 
the  pope  on  questions  relating  to  the  adminis- 
tration of  the  Armenian  church,  and  had  there- 
fore not  attended  the  council.  While  the  Ger- 
man bishops  submitted,  an  unflinching  opposi- 
tion manifested  itself  on  the  part  of  several 
theologians  and  a  portion  of  the  laity  of  Ger- 
many. A  few  days  after  the  proclamation  of 
the  doctrine  of  infallibility,  Prof.  Michelis, 
of  the  lyceum  of  Braunsberg  in  East  Prussia, 
issued  a  manifesto  charging  the  pope  with 
heresy  and  apostasy  from  the  old  Catholic 
church.  Shortly  afterward  44  professors  of 


the  university  of  Munich,  including  Dr.  Dollin- 
ger,  joined  in  a  protest  against  papal  infalli- 
bility and  the  binding  authority  of  the  Vatican 
council.  Many  of  the  Catholic  professors  at 
Bonn,  Breslau,  Freiburg,  and  other  universities 
and  gymnasia  soon  followed  this  example.  A 
number  of  prominent  theologians  and  pro- 
fessors of  the  canon  law  met  in  August  at 
Nuremberg,  and  agreed  upon  a  joint  protest 
against  the  oecumenical  character  of  the  Vati- 
can council  and  the  validity  of  its  decrees. 
Among  the  signers  were  Dollinger  and  Fried- 
rich  of  the  university  of  Munich,  Reinkens, 
Baltzer,  and  Elvenich  of  Breslau,  Reusch, 
Knoodt,  and  Langen  of  Bonn,  Schulte  of 
Prague,  Michelis  of  Braunsberg,  and  Lutter- 
beck  of  Giessen.  In  view  of  these  indications 
of  an  incipient  secession,  the  German  bishops 
deemed  it  necessary,  in  a  joint  pastoral  letter 
dated  Sept.  10,  to  admonish  all  the  faithful  to 
submit  to  the  decrees  of  the  oecumenical  coun- 
cil, as  it  was  impossible  for  members  of  the 
Catholic  church  to  dispute  their  validity.  It 
was  evident  that  the  immense  majority  of  the 
priests  and  the  people  sided  with  the  bishops, 
for  the  expressions  of  dissent  on  the  part  of 
the  laity  were  few.  Only  two  congregations 
in  all  Germany  (one  in  Bavaria  and  one  in  Si- 
lesia) joined  their  parish  priests  in  a  refusal  to 
submit  to  the  council.  In  several  other  places 
local  committees  were  formed  to  prepare  the 
way  for  an  organization  of  the  Old  Catholics. 
The  leaders  of  the  movement  were  by  no 
means  agreed  as  to  the  course  it  ought  to  take. 
The  breach  between  the  Old  Catholics  and  the 
heads  of  the  church  widened  when  the  bishops 
began  to  deprive  the  Old  Catholic  professors 
of  their  ecclesiastical  functions,  to  pronounce 
against  them  the  greater  excommunication, 
and  to  prohibit  the  theological  students  -from 
attending  their  lectures.  A  few  who  at  first 
had  sympathized  with  the  opposition  to  papal 
infallibility  now  receded  from  their  position ; 
but  the  majority  remained  firm  in  their  resis- 
tance. By  the  excommunication  of  Dollinger 
(April  17,  1871),  who  had  been  the  theological 
instructor  of  many  of  the  German  bishops,  a 
new  impulse  was  given  to  the  efforts  to  effect 
a  practical  organization.  Old  Catholic  societies 
were  formed  in  nearly  all  the  cities,  and  itine- 
rant priests  were  engaged  to  preach  to  them. 
The  municipal  councils  of  several  cities,  like 
Munich,  tried  to  promote  the  movement  by 
removing  from  the  educational  institutions 
placed  under  their  control  all  religious  in- 
structors avowing  a  belief  in  papal  infallibility. 
On  May  29  a  number  of  prominent  men  met 
at  Munich,  under  the  presidency  of  Dollin- 
ger, and  prepared  a  declaration  of  principles, 
which  was '  generally  accepted  as  the  provi- 
sional ecclesiastical  standard  of  the  new  church. 
This  declaration  says  that  the  Old  Catholics 
persist  in  rejecting  papal  infallibility  and  the 
Vatican  doctrines  which,  notwithstanding  the 
denial  of  the  bishops,  concede  to  the  pope  per- 
sonal infallibility  and  absolute  power  in  the 


610 


OLD   CATHOLICS 


church ;  that  they  hope  for  a  thorough  reform 
of  the  constitution  and  life  of  the  church,  in 
which  every  civilized  Catholic  nation  should 
constitute,  in  accordance  with  its  peculiar 
character  and  mission,  a  free  member,  in 
which  clergy  and  laity  should  harmoniously 
cooperate  for  developing  the  church  life,  and 
which  by  a  thoroughly  educated  episcopacy 
and  primacy  should  again  be  placed  at  the 
head  of  civilization.  The  declaration  was 
signed  by  31  prominent  Old  Catholics.  A 
general  Old  Catholic  congress  met  at  Munich 
on  Sept.  22,  composed  of  about  300  delegates, 
representing  all  parts  of  Germany,  the  Austro- 
Hungarian  monarchy,  and  Switzerland,  and  of 
friends  of  the  cause  from  Holland,  France, 
England,  Kussia,  and  other  countries.  Reso- 
lutions  defining  at  length  the  profession  of 
faith  of  the  Old  Catholics  were  adopted.  This 
profession  reasserts  the  claim  of  the  Old  Cath- 
olics to  be  regarded  as  members  of  the  Cath- 
olic church ;  it  not  only  rejects  the  Vatican  de- 
crees, but  also  claims  for  oacumenical  councils 
infallibility  only  if  their  decisions  agree  with 
the  original  and  traditional  faith  of  the  church 
as  witnessed  by  the  faith  of  the  people  and  by 
theological  science.  It  declares  that  there  is 
no  difference  between  the  church  of  Utrecht 
(the  so-called  Jansenists)  and  the  Old  Cath- 
olics, and  expresses  a  hope  for  a  reunion  with 
the  Greek  oriental  and  the  Russian  church,  as 
the  separation  was  not  grounded  in  any  insu- 
perable dogmatical  difference.  Dr.  Dollinger 
expressed  a  wish  that  the  Old  Catholics  might 
keep  strictly  within  the  bounds  of  a  protest 
against  the  obligatory  character  of  the  Vati- 
can council,  and  that  they  be  not  organized 
into  a  separate  church ;  but  it  was  almost 
unanimously  resolved  to  carry  through  an  or- 
ganized Catholic  movement.  As  none  of  the 
Roman  Catholic  bishops  of  Germany  had  iden- 
tified themselves  with  the  movement,  and  the 
Old  Catholics  were  as  yet  without  a  bishop  of 
their  own,  the  congregations  of  Bavaria  in 
1872  applied  to  the  archbishop  of  the  Old 
Catholic  church  of  Holland  for  the  sacrament  of 
confirmation.  The  request  was  complied  with, 
and  thus  the  entire  identity  of  the  Old  Catholic 
churches  of  Holland  and  Germany  was  estab- 
lished. At  the  second  Old  Catholic  congress, 
held  in  Cologne  in  September,  1872,  a  plan  for 
definitive  organization  was  adopted.  It  was 
provided  that  as  long  as  the  Old  Catholic 
church  had  no  bishop  of  her  own,  the  bishops 
of  the  Old  Catholic  church  of  Holland,  and 
those  bishops  of  the  United  Armenian  church 
who  occupied  a  similar  position  with  regard  to 
the  pope,  should  be  requested  to  perform  epis- 
copal functions  for  them.  But  at  the  same 
time  the  congress  declared  that  the  Old  Cath- 
olics reserved  to  themselves  the  right  of  re- 
establishing a  regular  episcopal  jurisdiction  by 
the  election  of  bishops,  who  should  be  chosen 
by  the  priests  and  the  representatives  of  the 
congregations,  and  who  were  at  the  beginning 
to  labor  like  the  missionary  bishops  of  the  an- 


cient church.  A  special  committee  was  ap- 
pointed, with  Dr.  Dollinger  as  chairman,  to 
promote  intercommunion  with  other  churches, 
especially  with  the  Eastern  and  Anglican,  both 
of  which  were  represented  at  this  congress. 
The  congress  also  reiterated  the  claim  of  the 
Old  Catholics  to  be  recognized  by  the  state 
governments  as  the  sole  representatives  of  the 
Catholic  church  of  Germany,  and  to  be  put  in 
possession  of  the  church  property.  This  claim 
the  governments  of  Germany,  though  strongly 
sympathizing  with  the  movement,  found  it  im- 
possible to  grant,  in  view  of  the  comparative- 
ly small  number  of  Old  Catholics;  and  they 
adopted  the  policy  of  considering  the  move- 
ment as  a  conflict  within  the  church,  which  did 
not  concern  the  state.  Accordingly  they  treat- 
ed both  parties  as  belonging  to  the  Catholic 
church,  and  in  several  towns,  especially  in  the 
grand  duchy  of  Baden,  a  vote  of  the  Catholic 
inhabitants  w.as  taken  to  ascertain  the  strength 
of  each  party  ;  and  where  the  number  of  Old 
Catholics  was  sufficiently  large,  one  of  the 
churches,  or  the  joint  use  of  one  church,  was 
given  to  them.  The  organization  of  the  Old 
Catholic  church  as  an  independent  body  was 
completed  by  the  election  of  a  bishop  on  June  4, 
1873,  at  Cologne.  The  choice  fell  almost  unan- 
imously on  Dr.  Reinkens,  professor  of  theol- 
ogy in  the  university  of  Breslau,  who  on  Aug. 
11  was  consecrated  at  Rotterdam  by  Bishop 
Heykamp  of  Deventer,  of  the  Old  Catholic 
church  of  Holland.  The  most  important  work 
done  by  the  third  Old  Catholic  congress,  held 
at  Constance,  Sept.  12  and  13,  was  the  adop- 
tion of  a  synodal  constitution  of  the  church, 
which  in  many  points  resembles  that  of  the 
Protestant  Episcopal  church  in  the  United 
States.  The  diocesan,  provincial,  and  general 
synods  of  the  Old  Catholics  will  consist  of  the 
priests  and  lay  delegates  of  the  congregations, 
each  lay  delegate  representing  200  constituents. 
The  first  synod  of  the  church  met  at  Bonn  on 
May  27,  1874,  and  was  attended  by  28  priests 
and  60  lay  delegates.  The  three  congresses 
had  declared  themselves  incompetent  to  deal 
with  the  demands  for  doctrinal  and  constitu- 
tional changes;  the  same  had  been  done  by 
the  bishop ;  and  the  action  of  priests  who,  like 
Father  Hyacinthe,  had  married  without  waiting 
for  the  abolition  of  celibacy  by  proper  ecclesi- 
astical authority,  had  been  disapproved.  There 
was  a  unanimous  sentiment  that  whatever  re- 
forms it  might  appear  desirable  to  introduce 
must  proceed  from  the  synod  of  the  church. 
Among  the  subjects  which  engaged  the  at- 
tention of  the  first  synod  were  auricular  con- 
fession, fasting  and  abstinence,  the  marriage 
laws,  and  priestly  celibacy.  The  synod  re- 
solved that  the  practice  of  private  confession 
should  be  retained,  but  that  it  should  be 
brought  back  to  the  principles  of  the  ancient 
church,  and  be  freed  from  the  Roman  corrup- 
tions. Similar  resolutions  were  passed  with 
regard  to  fasting  and  abstinence.  The  pro- 
hibition of  marriages  between  Catholics  and 


OLD  CATHOLICS 


611 


Protestants,  in  cases  where  the  Protestant 
refuses  to  consent  to  the  education  of  the 
children  in  the  Catholic  religion,  was  abolished. 
Action  on  the  proposed  abolition  of  priestly 
celibacy  was  postponed.  Committees  were 
appointed  for  preparing  a  new  ritual  and  a 
catechism.  Six  synodal  examiners  were  elect- 
ed, four  of  whom  were  priests  and  two  lay- 
men, and  a  "  synodal  representation  "  (stand- 
ing committee)  to  represent  the  church  until 
the  meeting  of  the  next  synod.  From  a  report 
made  to  this  synod  on  the  progress  of  the  Old 
Catholic  movement,  it  appears  that  at  this 
time  the  Old  Catholic  church  had  in  Prussia 
31  congregations,  16  organized  parishes,  and  a 
total  population  of  about  15,000  ;  in  Bavaria, 
54  societies  and  5,000  people  ;  and  in  Baden, 
31  societies  and  3,500  people.  The  number  of 
Old  Catholic  priests  in  Germany  was  41,  and 
of  students  of  theology  12.  The  original  claim 
of  the  Old  Catholics  to  be  recognized  by  the 
state  governments  as  the  sole  representatives 
of  the  Catholic  church  as  it  existed  before 
1870  had  been  abandoned;  and  the  fourth  Old 
Catholic  congress,  which  was  held  on  Sept.  6 
and  7,  1874,  at  Freiburg  in  Baden,  only  de- 
manded that  wherever  a  formal  separation  be- 
tween the  adherents  of  the  Vatican  council  and 
the  Old  Catholics  should  take  place,  the  latter 
should  receive  a  proportionate  share  of  the 
church  property.  The  legislature  of  Baden 
had  already  adopted  this  view  by  passing  a  law 
guaraD  teeing  to  the  Old  Catholics  a  share  in 
the  church  property  of  every  parish  of  the 
grand  duchy,  in  proportion  to  their  number. 
In  the  other  German  states  the  legal  status  of 
the  Old  Catholics  was  undefined  by  legislative 
action  at  the  beginning  of  1875 ;  but  it  was  ex- 
pected that  the  principles  adopted  in  Baden 
would  prevail.  A  union  conference  of  Old 
Catholic,  eastern,  and  Anglican  theologians  met 
under  the  presidency  of  Dr.  Dollinger  at  Bonn, 
Sept.  14-16,  1874.  The  members  of  the  con- 
ference generally  agreed  that  no  insuperable  dif- 
ference of  opinion  on  doctrinal  questions  exist- 
ed. The  Old  Catholics  as  well  as  the  Anglicans 
agreed  with  the  orientals  in  the  declaration 
that  the  manner  in  which  the  words  Filioque 
were  added  to  the  Mcene  creed  was  illegal, 
and  that,  with  a  view  to  future  peace  and 
unity,  it  is  very  desirable  that  the  entire  church 
should  decide  the  question  whether  the  creed 
can  be  restored  to  its  original  form  without 
sacrificing  a  doctrine  expressed  in  its  present 
form  in  the  occidental  churches.  The  adop- 
tion of  several  theses  on  doctrinal  questions 
indicated  that  the  difference  between  Old 
Catholics  and  the  Roman  Catholic  church,,  so 
far  as  the  latter  has  given  in  its  adhesion  to 
the  Vatican  council,  is  no  longer  limited  to 
papal  infallibility.  The  most  important  points 
of  difference,  according  to  these  theses,  are 
the  following :  The  apocryphal  books  of  the 
Old  Testament  are  declared  to  be  not  ca- 
nonical in  the  same  sense  as  the  books  con- 
tained in  the  Hebrew  canon ;  no  translation  of 


holy  writ  can  claim  a  higher  authority  than 
the  original  text ;  divine  service  should  be  cel- 
ebrated in  a  language  understood  by  the  peo- 
ple ;  the  doctrine  that  superabundant  merits  of 
the  saints  can  be  transferred  to  others,  either 
by  the  heads  of  the  church  or  by  the  authors 
of  the  good  works,  is  untenable ;  the  number 
of  sacraments  was  for  the  first  time  fixed  at 
seven  in  the  12th  century,  and  this  became  a 
doctrine  of  the  church,  not  as  a  tradition  re- 
ceived from  the  apostles  or  earliest  times,  but 
as  the  result  of  theological  speculation;  the 
new  Roman  doctrine  of  the  immaculate  con- 
ception of  the  Virgin  is  at  variance  with  the 
tradition  of  the  first  13  centuries ;  indulgences 
can  only  refer  to  penances  which  have  really 
been  imposed  by  the  church  herself.  The  spe- 
cial committees  appointed  by  the  Old  Catholic 
congress  were  expected  to  continue  the  nego- 
tiations with  the  oriental  and  Anglican  com- 
munions.— Outside  of  Germany,  the  Old  Cath- 
olic movement  has  gained  a  firm  footing  only 
in  Switzerland.  The  number  of  priests  who 
joined  it  was  small,  but  the  support  received 
from  the  governments  of  the  Protestant  and 
liberal  cantons  was  much  more  vigorous  than 
in  Germany.  Not  only  were  those  priests  who 
joined  the  Old  Catholic  church  with  their 
congregations  protected  in  their  places  against 
the  bishops  who  excommunicated  and  deposed 
them,  but  some  cantons,  as  Bern  and  Geneva, 
passed  new  laws  regulating  the  affairs  of  the 
Catholic  church  ;  and  where  bishops  and  parish 
priests  refused  to  recognize  the  new  laws,  they 
appointed  Old  Catholic  priests.  Thus  all  the 
Catholic  churches  of  the  canton  of  Bern  were 
placed  in  the  hands  of  the  Old  Catholics,  al- 
though the  immense  majority  of  the  people 
protested  against  this  transfer.  The  same  can- 
ton established  in  1874,  in  connection  with  the 
university  of  Bern,  a  faculty  of  Old  Catholic 
theology,  which  was  opened  in  October.  The 
movement  in  Switzerland  has  had  in  general 
more  the  character  of  an  opposition  to  the  in- 
fluence of  Rome  than  that  of  a  religious  reform. 
At  the  close  of  1874  the  church  was  still  with- 
out a  bishop,  and  grave  dissensions  had  broken 
out  between  a  more  conservative  and  a  more 
radical  wing  of  the  party,  the  latter  of  which 
had  the  ascendancy  in  the  canton  of  Geneva. 
At  a  general  assembly  of  the  Old  Catholic 
societies  which  was  held  at  Olten  in  Septem- 
ber, 1874,  the  main  points  of  the  church  con- 
stitution, including  the  election  of  a  bishop, 
were  agreed  upon.  The  convention  rejected 
the  name  of  Old  Catholics,  and  preferred  that 
of  Christian  Catholics  (ChristlcatJioUlcen).  In 
Austria  several  congregations  were  formed,  es- 
pecially in  the  German  districts  of  Bohemia ; 
but  although  supported  by  the  liberal  parties 
in  the  parliament,  they  were  up  to  the  end  of 
1874  unable  to  obtain  recognition  by  the  state 
government.  In  France,  Father  Hyacinthe  and 
the  abbe"  Michaud  took  an  active  interest  in  the 
movement,  but  were  unable  to  secure  the  forma- 
tion of  any  large  congregations.  Spain,  Italy, 


612 


OLDENBARNEVELDT 


OLDHAM 


England,  and  other  countries  were  also  repre- 
sented at  the  Old  Catholic  congresses ;  but  al- 
though some  men  of  influence  were  among  the 
sympathizers  with  the  movement,  like  the  Jesuit 
Passaglia  in  Italy  and  Lord  Acton  and  Lord 
Camoys  in  England,  no  independent  Old  Cath- 
olic church  has  been  founded  in  any  of  these 
countries. — The  principal  periodicals  published 
in  the  interest  of  the  Old  Catholic  church  are 
Der  Deutsche  Mercur  (a  weekly),  at  Munich, 
and  the  TheologiscJies  Liter  aturblatt,  at  Bonn. 
On  the  history  and  the  aims  of  the  church,  see 
Eeinkens,  Ueber  den  Ursprung  der  jetzigen 
Kirchenbewegung  (Cologne,  1872);  Nippold, 
Ursprung,  Umfang,  Hemmnisse  und  Aussichten 
der  altTcatholiscJien  Bewegung  (Berlin,  1873) ; 
Pere  Hyacinthe,  De  la  reforme  catholique 
(Paris,  1872) ;  and  Michaud,  Programme  de 
reforme  de  Vfiglise  d>  Occident  (Paris,  1872). 

OLDENBARNEVELDT.     See  BARNEVELDT. 

OLDENBURG.  I.  A  grand  duchy  of  Germany, 
comprising  three  separate  territories,  which 
have  the  following  areas  and  population  : 


DIVISIONS. 

Area  in 
•q.  m. 

Pop.  in  1871. 

Duchy  of  Oldenburg  

2,075 

248978 

Principality  of  Lubeck     .  .  . 

200 

84353 

Principality  of  Birkenfeld 

194 

86128 

Total  

2469 

314,459 

The  duchy  of  Oldenburg  is  situated  W.  and  S. 
W.  of  the  river  Weser,  which  forms  its  N.  E. 
boundary.  It  is  bounded  N.  by  the  North  sea, 
a  deep  inlet  of  which  forms  the  Jade  bay, 
and  E.,  S.,  and  W.  by  the  Prussian  province 
of  Hanover.  The  whole  country  is  a  perfect 
level,  watered  by  the  Weser,  Hunte,  Jade, 
Vechta,  and  other  rivers,  of  which  only  the 
Weser  is  navigable.  Of  a  number  of  lakes  the 
largest  and  most  picturesque  is  Zwischenahn 
lake.  One  seventh  of  the  area  consists  of  the 
most  fertile  bottom  land,  upon  which  all  kinds 
of  grain,  fruit,  potatoes,  beans,  peas,  &c., 
thrive  luxuriantly;  the  remainder  of  fair  arable 
soil  and  pasture.  Oldenburg  is  almost  exclu- 
sively an  agricultural  country,  and  its  manu- 
factures are  of  little  importance.  Among  the 
more  important  towns  are  Jever  and  Varel,  in 
the  north,  the  latter  on  the  railroad  which 
connects  the  capital,  Oldenburg,  with  Bremen 
and  Wilhelmshaven,  the  Prussian  seaport  on 
Jade  bay.  The  principality  of  Lubeck  is  en- 
closed by  the  Prussian  province  of  Schleswig- 
Holstein  and  the  territory  of  the^  free  city  of 
Lubeck.  It  consists  of  the  city  of  Eutin,  and 
one  borough  and  82  villages  grouped  around 
the  banks  of  the  lake  of  Eutin.  Up  to  1802 
it  was  an  independent  bishopric.  The  prin- 
cipality of  Birkenfeld  lies  in  the  southern  part 
of  the  Prussian  province  of  the  Rhine,  on 
the  left  bank  of  the  Rhine.  (See  BIRKEN- 
FELD.)— The  grand  duchy  has  a  common  con- 
stitution for  its  three  component  parts,  and 
provincial  councils  for  Lubeck  and  Birkenfeld. 
The  diet  of  the  grand  duchy  consists  of  a  sin- 


gle chamber,  numbering  33  deputies,  who  are 
elected  for  three  years  by  the  vote  of  all  citi- 
zens paying  taxes.  The  executive  is  vested, 
under  the  grand  duke,  in  a  responsible  minis- 
try of  three  departments.  The .  state  debt  in 
1873  was  $8,416,000.  In  the  budget  of  the 
central  government  of  Oldenburg  for  1873,  the 
revenue  and  the  expenses  were  estimated  at 
$202,000  each.  The  aggregate  revenue  of  the 
special  budget  of  the  three  divisions  of  the 
grand  duchy  was  estimated  at  $1,800,000;  the 
expenditure  at  $1,420,000.  The  movement  of 
shipping  in  1872  was  as  follows :  vessels  en- 
tered, 2,007,  tonnage  161,480;  cleared,  2,134, 
tonnage  159,570.  These  figures  do  not  include 
the  coasting  trade,  in  which  4,925  vessels  en- 
tered, tonnage  186,586,  and  4,821  cleared,  ton- 
nage 186,048.  The  merchant  shipping  of  the 
grand  duchy  in  1872  embraced  542  vessels,  ag- 
gregate burden  71,547  tons.  The  troops  of 
Oldenburg  consist  of  one  regiment  of  infantry, 
one  of  cavalry,  and  two  batteries.  It  is  repre- 
sented in  the  German  imperial  Reichstag  by 
three  deputies. — The  present  territory  of  Old- 
enburg proper  was  originally  inhabited  by  the 
Chauci,  and  was  afterward  overrun  by  the 
Saxons.  In  1180  the  counts  of  Oldenburg  ob- 
tained their  independence  from  the  dukes  of 
Saxony.  In  1448  a  son  of  the  late  count  was 
elected  king  of  Denmark.  The  Oldenburg  line 
having  become  extinct,  the  country  fell  to  Den- 
mark in  1667.  In  1773  Denmark  exchanged 
it  for  the  possessions  and  claims  of  the  Hol- 
stein-Gottorp  family  in  Schleswig-Holstein, 
and  it  became  an  independent  state  once  more. 
Having  been  annexed  to  France  at  the  begin- 
ning of  1811,  it  regained  its  independence  in 
1813,  and  obtained  some  territorial  accessions 
(including  the  principality  of  Birkenfeld)  from 
the  congress  of  Vienna,  which  also  raised  the 
prince  to  the  rank  of  grand  duke.  In  conse- 
quence of  the  revolution  of  1848  the  people 
obtained  a  liberal  constitution,  which  however 
was  curtailed  in  1852.  The  present  grand 
duke,  Augustus  (born  Nov.  16,  1852),  succeed- 
ed his  father  Peter  Dec.  12,  1874.  On  Feb. 
16,  1864,  the  bay  and  territory  of  Jade  were 
ceded  to  Prussia.  II.  A  city,  capital  of  the 
grand  duchy,  24  m.  W.  N.  W.  of  Bremen,  on 
the  Hunte,  llm.  above  its  confluence  with  the 
Weser;  pop.  in  1871,  14,928.  The  grand-du- 
cal palace  contains  many  works  of  German  art, 
and  a  library  numbering  about  50,000  volumes. 
The  town  has  three  churches,  a  synagogue,  a 
gymnasium,  a  normal  school,  a  theatre,  a  pub- 
lic library  numbering  more  than  100,000  vol- 
umes, and  a  museum  of  natural  sciences  which 
is  especially  rich  in  North  German  and  Indian 
birds.  The  most  important  manufactures  are 
refined  sugar,  soap,  and  musical  instruments ; 
there  are  also  numerous  breweries  and  distil- 
leries. A  brisk  trade  is  carried  on  in  wood, 
wool,  and  cattle. 

OLDHAM,  a  N.  county  of  Kentucky,  separated 
from  Indiana  by  the  Ohio  river;  area,  about 
200  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  9,027,  of  whom  2,810 


OLDHAM 

were  colored.  The  surface  near  the  Ohio  is 
hilly;  the  rest  of  the  county  is  undulating. 
The  soil  is  fertile.  It  is  traversed  by  the  Louis- 
ville, Cincinnati,  and  Lexington  railroad.  The 
chief  productions  in  1870  were  52,933  bushels 
of  wheat,  514,745  of  Indian  corn,  127,650  of 
oats,  38,322  of  potatoes,  301,285  Ibs.  of  tobac- 
co, 25,718  of  wool,  124,560  of  butter,  40,000 
of  cheese,  and  3,201  tons  of  hay.  There  were 
3,164  horses,  788  mules  and  asses,  2,028  milch 
cows,  4,345  other  cattle,  9,226  sheep,  and 
19,096  swine.  Capital,  La  Grange. 

OLDHAM,  a  market  town  of  Lancashire,  Eng- 
land, 6  m.  N.  E.  of  Manchester,  with  which  it 
communicates  by  railway  and  canal;  pop.  in 
1871,  82,619.  Oldham  is  in  the  midst  of  a  rich 
coal  field,  and  owes  its  growth,  which  is  compar- 
atively recent,  to  its  manufacturing  facilities. 
It  has  66  places  of  worship,  of  which  16  belong 
to  the  church  of  England ;  a  blue  coat  school 
with  an  endowment  of  more  than  £100,000  ;  a 
free  grammar  school,  a  lyceum,  a  mechanics' 
institute,  and  a  subscription  library.  The 
principal  branch  of  industry  is  cotton  spinning ; 
there  are  in  the  town  and  vicinity  more  than 
150  mills,  mainly  for  this  process.  Fustians, 
velveteens,  corduroys,  hats,  brass  and  iron 
castings,  rope,  and  leather  are  also  made. 

OLDHAM,  John,  an  English  satirical  poet,  born 
at  Shipton,  Gloucestershire,  Aug.  9,  1653,  died 
at  Holme  Pierpoint,  Dec.  8,  1683.  He  gradu- 
ated at  Oxford  in  1674,  went  to  London  in 
1681,  and  finally  devoted  himself  to  poetry  and 
the  pleasures  of  the  town.  He  satirized  the 
Jesuits,  and  was  called  the  "  English  Juvenal." 
A  new  edition  of  his  works,  edited  by  K.  Bell, 
was  published  in  London  in  1854. 

OLD  MAN  OF  THE  MOUNTAIN,    See  ASSASSINS. 

OLDMIXON,  John,  an  English  author,  born  in 
1673,  died  in  London  in  1742.  After  pro- 
ducing several  unsuccessful  plays,  he  turned  his 
hand  to  .political  waiting,  and  was  appointed 
collector  of  the  customs  at  the  port  of  Bridge- 
water.  In  the  interest  of  the  whig  party  he 
compiled  a  "  Critical  History  of  England,  Eccle- 
siastical and  Civil"  (1726),  and  a  "History  of 
England"  (l730-'39).  These  histories  have  little 
merit.  He  superintended  the  first  edition  of 
the  collection  of  English  historians  which  ap- 
peared under  the  name  of  Bishop  Kennett. 
In  his  "  Prose  Essay  on  Criticism  "  and  "  Arts 
of  Logic  and  Rhetoric,"  he  attacked  Pope,  who 
made  him  conspicuous  in  the  "  Dunciad." 

OLDTOWN,  a  town  of  Penobscot  co.,  Maine, 
on  the  W.  bank  of  the  Penobscot  river,  and  on 
the  European  and  North  American  and  the 
Bangor  and  Piscataquis  railroads,  12  m.  N.  of 
Bangor  and  70  m.  N.  E.  of  Augusta ;  pop.  in 
1870,  4,529.  It  contains  four  villages.  Upper 
Stillwater,  Great  Works,  Pushaw,  and  Old- 
town.  Its  principal  business  is  connected  with 
the  timber  trade.  A  large  boom  was  placed 
across  the  Penobscot  some  years  ago  at  a  cost 
of  $100,000,  to  prevent  timber  from  floating 
out  to  sea.  About  250,000,000  feet  of  lum- 
ber are  rafted  annually,  employing  200  hands. 


OLEANDER 


613 


The  principal  articles  of  manufacture  are  lum- 
ber, shingles,  carriages,  barrels,  furniture,  and 
saw-filing  machines.  One  of  the  saw  mills  is 
among  the  largest  in  the  world.  There  are 
Baptist,  Congregational,  Episcopal,  Methodist, 
Roman  Catholic,  and  Universalist  churches. 
Oldtown  was  separated  from  Orono  in  1840. 

OLEANDER  (Fr.  oleandre,  from  low  Lat. 
lorandrum,  a  corruption  of  rfiodendrum),  the 
name  of  plants  of  the  genus  nerium.  Though 
derived  from  the  French,  the  common  name 
in  that  language  is  laurier-rose  or  laurose  (lau- 
rel rose).  The  genus  nerium  (the  ancient 
name)  belongs  to  the  dogbane  family  (apocy- 
nacece),  and  consists  of  shrubs  with  opposite  or 
whorled,  thick  and  rigid  leaves,  and  clusters 
of  showy  flowers  in  large  terminal  clusters. 
The  corolla  is  salver-shaped,  with  a  crown  of 
five  slender-toothed  scales  in  its  throat;  the 
five  stamens  have  their  anthers  terminated  by  a 
long,  twisted,  hairy  appendage;  the  two  ovaries 
become  in  fruit  long  cylindrical  pods  contain- 
ing tufted  seeds.  There  are  not  more  than  six 
or  eight  admitted  species,  most  of  them  natives 
of  India;  the  best  known  is  N.  oleander,  a  very 
old  house  plant  in  the  northern  states,  but  har- 
dy in  the  south ;  it  is  a  native  of  the  Levant 
as  well  as  of  more  eastern  countries ;  its  large 
odorous  flowers  have  the  appendage  to  the  an- 
thers scarcely  protruding ;  the  ordinary  color 
is  rose,  but  the  named  varieties  have  white, 
purple,  and  variegated,  and  partly  or  wholly 
double  flowers.  The  sweet  oleander  (N.  odo- 
rum)  has  narrower  leaves,  the  appendages  to 
the  anthers  protruding,  and  fragant  flowers; 
this  is  often  confounded  with  the  other  by  flo- 
rists; it  is  more  tender,  and  distinguished  by 


Oleander  (Nerium  oleander). 

the  characters  here  given.  As  a  house  plant 
the  oleander  is  kept  indoors  during  the  winter 
and  set  outdoors  during  the  summer,  where  it 
blooms  in  July,  its  flowers  remaining  a  long 
time.  The  plant  is  easily  propagated,  a  very 
common  method  being  to  put  the  cuttings  into 


614 


OLE  BULL 


OLfiRON 


bottles  of  water,  where  they  form  roots  in  a 
few  weeks  and  may  then  be  transferred  to  pots 
of  rich  soil.  This  plant  is  exceedingly  poison- 
ous in  all  its  parts ;  death  has  even  followed 
the  inadvertent  use  of  the  wood  for  meat  skew- 
ers, and  serious  results  from  the  sucking  of  the 


Double  Oleander  (Nerium  oleander,  fl.  pi.). 

flowers  by  children ;  an  infusion  of  the  leaves 
kills  insects,  and  the  bark  poisons  rats.  In 
Bermuda  it  has  become  naturalized  and  is  in 
common  use  as  a  hedge  plant.  The  farmers 
there  say  that  the  oleander  poisons  the  grass 
growing  near  the  hedges,  and  that  animals  are 
killed  by  eating  it;  the  fact  probably  is  that 
the  animals  eat  the  fallen  oleander  leaves  with 
the  grass. 

OLE  BULL.     See  BULL,  OLE  BOENEMANN. 

OLEFIAJVT  GAS.  See  OAEBUEETTED  HYDBOGEN. 

OLEIC  ACID,  an  organic,  monatomic  acid, 
found  in  combination  with  glycerine  in  oils 
and  fats,  as  oleine,  or  oleate  of  glycerine.  It 
is  obtained  by  the  saponification  of  oleine,  the 
most  fluid  constituent  of  the  natural  fats  and 
fixed  oils.  Olive  or  almond  oil  is  treated  with 
potash,  which  sets  free  the  glycerine,  oleate 
of  potash  being  formed  in  the  soapy  mixture. 
This  soap  is  treated  with  tartaric  acid,  which 
combining  with  the  potash  forms  tartrate  of 
potash;  and  the  separated  fatty  acid,  after 
being  washed,  is  heated  for  some  hours  in  a 
water  bath  with  half  its  weight  of  oxide  of 
lead.  The  mixture  is  then  shaken  with  twice 
its  bulk  of  ether,  which  dissolves  the  oleate  of 
lead  and  leaves  the  stearate.  After  standing 
some  time  the  mixture  is  decanted  and  hydro- 
chloric acid  added  to  it ;  this  unites  with  the 
lead  and  liberates  the  oleic  acid,  which  dis- 
solves in  the  ether  and  rises  to  the  surface  of 
the  water,  from  which  it  is  removed  and  freed 
from  ether  by  distillation.  Large  quantities  of 
crude  oleic  acid  are  now  obtained  in  the  man- 
ufacture of  stearine  candles,  by  treating  with 
dilute  sulphuric  acid  the  lime  soap  produced 
by  the  action  of  lime  upon  tallow.  The  fatty 


acids  which  are  thus  liberated,  being  washed 
with  hot  water,  solidify  on  cooling  into  a  mass, 
which  when  subjected  to  pressure  yields  a 
liquid  rich  in  oleic  acid,  but  containing  con- 
siderable stearic  acid.  After  exposure  to  cold 
this  liquid  deposits  a  quantity  of  solid  matter, 
and  the  remaining  liquid  portion  is  sent  to  mar- 
ket under  the  names  of  oleic  acid  and  red  oil, 
which  may  be  purified  by  the  processes  above 
described.  Oleic  acid  crystallizes  from  its 
alcoholic  solution  in  dazzling  white  needles, 
melting  at  57°  F.  to  a  colorless  oil,  which  at  39° 
solidifies  to  a  hard,  white,  crystalline  mass,  ex- 
panding considerably  at  the  same  time.  It8 
specific  gravity  at  66°  is  0*898.  It  vaporizes 
in  a  vacuum  without  decomposition ;  is  insol- 
uble in  water,  very  soluble  in  alcohol,  and  dis- 
solves in  all  proportions  in  ether.  It  dissolves 
the  solid  fats,  and  is  dissolved  by  bile,  forming 
a  soap.  It  oxidizes  but  slowly  when  solid,  but 
when  melted  it  rapidly  absorbs  oxygen  and 
becomes  strongly  rancid.  With  glycerine  it 
forms  three  glycerides,  monoleine,  dioleine, 
and  trioleine.  With  ammonia  and  the  metal- 
lic bases  it  forms  salts  called  oleates,  the  oleate 
of  lead  being  used  in  purifying  the  acids.  The 
oleates  of  the  alkalies  are  always  formed  in 
the  manufacture  of  soap. 

OLEO-MARGARINE,  a  substance  produced  from 
tallow  and  resembling  butter,  so  called  by  Mege- 
Mouriez,  according  to  the  idea  that,  as  asserted 
by  Ohevreul,  butter  contains  margarine;  but 
this  opinion  has  been  generally  abandoned. 
Mege-Mouriez  had  observed  that  the  milk  of 
cows  was  not  deprived  of  butter  long  after  they 
were  subjected  to  extremely  scanty  feeding; 
from  which  he  concluded  that  the  fat  of  the 
animal  was  converted  into  butter.  Taking  suet, 
which  contains  less  oleine  than  butter,  he  ex- 
tracted a  certain  proportion  of  palmitine  and 
stearine,  until  the  proportion  of  oleine  was  suf- 
ficient to  give  it  the  consistence  of  butter. 
Fresh  meat  cut  fine,  a  small  portion  of  carbon- 
ate of  soda,  and  sheep's  stomachs,  also  cut  fine, 
are  put  into  a  vessel  with  water  and  heated  to 
113°  F. ;  this  causes  the  fat  to  separate  from 
the  cellular  tissue,  and  being  subjected  to  great 
pressure  it  separates  into  a  firm  stearine  and 
palmitine,  and  an  oil  which  on  cooling  has  the 
consistence  of  butter.  This  substance  (oleo-mar- 
garine),  while  liquid,  is  combined  with  about 
its  own  volume  of  a  mixture  of  equal  parts  of 
milk  and  water.  Some  water,  in  which  cows' 
udders  containing  milk  glands  have  been  di- 
gested, is  added,  with  a  little  annotto  for  col- 
oring, and  the  mixture  is  then  churned ;  on 
cooling  the  fatty  matter  collects  in  a  manner 
resembling  that  when  cream  is  churned  to  but- 
ter. The  artificial  butter  is  washed  with  cold 
water  and  salted  like  natural  butter. 

OLERON  (anc.  Uliarus\  an  island  of  France, 
in  the  bay  of  Biscay,  separated  from  the  main- 
land by  a  strait  which  in  its  narrowest  part  is 
1  m.  wide,  and  lying  opposite  the  mouth  of  the 
Charente,  the  N.  W.  point  being  in  lat.  46°  3' 
N.  and  Ion.  1°  24'  W. ;  greatest  length  18  m., 


OLfiRON" 


OLIPHANT 


615 


greatest  breadth  7  m. ;  pop.  about  20,000.  It 
belongs  to  the  department  of  Charente-Infe- 
rieure,  and  has  five  ports,  La  Flotte,  St. 
Martin,  La  Conarde,  Loix,  and  Ars,  besides  the 
towns  of  Chateau  and  St.  Pierre  d'O16ron,  the 
former  of  which  is  fortified.  Except  on  the  W. 
side,  where  it  is  much  exposed,  the  island  is 
generally  fertile,  producing  grain,  vegetables, 
and  wine.  Ship  building  and  salt  making  are 
carried  on.  The  island  was  successively  the 
property  of  the  counts  of  Anjou,  the  dukes  of 
Aquitaine,  the  English,  and  the  French. 

OLERON,  Laws  of.    See  LAW  MERCHANT. 

OLGi,  a  Russian  princess  and  saint  of  the 
Greek  church,  died  in  969.  She  was  the  wife 
of  Igor,  grand  duke  of  Kiev,  the  son  of  Rurik. 
Her  husband  fell  in  battle  in  945,  and  she  was 
regent  for  ten  years  during  the  minority  of  her 
son  Sviatoslav.  She  became  a  Christian,  and 
was  baptized  at  Constantinople  in  957  under 
the  name  of  Helen,  though  her  son  remained 
a  pagan.  After  her  death  she  was  canonized  in 
the  Greek  church.  Her  festival  is  July  11  (23). 

OLIBMUM.     See  FRANKINCENSE. 

OLIER  DE  VERNEUIL,  Jean  Jaeqnes,  a  French 
priest,  born  in  Paris,  Sept.  20, 1608,  died  there, 
April  2,  1657.  His  father  was  secretary  to 
Henry  IV.  Jean  Jacques  was  connected  with 
St.  Vincent  de  Paul,  and  gave  successful  mis- 
sions in  Auvergne.  Refusing  bishoprics,  he 
took  charge  of  the  parish  of  St.  Sulpice,  Paris, 
which  he  reformed;  and  he  founded  in  1645 
the  seminary  of  St.  Sulpice  for  the  better  train- 
ing of  the  clergy.  He  had  in  1636,  with  five 
other  gentlemen,  formed  the  society  of  Mon- 
treal to  colonize  that  island,  which  they  pur- 
chased in  1640.  A  new  city  was  soon  found- 
ed, with  convents,  hospital,  and  schools,  and  the 
Sulpicians  established  a  theological  seminary 
and  college,  which  still  exist.  Olier  wrote  a 
"Treatise  on  Holy  Orders,"  " Christian  Cate- 
chism of»  the  Interior  Life,"  and  other  works. 
The  best  life  of  him  is  by  Faillon  (Paris,  1853). 

OLI>,  Stephen,  an  American  clergyman,  born 
in  Leicester,  Vt,  March  3,  1797,  died  in  Mid- 
dletown,  Conn.,  Aug.  16,  1851.  He  graduated 
at  Middlebury  college,  Vt.,  in  1820,  and  became 
a  teacher  in  South  Carolina.  Entering  the 
ministry  of  the  Methodist  Episcopal  church, 
he  was  admitted  to  the  South  Carolina  con- 
ference in  1824,  and  for  two  years  was  sta- 
tioned in  Charleston.  In  1827  he  was  sta- 
tioned at  Athens,  Ga.,  in  a  supernumerary  re- 
lation, and  in  1829  resumed  his  itinerant  min- 
istry. He  was  professor  of  English  literature 
in  Franklin  college  from  1826  to  1832,  when 
he  became  president  of  Randolph  Macon  col- 
lege. In  1837-'41  he  travelled  in  Europe, 
Egypt,  and  Palestine.  He  was  president  of 
the  Wesleyan  university  at  Middletown,  Conn., 
from  1842  until  his  death.  He  wrote  "  Travels 
in  Egypt,  Arabia  Petrsea,  and  the  Holy  Land  " 
(2  vols.  8vo,  New  York,  1843),  and  "  Greece  and 
the  Golden  Horn  "  (8vo,  1854).  His  "  Works  " 
appeared  in  1852  (2  vols.  12mo),  and  his  "Life 
and  Letters"  in  1853  (2  vols.  8vo). 


OLIPHMT,  Carolina,  Baroness  N"airne,  a  Scot- 
tish poetess,  born  in  the  mansion  of  Gask, 
Perthshire,  July  16,  1766,  died  there,  Oct.  26, 
1845.  Because  of  her  great  beauty  she  was 
called  in  her  youth  "the  flower  of  Strath- 
earn."  Observing  the  general  looseness  and 
ribaldry  in  the  songs  of  the  peasantry,  she  at- 
tempted to  write  better  words  for  the  popular 
tunes,  and  the  result  was  a  considerable  num- 
ber of  songs  which  were  at  once  recognized  as 
among  the  finest  in  the  language.  The  best 
known  of  these  are  "  The  Land  o'  the  Leal," 
"  Caller  Herrin',"  and  "  The  Laird  o'  Cockpen." 
Her  family  had  been  devoted  Jacobites,  and  she 
wrote  several  political  songs  of  that  character. 
All  of  her  literary  work  was  anonymous,  and 
her  authorship  was  kept  a  profound  secret  un- 
til within  a  few  years  of  her  death.  After  a 
long  engagement,  she  married  in  June,  1806, 
her  second  cousin,  Capt.  William  Murray 
Nairne,  who  by  the  removal  of  an  attainder  in 
1824  became  fifth  Lord  Nairne.  They  resided 
in  Edinburgh.  A  selection  from  her  songs, 
with  accompaniments  by  Finlay  Dun,  was  pub- 
lished about  1846,  under  the  title  of  "Lays 
from  Strathearn."  A  complete  edition  of  her 
lyrical  compositions  was  edited,  with  a  life,  by 
the  Rev.  Charles  Rogers  (Edinburgh,  1869). 

OLIPHANT,  Laurence,  an  English  author,  born 
in  1829.  He  is  the  only  son  of  Sir  Anthony 
Oliphant,  C.  B.,  who  was  appointed  chief  jus- 
tice of  Ceylon  in  1838.  He  was  educated  in 
England,  and  at  an  early  age  went  to  Ceylon, 
where  he  made  the  acquaintance  of  Jung  Ba- 
hadoor,  the  Nepaulese  ambassador  to  London, 
who  visited  Ceylon  in  1850  on  his  way  home, 
and  accompanied  him  to  Katmandu,  the  cap- 
ital of  Nepaul.  On  his  return  he  published 
"A  Journey  to  Katmandu"  (London,  1852). 
He  studied  law  at  the  university  of  Edin- 
burgh, and  was  admitted  to  the  bar.  In  the 
latter  part  of  1852  he  visited  Russia,  descended 
the  Volga,  traversed  the  country  of  the  Don 
Cossacks,  and  spent  some  time  in  the  Crimea. 
His  second  work,  "The  Russian  Shores  of 
the  Black  Sea"  (London,  1853),  appearing  on 
the  eve  of  the  Crimean  war,  passed  through 
four  editions  in  a  few  months.  Mr.  Oliphant 
was  soon  after  appointed  private  secretary 
to  the  earl  of  Elgin,  then  governor  general  of 
Canada,  and  went  to  Quebec,  where  he  was 
made  superintendent  of  Indian  affairs.  He 
travelled  extensively  both  in  the  United  States 
and  in  Central  America,  and  published  "  Min- 
nesota, or  the  Far  West"  (London,  1855). 
He  also  published  anonymously  at  this  period 
a  pamphlet  entitled  "  The  Coming  Campaign," 
on  the  best  mode  of  conducting  the  war  with 
Russia.  It  was  republished  under  the  title  of 
"The  Trans-Caucasian  Provinces  the  Proper 
Field  of  Operations  for  a  Christian  Army." 
After  his  return  from  America  he  went  to 
Turkey,  and  as  a  correspondent  of  the  press 
accompanied  Omer  Pasha  in  a  campaign,  of 
which  he  gave  an  account  in  "The  Trans-Cau- 
casian Campaign  of  Omer  Pasha "  (London, 


616 


OLIPHANT 


OLIVE 


1856).  In  1857,  when  Lord  Elgin  was  sent 
as  minister  plenipotentiary  to  China,  Mr.  Oli- 
phant  became  his  private  secretary,  and  on  his 
return  published  a  "  Narrative  of  the  Earl  of 
Elgin's  Mission  to  China  and  Japan  "  (London, 
1860).  In  1861,  while  acting  as  charge  d'af- 
faires in  Japan,  he  was  severely  wounded  by 
assassins.  He  was  elected  to  parliament  from 
the  Stirling  boroughs  in  1865,  but  resigned  in 
1868  to  join  in  the  attempt  at  religious  and 
social  reformation  conducted  by  Thomas  L. 
Harris,  at  Portland,  Chautauqua  co.,  N".  Y., 
where  he  now  (1875)  resides.  In  1870  he  vis- 
ited Europe,  and  was  for  a  time  correspondent 
of  the  London  "  Times  "  in  Paris.  In  1873-'5 
he  had  charge  in  the  United  States  and  British 
America  of  the  interests  of  the  direct  cable  com- 
pany, an  ocean  telegraph  enterprise.  He  has 
also  published  a  novel  called  "Patriots  and 
Filibusters,  or  Incidents  of  Political  and  Ex- 
ploratory Travel "  (London,  1861),  and  "  Pic- 
cadilly "  (1870). 

OLIPHANT,  Margaret  (WILSON),  an  English  au- 
thoress, born  in  Liverpool  about  1820.  Her 
mother  was  Scotch,  and  most  of  Mrs.  Oli- 
phant's  tales  relate  to  Scottish  life.  Her  first 
novel,  "  Passages  in  the  Life  of  Mrs.  Margaret 
Maitland  of  Sunnyside "  (1849),  was  imme- 
diately successful,  and  since  then  she  has  pub- 
lished "Merkland"  (1851),  "Adam  Grarnie 
of  Mossgray  "  (1852),  "  Harry  Muir  "  (1853), 
"Magdalen  Hepburn"  (1854),  "  Liliesleaf  " 
(1855),  "Zaidee"  (1856),  "The  Life  of  Ed- 
ward Irving  "  (2  vols.,  1862),  "  Chronicles  of 
Carlingford  "  (1863),  "  The  Perpetual  Curate  " 
(1864),  "A  Son  of  the  Soil"  (1865),  "Miss 
Majoribanks"  (1866),  "The  Minister's  Wife  " 
(1869),  "  Historical  Sketches  of  the  Keign  of 
George  II."  (2  vols.,  1869),  "  Three  Brothers  " 
(1870),  "  A  Rose  in  June  "  (1874),  &c. 

OLIVA,  Alexandra  Joseph,  a  French  sculptor, 
born  at  Saillagouse,  department  of  Pyr6nees- 
Orientales,  about  1824.  He  was  a  private  in 
the  army  when  his  artistic  talent  attracted  at- 
tention, and  he  went  to  Paris  to  study  painting 
under  Delestre.  At  the  same  time  he  modelled 
busts,  which  became  celebrated,  the  finest  be- 
ing those  of  the  abbe  Deguerry  (1855),  Bishop 
Gerbet  and  Father  Ventura  (1857),  Francois 
Arago  and  Richard  Cobden  for  the  museum 
of  Versailles,  Cherubim  (1864),  the  empress 
Eugenie  (1870),  Colbert  and  St.  Vincent  de 
Paul  (1872),  and  Baron  Silbert  (1874).  He 
has  also  executed  many  statues,  the  most  cele- 
brated being  that  of  the  abbe  Deguerry  in  the 
Madeleine  (1873),  and  in  1874  he  made  one  of 
the  prince  of  Asturias,  now  king  of  Spain. 

OLIVAREZ,  Gasparo  de  Guzman,  count,  a  Span- 
ish statesman,  born  in  Rome,  Jan.  6, 1587,  died 
in  Toro,  July  22,  1645.  His  father  was  am- 
bassador at  the  papal  court  of  Sixtus  V.  He 
studied  at  the  university  of«  Salamanca,  and 
was  appointed  gentleman  of  the  bedchamber 
to  the  prince  of  Asturias,  afterward  Philip  IV., 
who  in  1621  bestowed  upon  Olivarez  the  title 
of  duke  of  San  Lucar,  and  appointed  him  min- 


ister in  place  of  his  uncle  the  duke  of  Uceda. 
Olivarez  dismissed  some  of  the  best  servants 
of  the  state  to  make  room  for  his  own  crea- 
tures, and  curtailed  government  expenses  only 
to  obtain  the  means  of  gratifying  his  taste  for 
pomp  and  splendor.  He  aimed  at  reconquer- 
ing the  provinces  which  Spain  had  recently 
lost,  and  restoring  the  kingdom  to  her  old  su- 
premacy in  Europe ;  but  in  this  attempt  he  had 
to  encounter  the  superior  skill  of  the  French 
minister  Cardinal  Richelieu.  Availing  himself 
of  the  expiration  of  the  truce  with  Holland 
concluded  in  1609,  he  reopened  hostilities  with 
the  Dutch  in  1621,  but  was  unsuccessful,  and 
the  Spanish  colonies  were  almost  ruined.  Mean- 
while Spain  had  been  obliged  to  give  up  the 
Valtellina.  Olivarez,  nevertheless,  attempted 
to  make  her  influence  felt  in  Italy  and  Ger- 
many, while  he  fostered  troubles  and  conspira- 
cies in  France ;  but  in  these  attempts  he  sig- 
nally failed.  The  Spanish  troops  sent  to  assist 
the  Austrians  against  the  German  Protestants 
were  worsted  at  nearly  every  point ;  and  final- 
ly the  flame  of  insurrection,  fanned  by  Riche- 
lieu's intrigues,  broke  out  within  the  Spanish 
dominions.  The  province  of  Catalonia  rebel- 
led in  1640,  and  at  the  same  time  Portugal 
threw  off  the  Spanish  yoke.  Philip's  eyes  were 
finally  opened,  and  he  dismissed  Olivarez  in 
1643,  who  was  supplanted  by  his  nephew,  Don 
Luiz  de  Haro.  For  publishing  his  defence  he 
was  banished  to  Toro. 

OLIVE  (Lat.  oliva),  the  name  of  plants  of 
the  genus  olea,  and  of  the  fruit  of  0.  Europcea. 
The  olive  family  consists  of  trees  and  shrubs 
without  milky  juice,  distinguished  from  other 
monopetalous  plants  with  a  free  ovary  by 
having  two  stamens,  or  always  fewer  than  the 
divisions  of  the  corolla;  it  includes  the  lilac, 
the  privet,  and  the  ash,  and  several  less  known 
plants.  The  genus  olea  has  evergreen  leaves 
and  minute  white  flowers  in  small  racemes  or 
clusters,  which  are  axillary  and  terminal ;  the 
ovary  is  two-celled  and  two-ovuled,  becoming 
in  fruit  a  fleshy  drupe  with  a  hard  two-celled 
stone,  which  is  often  only  one-celled  and  one- 
seeded;  the  flesh  of  the  drupe  abounds  in 
fixed  oil.  The  common  olive  (0.  Europcea)  is 
one  of  the  earliest  trees  mentioned  in  anti- 
quity; probably  it  was  a  native  of  Palestine, 
and  perhaps  of  Greece,  and  it  was  introduced 
to  other  countries  at  a  very  early  day ;  it  is 
largely  cultivated  in  southern  Europe,  west- 
ern Asia,  and  northern  Africa ;  it  was  brought 
to  South  America  and  Mexico  more  than  200 
years  ago,  and  in  various  parts  of  California 
it  was  planted  at  the  mission  establishments, 
where  some  of  the  old  groves  still  remain, 
notably  that  at  San  Diego,  which  is  still  in 
good  bearing,  and  other  plantations  have  re- 
cently been  made  there.  In  the  Atlantic  states 
the  olive  was  introduced  before  the  revolution, 
and  at  several  times  since ;  it  is  perfectly  hardy 
and  fruitful  in  South  Carolina ;  the  chief  ob- 
stacle to  its  cultivation  seems  to  be  the  fact 
that  its  crop  matures  just  at  the  time  when  all 


OLIVE 


617 


the  labor  is  needed  to  secure  the  cotton.  The 
olive  tree  rarely  exceeds  20  ft.  in  height,  has 
lanceolate  or  lance-oblong  leaves,  which  are  pale 
green  above  and  whitish  beneath,  and  axillary 


Common  Olive  (Olea  Europaea). 

clusters  of  flowers ;  from  the  dull  color  of  the 
leaves,  an  olive  grove  presents  a  sombre  as- 
pect. The  French  enumerate  over  20  varieties, 
differing  in  the  size  and  color  of  their  leaves 
and  fruits.  The  tree  is  propagated  by  various 
methods ;  seedlings  are  raised  upon  which  to 
graft  the  choicer  kinds,  or  these  are  multiplied 
by  cuttings  of  the  stems  and  roots,  by  suckers, 
by  layers,  and  by  protuberances ;  the  trunks 
of  old  trees  present  numerous  swellings  or 
nodules  containing  undeveloped  buds,  which 
are  removed  and  planted  like  bulbs.  The  tree 
is  of  slow  growth,  and  does  not  come  into 
bearing  until  about  seven  years  old;  but  it 
continues  indefinitely,  and  there  are  trees  now 
standing  which  are  supposed  to  have  been  in 
existence  before  the  commencement  of  the 
present  era.  In  France  the  trees  are  regularly 
pruned  to  keep  the  heads  low,  in  order  to  fa- 
cilitate the  gathering  of  the  fruit.  The  wood 
of  the  olive  is  yellowish  and  very  fine-grained, 
and,  especially  that  of  the  root,  often  beauti- 
fully feathered  and  clouded  ;  hence  it  is  valued 
for  small  cabinet  and  inlaid  work. — The  pro- 
ducts of  the  tree  are  the  fruit  and  its  oil.  The 
fruit  is  too  bitter  to  be  eaten  unless  pickled, 
and  in  the  olive-growing  countries  large  quan- 
tities are  prepared  for  home  use  and  for  ex- 
port, and  some  kinds  are  cultivated  especially 
for  their  superior  fruit ;  the  different  varieties 
give  fruits  varying  in  size  from  an  acorn  to  a 
large  plum.  The  fruit  is  gathered  when  it  has 
attained  its  full  size,  but  while  still  green,  and 
placed  in  a  strong  ley  of  wood  ashes  or  a  solu- 
tion of  potash ;  when  the  potash  has  penetrated 
to  the  stone,  which  is  manifested  by  a  change 
of  color,  the  olives  are  placed  in  water,  which 
is  renewed  several  times  a  day  for  five  days ; 


a  saturated  brine  is  prepared  of  the  purest  salt, 
to  which  are  added  coriander,  cloves,  cinna- 
mon, and  such  aromatics  as  are  desired,  and 
boiled  a  few  minutes  and  strained ;  this  when 
cold  is  mixed  with  an  equal  quantity  of  water 
and  poured  over  the  olives  placed  in  jars  or 
bottles,  which  are  then  sealed.  Thus  prepared, 
olives  are  a  condiment  rather  than  an  article  of 
food,  and  are  much  eaten  at  lunches  ;  they  are 
thought  to  improve  the  flavor  of  wine  as  well 
as  to  excite  an  appetite  for  it ;  they  are  some- 
times used  in  salads  and  to  flavor  made  dishes. 
Olive  oil  is  obtained  from  the  ripe  fruit,  which 
when  it  has  reached  that  state  is  of  a  dark  pur- 
ple color ;  the  thoroughly  ripe  olives  yield  a 
larger  quantity  of  oil,  but  not  of  so  fine  a  qual- 
ity as  oil  from  those  that  have  just  begun  to 
ripen ;  the  pulp  of  the  fully  ripe  fruit  contains 
nearly  TO  per  cent,  of  oil.  Those  who  make 
the  finer  kinds  of  oil  gather  the  fruit  by  hand 
as  soon  as  it  begins  to  color,  and  spread  it 
under  sheds,  where  it  is  frequently  turned  and 
loses  the  greater  part  of  its  contained  moisture ; 
but  for  common  oil  the  fruit  is  allowed  to  lie 
beneath  the  trees  until  it  is  convenient  to 
gather  it,  which  is  sometimes  all  winter.  The 
process  of  extracting  the  oil  is  essentially  the 
same  in  different  countries.  The  fruit  is 
crushed  to  a  pulp  in  a  mill,  and  placed  in  coarse 
sacks,  which  are  stacked  one  upon  another 
and  subjected  to  pressure ;  the  oil  flows  into  a 
cistern  containing  water,  from  the  surface  of 
which  it  is  dipped ;  this  first  pressing  is  called 
virgin  oil ;  a  second  quality  is  obtained  by  mix- 
ing the  contents  of  the  bags  with  boiling  water, 
replacing  them,  and  submitting  them  to  greater 
pressure  than  before.  If  the  fruit  is  left  in 
heaps  until  it  ferments,  it  yields  a  greater  quan- 
tity of  oil,  but  of  very  poor  quality.  Oil  of  the 
finest  quality  has  a  slightly  greenish  color,  a 
faint  but  agreeable  odor,  and  a  bland  taste, 
leaving  a  slight  sense  of  acridity  in  the  throat. 
When  it  is  cooled  to  nearly  the  freezing  point 
of  water,  a  solid  fat  is  deposited.  If  allowed 
to  congeal  perfectly,  and  then  subjected  to 
pressure,  about  one  third  of  fluid  oil  is  sepa- 
rated, which  is  oleine  and  does  not  congeal  at 
25°  or  20°  F.  The  solid  part  consists  of  pal- 
mitine  and  similar  principles.  Olive  oil  is  one 
of  the  oils  not  changed  by  the  action  of  the 
air  into  a  resinous  substance,  and  is  classed  as 
a  non-drying  oil.  It  is  sometimes  adulterated 
by  the  admixture  of  cheaper  oils,  and  unless 
the  foreign  oil  be  present  in  considerable 
amount  it  is  very  difficult  to  detect  it;  the 
greater  specific  gravity  of  the  cheaper  oils, 
as  indicated  by  the  elaiometer,  is  one  of  the 
tests ;  the  chamber  of  commerce  of  Nice  has 
recently  offered  a  reward  of  15,000  francs  for 
a  simple  method  of  detecting  adulterations. 
The  production  of  oil  in  Italy  is  estimated  at 
33,000,000  gallons  annually,  while  that  of 
France  is  only  about  7,000,000.  Not  many 
years  ago  oil  was  imported  almost  exclusively 
in  thin,  round-bottomed  flasks,  covered  with 
rush-work,  stopped  with  cotton,  and  tied  over 


618 


OLIVE 


OLIVES 


with  bladder ;  these  packages  are  now  rarely 
seen,  but  the  finer  kinds  are  imported  in  bot- 
tles of  various  styles ;  commoner  kinds  come  in 
jars  and  casks.  The  imports  into  the  United 
States  during  the  year  ending  June  30,  1873, 
were  340,037  gallons,  valued  at  $445,774.  In 
countries  where  it  is  produced  olive  oil  is 
largely  used  as  food,  replacing  butter,  not  only 
with  bread,  but  in  cooking,  especially  for  fry- 
ing ;  like  other  fixed  oils,  it  is  very  nutritious, 
but  it  is  not  readily  digested  by  weak  stomachs. 
In  this  country,  where  it  is  frequently  called 
sweet  oil,  its  use  as  food  is  limited  almost  en- 
tirely to  the  dressing  of  salads.  In  medicine 
it  is  sometimes  used  as  a  mild  laxative  in  doses 
of  one  to  two  fluid  ounces ;  in  cases  of  poison- 
ing by  corrosive  substances,  it  is  given  with  a 
view  to  its  mechanical  effect  in  shielding  the 
stomach  from  their  action ;  but  its  chief  med- 
ical use  is  in  the  preparation  of  liniments, 
ointments,  and  plasters.  In  the  arts  the  oil  is 
used  as  a  lubricant,  and  the  oleine  separated 
by  cold,  as  already  described,  makes  the  finest 
watch  oil.  The  cheaper  kinds  were  formerly 
somewhat  used  for  burning,  but  have  been 
superseded  by  the  mineral  oils.  Much  of  the 
oil  is  consumed  where  it  is  produced  in  the 
manufacture  of  soap,  it  being  the  basis  of  the 
well  known  Castile,  Marseilles,  and  Venetian 
soaps.  (See  SOAP.)  A  resinous  exudation  is 
sometimes  found  upon  the  tree,  which  has 
been  called  olive  gum  and  Lecca  gum,  and  was 
formerly  used  in  medicine  as  a  stimulant ;  and 
the  bark  has  been  employed  as  a  tonic. — The 
American  olive  (0.  Americana),  also  called 
devilwood  on  account  of  the  difficulty  of  cut- 
ting and  splitting  it,  is  a  small  tree  found  from 
Virginia  to  Florida;  it  has  a  whitish  bark, 
and  entire  very  smooth,  evergreen  leaves,  3  to 
6  in.  long ;  small,  white,  fragrant,  polygamous 
flowers ;  and  a  spherical  black  fruit  twice  the 
size  of  a  pea,  with  an  oily  flesh.  According 
to  Michaux,  the  inner  bark  on  exposure  to  the 
air  turns  instantly  to  a  bright  red,  and  the 
wood  becomes  reddish  by  exposure.  Accord- 
ing to  Decaisne  and  JSTaudin,  the  fruit  of  this 
is  sometimes  pickled.  Olea  fragrans  of  the 
greenhouse,  placed  by  some  in  the  genus  os- 
manthus,  is  an  evergreen  shrub  from  China  and 
Japan;  it  has  oblong  or  oval,  finely  serrate, 
dark  green  leaves,  and  numerous  clusters  of 
small  white  flowers,  which  have  the  most  ex- 
quisite and  delicate  fragrance.  The  flowers 
are  said  to  be  used  by  the  Chinese  to  scent  the 
finer  kinds  of  tea.  It  is  a  favorite  greenhouse 
plant,  as  it  blooms  when  only  about  6  in.  high  ; 
and  in  the  southern  states,  where  it  is  hardy, 
it  makes  a  handsome  bush  6  to  8  ft.  high,  and 
is  a  general  favorite.  Another  related  species 
is  0.  ilicifolia  (or  osmanthus),  the  holly-leaved 
olive,  from  Japan ;  it  is  a  fine  compact  shrub, 
with  dark  green  leaves  like  those  of  the  holly ; 
a  variety  with  white-edged  leaves  is  exceeding- 
ly beautiful.  These  are  hardy  in  England,  but 
in  the  United  States  their  northern  limit  is 
yet  undetermined. 


OLIVER.  I.  Andrew,  lieutenant  governor  of 
Massachusetts,  born  in  Boston,  March  28,  1706, 
died  there,  March  3,  1774.  He  graduated  at 
Harvard  college  in  1724,  and  became  a  member 
of  the  general  court,  and  afterward  of  the 
council.  When  the  stamp  act  was  passed  by 
the  English  parliament,  he  accepted  the  office 
of  distributor  of  stamps,  and  on  Aug.  14, 1765, 
was  hanged  in  effigy  from  the  "liberty  tree." 
He  appeared  the  next  day  before  the  people 
under  the  liberty  tree,  and  publicly  resigned 
his  office.  He  was  .secretary  of  the  province 
from  1756  to  1770,  and  in  1771  was  appointed 
lieutenant  governor.  With  Gov.  Hutchinson, 
his  brother-in-law,  he  promoted  as  much  as 
was  in  his  power  the  designs  of  the  British 
ministry,  as  was  proved  by  his  letters,  which 
were  obtained  by  Franklin  in  England,  and 
sent  back  to  America  in  1772.  When  there- 
fore the  general  court  petitioned  the  king  for 
the  removal  of  Hutchinson,  they  included  Oli- 
ver's name  also. — His  son  ANDEEW  (1731-'99), 
a  judge  of  Essex  co.,  Mass.,  before  the  revolu- 
tion, was  one  of  the  founders  of  the  American 
academy  of  arts  and  sciences.  II.  Peter,  chief 
justice  of  Massachusetts,  brother  of  the  prece- 
ding, born  March  26,  1713,  died  in  Birming- 
ham, England,  Oct.  13, 1791.  He  graduated  at 
Harvard  college  in  1730,  afterward  filled  sev- 
eral stations  in  Plymouth  co.,  and  on  Sept.  14, 
1756,  was  raised  to  the  bench,  although  not  a 
lawyer,  and  in  1771  made  chief  justice.  In 
March,  1774,  the  house  of  representatives,  vo- 
ting the  judges  of  the  superior  court  sufficient 
salaries  from  the  colonial  treasury,  ordered 
them  to  refuse  any  gifts  from  the  king.  Four 
of  them  complied,  but  Oliver  refusing,  the 
house  impeached  him,  and  suspended  him  from 
his  functions  till  the  conclusion  of  his  trial. 
He  sided  openly  with  the  tories ;  and  when  the 
British  troops  evacuated  Boston,  he  went  with 
them,  and  finally  removed  to  England,  where 
a  pension  was  given  him  by  the  crown.  He 
was  an  enthusiastic  antiquary,  transcribing 
with  his  own  hand  the  manuscript  history  of 
William  Hubbard,  and  carrying  away  with  him 
when  he  left  America  records  and  papers  which 
he  had  collected  concerning  the  early  settle- 
ment of  Plymouth  colony.  He  published,  be- 
sides some  pamphlets,  a  "  Scriptural  Lexicon  " 
(Birmingham,  1784-'5;  new  ed.  by  the  Rev. 
H.  C.  Cotton,  Oxford,  1832). 

OLIVES,  Mount  of,  or  Mount  Olivet  (Arab.  Jebel 
et-  Tur),  a  mountain  of  Palestine  celebrated  in 
Biblical  history.  It  is  a  few  hundred  yards  E. 
of  Jerusalem,  separated  from  it  by  the  valley 
of  Jehoshaphat,  through  which  flows  the  brook 
Kedron.  It  is  a  ridge  rather  than  a  single 
hill,  having  three  summits.  The  centre,  a  little 
rounded  top  on  which  stands  the  village  of 
Tur,  is  2,643  ft.  above  the  sea  and  384  ft.  above 
the  valley ;  and  being  higher  than  the  most 
elevated  part  of  Jerusalem,  it  is  before  one's 
eyes  from  nearly  all  the  streets,  and  affords  the 
most  favorable  view  of  the  city.  The  sides 
are  partly  cultivated  in  terraces,  streaked  here 


OLIVIER 


OLLA  PODRIDA 


619 


and  there  with  bare  rock,  and  dotted  with  the 
olive  trees  from  which  the  mountain  takes  its 
name.  From  this  central  summit,  according 
to  a  very  old  tradition,  the  ascension  of  Jesus 
took  place ;  and  a  church  was  built  here  by  the 
empress  Helena  on  the  site  of  one  now  occu- 


pied by  the  Armenians.  The  garden  of  Geth- 
semane  lies  on  the  declivity  near  the  foot  of 
the  hill.  The  central  summit  is  apparently  the 
highest,  but,  according  to  the  latest  and  most 
accurate  surveys,  the  northern  exceeds  it  by 
about  20  ft.  Toward  the  north  the  ridge 


Mount  of  Olives. 


sweeps  around  to  the  west  and  spreads  out  into 
the  high  level  tract  of  the  city.  On  the  south 
it  sinks  down  into  a  lower  ridge  over  against 
the  "well  of  Nehemiah,"  now  called  by  the 
Franks  the  "Mount  of  Offence,"  in  allusion  to 
the  idolatrous  worship  established  by  Solomon 
"  in  the  hill  that  is  before  Jerusalem."  From 
this  summit  the  Dead  sea  may  be  seen.  On  the 
east  the  mount  of  Olives  overlooks  the  "  wil- 
derness of  Judah,"  which  stretches  over  a  suc- 
cession of  desolate  hills  for  10  m.,  and  is  then 
bounded  by  the  valley  of  the  Jordan.  The 
road  to  Bethany  passes  over  Mt.  Olivet.  The 
Saviour  used  to  sit  here  with  his  disciples,  and 
retire  hither  alone  to  rest  and  pray.  Here  he 
delivered  some  of  his  parables,  and  passed  the 
last  night  before  he  was  seized  and  delivered 
up  to  Pontius  Pilate. 

OLIVIER,  Gnillanme  Antoine,  a  French  entomol- 
ogist, born  at  Les  Arcs,  near  Toulon,  Jan.  19, 
1756,  died  in  Lyons,  Oct.  1,  1814.  He  gradua- 
ted M.  D.  at  Montpellier,  and  afterward  gave 
his  attention  exclusively  to  the  natural  sciences. 
In  1792  he  and  Brugui^res  were  sent  by  govern- 
ment on  a  scientific  mission  to  Persia,  return- 
ing in  1798;  and  Olivier  published  Voynge 
dans  Vempire  ottoman,  VEgypte  et  la  Perse 
(6  vols.  8vo,  Paris,  1801-'7).  His  Histoire  na- 
turelle  des  coleopteres,  of  which  the  first  part 
appeared  in  1789,  was  brought  to  a  conclusion 
in  1808,  in  6  vols.  4to,  with  363  plates.  His 
Dictionnai1)  e  de  Vhistoire  naturelle  des  insectes, 
papillons,  crustacees,  &c.  (7  vols.  4to,  1789- 
1825),  was  completed  after  his  death. 


OLIVIER,  Juste  Daniel,  a  Swiss  poet,  born  at 
Eysins,  Yaud,  Oct.  18,  1807.  He  studied  at 
Lausanne,  where  he  gained  a  prize  in  1825  for 
his  poem  Marcos  Botzaris.  He  was  professor 
of  history  and  literature  at  Neuf  chatel  and  Lau- 
sanne till  1842,  when  through  political  com- 
plications he  settled  in  Paris.  His  works  com- 
prise five  volumes  of  poetry  (1830-'35),  and 
his  Chansons  lointaines  (Paris,  1847;  new  ed., 
1854)  are  his  finest  productions.  Among  his 
prose  writings  are :  Le  canton  de  Vaud  (2  vols., 
Lausanne,  1837-'41),  Etudes  d'Mstoire  natio- 
nale  (1842),  Mouvement  intellectuel  de  la  Suisse 
(Paris,  1847),  and  several  novels. 

OLIVIER,  Theodore,  a  French  mathematician, 
born  in  Lyons  before  1800,  died  there  in  1853. 
He  was  educated  at  the  polytechnic  school  in 
Paris,  and  became  a  teacher  there.  In  1830  he 
was  appointed  professor  of  descriptive  geom- 
etry in  the  conservatoire  des  arts  et  metiers. 
His  principal  works  are  :  Tkeorie  geometrique 
des  engrenages  (Paris,  1842) ;  Developpements  de 
geometric  descriptive  (1843);  Cours  de  geome- 
tric descriptive  (3  vols.  4to,  1845 ;  2d  ed;,  2 
vols.  4to,  1855)  ;  Complements  de  geometric 
descriptive  (1845)  ;  and  Memoires  de  geometrie 
descriptive  (1851).  He  is  ranked  as  one  of  the 
ablest  writers  on  descriptive  geometry  and  its 
applications. 

OLLA  PODRIDA  (Span.,  putrid  mess),  a  Span- 
ish national  dish,  consisting  of  several  kinds  of 
meat  cut  up  into  small  pieces,  and  stewed  with 
a  variety  of  vegetables.  The  dish  is  a  great 
favorite  with  the  poor,  and  is  kept  so  long  that 


620 


OLLIVIER 


OLMSTED 


its  odor  and  flavor  become  highly  offensive. 
It  is  commonly  used,  like  pot  pourri,  metaphor- 
ically to  denote  a  medley. 

OLLIVIER,  Emile,  a  French  politician,  born 
in  Marseilles,  July  2,  1825.  He  is  the  son  of 
Demosthene  Ollivier,  who  was  a  member  of 
the  constituent  assembly  in  1848,  and  was  in 
exile  from  Dec.  2,  1851,  to  1860,  on  account  of 
his  opposition  to  the  second  empire.  Smile 
was  beginning  to  practise  law  in  Paris  at  the 
outbreak  of  the  revolution  of  1848,  when  Ledru- 
Rollin  appointed  him  commissary  general  at 
Marseilles,  and  he  repressed  the  disorders  in 
that  city.  Oavaignac  made  him  prefect  there, 
but  he  was  subsequently  transferred  to  the 
much  less  important  department  of  Haute- 
Marne.  He  resumed  practice  as  an  advocate 
at  Paris  in  1849.  In  185V  he  was  returned  to 
the  legislative  body  as  an  opposition  member 
for  Paris,  and  was  reflected  in  1863.  Early  in 
1867  he  deserted  his  former  political  friends, 
declaring  himself  a  liberal  Bonapartist ;  he  was 
consequently  defeated  at  the  general  election  in 
Paris  in  1869,  but  was  returned  for  the  depart- 
ment of  Var.  In  December  of  the  same  year 
he  was  chosen  by  Napoleon  to  preside  as  min- 
ister of  justice  over  the  administration  formed 
according  to  the  new  constitutional  programme 
of  the  empire,  and  his  official  career  began  on 
Jan.  2,  1870.  He  incurred  odium  by  his  sub- 
serviency to  the  emperor,  and  by  declaring 
(July  15),  in  reply  to  the  opposition  of  Thiers 
to  the  projected  war  against  Germany,  that 
his  administration  assumed  the  responsibility 
of  it  "  with  a  light  heart ;"  and  he  was  often 
ridiculed  on  account  of  his  pompous  preten- 
sions to  statesmanship  and  eloquence.  He  was 
obliged  to  resign  on  Aug.  9,  after  the  first  re- 
verses of  the  French,  being  succeeded  by  Pali- 
kao,  and  retired  to  the  village  of  Pallone  in 
northern  Italy.  Owing  to  his  official  position, 
he  had  been  elected  to  the  academy,  April  7, 
1870,  as  successor  of  Lamartine.  In  February, 
1874,  he  returned  to  Paris  to  read  to  a  com- 
mittee his  opening  speech,  in  which  he  extolled 
the  fallen  emperor  and  disparaged  his  oppo- 
nents. Guizot  rebuked  his  language,  and  he 
was  not  allowed  to  take  his  seat  in  the  acad- 
emy ;  but  after  the  death  of  Guizot  in  Septem- 
ber, he  was  not  only  admitted  but  actually 
made  chancellor  of  the  academy.  His  first  wife, 
a  daughter  of  Liszt  the  pianist,  died  in  1862. 

OLMSTED,  a  S.  E.  county  of  Minnesota, 
drained  by  the  Zumbro  and  Root  rivers  and 
other  streams;  area,  720  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870, 
19,793.  The  surface  is  uneven  and  the  soil 
productive.  It  is  traversed  by  the  "Winona 
and  St.  Peter  railroad.  The  chief  productions 
in  1870  were  2,117,074  bushels  of  wheat, 
340,223  of  Indian  corn,  996,364  of  oats,  114,- 
056  of  barley,  126,668  of  potatoes,  18,082  Ibs. 
of  wool,  20,700  of  hops,  654,455  of  butter, 
and  31,319  tons  of  hay.  There  were  7,576 
horses,  6,496  milch  cows,  9,463  other  cattle, 
4,918  sheep,  and  7,298  swine ;  2  manufactories 
of  boots  and  shoes,  6  of  carriages  and  wagons, 


3  of  cooperage,  1  of  iron  castings,  1  of  curried 
leather,  1  of  engines  and  boilers,  5  of  saddlery 
and  harness,  1  of  sash  and  blinds,  3  of  tin,  cop- 
per, and  sheet-iron  ware,  3  breweries,  3  flour 
mills,  and  3  saw  mills.  Capital,  Rochester. 

OLMSTED,  Denison,  an  American  natural  phi- 
losopher, born  in  East  Hartford,  Conn.,  June 
18,  1791,  died  in  New  Haven,  May  13,  1859. 
He  graduated  at  Yale  college  in  1809,  and  almost 
immediately  took  charge  of  the  union  school 
at  New  London.  In  1815  he  became  a  tutor 
in  Yale  college,  and  in  1817  was  appointed 
professor  of  chemistry,  mineralogy,  and  geolo- 
gy in  the  university  of  North  Carolina.  Here 
he  proposed  and  executed  the  first  state  geo- 
logical survey  ever  attempted  in  this  country, 
the  report  of  which  was  published  in  1824  and 
1825.  In  the  latter  year  he  was  appointed 
professor  of  mathematics  and  natural  philoso- 
phy in  Yale  college;  in  1836  the  professorship 
was  divided  at  his  request,  and  he  retained  the 
department  of  natural  philosophy.  Between 
1831  and  1843  he  published  several  text  books 
on  natural  philosophy  and  astronomy,  which 
were  widely  used.  As  early  as  1830  he  had 
published  an  elaborate  theory  of  hail  storms, 
which  called  forth  much  discussion,  but  finally 
received  the  general  approbation  of  meteor- 
ologists. After  the  shower  of  shooting  stars 
which  fell  in  November,  1833,  he  investigated 
their  history  and  phenomena  for  many  years, 
till  he  had  demonstrated  their  cosmical  origin. 
He  made  a  series  of  observations  on  the  aurora 
borealis,  the  results  of  which  are  given  in  vol. 
viii.  of  the  "  Smithsonian  Contributions  to 
Knowledge."  He  made  numerous  mechanical 
inventions,  very  few  of  which  were  secured  by 
patent.  One  was  the  Olmsted  stove. 

OLMSTED,  Frederick  Law,  an  American  land- 
scape gardener,  born  in  Hartford,  Conn.,  April 
26, 1822.  He  studied  engineering  and  agricul- 
tural science  at  Yale  college,  and  subsequently 
followed  farming  and  horticulture  as  a  busi- 
ness. In  1850  he  made  a  pedestrian  journey 
through  Great  Britain  and  portions  of  the 
continent,  some  of  the  results  of  which  were 
embodied  in  "  Walks  and  Talks  of  an  Ameri- 
can Farmer  in  England"  (New  York,  1852). 
In  1852-'3  he  travelled  in  the  southern  and 
southwestern  states,  examining  the  slave  sys- 
tem of  labor  from  the  economical  point  of 
view,  after  which  he  published  "  A  Journey  in 
the  Seaboard  Slave  States  "  (New  York,  1856), 
"  A  Journey  through  Texas"  (1857),  and  "A 
Journey  in  the  Back  Country"  (1860).  A 
resume  of  these  works  was  issued  in  London 
under  the  title  of  "  The  Cotton  Kingdom  "  (2 
vols.,  1861).  In  1855  he  made  another  tour 
through  France,  Italy,  and  Germany,  during 
which  he  paid  especial  attention  to  parks  and 
rural  arts.  In  1857  premiums  were  offered 
for  the  best  plans  for  laying  out  the  Central 
park  of  New  York,  and  of  34  designs  sent  in 
the  highest  prize  was  awarded  to  that  prepared 
by  Mr.  Olmsted  in  conjunction  with  Mr.  Cal- 
vert  Vaux.  Mr.  Olmsted  was  engaged  during 


OLMtTTZ 

the  next  four  years  in  managing  the  construc- 
tion of  the  park  upon  this  design.  In  1859  he 
again  visited  Europe  and  examined  various 
public  works.  On  the  breaking  out  of  the 
civil  war  he  was  appointed  by  President  Lin- 
coln a  member  of  the  commission  of  inquiry 
and  advice  in  regard  to  the  sanitary  condition 
of  the  United  States  forces,  and  during  the 
next  three  years  resided  in  Washington  as  the 
business  manager  of  that  organization.  Sub- 
sequently he  spent  two  years  in  California,  and 
while  there  was  a  commissioner  of  the  national 
park  of  the  Yosemite.  Keturning  to  New 
York,  he  was  engaged  in  1866  with  Mr.  Vaux 
to  lay  out  and  superintend  the  Brooklyn  park, 
and  has  since  been  employed  in  designing  parks 
and  public  works  in  New  York,  Washington, 
Chicago,  Buffalo,  Montreal,  and  other  places. 

OLMUTZ  (Slav.  Holomauc},  a  town  of  Austria, 
formerly  the  capital  of  Moravia,  now  one  of 
the  principal  fortresses  of  the  empire,  situated 
tm  an  island  of  the  March  or  Morawa,  103  m. 
N.  N.  E.  of  Vienna;  pop.  in  1870,  excluding 
the  garrison,  15,231.  It  is  well  built,  and  con- 
tains several  suburbs,  fine  squares  and  prom- 
enades, and  numerous  institutions  of  learn- 
ing or  benevolence.  There  are  woollen  manu- 
factures, and  the  trade  in  cattle  is  promoted 
by  annual  fairs.  The  railway  which  connects 
the  great  Vienna  and  Breslau  and  Vienna  and 
Prague  lines  passes  by  the  town,  and  another 
line  connects  it  with  Briinn.  The  cathedral, 
the  churches  of  St.  Maurice  and  St.  Michael,  the 
archbishop's  residence,  the  town  house  with 
a  famous  clock,  and  a  theatre,  are  noteworthy. 
The  university  of  Olmutz  was  founded  in  1581, 
removed  to  Briinn  in  1778,  restored  in  1827, 
and  abolished  in  1853. — Olmutz  is  traced  to 
the  times  of  the  Roman  empire.  It  withstood 
an  assault  of  the  Mongols  in  1241,  and  a  siege 
of  B61a  IV.  of  Hungary  in  1253 ;  joined  the 
revolt  against  Ferdinand  II.  at  the  beginning  of 
the  thirty  years'  war ;  was  taken  by  the  Swedes 
under  Torstenson  in  1642,  and  retaken  by  the 
imperialists ;  was  taken  by  the  Prussians  in  the 
first  war  of  the  Austrian  succession,  but  be- 
sieged by  them  in  vain  during  the  seven  years' 
war.  Among  the  prisoners  of  state  who  have 
been  confined  in  the  dungeon  of  Olmutz  was 
Gen.  Lafayette.  Since  the  war  with  Prussia 
in  1866  the  fortifications  of  the  city  have  been 
greatly  strengthened,  and  a  new  park  has  been 
laid  out. 

OLONETZ,  a  N.  W.  government  of  Russia, 
bordering  on  the  governments  of  Archangel, 
Vologda,  Novgorod,  and  St.  Petersburg,  and 
on  Lake  Ladoga  and  Finland ;  area  (exclusive 
of  lakes),  50,495  sq.  in. ;  pop.  in  1867,  302,490, 
mostly  Russians,  Finns,  and  Lapps.  The  sur- 
face is  in  great  part  covered  by  forests,  marshes, 
and  lakes.  Of  the  latter,  besides  Lake  Ladoga 
on  the  border,  the  largest  are  Lakes  Onega  and 
Vyg.  The  principal  rivers  are  the  Onega, 
which  flows  through  Archangel  into  Onega 
bay,  an  inlet  of  the  White  sea ;  the  Svir, 
which  connects  Lakes  Onega  and  Ladoga ;  and 


OLYMPIA 


621 


the  Vodla,  which  flows  from  Lake  Vodlo  into 
Lake  Onega.  The  winters  are  very  long,  and 
the  short  summers  excessively  hot.  Agricul- 
ture is  much  neglected;  hemp  and  flax  are 
among  the  principal  articles  raised.  Fishing 
and  hunting  are  leading  occupations  of  the 
inhabitants.  Pasturage  is  scarce,  and  grazing 
neglected.  Some  copper,  and  iron  sufficient 
to  supply  ten  blast  furnaces,  are  mined,  and 
large  quantities  of  porphyry  and  marble  are 
quarried.  The  principal  towns  are  Petroza- 
vodsk, the  capital,  on  the  W.  shore  of  Lake 
Onega,  with  about  11,000  inhabitants;  Olonetz, 
the  former  capital,  a  small  town  near  the  E. 
shore  of  Lake  Ladoga ;  Vytegra,  on  a  river  of 
the  same  name ;  and  Kargopol,  on  the  Onega. 

OLSHAUSEV,  Hermann,  a  German  theologian, 
born  at  Oldeslohe,  Holstein,  Aug.  21,  1796, 
died  in  Erlangen,  Sept.  4,  1839.  He  studied 
theology  at  Kiel  and  Berlin,  and  in  1818  be- 
came private  tutor  in  the  latter  place,  in  1821 
extraordinary  professor  in  Konigsberg,  and  in 
1827  ordinary  professor  of  theology.  He  was 
ordinary  professor  at  Erlangen  from  1834  till 
his  death.  He  devoted  his  attention  chiefly  to 
the  exegesis  of  the  New  Testament.  His  Bi- 
blischer  Commentar  uber  sammtlicJie  ScTiriften 
des  Neuen  Testaments  (vols.  i.-iv.,  1830-'40; 
vols.  v.-viii.,  by  Ebrard  and  Wiesinger,  1850- 
'53),  the  most  celebrated  of  his  works,  was 
translated  into  English  for  Clark's  "  Foreign 
and  Theological  Library;"  and  an  American 
reprint,  revised  after  the  fourth  German  edi- 
tion by  Prof.  A.  0.  Kendrick  of  Rochester  uni- 
versity, was  published  in  1856-'8  ("Biblical 
Commentary  on  the  New  Testament,"  6  vols. 
8vo,  New  York). 

OLYMPIA,  a  city,  capital  of  Washington  terri- 
tory, and  of  Thurston  co.,  situated  at  the  head 
of  Budd's  inlet,  the  southern  projection  of  Pu- 
get  sound,  645  m.  N.  of  San  Francisco,  105 -m. 
N.  by  W.  of  Portland,  Oregon,  and  95  m.  S.  S.  E. 
of  Victoria,  Vancouver  island,  in  lat.  47°  3'  N., 
Ion.  122°  57'  W. ;  pop.  in  1870,  1,203 ;  in  1875, 
about  1,500.  It  is  connected  with  Tumwater 
on  the  west  by  a  bridge  520  ft.  long  across 
the  mouth  of  the  Des  Chutes  river,  and  a 
bridge  2,030  ft.  long  extends  to  the  W.  shore 
of  the  inlet.  At  Tumwater  the  Des  Chutes  by 
a  succession  of  falls  descends  85  ft.  within  a  dis- 
tance of  300  yards,  affording  abundant  water 
power.  Olympia  is  15  m.  N.  of  Tenino  on  the 
Pacific  division  of  the  Northern  Pacific  rail- 
road, which  affords  communication  with  the 
valley  of  the  Columbia  river.  The  back  coun- 
try is  heavily  wooded,  and  the  scenery,  with 
the  sound  in  front,  the  Cascade  mountains  on 
-the  right,  and  the  Coast  mountains  on  the  left, 
is  grand.  The  streets  are  broad  and  regular, 
and  shaded  with  rows  of  maples  and  elms. 
The  residences  are  handsome  and  surrounded 
with  gardens.  The  public  buildings  are  the 
capitol,  a  two-story  wooden  structure,  a  fine 
city  hall,  and  a  court  house  and  jail.  Large 
vessels  can  reach  the  wharf  at  high  tide,  but  at 
low  water  a  mud  flat  extending  \\  m.  into  the 


C22 


OLYMPIA 


OLYMPIC  GAMES 


inlet  prevents  the  approach  even  of  small  boats. 
The  mean  rise  and  fall  of  tides  is  9 '2  ft.,  and 
the  difference  between  the  highest  and  lowest 
tides  is  24  ft.  Two  semi-weekly  lines  of  steam- 
ers run  to  Victoria  and  intermediate  points, 
and  a  daily  line  of  stages  connects  with  the  rail- 
road at  Tenino.  There  are  a  soap  factory,  two 
boot  and  shoe  factories,  and  a  saw  mill.  The 
city  has  several  stores,  a  private  banking  com- 
pany, three  hotels,  two  public  and  three  pri- 
vate schools,  and  five  weekly  newspapers.  The 
territorial  and  good  templars'  libraries  have 
each  more  than  6,000  volumes.  There  are 
six  churches :  Baptist,  Congregational,  Episco- 
pal, Methodist,  Presbyterian,  and  Roman  Cath- 
olic.— The  first  white  settlement  was  made  at 
Olympia  in  1846.  It  was  laid  out  as  a  town  in 
1851,  and  incorporated  as  a  city  in  1859. 

OLYMPIA,  a  plain  of  Elis  in  ancient  Greece, 
on  the  right  bank  of  the  Alpheus,  about  a  third 
of  a  mile  from  the  town  of  Pisa.  It  was  the 
scene  of  the  Olympic  games,  and  was  also  fa- 
mous for  its  sacred  grove,  where  stood  the 
great  temple  of  Jupiter  Olympius,  founded  by 
the  Eleans  in  512  B.  C.,  and  containing  the 
colossal  gold  and  ivory  statue  of  the  god,  the 
masterpiece  of  Phidias.  The  grove  (which  was 
surrounded  by  a  wall)  and  its  immediate  neigh- 
borhood contained  numerous  other  temples  and 
public  buildings,  collectively,  like  the  plain, 
called  Olympia. 

OLYMPIAD.  See  CHRONOLOGY,  vol.  iv.,  p.  557. 

OLYMPIAS,  daughter  of  Neoptolemus  I.,  king 
of  Epirus,  wife  of  Philip  of  Macedon,  and 
mother  of  Alexander  the  Great.  Her  impe- 
rious and  jealous  nature  and  the  infidelity  of 
Philip  caused  strife  between  them;  and  on 
the  marriage  of  Philip  with  Cleopatra,  the 
niece  of  Attalus,  in  337  B.  C.,  she  fled  to  the 
court  of  her  brother  Alexander,  king  of  Epi- 
rus, whom  she  incited  to  make  war  upon  Mace- 
don. On  the  death  of  Philip,  whose  assassina- 
tion she  approved,  she  returned  to  Macedon, 
and  put  to  death  her  rival  Cleopatra  and  her 
infant  daughter.  She  was  constantly  at  feud 
with  Antipater,  the  regent  during  the  expedi- 
tions of  Alexander ;  and  when  in  323  he  was 
placed  in  absolute  control  of  affairs,  Olympias 
withdrew  to  Epirus.  On  the  death  of  Antipa- 
ter in  319,  the  new  regent  Polysperchon  sent 
for  her  to  return  to  Macedon,  but  she  deter- 
mined to  remain  in  Epirus  until  the  war  should 
be  terminated.  In  317  she  took  the  field  in 
person,  together  with  Polysperchon,  against 
Arrhidaeus  and  Eurydice,  whom  she  defeated 
and  put  to  death.  She  also  put  to  death  Nica- 
nor,  brother  of  Cassander,  and  100  of  his  fol- 
lowers. She  was  at  last  defeated  and  captured 
by  Oassander  at  Pydna  in  the  spring  of  316, 
and  soon  after  executed. 

OLYMPIC  GAMES,  the  most  ancient  and  fa- 
mous of  the  four  great  national  festivals  of  the 
Greeks,  celebrated  once  in  four  years  at  Olym- 
pia. Their  origin,  like  that  of  the  other  Hel- 
lenic games,  was  probably  connected  with  the 
rites  paid  to  some  deity,  and  they  gradually  ex- 


panded into  a  festival  partly  religious  and  part- 
ly secular.  After  being  discontinued  for  a  con- 
siderable period,  the  Olympic  games  were  re- 
established in  the  9th  century  B.  C.  by  Iphitus, 
king  of  Elis,  and  Lycurgus,  who  were  com- 
manded by  the  Delphic  oracle  to  revive  the  fes- 
tival as  a  remedy  for  intestine  commotions  and 
for  pestilence  with  which  Greece  was  then  af- 
flicted. For  more  than  a  century  after  this  the 
games  continued  a  local  festival,  frequented 
chiefly  by  the  neighboring  Peloponnesians ;  but 
as  they  grew  in  importance,  spectators  came 
from  the  more  distant  states  and  from  the  Greek 
colonies  of  Asia,  Africa,  and  Europe.  Except 
in  two  or  three  instances,  the  management  of 
the  games  was  in  the  hands  of  the  Eleans,  who 
appointed  certain  of  their  citizens  to  preside  as 
judges.  As  the  time  approached  for  the  cele- 
bration of  the  games,  a  sacred  truce  was  pro- 
claimed, and  during  the  month  in  which  they 
took  place  any  armed  invasion  of  the  Elean 
territory  was  esteemed  sacrilege.  At  the  sama* 
time  hostilities  were  suspended  throughout 
Greece.  At  first  the  festival  was  confined  to 
a  single  day,  and  consisted  of  the  simple  match 
of  runners  in  the  stadium,  which  was  about 
600  feet  long.  In  776  B.  C.  the  Eleans  in- 
scribed the  name  of  their  countryman  Coroebus 
as  victor  in  the  competition  of  runners,  and  for 
nearly  1,000  years  afterward  we  have  regular 
lists  of  the  victors  in  the  foot  races,  to  which 
in  later  times  the  names  of  those  successful 
in  other  games  were  added.  This  date  was 
subsequently  employed  by  the  Greeks  as  a 
chronological  era,  and  the  Olympiads,  as  the 
periods  between  two  celebrations  were  called, 
commencing  with  the  year  776  B.  C.,  from 
which  the  first  is  reckoned,  have  supplied  one 
of  the  oldest  records  of  continuous  time.  In  the 
course  of  time  the  festival  was  varied  by  addi- 
tional contests,  and  from  the  beginning  of  the 
77th  Olympiad  (472)  its  duration  was  extend- 
ed from  one  to  five  days.  In  the  14th  Olym- 
piad (724)  the  double  stadium  for  runners  was 
introduced,  and  in  the  15th  the  long  course,  in 
which  the  stadium  was  traversed  a  number  of 
times.  In  the  18th  Olympiad  (708)  wrestling 
matches  were  added,  and  also  the  complicated 
ir&vTadTiov,  which  included  leaping,  running, 
throwing  the  quoit,  throwing  the  javelin,  and 
wrestling.  To  gain  a  victory  in  the  latter  con- 
test the  competitor  was  obliged  to  conquer  in 
each  of  its  five  parts.  In  the  23d  Olympiad  (688) 
boxing  was  introduced,  and  in  the  33d  (648) 
the  Trayicpdrtov,  which  consisted  of  boxing  and 
wrestling  combined,  the  cestus,  or  leather  thong 
about  the  hands  and  arms,  being  allowed  in 
the  first  contest  but  not  in  the  second.  In  both 
games  the  combatants  fought  naked.  The  race 
with  four-horse  chariots,  for  which  a  special 
course  called  the  iTnrdSpoftoe,  about  2,400  ft.  in 
circuit,  was  set  apart,  was  introduced  in  the 
25th  Olympiad  (680),  and  became  one  of  the 
most  popular  and  celebrated  of  all  the  match- 
es ;  the  chariots  were  obliged  to  make  the  cir- 
cuit 12  times,  a  distance  of  over  5  m.  In  ad- 


OLYMPUS 


OMAHA 


623 


dition  to  these  there  were  foot  races  in  which 
the  runners  wore  heavy  armor,  several  kinds 
of  races  on  horseback,  races  between  chariots 
drawn  by  two  horses  or  by  mules,  wrestling 
and  running  matches  between  boys,  and  other 
athletic  contests,  some  of  which  were  speedily 
abolished.  Like  all  the  great  national  festivals 
of  Greece,  the  Olympic  games  included  no  com- 
bats with  any  kind  of  weapons.  The  games 
were  open  to  persons  of  all  ranks  and  occupa- 
tions, the  only  conditions  being  that  they  should 
prove  a  pure  Hellenic  descent  and  a  good  moral 
character.  After  the  conquest  of  Greece  by 
the  Romans  the  latter  were  allowed  to  become 
competitors.  In  all  cases  the  combatants  were 
obliged  to  undergo  a  preparatory  training,  and 
to  take  a  solemn  oath  to  contend  fairly.  Any  at- 
tempt to  bribe  a  competitor  to  give  the  victory 
to  his  antagonist  was  punished  by  a  heavy  fine. 
In  the  earlier  celebrations,  as  in  the  Homeric 
^games,  the  prizes  seem  to  have  had  some  in- 
trinsic value ;  but  after  the  7th  Olympiad,  in 
which  Daicles  the  Messenian  received  for  his 
victory  in  the  stadium  a  wreath  from  the  sacred 
olive  tree  near  Olympia,  this  simple  reward, 
with  the  honor  of  being  proclaimed  victor, 
was  considered  sufficient.  The  victor  thence- 
forth became  a  marked  man  in  his  state,  upon 
which  as  well  as  upon  his  family  he  was  con- 
sidered to  have  conferred  everlasting  glory; 
ovations  and  many  substantial  honors  awaited 
him  on  his  return  home ;  his  praises  were  sung 
by  the  most  .eminent  poets ;  and  his  statue  was 
often  erected  at  the  expense  of  his  fellow  citi- 
zens in  the  Altis,  or  sacred  grove  of  Jupiter  at 
Olympia.  No  women  were  allowed  to  be 
present  at  the  celebration  of  the  games,  under 
penalty  of  death,  a  single  exception  being  made 
in  the  case  of  the  priestess  of  Demeter  Cha- 
myne,  to  whom  a  seat  was  assigned  opposite 
the  judges ;  but  women  were  allowed  to  enter 
chariots  for  the  races,  and  frequently  did  so. 
Many  literary  works  were  here  first  publicly 
recited,  although  such  recitations  were  not 
contests  and  formed  no  part  of  the  festival 
proper ;  and  painters  and  sculptors  found  abun- 
dant means  to  dispose  of  their  productions. 
Many  persons  were  also  present  as  deputies 
from  the  various  states  and  colonies,  and  by 
the  number  of  their  offerings  and  the  splendor 
of  their  retinues  greatly  added  to  the  reputa- 
tion of  the  festival.  The  Olympic  games  pre- 
served their  crowds  of  visitors  and  their  celeb- 
rity for  many  centuries  after  the  extinction  of 
Greek  freedom,  but  were  finally  abolished  by 
a  decree  of  the  Christian  emperor  Theodosius, 
A.  D.  394. 

OLYMPUS,  Mount,  a  lofty  group  of  mountains 
in  Turkey,  partly  in  Macedonia  and  partly  in 
Thessaly.  Its  S.  extremity  is  at  the  mouth 
of  the  river  Peneus,  on  the  shore  of  the  Ther- 
maic  gulf,  and  is  separated  by  the  vale  of 
Tempe  from  the  neighboring  heights  of  Ossa, 
both  mountains  forming  the  E.  extremity  of 
the  Cambunian  range.  Its  highest  peak  has  an 
elevation  of  9,754  ft.  The  slopes  in  many 
617  VOL.  xn. — iO 


places  are  richly  clothed  with  forests,  but  to- 
ward the  summit,  which  is  broad  and  covered 
with  snow  for  the  greater  part  of  the  year,  the 
ridge  is  broken  into  vast  rugged  precipices,  in- 
dented with  deep  ravines.  In  Greek  mythol- 
ogy Mount  Olympus  was  the  residence  of  Ju- 
piter and  the  chief  celestial  deities,  and  the 
clouds  which  veiled  its  summit  were  supposed 
to  conceal  the  entrance  to  the  vault  of  heaven. 
— In  Mysia,  Lycia,  Cyprus,  and  elsewhere,  were 
mountains  called  by  this  name,  which  is  also, 
borne  by  an  eminence  bordering  on  the  plain 
of  Olympia  in  Elis. 

OLDiTHUS  (now  Aio  Mamas),  an  ancient 
town  of  Macedonia,  in  Chalcidice,  at  the  head 
of  the  Toronaic  gulf.  It  was  early  inhabited 
by  Greeks,  was  taken  by  the  Persians  under 
Artabazus,  was  next  subject  to  Athens,  and  re- 
gained its  independence  when  the  Spartan  gen- 
eral Brasidas  extinguished  the  Athenian  power 
in  Chalcidice  (424  B.  C.).  From  its  excellent 
maritime  position,  it  grew  in  wealth  and  im- 
portance, until,  when  it  had  become  too  pow- 
erful, the  Spartans  captured  it  in  379.  In  352 
the  Olynthians  formed  an  alliance  with  the 
Athenians,  and  in  347  the  city  was  betrayed  to 
Philip  of  Macedon,  the  citizens  were  sold,  and 
every  building  was  demolished. 

OMAHA,  the  largest  city  of  Nebraska,  capital 
of  Douglas  co.,  on  the  Missouri  river,  opposite 
Council  Bluffs,  la.,  50  m.  N.  E.  of  Lincoln,  and 
490  m.  by  rail  W.  by  S.  of  Chicago ;  pop.  in 
1860,  1,883  ;  in  1870,  16,083,  of  whom  6,320 
were  foreigners;  in  1875,  about  20,000.  It  oc- 
cupies a  beautiful  plateau,  rising  gradually  into 
bluffs.  The  streets  are  broad  and  cross  each 
other  at  right  angles.  The  city  is  lighted  with 
gas,  and  is  well  provided  with  street  railroads. 
The  level  portion  is  chiefly  devoted  to  busi- 
ness purposes,  while  the  bluffs  are  occupied  by 
handsome  residences  with  tastefully  arranged 
grounds.  The  United  States  court  house  and 
post  office  is  a  fine  building  of  Cincinnati  free- 
stone, 122  by  66  ft.,  and  four  stories  high,  cost- 
ing $350,000.  The  high  school  building,  the 
Grand  Central  hotel,  and  the  depot  and  gen- 
eral office  of  the  Union  Pacific  railroad  are  also 
noteworthy  structures.  Omaha  is  the  E.  ter- 
minus of  the  Union  Pacific  railroad,  and  also 
of  the  Omaha  and  Northwestern  and  the  Omaha 
and  Southwestern  lines.  By  bridge  and  ferry 
to  Council  Bluffs  it  is  connected  with  the  east- 
ern railroad  system.  (See  COUNCIL  BLUFFS.) 
There  is  considerable  trade,  the  wholesale 
business  in  groceries,  dry  goods,  hardware, 
crockery,  lumber,  and  agricultural  implements 
amounting  to  about  $9,500,000  a  year.  The 
city  has  two  national  banks,  a  state  bank,  and 
a  private  bank,  with  a  total  capital  of  $600,000, 
and  deposits  to  the  amount  of  $2,700,000.  Man- 
ufactures are  increasing.  The  principal  estab- 
lishments are  extensive  smelting  works,  smelt- 
ing and  refining  gold,  silver,  lead,  and  zinc; 
large  linseed  oil  works,  steam  engine  works,  a 
cracker  factory,  two  soap  factories,  and  seve- 
ral large  breweries  and  distilleries,  besides  the 


624: 


OMAHAS 


OMAN 


repair  and  construction  shops  of  the  Union 
Pacific  railroad.  There  is  also  a  pork-packing 
establishment.  The  public  schools  are  graded 
and  of  a  high  character ;  the  average  attend- 
ance is  about  1,500  pupils.  The  city  is  the  seat 
of  the  state  institution  for  the  deaf  and  dumb, 
and  the  United  States  courts  for  the  district  of 
Nebraska  are  held  here.  Three  daily  and  six 
weekly  newspapers  and  three  monthly  periodi- 
cals are  published.  There  are  24  churches. — 
.  Omaha  was  laid  out  in  1854,  and  became  the 
territorial  capital.  It  was  incorporated  as  a 
city  in  185V.  Its  rapid  growth  dates  from  the 
construction  of  the  Union  Pacific  railroad. 

01IA1IAS,  a  tribe  of  American  Indians  of  the 
Dakota  family.  Marquette  represented  them 
on  his  map  in  1673,  and  about  1766  Carver 
found  them  on  the  St.  Peter's.  They  formed 
two  tribes,  the  Hongashano  and  the  Ishtasunda 
or  Gray  Eyes,  divided  into  13  clans,  one  of 
which  preserved  a  sacred  shell  in  a  rude  tem- 
ple constantly  guarded.  They  cultivated  corn, 
beans,  and  melons.  Among  their  customs  was 
one  prohibiting  a  man  from  speaking  to  his 
father-in-law  or  mother-in-law.  About  1800 
they  made  a  lasting  peace  with  the  Pawnees 
and  Poncas.  In  1802,  from  a  tribe  able  to  send 
out  700  warriors,  they  were  reduced  by  small- 
pox to  300 ;  they  then  burned  their  village,  and 
became  wanderers.  The  Sioux  pursued  them 
relentlessly  then  as  now.  In  1805  Lewis  and 
Clarke  found  them  on  the  Quicoure,  number- 
ing 600.  Treaties  were  made  on  July  20, 1815 ; 
Sept.  23,  1820,  ceding  lands  at  Council  Bluffs; 
Oct.  6,  1825 ;  and  July  15,  1830,  ceding  lands 
for  an  annuity,  a  blacksmith,  and  agricultural 
implements.  The  Sioux  frequently  drove  them 
to  the  Elkhorn,  but  in  1843  they  returned  to 
their  village  and  made  peace  with  some  Sioux 
bands.  A  mission  begun  in  1839  failed,  and 
one  established  in  1846  has  had  but  little  suc- 
cess. By  a  treaty  of  March  16,  1854,  more 
of  their  lands  were  ceded.  Their  great  chief, 
Logan  Fontanelle,  was  killed  by  the  Sioux  in 
1855.  Since  then  they  have  devoted  them- 
selves exclusively  to  agriculture,  and  their  con- 
dition has  rapidly  improved.  In  1873  they 
numbered  1,001,  and  had  a  good  church  and 
three  schools.  Their  property  was  estimated 
at  $75,000,  and  their  reservation  contained 
345,000  acres,  in  the  N.  E.  part  of  Nebraska, 
between  the  Elkhorn  and  the  Missouri. 

OMAN,  a  country  of  S.  E.  Arabia,  comprising 
the  coast  from  Abu  Debi,  on  the  Persian  gulf, 
Ion.  54°  40'  E.,  to  the  vicinity  of  Merbat  on 
the  Indian  ocean;  area,  about  80,000  sq.  m. ; 
pop.  estimated  in  1873  at  1,598,000.  Its  boun- 
dary inland  is  limited  only  by  the  great  des- 
ert. It  has  also  a  nominal  jurisdiction  over 
the  coast  of  the  Persian  gulf  from  Abu  Debi 
to  the  bounds  of  Nedjed,  including  Bahrein 
and  the  other  islands  of  the  gulf  eastward,  the 
Persian  coast  opposite  Ras  Musandum  from 
Ras  Jashk  to  Bunder  Abbas,  and  the  islands 
of  the  Indian  ocean,  including  Socotra.  The 
peninsula  which  constitutes  Oman  proper,  ex- 


tending from  Ras  el-Hadd  to  Ras  Musandum, 
is  about  350  m.  long.  The  coast  line  between 
these  two  points  is  nearly  a  crescent.  A  range 
of  mountains,  following  generally  the  same 
curve,  traverses  the  country  from  its  S.  E.  to 
its  N.  extremity,  throwing  off  in  its  course  a 
branch  which  extends  to  Ras  el-Khaimah  on 
the  Persian  gulf.  The  average  height  of  these 
mountains  is  about  4,000  ft.,  but  in  their  high- 
est ridge,  called  Jebel  Akhdar,  they  reach  an 
elevation  of  6,000  ft.  Limestone  is  the  pre- 
vailing rock,  but  near  Muscat,  where  the  cliffs 
rise  abruptly  from  the  coast,  serpentine  pre- 
dominates; and  at  the  N.  extremity  of  the 
chain,  around  Ras  Musandum,  are  steep  walls 
of  basalt  or  trachyte,  which  show  many  evi- 
dences of  volcanic  action.  In  the  neighbor- 
hood of  Ras  el-Hadd  are  rich  lead  mines,  and 
copper  mines  are  worked  in  the  interior.  Iron 
is  found  in  many  localities,  and  gold  is  said  to 
exist  in  Jebel  Akhdar.  Rock  salt  is  abundant, 
and  is  worked  largely  for  exportation.  The 
principal  mines  are  on  the  island  of  Ormuz 
and  near  Bunder  Abbas  on  the  Persian  coast. 
The  sea  throws  up  amber  in  considerable 
quantities,  and  pearls  are  found  in  the  Persian 
gulf.  Only  one  pearl  fishery  is  now  carried 
on,  at  the  island  of  Ormuz.  Gold,  pearls, 
amber,  and  salt  are  government  monopolies. 
The  soil  of  Oman  near  the  sea  is  poor,  but  in 
the  interior  it  is  very  fertile  when  irrigated. 
There  are  a  few  streams,  which  are  generally 
dependent  on  the  rains,  but  several  are  said  to 
be  permanent.  Rain  is  abundant  from  Octo- 
ber to  March  in  the  highlands,  whence  torrents 
descend  to  the  plains.  Irrigation  is  practised 
extensively,  the  water  being  collected  and  led 
through  the  cultivated  tracts  in  subterranean 
canals,  which  extend  sometimes  many  miles. 
Wheat,  maize,  barley,  durra,  and  other  grains 
grow  in  abundance ;  and  cotton,  sugar,  tobacco, 
indigo,  and  coffee  are  raised  to  some  extent. 
The  coffee  is  inferior  to  that  of  Yemen,  and  the 
sugar  cane  is  of  poor  quality.  Cotton  would 
do  well  if  properly  cultivated.  The  climate  of 
the  plains  is  hot,  and  the  fruits  are  those  of 
India,  but  in  the  valleys  of  the  highlands  the 
apricot,  grape,  and  fig  grow  to  perfection.  Ex- 
cellent wine,  resembling  that  of  Shiraz,  is  made 
in  large  quantities.  The  camels  and  asses  of 
Oman  are  celebrated,  and  the  latter  are  largely 
exported.  Horses  are  few  and  are  generally 
inferior,  but  occasionally  good  ones  are  im- 
ported from  Nedjed.  The  cattle  are  of  the 
humpbacked  Indian  variety.  Sheep  and  goats 
are  raised  in  vast  flocks,  and  common  fowl 
are  numerous.  Delicious  fish  are  caught  on  all 
the  coasts,  and  the  ports  are  sometimes  almost 
blocked  with  sardines.  Dried  and  salted  fish 
are  put-up  in  large  quantities,  and  exported 
to  India,  Morocco,  and  even  to  Australia.  In 
some  of  the  larger  towns,  particularly  in  Sharja, 
Muttra,  and  Sohar,  there  is  considerable  manu- 
facturing of  gold  and  silver  filigree,  for  the 
ornamentation  of  arms,  belts,  seats,  pipes,  &c. 
Other  manufactures  are  coarse  woollen  and 


OMAN 


625 


cotton  cloths,  carpets  and  coverlets,  silk  stuffs 
for  women,  and  sugar. — Oman  proper  is  di- 
vided by  the  range  of  mountains  into  several 
districts.  Sur  comprises  the  coast  between 
Kas  el-Hadd  and  Muscat,  extending  to  the 
mountains,  which  approach  the  sea  gradually, 
and  at  their  southern  extremity  rise  steep  and 
rugged  from  the  shore.  Jailan  lies  S.  W.  of 
Sur,  on  the  other  side  of  the  mountains;  it 
stretches  indefinitely  down  the  W.  coast,  is 
sandy  and  uncultivated,  and  is  inhabited  prin- 
cipally by  the  great  tribe  of  Hinawy  or  Hi- 
navy  Bedouins.  Jebel  Akhdar,  N.  W.  of  Jai- 
lan, the  most  mountainous  and  richest  of  the 
districts,  is  occupied  by  the  Yaaribah  tribe; 
its  principal  cities  are  Rastag,  the  former  cap- 
ital, Bahila,  Nezwa,  and  Haja.  N.  W.  of  Je- 
bel Akhdar  is  Dahira,  which  is  traversed  by 
the  secondary  chain  of  mountains  leading  to 
the  Persian  gulf ;  it  is  inhabited  chiefly  by  the 
Ghafary  Bedouins.  Bereima,  its  principal  city, 
which  commands  the  defiles  of  the  grand  chain, 
is  occupied  by  a  garrison  of  Wahabee  troops, 
charged  with  assuring  the  payment  of  the  an- 
nual tribute  to  Nedjed.  On  the  other  side  of 
the  mountains,  E.  of  Jebel  Akhdar  and  Dahira, 
is  Batina,  which  consists  of  a  vast  plain  rising 
gradually  from  the  sea  into  hills  covered  with 
vegetation.  Between  Batina  and  Sur,  on  the 
coast,  is  the  district  of  Muscat,  which  compri- 
ses little  more  than  the  cities  of  Muscat  and 
Muttra  and  their  environs.  (See  MUSCAT.) 
Sharja,  on  the  coast  of  the  Persian  gulf,  is 
virtually  independent;  it  is  inhabited  by  the 
Jowasim  or  Kawasim  Arabs.  The  Benu  Yass 
occupy  the  coast  beyond  Sharja.  The  depen- 
dencies of  Oman  on  the  coast  of  Persia  are 
rented  from  the  shah.  They  include  the  port 
of  Bunder  Abbas,  formerly  called  Gombrun, 
and  its  dependencies,  the  islands  of  Kishm  and 
Ormuz,  and  the  smaller  islands  along  the  coast. 
The  sovereigns  of  Oman  had  held  these  for 
more  than  a  century,  on  the  annual  payment 
of  6,000  tomans ;  but  in  1854  the  shah  seized 
the  fortified  places  and  expelled  their  officials. 
In  1856  a  treaty  was  concluded  by  which  the 
ruler  of  Oman  was  permitted  to  retain  them  for 
20  years,  at  the  expiration  of  which  they  were 
to  revert  to  Persia ;  and  the  rental  was  raised 
to  16,000  tomans.  Besides  Muscat  and  its  sub- 
urb Muttra,  the  chief  seaports  and  centres  of 
trade  are  Khur-Fahkan,  Shinaz,  Sohar,  So- 
weik,  and  Barka.  The  entire  coast  from  Ras 
el-Hadd  northward  is  lined  with  towns  and. 
villages,  many  of  which  are  mere  collections 
of  huts,  but  have  large  fisheries  and  trade. 
The  principal  port  on  the  Persian  gulf  is  Shar- 
ja. The  S.  coast  has  many  small  villages,  peo- 
pled chiefly  by  negroes.  Muscat  is  generally 
regarded  as  the  capital  of  Oman,  but  Palgrave 
says  that  Sohar,  Nezwa,  and  Bahila  hold  a  sim- 
ilar rank,  and  are  in  turn  the  sovereign's  place  of 
residence.  The  inhabitants  of  the  interior  are 
engaged  mostly  in  pastoral  and  agricultural  pur- 
suits ;  those  on  the  coast  are  traders,  fishermen, 
and  mariners.  The  townspeople  are  mixed 


largely  with  Persian,  Indian,  and  negro  blood. 
Most  of  the  commerce  is  in  the  hands  of  Ban- 
ians from  Kutch  and  Guzerat  in  India.  The 
Bedouins  are  a  strong,  athletic,  and  handsome 
race,  much  superior  physically  to  those  further 
north.  The  natives  of  Oman  call  themselves 
Abadites,  and  profess  a  Mohammedanism  large- 
ly mixed  up  with  elements  of  more  ancient 
and  foreign  creeds;  but  toleration  exists  for 
all  religions,  races,  and  customs,  and  the  peo- 
ple are  said  to  be  the  most  hospitable  of  the 
Arabs. — Oman  is  ruled  by  a  sovereign  whose 
proper  title  is  seyid.  By  Europeans  he  is 
called  sometimes  imam  of  Muscat  and  some- 
times sultan  of  Oman ;  but  the  latter  title  has 
never  been  borne  by  any  of  the  rulers,  and  the 
former  has  not  been  used  during  the  present 
century.  The  government  is  less  a  royalty 
than  a  union  of  independent  municipalities, 
each  city  and  village  having  its  own  corpora- 
tion and  customs.  The  prerogatives  of  the 
sovereign  consist  in  the  right  to  name  and  to 
depose  governors,  although  he  is  restricted  in 
his  choice  to  the  family  who  hold  the  office 
hereditarily ;  in  the  power  to  fix  customs  and 
duties ;  in  the  exclusive  possession  of  a  navy 
and  of  his  little  army  of  500  or  600  men,  com- 
posed of  Arabs,  Persians,  and  Belooches ;  and 
in  the  management  of  all  foreign  alliances  and 
treaties,  and  the  making  of  peace  and  war. 
The  administration  of  justice  is  reserved  to 
the  cadis  and  sheiks  of  each  locality.  Taxes 
are  fixed  and  immutable,  and  the  seyid  cannot 
modify  them.  All  his  power  depends  on  the 
good  will  of  the  people,  and  on  the  amount  of 
money  he  may  have  wherewith  to  buy  support. 
The  revenues  derived  from  import  duties  on 
merchandise  and  slaves,  and  taxes  on  interior 
commerce  and  local  industry,  have  been  farmed 
of  late  years  to  an  English  house  in  Bombay, 
for  the  annual  sum  of  $115,000.  The  tribute 
from  Zanzibar,  the  income  from  commerce 
carried  on  in  the  seyid's  own  name,  and  the 
revenue  from  the  Persian  coast  and  the  islands, 
which  are  not  included  in  the  contract  with  the 
English  house,  raise  the  total  revenue  to  some- 
thing less  than  $200,000.— The  ruling  dynasty 
of  Oman  was  founded  about  1750  by  Ahmed 
ibn  Said.  Previously  the  sovereign  was  elected 
on  account  of  personal  merits,  irrespective  of 
descent,  but  since  Ahmed's  accession  the  elec- 
tion has  been  restricted  to  his  family.  He  died 
about  1775,  after  bringing  the  country  to  a  high 
state  of  prosperity.  In  1784  Zanzibar  was  cap- 
tured, and  a  few  years  later  the  authority  of 
Oman  was  extended  to  the  mainland  of  Africa. 
About  1800  the  Wahabees  invaded  Oman,  and 
by  repeated  invasions  in  after  years  reduced  it 
nearly  to  the  verge  of  ruin,  withdrawing  finally 
only  on  condition  of  the  payment  of  an  annual 
tribute.  After  the  recovery  of  Nedjed  from 
the  Egyptian  conquest,  Turky,  the  Wahabee 
ruler,  attempted  to  reassert  his  claims  in  Oman, 
but  in  1833  agreed  to  accept  an  annual  tribute 
of  5,000  German  crowns.  In  1845  Faisul,  son 
of  Turky,  who  had  returned  to  Nedjed  after 


626 


OMAR  I. 


OMEN 


the  second  Egyptian  invasion,  sent  an  army 
into  Oman,  but  accepted  the  terms  offered  by 
the  seyid.  The  tribute  was  continued  till  1852, 
•when  further  demands  were  made  by  the  Wa- 
habee  ruler,  and  it  was  increased  to  12,000 
crowns.  The  seyid  Said  died  in  1856  after 
a  reign  of  half  a  century,  leaving  15  sons. 
At  this  time  Oman  was  rich  and  prosperous. 
Her  government  extended  over  the  best  part 
of  the  Arabian  coast,  the  islands  of  Zanzibar, 
Pemba,  and  Monfia,  and  a  large  portion  of  the 
African  coast  opposite ;  and  her  navy  num- 
bered 40  ships,  12  of  which  carried  from 
10  to  50  guns  each.  But  with  the  death  of 
Said  internal  dissensions  began,  and  the  suc- 
cession was  disputed.  Thoweiny,  the  eldest 
son,  was  elected  ruler  of  Oman,  and  Majid,  his 
brother,  of  Zanzibar.  After  a  long  dispute, 
the  rival  claims  of  the  brothers  were  submit- 
ted to  the  arbitration  of  Lord  Canning,  then 
governor  general  of  India,  who  confirmed  each 
in  his  sovereignty,  and  decreed  that  the  seyid 
of  Zanzibar  should  pay  an  annual  subsidy  to 
Oman  of  40,000  crowns.  In  making  the  award, 
regard  was  had  to  the  fact  that  Oman  was  bur- 
dened with  a  tribute  to  the  Wahabees,  then 
increased  to  20,000  crowns,  the  half  of  which 
had  previously  been  drawn  from  the  treasury 
of  Zanzibar.  The  terms  were  accepted  by  each 
in  1862,  and  since  then  Zanzibar  has  been  in- 
dependent. For  the  past  ten  years  Oman  has 
been  the  scene  of  dissension,  brought  about  by 
the  rival  claims  of  different  members  of  the 
ruling  family  to  the  sovereignty,  and  the  con- 
tinued interference  of  the  Wahabees.  In  1873 
the  seyid  of  Oman  made  a  treaty  with  England 
for  the  suppression  of  the  slave  trade. 

OMAR  I.  (ABU  HAFSAH  IBN  AL-KHATTAB), 
the  second  of  the  caliphs,  third  cousin  of  Ab- 
dallah,  the  father  of  Mohammed,  born  about 
581,  assassinated  in  644.  Originally  an  enemy 
of  the  prophet,  he  set  out  for  Medina  to  mur- 
der him ;  but  chancing  to  read  what  is  now 
the  20th  chapter  of  the  Koran,  he  was  con- 
verted, and  thenceforth  became  a  zealous  sup- 
porter  of  the  Moslem,  faith.  When  the  proph- 
et died  in  632,  Omar  resigned  his  claim  to  the 
supreme  rule  in  behalf  of  Abubekr ;  and  the 
latter  on  his  deathbed  appointed  him  his  suc- 
cessor (634).  During  his  reign  the  Moslems 
were  everywhere  victorious.  One  army  pros- 
ecuted the  conquest  of  Syria,  took  Damas- 
cus in  635,  defeated  the  Greeks  in  the  bloody 
battle  of  Yermuk;,  and  in  637  compelled  Je- 
rusalem to  capitulate.  Another  army  under 
Amru  invaded  Egypt,  reduced  Alexandria,  and 
overran  Africa  as  far  as  the  deserts  of  Tripoli 
and  Barca.  .In  Persia  and  Armenia  the  Mos- 
lems were  also  successful.  A  Mohammedan  his- 
torian sums  up  the  conquests  of  Omar  by  say- 
ing :  "  He  took  from  the  infidels  36,000  cities 
or  castles,  destroyed  4,000  temples  and  church- 
es, and  founded  or  endowed  1,400  mosques," 
In  the  beginning  of  November,  644,  while  per- 
forming his  morning  devotions  in  the  mosque  at 
Medina,  he  was  stabbed  three  times  by  a  Per- 


sian slave  named  Firuz,  who  had  applied  to  him 
in  vain  to  be  relieved  of  half  the  tribute  he  was 
compelled  to  pay  his  master.  He  lingered  five 
days,  and  refused  to  name  his  son  as  his  suc- 
cessor. Omar's  only  food  was  barley  bread 
and  dates  ;  his  only  drink,  water ;  and  his  gar- 
ment an  old  coat  torn  in  twelve  places.  He 
regularly  distributed  the  contents  of  his  trea- 
sury among  his  soldiers  and  followers,  and 
supported  himself  by  the  work  of  his  own 
hands,  manufacturing  and  selling  leather  belts. 
He  was  the  first  to  assume  the  title  of  emir  el- 
mumenim,  or  commander  of  the  faithful.  In 
his  time  the  era  of  the  Hegira  was  established, 
armies  were  first  kept  under  pay,  and  a  sort 
of  police  force  was  instituted.  Omar  has  al- 
ways been  an  object  of  reverence  among  the 
Moslems  of  the  Sunni  or  orthodox  sect.  He 
was  succeeded  by  Othman. 

OMAR  II.  (ABU  HAFS),  eighth  caliph  of  the 
Ornmiyades,  succeeded  Solyman  in  Septem- 
ber, 717,  died  early  in  720.  He  was  a  descen- 
dant of  Omar  I.  To  reconcile  the  houses  of 
Omar  and  Ali,  he  revoked  the  maledictions 
against  the  partisans  of  the  latter,  which  had 
been  read  in  all  the  mosques  since  the  time 
of  Moawiyah,  and  restored  to  them  the  lands 
given  to  Ali  by  the  prophet.  But  members  of 
the  ruling  family  gave  him  a  slow  poison,  of 
which  he  died. 

OMIEARA,  Barry  Edward,  an  Irish  surgeon, 
born  about  1780,  died  in  London,  June  3, 1836. 
He  entered  the  army  at  an  early  age,  and 
served  several  years  in  Sicily,  Egypt,  and 
Calabria,  as  assistant  surgeon  to  the  32d  regi- 
ment. He  was  afterward  surgeon  in  the 
navy,  and  was  appointed  to  the  Bellerophon 
in  July,  1815,  when  Napoleon  came  on  board 
that  ship  as  a  prisoner.  At  the  request  of 
Napoleon,  O'Meara  accompanied  him  to  St. 
Helena  in  the  capacity  of  medical  attendant ; 
but  on  account  of  a  rupture  with  Sir  Hudson 
Lowe  in  regard  to  the  treatment  of  Napoleon, 
he  returned  to  England  in  1818.  Having  ac- 
cused Sir  Hudson  Lowe  before  the  admiralty 
of  cruel  and  arbitrary  conduct,  his  name  was 
erased  from  the  list  of  naval  surgeons.  He 
afterward  acted  with  the  extreme  liberals,  and 
was  a  partisan  of  O'Connell.  He  published 
"  Letters  from  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  ;" 
"Letters  from  St.  Helena;"  "  Letters  from 
Count  Las  Cases,"  with  a  preliminary  dis- 
course;  "  Exposition  of  the  Treatment  of 
Napoleon  Bonaparte;"  a  translation  of  the 
"Memoirs  of  Napoleon"  by  himself;  and  "A 
Voice  from  St.  Helena,  or  Napoleon  in  Exile." 

OMEN  (Lat.),  a  sign  believed  to  be  an  intima- 
tion from  a  superior  power  prognosticating  a 
future  event.  Suetonius  mentions  that  Caesar, 
on  landing  at  Hadrumetum  in  Africa,  fell  on 
his  face,  which  would  have  been  an  unlucky 
omen  had  he  not  transformed  it  into  a  sym- 
bolical act  by  exclaiming  as  he  touched  the 
earth :  Teneo  te,  Africa  (I  take  possession  of 
thee,  O  Africa).  Valerius  Maximus  relates  that 
Pompey,  on  arriving  at  Paphos  after  the  battle 


OMENTUM 


OMISH 


62T 


of  Pharsalia,  lost  all  hope  when  he  learned 
the  name  of  the  palace  concerning  which  he 
inquired  (Ka/co/faat/l^a,  evil  palace).  It  is  rela- 
ted by  Winsheim  that  Melanchthon  went  from 
the  assembly  at  Torgau  in  anxious  doubt  con- 
cerning the  future  of  the  reformation,  but 
found  in  the  antechamber  three  women,  one  of 
whom  was  holding  a  new-born  child,  another 
supporting  and  instructing  a  boy,  and  the  third 
giving  food  to  a  full-grown  man ;  and  that  he 
immediately  returned  into  the  hall,  and  so  en- 
couraged the  assembly  by  reporting  the  favor- 
able symbolical  omen,  that  bolder  and  more 
decisive  resolutions  were  at  once  carried. 
Sneezing  was  deemed  ominous  in  the  time  of 
Homer,  and  Eustathius  says  it  is  lucky  or  un- 
lucky according  as  it  is  directed  to  the  right  or 
the  left.  Among  the  ancient  Persians  sneezing 
was  esteemed  fortunate,  a  sign  of  contest  be- 
tween the  fiery  soul  and  the  earthly  body,  and 
of  the  victory  of  the  former.  In  parts  of  Scot- 
land and  in  some  other  localities,  it  betokens 
good  fortune  during  the  month  to  see  the  new 
moon  for  the  first  time  on  the  right  hand  or 
directly  in  front ;  to  turn  the  head  back  to  see 
it,  especially  over  the  left  shoulder,  foreshadows 
the  worst  fortune.  It  is  also  held  unlucky  to 
look  at  the  new  moon  for  the  first  time  through 
a  window.  Dr.  Nathaniel  Home,  in  his  "  Dae- 
monologie,"  mentions  the  falling  of  salt  toward 
persons  at  table  and  the  spilling  of  wine  on 
their  clothes  as  evil  omens.  Putting  the  shoes 
on  awry  or  on  the  wrong  feet  has  often  been 
thought  the  forerunner  of  some  unlucky  acci- 
dent. Breaking  a  looking  glass  betokens  the 
death  of  the  best  friend  of  the  person  to  whom 
it  belonged.  Sir  Thomas  Browne  discusses  the 
proverb  that  our  cheeks  burn  or  ears  tingle 
when  others  are  talking  of  us  ;  the  left  cheek 
or  ear  indicating  that  they  are  talking  ill,  the 
right  good  of  us.  Grose  affirms  that  a  drop  of 
blood  from  the  nose  foretells  death  or  a  severe 
fit  of  sickness ;  and  Burton  in  his  "  Anatomy 
of  Melancholy  "  says  that  "  to  bleed  three  drops 
at  the  nose  is  an  ill  omen."  The  screeching  of 
the  owl  and  the  croaking  of  the  raven  have 
both  in  ancient  and  modern  times  been  regard- 
ed as  omens  of  calamity.  Pennant  states  that 
many  of  the  great  families  of  Scotland  received 
monitions  of  future  events,  especially  of  death, 
by  spectres,  wraiths,  and  shrieks.  Among  sail- 
ors, to  throw  a  cat  overboard,  or  lose  a  bucket, 
is  believed  to  be  unlucky.  To  stumble  on  go- 
ing out,  says  Bishop  Hall,  is  mischievous;  to 
stumble  up  stairs,  says  Grose,  is  lucky. 

OMEJVTUM,  a  membranous  sheet,  composed  of 
two  or  more  folds  of  the  peritoneum  extend- 
ed between  certain  of  the  abdominal  organs.. 
Three  parts  of  this  sheet  are  usually  dis- 
tinguished, namely :  the  gastro-hepatic  omen- 
turn,  a  double  fold,  extending  from  the  liver 
to  the  stomach ;  the  gastro-splenic  omentum, 
a  double  fold  extending  from  the  great  pouch 
of  the  stomach  to  the  spleen ;  and  the  great 
omentum,  a  quadruple  fold,  suspended  from 
the  great  curvature  of  the  stomach  and  the 


transverse  colon,  and  hanging  down  in  front 
of  the  mass  of  the  small  intestine.  The  great 
omentum  is  distinguished  from  the  others  by 
containing,  sometimes  in  considerable  quantity, 
a  collection  of  adipose  tissue,  which  forms  an 
anterior  covering  or  protection  for  the  small 
intestine.  A  portion  of  it  sometimes  protrudes, 
either  alone  or  in  company  with  a  knuckle  of 
intestines,  into  the  sac  of  a  hernia.  When  the 
omentum  alone  protrudes,  it  constitutes  omen- 
tal  hernia. 

OMER  PASHA  (MICHAEL  LATTAS),  a  Turkish 
soldier,  born  at  Plaski,  Croatia,  in  1806,  died 
in  Constantinople,  April  18,  1871.  The  son  of 
an  Austrian  official,  he  became  a  cadet  in  a 
frontier  regiment,  but  ran  away  in  1826  and 
went  to  Bosnia,  where  he  became  a  Moham- 
medan and  took  the  name  of  Orner.  He  was 
appointed  tutor  to  the  children  of  Hussein 
Pasha,  who  in  1834  sent  him  to  Constantinople, 
where  he  became  an  army  officer  and  writing 
master  to  Abdul  Medjid.  He  assisted  in  reor- 
ganizing the  army,  was  made  colonel  in  1839, 
served  against  Ibrahim  Pasha,  and  was  pro- 
moted to  brigadier  general.  He  was  promi- 
nent in  the  pacification  of  Albania  and  Kur- 
distan, in  1848  commanded  the  Turkish  troops 
in  Moldo-Wallachia,  and  in  1849-'50  complete- 
ly crushed  the  insurrection  in  Bosnia.  In  1851 
he  restored  tranquillity  in  Herzegovina,  and 
in  1852  was  sent  against  the  Montenegrins. 
On  the  outbreak  of  the  Crimean  war  he  was 
appointed  generalissimo.  In  November,  1853, 
the  Kussians  attacked  him  at  Oltenitza,  but 
were  driven  back  with  great  loss.  Their  sub- 
sequent operations  in  front  of  Widin  were 
equally  unsuccessful.  In  May,  1854,  he  was 
besieged  by  Paskevitch  in  Silistria,  but  at  the 
end  of  40  days  the  Russians  were  compelled  to 
give  up  their  attempts  after  severe  losses.  In 
August  he  entered  Bucharest,  and  early  in 
1855,  acting  in  conjunction  with  the  allies,  he 
removed  more  than  35,000  men  of  his  Danu- 
bian  army  to  Eupatoria  in  the  Crimea,  and 
began  the  fortification  of  that  place,  where 
he  was  attacked  on  Feb.  17  by  a  Russian  force 
estimated  at  40,000,  which  he  repulsed.  He 
joined  the  allied  army  before  Sebastopol,  and 
in  the  spring  marched  to  the  relief  of  Kars, 
which  was  captured  before  he  could  reach  it. 
Afterward  as  governor  general  of  Bagdad  he 
repelled  the  Kurd  and  Arab  invasion.  He 
was  convicted  of  frauds  and  of  inflicting  ar- 
bitrary sentences  of  death,  and  banished  to 
Kharput  in  1859,  but  was  soon  restored  to  his 
command.  He  invaded  and  pacified  Monte- 
negro in  1862,  and  was  stationed  at  Shumla 
till  March,  1867,  when  he  was  ordered  to 
crush  the  Cretan  insurrection;  but  his  vio- 
lence and  cruelty  caused  his  recall  in  October, 
and  he  was  withdrawn  from  active  service. 
Pending  the  arrival  of  the  new  minister  of  war 
from  Bagdad  in  1868,  he  held  that  office  till 
November,  1869,  and  subsequently  remained 
a  member  of  the  ministry  without  a  portfolio. 

OMISH.     See  MENNONITES. 


628 


OMMIYADES 


ONDERDONK 


OMMIYADES,  the  second  dynasty  of  oriental 
caliphs,  beginning  with  Moawiyah,  the  son  of 
Abu  Sofian,  in  661,  and  continuing  until  750. 
They  derived  their  name  from  Ommiyah,  an 
ancestor  of  Moawiyah.  The  latter  had  during 
the  lifetime  of  Ali,  the  fourth  caliph  of  the 
first  or  Arabian  dynasty,  made  himself  master 
of  Syria  and  Egypt,  and  after  the  assassination 
of  Ali  gained  possession  of  the  whole  empire, 
through  the  abdication  of  his  successor  Has- 
san. The  office  of  caliph  now  became  heredi- 
tary in  the  family  of  this  monarch,  and  so 
continued  until  the  defeat  and  death  of  Mer- 
wan  II.,  the  14th  sovereign  of  the  line  (750). 
During  the  sway  of  this  dynasty,  Turkistan, 
Spain,  and  Georgia  were  conquered.  But  the 
progress  of  the  Moslem  arms  was  retarded  by 
constant  civil  dissensions,  and  in  Europe  their 
conquests  were  effectually  stayed  by  their  de- 
feat on  the  plains  of  Poitiers  (732).  After 
the  contest  between  Merwan  II.  and  Abul  Ab- 
bas had  ended  in  the  defeat  of  the  former, 
Abdullah,  an  uncle  of  Abul  Abbas,  called  a 
meeting  of  the  Omtniyades,  and  treacherously 
massacred  them  all  but  two.  One  of  these  fled 
to  Arabia,  where  his  descendants  ruled  as  late 
as  the  16th  century ;  and  the  other  escaped  to 
Mauritania,  whence  he  was  called  to  Spain,  and 
founded  the  kingdom  and  subsequent  caliphate 
of  Cordova  as  Abderrahman  I.  (See  CALIPH.) 

OMPHiLE,  in  Greek  legends,  the  daughter  of 
the  Lydian  king  Jardanus,  and  wife  of  Tmolus, 
whom  she  succeeded  in  the  government.  Mer- 
cury sold  Hercules  to  her  for  a  slave,  and  by 
him  she  had  several  children.  Hercules,  to 
please  her,  assumed  female  garments  and  spun 
among  the  female  slaves,  while  she  wore  the 
lion's  skin  and  wielded  the  club. 

OMRI,  king  of  Israel.  See  HEBREWS,  vol. 
viii.,  p.  587. 

OMSK,  a  town  of  Siberia,  in  the  government 
and  300  m.  N.  E.  of  the  city  of  Akmolinsk,  on 
the  Irtish  at  the  confluence  of  the  Om;  pop.  in 
1867,  26,722,  among  whom  are  many  European 
exiles.  It  was  formerly  the  seat  of  the  gover- 
nor general  of  Western  Siberia  and  capital  of 
a  government  of  its  own  name.,  which  is  now 
divided  between  the  governments  of  Tobolsk, 
Tomsk,  and  Akmolinsk.  It  has  five  Greek 
churches,  a  Protestant  church,  a  mosque,  and 
a  military  school,  founded  in  1825  by  the  em- 
peror Alexander  I.  for  250  pupils,  who  are  in- 
structed in  the  Kirghiz  and  Mongol  languages. 
There  are  manufactories  of  cloth,  and  a  brisk 
trade  is  carried  on  with  the  Khirghiz. 

ON.    See  HELIOPOLI8. 

OJVCKM,  Johann  Gerhard,  a  German  missiona- 
ry, born  at  Varel,  Oldenburg,  about  1800.  Du- 
ring his  early  life  he  was  a  domestic  servant. 
After  reaching  manhood  he  visited  England, 
where  he  married,  and  subsequently  opened  a 
book  shop  at  Hamburg,  joined  the  English  In- 
dependent church,  and  became  the  agent  of 
the  Lower  Saxony  tract  society  and  the  Edin- 
burgh Bible  society.  In  April,  1834,  with  six 
others,  he  organized  a  Baptist  church,  and  be- 


came its  pastor.  In  1835  the  American  Bap- 
tist general  convention  appointed  Mr.  Oncken 
their  missionary,  and  he  visited  almost  every 
portion  of  Germany  and  Denmark.  In  Ham- 
burg he  was  several  times  imprisoned  for 
preaching  and  baptizing ;  but  after  the  benev- 
olence of  his  family  and  congregation  to  the 
sufferers  by  the  great  fire  of  1842,  the  Ham- 
burg senate  passed  decrees  commending  their 
conduct,  and  granting  them  the  privilege  of 
unrestricted  worship.  From  that  time  Mr. 
Oncken  has  been  actively  engaged  in  the  pro- 
motion of  his  missionary  work,  publishing  edi- 
tions of  the  Scriptures  for  gratuitous  distribu- 
tion, writing  and  publishing  religious  tracts  and 
books,  establishing  numerous  churches  in  Den- 
mark, Switzerland,  Prussia,  the  smaller  Ger- 
man states,  and  Austria,  and  editing  with  the 
assistance  of  his  daughter  a  religious  journal 
in  English,  and  another  in  German.  He  visit- 
ed the  United  States  in  1852  to  obtain  means 
for  the  erection  of  chapels.  At  the  end  of  30 
years  the  number  of  churches  connected  with 
the  Baptist  German  mission,  and  directly  or 
indirectly  the  fruit  of  his  labors,  had  risen  to 
76,  and  the  number  of  members  in  communion 
to  11,289.  In  connection  with  these  churches 
were  95  Sunday  schools,  with  240  teachers  and 
2,662  scholars.  The  missions  have  continued 
to  prosper,  and  their  fruits  are  found  in  Poland 
and  southern  Russia. 

ONDERDONK.  I.  Henry  Ustick,  an  American 
bishop,  born  in  New  York  in  March,  1789,  died 
in  Philadelphia,  Dec.  6,  1858.  He  graduated 
at  Columbia  college  in  1805,  studied  medicine 
in  New  York  and  Edinburgh,  and  in  1815  be- 
came associate  editor  with  Dr.  Valentine  Mott 
of  the  "New  York  Medical  Journal."  He. 
afterward  studied  theology,  and  was  admitted 
to  the  ministry  of  the  Protestant  Episcopal 
church.  In  1820  he  became  rector  of  St.  Ann's 
church,  Brooklyn,  N.  Y. ;  and  in  1827  he  was 
elected  assistant  to  Bishop  White  of  Pennsyl- 
vania, on  whose  death  in  1836  he  became  bish- 
op of  that  diocese.  In  1844  he  offered  his  res- 
ignation to  the  house  of  bishops,  who  not  only 
accepted  it,  but  also,  after  a  trial  on  charges  of 
intemperance,  suspended  him  from  the  office 
and  functions  of  the  sacred  ministry  from  and 
after  Oct.  21.  The  suspension  was  removed 
in  1856,  but  he  did  not  resume  his  episco- 
pal functions.  Bishop  Onderdonk  wrote  sev- 
eral hymns  contained  in  the  Episcopal  prayer 
book.  His  principal  publications  are :  "  Epis- 
copacy tested  by  Scripture,"  published  as  a 
tract,  and  afterward  enlarged  to  a  volume 
entitled  "Episcopacy  Examined  and  Reexam- 
ined,"  containing  reviews  adverse  to  the  tract 
by  Albert  Barnes  and  others  (1835) ;  "  Essay 
on  Regeneration"  (1835) ;  and  "  Sermons  and 
Charges  "  (2  vols.,  1851).  II.  Beiyamin  Tredwell, 
an  American  bishop,  brother  of  the  preceding, 
born  in  New  York  in  1791,  died  there,  April 
30,  1861.  He  graduated  at  Columbia  college 
in  1809,  studied  theology,  entered  the  Episco- 
pal ministry  in  1812,  and  in  1813  was  appoint- 


O'NEALL 


ONEIDAS 


629 


ed  an  assistant  minister  of  Trinity  parish, 
New  York.  On  Bishop  Hobart's  death  he  was 
chosen  bishop  of  New  York,  and  consecrated 
Nov.  26,  1830.  In  1838  the  diocese  of  West- 
ern New  York  was  formed,  Bishop  Onderdonk 
retaining  the  eastern  portion.  Charges  affect- 
ing his  moral  character  having  been  made,  he 
was  tried  in  December,  1844,  by  the  house  of 
bishops  acting  as  a  court;  and  after  a  long 
and  searching  investigation,  the  court  decided 
(eight  voting  for  deposition  and  nine  for  sus- 
pension) that  he  be  suspended  from  the  office 
and  functions  of  the  ministry,  Jan.  3,  1845. 
He  never  acknowledged  that  he  was  guilty  of 
the  offences  imputed  to  him,  and  urgent  efforts 
were  made  for  the  removal  of  the  suspension. 
After  much  delay,  the  general  convention  of 
1850  passed  a  canon  allowing  a  provisional 
bishop  to  be  chosen.  The  convention  of  New 
York  adopted  a  petition  to  the  general  conven- 
tion of  1859  in  favor  of  Bishop  Onderdonk's 
restoration,  and  the  lower  house  supported  it 
by  a  large  vote ;  but  the  bishops  rejected  it. 

O'NEALL,  John  Belton,  an  American  jurist,  born 
on  Bush  river,  S.  0.,  April  10,  1793,  died  near 
Newberry,  Dec.  27,  1863.  He  graduated  at 
the  South  Carolina  college  in  1812,  served  for 
a  time  in  the  war  with  England,  was  admit- 
ted to  the  bar  in  1814,  and  soon  gained  a  large 
practice.  In  1816,  '22,  '24,  and  '26  he  was  a 
member  of  the  legislature.  In  1850  he  became 
president  of  the  court  of  law  appeals  and  of 
the  court  of  errors,  and  subsequently  chief  jus- 
tice of  the  state.  In  1852  he  was  installed  as 
the  head  of  the  sons  of  temperance  of  North 
America.  He  published  a  "  Digest  of  the  Ne- 
gro Law  of  South  Carolina"  (1848),  "An- 
nals of  Newberry "(1858),  and  "Biographical 
Sketches  of  the  Bench  and  Bar  of  South  Car- 
olina "  (2  vols.,  1859). 

ONEGA,  a  lake  of  N.  "W.  Russia,  in  the 
government  of  Olonetz,  between  lat.  60°  50' 
and  63°  N. ;  extreme  length  160  m.,  greatest 
breadth  50  m. ;  area,  4,000  sq.  m.  Its  S.  end 
is  about  100  m.  E.  of  the  middle  of  Lake  Lado- 
ga, next  to  which  it  is  the  largest  body  of  fresh 
water  in  Europe.  The  N.  part  is  very  irregu- 
lar in  shape.  The  surface  is  dotted  with  isl- 
ands, the  shores  are  generally  rocky,  and  the 
water  is  clear.  Navigation  is  impeded  by 
shoals  and  sand  banks.  At  its  S.  W.  extrem- 
ity it  is  connected  with  Lake  Ladoga  by  the 
river  Svir ;  and  the  Murinskoi  canal  unites  its 
affluent  the  Vytegra  with  a  tributary  of  Lake 
Bielo,  the  outlet  of  which  flows  into  the  Volga-. 
It  is,  however,  unconnected  with  the  river 
Onega,  which  rises  in  Lake  Latcha,  on  the  S. 
border  of  Olonetz,  and  flows  through  Archangel 
into  Onega  bay,  an  inlet  of  the  White  sea. 

ONEIDA.  I.  A  central  county  of  New  York, 
drained  by  the  Mohawk  and  Black  rivers  and 
their  tributaries ;  area,  1,127  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in 
1870,  110,008.  Through  the  central  part  of 
the  county  a  broad  valley  extends  from  E.  to 
W.,  and  toward  the  north  and  south  the  sur- 
face is  broken  and  hilly.  The  soil  is  generally 


rich  and  very  fertile.  Oneida  lake  lies  on  the 
W.  border.  The  county  is  traversed  by  the 
Erie  and  Chenango  canals,  and  partly  by  the 
Black  River  and  the  Oneida  Lake  canals ;  and 
the  New  York  Central  and  other  railroads  in- 
tersect at  Rome  and  Utica.  The  chief  produc- 
tions in  1870  were  68,342  bushels  of  wheat, 
377,966  of  Indian  corn,  968,215  of  oats,  113,462 
of  barley,  45,764  of  buckwheat,  878,434  of 
potatoes,  3,651,127  Ibs.  of  butter,  1,228,459 
of  cheese,  100,456  of  wool,  57,908  of  maple 
sugar,  3,152,403  of  hops,  and  218,811  tons  of 
hay.  There  were  15,231  horses,  65,264  milch 
cows,  22,577  other  cattle,  25,812  sheep,  and 
19,085  swine ;  14  manufactories  of  agricultu- 
ral implements,  13  of  boats,  10  of  boots  and 
shoes,  11  of  brick,  53  of  carriages  and  wagons, 
86  of  cheese,  13  of  cotton  goods,  4  of  glass,  5 
of  hosiery,  27  of  iron  (including  23  of  castings), 
30  of  tanned  and  16  of  curried  leather,  26  of 
machinery,  10  of  woollen  goods,  2  distilleries, 
8  breweries,  30  flour  mills,  8  saw  mills,  and 
69  planing  mills.  Capitals,  Rome  and  Utica. 
II.  The  S.  E.  county  of  Idaho,  bounded  N.  by 
Montana,  E.  by  Wyoming,  and  S.  by  Utah ; 
area,  17,850  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870, 1,922.  It  is 
drained  by  the  head  waters  of  Snake  river  and 
by  Bear  river.  The  surface  in  portions  is  un- 
even and  mountainous,  but  there  are  rich  lands 
adapted  to  agriculture  in  the  river  bottoms. 
Bear  Lake  valley  in  the  S.  E.  part  is  settled 
chiefly  by  Mormons,  whoee  farms  are  well  cul- 
tivated and  stocked.  Capital,  Malade  City. 

ONEIDA,  a  lake  in  the  central  part  of  New 
York,  lying  between  Oswego,  Oneida,  Madison, 
and  Onondaga  counties,  at  an  elevation  of  369 
ft.  above  tide  water,  23  m.  long  and  4  to  7  m. 
wide.  It  forms  a  link  in  the  chain  of  internal 
navigable  waters  of  the  state,  and  its  outlet, 
Oneida  river,  after  a  course  of  16  m.,  falls  into 
the  Oswego  river.  It  abounds  in  fish. 

ONEIDA  COMMUNITY.  See  NOTES,  JOHN  HUM- 
PHREY. 

ONEIDAS,  a  tribe  of  American  Indians  form- 
ing part  of  the  Iroquois  confederacy.  They 
were  a  secondary  tribe  set  off  from  the  Mo- 
hawks. Their  territory  extended  from  Deep 
Spring,  near  Manlius,  Onondaga  co.,  N.  Y.,  to  a 
point  below  Utica,  Oneida  co.  Their  totem 
was  a  stone  in  a  forked  stick,  and  their  name 
meant  "  tribe  of  the  granite  rock."  They  had 
three  clans,  the  Wolf,  Bear,  and  Turtle,  and 
nine  sachemships.  Soon  after  the  settlement 
of  Canada  they  became  engaged  in  hostilities 
with  the  French  and  their  allies  the  Hurons 
and  Montagnais,  and  were  always  very  difficult 
to  manage.  With  the  Onondagas  they  made 
peace  with  Canada  in  1653,  and  received  mis- 
sionaries, who  continued  their  labors  at  inter- 
vals to  the  close  of  the  century.  They  then 
had  not  more  than  150  warriors,  having  been 
reduced  by  war  with  southern  tribes.  They 
joined  in  the  general  treaty  of  peace  with  the 
French,  Sept.  8,  1700;  but  in  all  subsequent 
wars  they  acted  on  the  English  side.  At  the 
revolution  they  alone  in  the  great  council  of 


630 


O'NEILL 


ONION 


the  confederacy  opposed  taking  sides  with 
the  English,  and  with  the  Tuscaroras  they  re- 
mained faithful  to  the  colonists.  They  were 
consequently  driven  from  their  homes,  their 
houses  and  church  were  burned,  and  their 
property  was  destroyed.  For  this  the  United 
States  made  compensation  by  treaty  of  Dec. 
2,  1794.  Previously  they  had  by  treaties  of 
June  28,  1785,  and  Sept.  22,  1788,  ceded  their 
lands  to  the  state  of  New  York,  reserving  a 
tract  which  was  not  to  be  sold  at  any  time,  or 
leased,  except  in  part.  The  Brotherton  and 
Stockbridge  Indians,  who  had  received  lands 
from  the  Oneidas,  were  to  retain  them.  Some 
then  emigrated  to  Canada  and  settled  on  the 
Thames;  and  a  large  band  in  August,  1821, 
purchased  a  tract  on  Green  bay.  The  three 
bands  have  advanced  in  agriculture  and  the 
mechanic  arts,  while  schools  and  churches 
have  fitted  them  for  the  duties  of  citizens.  In 
1873  there  were  266  Oneidas  in  New  York, 
chiefly  near  Oneida  Castle  on  the  state  reser- 
vation, with  two  schools ;  1,279  in  Wisconsin, 
on  a  reservation  of  65,000  acres,  with  240  out 
of  400  children  in  their  two  schools,  very  little 
intemperance,  and  many  well  cultivated  farms ; 
and  633  on  the  Thames  in  the  province  of  On- 
tario; making  in  all  2,178,  many  more  than 
the  tribe  could  boast  at  any  previous  time  since 
its  first  intercourse  with  the  whites. 

O'NEILL,  Eliza,  an  English  actress,  born  in 
Ireland  about  1795,  died  at  her  country  seat, 
Bally giblin,  near  Mallow,  Oct.  29,  1872.  Her 
father  was  a  strolling  comedian,  and  she  was 
educated  for  the  stage.  She  succeeded  on  her 
first  appearance  as  the  duke  of  York  in  "  Rich- 
ard III.,"  and  acquired  great  popularity  in  Lon- 
don as  Juliet,  and  in  similar  characters.  In 
the  height  of  her  fame  she  married  in  1819 
William  Wrixon  Becher,  M.  P.,  who  was  made 
a  baronet  in  1831  and  died  in  1,850. 

OXEIZA,  or  Aneiza,  a  city  of  Nedjed,  Arabia, 
situated  in  lower  Kasim,  about  250  m.  E.  N. 
E.  of  Medina;  pop.  in  1862,  about  25,000.  It 
is  surrounded  by  double  walls  of  brick,  the  in- 
ner range  encircling  the  town,  which  is  com- 
pactly built,  and  the  outer  circle,  with  towers 
and  moat,  protecting  the  gardens  and  palm 
groves  which  cover  the  intervening  space.  It 
was  for  centuries  the  capital  of  the  province 
of  Kasim  and  one  of  the  most  important  com- 
mercial centres  of  inner  Arabia ;  but  in  1862 
it  revolted  against  the  authority  of  the  Waha- 
bee  ruler  of  Nedjed,  and  after  a  long  siege 
was  carried  by  assault  in  the  spring  of  1863, 
when  many  of  its  inhabitants  were  massacred, 
and  the  best  part  of  it  was  destroyed. 

ONGARO.     See  DALL'  ONGARO,  FRANCESCO. 

ONION  (from  unio,  the  Latin  name  for  a  large 
kind  of  onion),  the  common  name  of  the  plant 
allium  cepa.  The  genus  allium  (the  ancient 
name  for  garlic)  includes,  besides  several  wild 
species,  the  cultivated  garlic,  leek,  shallot,  and 
chives.  It  belongs  to  the  lily  family,  and  is 
distinguished  from  related  genera  by  its  coated 
bulb,  a  naked  scape,  bearing  at  the  top  a  simple 


umbel  from  a  one-  or  two-leaved  spathe,  which 
soon  becomes  dry,  and  six-parted  flowers,  the 
divisions  of  which  are  white  or  colored  and 
one-nerved;  the  style  thread-like,  stigma  sim- 
ple, fruit  a  three-lobed,  three-celled  pod,  with 
one  or  few  seeds  in  each  cell.  All  species  have 
the  pungent  taste  and  odor  known  as  alliaceous. 
The  leaves  in  the  onion  (A.  cepa)  are  cylin- 
drical, hollow,  and  shorter  than  the  inflated 
flower  stalk,  and  the  flowers  white ;  in  this, 
as  in  some  other  species,  small  bulblets  are 
sometimes  produced  in  place  of  the  flowers. 
Its  native  country  is  supposed  to  be  western 
Asia,  probably  between  Palestine  and  India; 
species  so  nearly  related  that  they  have  been 
taken  for  A.  cepa  are  found  in  Siberia,  The 
onion  was  among  the  earliest  cultivated  vege- 
tables, and  in  Egypt  was  a  sort  of  divinity. 
The  plant  is  a  biennial,  forming  a  bulb  the  first 
season  from  the  seed,  and  the  next  year  throw- 
ing up  its  flower  stalk,  producing  seed,  and 
perishing ;  but  there  are  deviations  from  this, 


Potato  or  Multiplier  Onions. 

and  there  are  two  distinct  races  which  repro- 
duce differently.  The  potato  onions,  also  called 
multipliers,  do  not  produce  seed  or  even  flowers, 
but  form  a  great  number  of  small  bulbs ;  one 
of  these,  the  size  of  a  walnut  or  smaller,  plant- 
ed in  the  spring,  will  grow  to  a  large  bulb, 
which  if  set  out  the  next  spring  will  produce 
numerous  small  bulbs  of  different  sizes.  An- 
other race  is  the  top  or  tree  onion,  which 
instead  of  flowers  produces  at  the  end  of  the 
stalk  a  cluster  of  small  bulbs  or  onions  about 
the  size  of  a  filbert ;  these  when  planted  will 
grow  to  a  good  size,  and  if  the  bulbs  thus  ob- 
tained are  set  out  the  next  spring,  they  will 
produce  a  crop  of  small  bulbs.  Neither  of 
these  sorts  is  much  cultivated  except  in  pri- 
vate gardens,  but  the  great  supply  is  furnished 
by  the  ordinary  seed-bearing  kind.  In  most 
northern  localities  the  seed  is  sown  in  spring 
and  the  bulbs  mature  in  early  autumn ;  south 
of  New  York  the  development  of  the  bulbs  is 
arrested  by  dry  weather,  and  without  irriga- 
tion the  crop  will  usually  fail ;  in  such  locali- 
ties onions  are  raised  from  sets,  small  bulbs  of 
the  size  of  a  pea  or  larger  grown  the  season 


ONION 

before ;  the  seed  is  sown  very  thickly  in  rather 
poor  soil,  and  the  bulbs  ripen  when  very  small ; 
these  sets  are  kept  until  spring,  and  planted, 
instead  of  seed.  In  localities  where  the  win- 


ONONDAGA 


631 


Top  Onions,  Natural  Size. 

ter  will  allow,  the  seed  is  sown  in  August,  and 
the  young  plants,  left  in  the  ground  all  winter, 
start  early  the  following  spring.  In  parts  of 
Hartford  co.,  Conn.,  Orange  co.,  N.  Y.,  Rhode 
Island,  and  in  some  localities  of  Iowa  and  other 
western  states,  onions  are  the  staple  product. 
They  can  be  grown  upon  the  same  ground 
year  after  year  without  deterioration,  and  there 
are  cases  in  which  the  same  land  has  produ- 
ced onions  continuously  for  half  a  century  or 
more.  High  manuring  is  required.  The  seed 
(always  of  the  previous  year)  is  sown  by  a 
machine  in  drills  about  15  in.  apart  as  early 
as  possible ;  as  soon  as  the  plants  appear  weed- 
ing is  begun,  and  it  is  continued  unremittingly 
as  long  as  there  is  need  of  it.  The  maturity 
of  the  bulbs  is  shown  by  the  falling  over  of 
the  tops;  some  plants  will  not  form  good 
bulbs,  or  "bottom  out,"  but  remain  with  a 
thick  stem  like  a  leek,  and  are  known  as  seal- 
lions.  The  onions  are  pulled,  and  allowed  to 
cure  in  the  sun  a  few  days.  In  storing  for  the 
winter  they  must  not  be  in  quantities  large 
enough  to  heat ;  freezing  does  not  injure  them 
if  they  thaw  gradually.  Seed  is  raised  by  set- 
ting out  well  kept  selected  bulbs  in  rich  ground, 
giving  support  to  the  flower  stalks  by  means 
of  stakes  and  strings,  and  gathering  before  the 
seed  shells  out.  The  varieties  are  numerous, 
though  there  are  but  few  which  are  regarded 
as  standard ;  there  are  red,  yellow,  and  white- 
skinned  onions,  and  of  each  of  these  flat,  globu- 
lar, and  oval  forms;  the  Weathersfield  red, 
yellow  Danvers,  and  white  Portugal  or  silver- 
skin  are  the  most  grown.  Italy,  Spain,  Mex- 
ico, and  California  are  noted  for  the  great  size 
and  fine  quality  of  their  onions,  but  the  supe- 
riority is  due  to  soil  and  climate  rather  than 
to  the  variety.  The  great  enemy  to  the  crop 
is  a  maggot,  the  larva  of  anthomyia  ceparum, 


a  small  fly,  known  as  the  onion  fly  ;  it  lays  its 
eggs  on  the  small  plants  near  the  ground,  and 
the^  maggot  finds  its  way  to  the  forming  bulb, 
which  it  feeds  upon  and  kills ;  no  practicable 
remedy  has  been  found  for  this,  or  for  a  smut 
which  sometimes  appears  on  the  young  plants. 
The  odor  of  onions  is  due  to  a  volatile  oil  simi- 
lar to  if  not  identical  with  that  of  garlic,  and 
their  physiological  effects  are  similar,  but  mild- 
er ;  they  are  largely  used  as  seasoning,  and  are 
eaten  both  raw  and  cooked ;  boiling  dissipates 
much  of  the  oil.— The  so-called  Welsh  onion 
is  curiously  misnamed,  as  the  plant  (allium 
fistulosum)  is  a  native  of  Russia,  where  it  is 
known  as  the  rock  onion.  It  does  not  form  a 
bulb,  but  produces  numerous  coated  stems  much 
like  small  leeks ;  it  is  little  cultivated  in  this 
country,  but  is  useful  in  high  latitudes  where 
the  common  onion  cannot  be  grown.  The 
French,  who  call  it  ciboule,  have  a  red  and  a 
white  variety. — Gives  or  chives  (A.  scJicenopra- 
sum),  the  smallest  of  the  genus  in  cultivation, 
is  found  on  the  shores  of  Lakes  Huron  and  Su- 
perior and  northward  ;  it  has  small  oval  bulbs 
not  over  half  an  inch  in  diameter,  numerous 
small  cylindrical  leaves  about  8  in.  long,  and 
clusters  of  purplish,  not  inelegant  flowers ;  it 
rarely  matures  seeds,  but  the  bulbs  are  pro- 


Cives  (Allium  schoenoprasmn). 

duced  by  offsets  in  great  numbers,  and  form 
dense  clumps  several  inches  in  diameter ;  it  is 
propagated  by  dividing  the  clumps.  The  leaves 
are  used,  cut  when  young  and  tender. 

ONLAF.     See  AULAF. 

ONOBTDAGA,  a  central  county  of  New  York, 
bounded  N.  E.  by  Oneida  lake,  and  watered  by 
the  Oswego,  Seneca,  arid  Oneida  rivers,  and 
various  creeks;  area,  812  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870, 
104,183.  Its  surface  is  hilly  but  not  broken  in 
the  south  and  level  in  the  north,  and  the  soil  is 
remarkably  fertile.  It  contains  several  lakes, 
of  which  the  principal  are  Onondaga,  Cross, 
Skaneateles,  and  Otisco.  The  Onondaga  salt 
springs  are  in  the  valley  of  Onondaga  lake,  and 


632 


ONONDAGAS 


ONTAKIO 


yield  large  quantities  of  salt,  the  value  in  1870 
being  $1,017,569.  The  Erie  canal  traverses 
the  county,  connecting  at  Syracuse  with  the 
Oswego  canal,  which  extends  to  Lake  Ontario. 
The  New  York  Central  railroad  passes  through 
Syracuse,  from  which  various  branches  radiate. 
The  chief  productions  in  1870  were  573,183 
bushels  of  wheat,  566,558  of  Indian  corn, 
1,119,263  of  oats,  541,770  of  barley,  51,249  of 
buckwheat,  589,816  of  potatoes,  2,375,577  Ibs. 
of  butter,  821,562  of  cheese,  339,740  of  wool, 
1,257,603  of  tobacco,  233,399  of  hops,  56,505 
of  flax,  and  118,629  tons  of  hay.  There  were 
15,162  horses,  29,394  milch  cows,  17,835  other 
cattle,  63,265  sheep,  and  16,826  swine ;  and 
numerous  manufacturing  establishments,  of 
which  the  principal  were  14  of  agricultural 
implements,  17  of  brick,  50  of  carriages  and 
wagons,  27  of  cheese,  69  of  cooperage,  2  of 
edge  tools  and  axes,  7  of  hardware,  18  of  iron 
in  various  forms,  12  of  machinery,  7  of  musi- 
cal instruments,  11  of  paper,  20  of  plaster 
work,  96  of  salt,  31  of  tobacco  and  cigars,  7 
of  woollen  goods,  32  flour  mills,  and  34  saw 
mills.  Capital,  Syracuse. 

ONONDAGAS  ("Men  of  the  Mountain"),  one 
of  the  five  Iroquois  tribes  in  the  state  of  New 
York.  They  were  the  head  of  the  confederacy, 
the  atotarho,  its  great  sachem,  being  the  first 
of  the  14  sachems  of  these  tribes.  The  coun- 
cils of  the  confederacy  were  held  at  Onon- 
daga,  and  the  wampum  belts  or  records  of 
treaties  were  here  preserved.  Their  territory 
extended  from  Deep  Spring  near  Manlius, 
Onondaga  co.,  W.  to  a  line  between  Cross  and 
Otter  lakes.  The  Onondagas  were  early  at 
war  with  the  Hurons,  Montagnais,  and  Algon- 
quins  of  Canada,  and  later  with  the  French. 
They  took  a  prominent  part  in  the  destruc- 
tion of  the  Hurons  and  Neuters.  Finding  the 
Eries  and  Susquehannas  less  easy  to  subdue, 
they  made  peace  with  the  French  in  1653  and 
solicited  missionaries.  A  French  settlement 
was  formed  among  them  at  Ganantaa  in  1657, 
but  was  abandoned  the  next  year  in  conse- 
quence of  a  plot  for  the  massacre  of  the  set- 
tlers. Garakonthie,  an  Onondaga  chief,  for 
many  years  labored  to  effect  a  lasting  peace 
with  the  French.  In  1662  a  large  Onondaga 
force  ravaged  Montreal  island  and  killed 
Lambert  Closse,  the  greatest  Indian  fighter  of 
Canadian  annals.  After  De  Tracy's  Mohawk 
campaigns  they  made  peace,  and  in  1668  the 
French  mission  was  reestablished.  England 
was  now  extending  her  influence,  and  Onon- 
daga became  the  centre  of  the  intrigues  of  the 
two  nations.  After  the  fall  of  James  II.  the 
Iroquois  were  won  to  the  English  side,  and  a 
fort  was  erected  at  Onondaga.  In  1696  Fron- 
tenac,  at  the  head  of  a  large  force,  invaded  the 
Onondaga  country,  and  the  Indians  retired  to 
the  woods  after  destroying  the  fort  and  their 
village.  French  envoys  were  sent  to  Onon- 
daga in  1700,  and  deputies  of  the  tribe  soon 
after  signed  the  general  treaty  of  peace  at 
Montreal.  In  1709  the  Onondagas  again  took 


up  the  hatchet  against  the  French,  and  the 
missionaries  finally  retired.  After  this  the 
Onondagas  generally  served  against  the  French, 
though  occasionally  neutral,  till  the  overthrow 
of  the  French  power.  At  the  outbreak  of  the 
American  revolution  a  council  was  held  at  On- 
ondaga, but  as  the  Oneidas  and  the  Tuscaroras 
opposed  their  joining  the  English  side,  each 
tribe  was  left  to  its  own  course ;  and  in  1777 
the  council  fire  at  Onondaga  was  formally  ex- 
tinguished. After  Van  Schaick's  expedition 
against  them,  they  joined  the  English.  The 
war  left  them  helpless.  On  Sept.  12,  1788, 
they  ceded  all  their  lands  to  the  state  of  New 
York,  except  a  reservation  specially  set  apart 
for  them,  and  a  small  annuity  was  promised 
them.  They  have  continued  to  hold  this  tract, 
a  part  having  embraced  Christianity,  while 
others  adhere  to  their  ancient  rites.  Schools 
are  maintained  on  the  reservation,  and  they 
have  improved  slowly.  Of  464  Onondagas, 
339  are  on  the  reservation,  the  rest  being  with 
the  Senecas  and  Tuscaroras.  Their  population 
has  not  increased  or  diminished  materially 
during  the  past  50  years.  In  the  province  of 
Ontario,  Canada,  there  are  410  Onondagas, 
making  the  whole  tribe  864.  Two  centuries 
ago  (1677)  they  were  able  to  raise  350  fight- 
ing men.  The  Onondaga  is  regarded  by  the 
Indians  themselves  as  the  noblest  and  purest 
of  the  Iroquois  dialects.  A  French  Onondaga 
dictionary,  from  a  manuscript  of  the  17th 
century,  was  published  at  New  York  in  1859. 

ONSLOW,  a  S.  E.  county  of  North  Carolina, 
bordering  on  the  Atlantic  ocean,  and  drained 
by  New  river ;  area,  about  700  sq.  m. ;  pop. 
in  1870,  7,569,  of  whom  2,396  were  colored. 
The  surface  is  level,  and  comprises  extensive 
swamps  and  sandy  pine  barrens.  The  soil  is 
productive.  The  chief  productions  in  1870 
were  117,420  bushels  of  Indian  corn,  31,385  of 
peas  and  beans,  62,186  of  sweet  potatoes,  881 
bales  of  cotton,  and  10,590  Ibs.  of  rice.  There 
were  469  horses,  323  mules  and  asses,  1,700 
milch  cows,  2,956  other  cattle,  1,849  sheep, 
and  8,786  swine ;  4  manufactories  of  tar  and 
turpentine,  and  7  flour  mills.  Capital,  Onslow 
Court  House. 

ONSLOW,  George,  a  French  composer,  born  in 
Clermont,  Auvergne,  July  27, 1784,  died  there, 
Oct.  3,  1853.  He  studied  music  under  Hull- 
mandel,  Dussek,  and  Cramer,  was  instructed 
in  harmony  by  Reicha,  and  devoted  himself 
to  composition.  His  life  was  passed  mainly 
upon  his  estate  in  Auvergne.  He  left  three 
operas.  UAlcade  de  la  Vega  was  brought  out 
at  the  Theatre  Feydeau  in  1824,  Le  colpor- 
teur in  1827,  and  Le  due  de  Guise  in  1837. 
Neither  these  nor  his  symphonies  were  suc- 
cessful, but  his  quartets  and  quintets  for 
stringed  instruments  were  more  popular.  He 
succeeded  Cherubini  as  a  member  of  the  acad- 
emy of  fine  arts.  Halevy  pronounced  his  eulo- 
gy before  this  body. 

ONTARIO,  a  W.  county  of  New  York,  drained 
by  the  Honeoye  outlet,  a  tributary  of  the 


ONTARIO 


633 


Genesee,  Canandaigua  outlet,  and  Mud  creek, 
tributaries  of  the  Clyde ;  area,  606  sq.  m. ; 
pop.  in  1870,  45,108.  Its  surface  is  hilly  and 
broken  toward  the  south,  undulating  toward 
the  north,  and  the  soil  is  generally  very  fer- 
tile. Several  beautiful  lakes  lie  in  the  county, 
among  which  are  Canandaigua,  Honeoye,  Ca- 
nadice,  and  Hemlock.  Seneca  lake  lies  partly 
on  the  E.  border.  The  New  York  Central  and 
the  Northern  Central  railroads  traverse  it. 
The  chief  productions  in  1870  were  863,558 
bushels  of  wheat,  727,661  of  Indian  corn,  898,- 
568  of  oats,  557,084  of  barley,  37,204  of  buck- 
wheat, 584,259  of  potatoes,  1,288,820  Ibs.  of 
butter,  96,493  of  cheese,  743,306  of  wool,  605,- 
910  of  hops,  and  78,499  tons  of  hay.  There 
were  13,324  horses,  11,789  milch  cows,  10,657 
other  cattle,  131,485  sheep,  and  12,076  swine; 
11  manufactories  of  agricultural  implements, 
9  of  brick,  27  of  carriages  and  wagons,  7  of 
iron  castings,  4  of  tanned  and  4  of  curried 
leather,  8  of  malt,  2  of  woollen  goods,  20  flour 
mills,  28  saw  mills,  4  planing  mills,  and  2  brew- 
eries. Capital,  Canandaigua. 

ONTARIO  (formerly  UPPER  CANADA  or  CAN- 
ADA WEST),  a  province  of  the  Dominion  of  Can- 
ada, situated  between  lat.  41°  30'  and  50°  30'  N., 
and  Ion.  74°  25'  and  90°  30'  W. ;  area,  according 
to  the  latest  and  most  trustworthy  estimates, 
107,780  sq.  m.  Commencing  at  the  W.  extrem- 
ity, it  is  bounded  N.  by  the  Northwest  territo- 
ries ;  N.  E.  by  the  province  of  Quebec,  from 
which  it  is  mostly  separated  by  the  Ottawa 
river ;  E.  by  the  portion  of  Quebec  between 
the  Ottawa  and  St.  Lawrence ;  S.  E.  by  the  St. 
Lawrence  river,  Lake  Ontario,  the  Niagara 
river,  and  Lake  Erie,  which  separate  it  from 
Quebec,  New  York,  Pennsylvania,  and  Ohio ; 
W.  by  the  Detroit  river,  Lake  St.  Clair,  the 
river  St.  Clair,  Lake  Hnron,  and  St.  Mary's 
river  or  strait,  which  separate  it  from  Michi- 
gan ;  W.  and  S.  by  Lake  Superior,  separating 
it  from  Michigan ;  S.  by  Pigeon  river,  separa- 
ting it  from  Minnesota ;  and  then  W.  by  the 
Northwest  territories.  It  consists  of  an  irreg- 
ular triangle,  of  which  the  sides  are  formed  by 
the  Ottawa  river  on  the  northeast,  the  St. 
Lawrence,  Lake  Ontario,  Niagara  river,  and 
Lake  Erie  on  the  southeast,  and  the  Detroit 
river,  Lake  St.  Clair,  the  river  St.  Clair,  Lake 
Huron,  French  river,  Lake  Nipissing,  and  the 
Matawan  river  on  the  northwest,  and  of  a 
strip,  varying  in  width  from  about  30  to  near- 
ly 200  m.,  stretching  W.  from  French  river 
along  the  N.  shores  of  Lakes  Huron  and  Supe- 
rior, and  comprising  an  area  of  about  45,000 
sq.  m.  The  N.  boundary,  formed  by  the  height 
of  land  that  divides  the  waters  flowing  into 
Hudson  bay  from  those  flowing  into  Lakes 
Huron  and  Superior,  is  irregular,  and  has  not 
been  surveyed.  From  the  E.  extremity  of  the 
province,  near  the  junction  of  the  Ottawa  and 
St.  Lawrence,  S.  W.  to  the  Detroit  river,  the 
distance  is  about  480  m.  From  the  former 
point 'N.  W.  around  the  shores  of  the  lakes  to 
Pigeon  river  it  is  about  900  m.  The  distance 


N.  and  S.  between  Lake  Ontario  and  Georgian 
bay  is  70  m. ;  E.  and  W.  between  Ontario  and 
Huron,  100  m. ;  N.  and  S.  between  Erie  and 
Huron,  50  m. ;  and  E.  and  W.  between  the  Ni- 
agara and  St.  Clair  rivers,  170  m.  The  prov- 
ince is  divided  for  municipal  and  judicial  pur- 
poses into  37  counties  or  unions  of  counties, 
and  5  judicial  districts,  viz. :  Algoma  (district), 
Brant,  Bruce,  Carleton,  Elgin,  Essex,  Fronte- 
nac,  Grey,  Haldimand,  Haliburton  (provisional), 
Halton,  Hastings,  Huron,  Kent,  Lambton,  La- 
nark, Leeds  and  Grenville,  Lennox  and  Ad- 
dington,  Lincoln,  Middlesex,  Muskoka  (district), 
Nipissing  (district),  Norfolk,  Northumberland 
and  Durham,  Ontario,  Oxford,  Parry  Sound 
(district),  Peel,  Perth,  Peterborough,  Prescott 
and  Russell,  Prince  Edward,  Renfrew,  Simcoe, 
Stormont,  Dundas,  and  Glengarry  (the  last 
three  united),  Thunder  Bay  (district),  Victoria, 
Waterloo,  Welland,  Wellington,  Wentworth, 
and  York.  Bothwell,  Cardwell,  and  Monck 
are  legislative  electoral  districts,  formed  from 
portions  of  counties.  The  cities  with  their 
number  of  inhabitants  in  1871  are  as  follows : 
Toronto,  the  capital  of  the  province,  56,092 ; 
Hamilton,  26,716;  Ottawa,  the  capital  of  the 
Dominion,  21,545  ;  London,  15,826 ;  and  King- 
ston, 12,407.  The  largest  towns  are  Brant- 
ford,  pop.  8,107;  St.  Catharines,  7,864;  Belle- 
ville, 7,305  ;  Guelph,  6,878  ;  Chatham,  5,873  ; 
Port  Hope,  5,114 ;  and  Brockville,  5,102.  Oth- 
er towns  and  villages  in  the  order  of  popula- 
tion, with  more  than  2,000  inhabitants  each, 
are  Peterborough,  Cobourg,  Stratford, Windsor, 
Lindsay,  Ingersoll,  Woodstock,  Goderich,  Gait, 
Barrie,  Owen  Sound,  Strathroy,  Oshawa,  Dun- 
das,  St.  Mary's,  Bowmanville,  Napanee,  Sarnia, 
Collingwood,  Whitby,  Petrolia,  Paris,  Prescott, 
Perth,  Picton,  Yorkville,  St.  Thomas,  Bramp- 
ton,  Almonte,  Cornwall,  Gananoque,  and  Clin- 
ton. Sault  Ste.  Marie  (pop.  879),  on  St.  Mary's 
strait,  is  the  principal  place  in  the  N.  W.  part 
of  the  province. — Ontario  is  the  most  populous 
province  in  the  Dominion,  and  its  growth  has 
been  very  rapid.  The  population  in  1791  was 
about  65,000.  According  to  subsequent  cen- 
suses, it  has  been  as  follows:  1821,  122,716; 
1830,  210,437;  1839,  407,515;  1848,  723,292; 
1851,  952,004;  1861,  1,396,091;  1871,  1,620,- 
851,  of  whom  1,131,334  were  born  in  the  prov- 
ince, 40,476  in  Quebec,  7,852  in  other  parts 
of  British  America,  124,062  in  England  and 
Wales,  153,000  in  Ireland,  90,807  in  Scotland, 
22,827  in  Germany,  and  43,406  in  the  United 
States.  Of  the  total,  559,442  were  of  Irish, 
439,429  of  English,  328,889  of  Scotch,  158,608 
of  German,  75,383  of  French,  19,992  of  Dutch, 
13,435  of  African,  and  5,282  of  Welsh  origin ; 
and  12,978  were  Indians  (chiefly  Iroquois  or 
Six  Nations,  with  some  Oneidas,  Munsees,  Wy- 
andots,  Ottawas,  Pottawattamies,  Mississaguas, 
Mohawks,  Ojibways,  &c.).  There  were  828,590 
males  and  792,261  females,  292,221  families, 
and  286,018  occupied  dwellings.  There  were 
57,379  persons  20  years  old  and  upward  (29,- 
406  males  and  27,973  females)  unable  to  read, 


ONTARIO 


and  93,220  (42,589  males  and  50,631  females) 
unable  to  write;  1,412  deaf  and  dumb  persons, 
1,009  blind,  and  4,081  of  unsound  mind.  Of 
the  463,424  persons  returned  as  engaged  in  oc- 
cupations, 228,708  belonged  to  the  agricultural 
class,  29,082  to  the  commercial,  26,805  to  the 
domestic,  93,871  to  the  industrial,  and  16,759 
to  the  prof essional ;  not  classified,  68,199.  The 
great  body  of  the  inhabitants  is  settled  in  the 
S.  and  S.  W.  portions  of  the  province.  The 
region  N.  of  Lakes  Huron  and  Superior  is  in- 
habited only  by  a  few  Indians,  except  at  some 
isolated  points.  Immigration  is  now  directed 
chiefly  to  the  district  between  the  Ottawa  river 
and  Georgian  bay,  where  free  grants  of  land 
are  offered  to  settlers.  The  number  of  immi- 
grants settling  in  the  province  in  1871  was 
25,842;  1872,  28,129;  1873,  39,184.— The  sur- 
face of  the  main  triangle  is  for  the  most  part 
gently  undulating.  A  ridge  of  high  land  en- 
ters the  province  at  Niagara  falls,  extending 
N.  W.  to  Hamilton,  and  thence  to  and  along 
the  peninsula  between  Lake  Huron  and  Geor- 
gian bay,  and  through  the  Manitoulin  islands. 
The  Laurentian  hills,  crossing  the  Ottawa  from 
Quebec,  about  25  m.  above  the  city  of  Ottawa, 
run  S.  to  the  St.  Lawrence  near  Kingston,  and 
thence  W.  to  the  S.  E.  extremity  of  Georgian 
bay.  They  then  continue  along  the  E.  shore 
of  the  bay  and  around  Lake  Superior,  near 
which  they  attain  a  height  of  2,100  ft.  The 
Blue  mountains  S.  of  Georgian  bay  attain  a 
height  of  1,900  ft.  above  Lake  Huron.  N.  of 
Lake  Huron  the  hills  occasionally  attain  an 
elevation  of  from  400  to  700  ft.  above  the  lake. 
The  surfaces  of  these  hills  are  generally  round- 
ed, but  occasionally  they  exhibit  rugged  escarp- 
ments with  surfaces  of  naked  rock.  The  slopes 
are  often  gentle,  and  the  valleys  wide.  The 
strip  of  country  N.  of  Lake  Superior  is  not 
well  known.  The  shore  of  that  lake  is  bold 
and  rugged,  the  cliffs  and  eminences  varying 
from  300  to  1,300  ft.  in  height.  The  land 
around  Lake  Nipigon  is  undulating  and  some- 
times hilly,  with  some  level  tracts. — The  prov- 
ince has  a  water  front  along  the  great  lakes 
and  their  connecting  waters  of  some  3,000  m., 
with  many  good  harbors.  By  means  of  canals 
around  the  falls  and  rapids  there  is  continuous 
navigation  from  the  head  of  Lake  Superior  to 
the  gulf  of  St.  Lawrence.  The  principal  bays 
are  the  bay  of  Quinte,  shut  in  from  Lake  On- 
tario near  its  E.  end  by  the  peninsula  of  Prince 
Edward,  and  Burlington  bay,  at  the  W.  ex- 
tremity of  the  same  lake ;  the  bay  formed  by 
Long  point  in  the  E.  part  of  Lake  Erie,  and 
Pigeon  bay,  at  its  W.  end ;  Georgian  bay,  en- 
closed from  Lake  Huron  by  the  peninsula  of 
Cabot's  head  and  Grand  Manitoulin  island  on 
the  west,  and  the  North  channel,  between  Grand 
Manitoulin,  Cockburn,  and  Drummond's  islands 
on  the  south,  and  the  mainland  of  the  province 
on  the  north  ;  Goulais  and  Batchewauning 
bays  near  the  outlet  of  Lake  Superior,  Michi- 
picoten  bay  further  N.,  and  Nipigon,  Black, 
and  Thunder  bays  at  the  N.  W.  extremity  of 


that  lake.  There  are  a  number  of  inlets  in 
Georgian  bay,  the  most  important  of  which  are 
Owen  sound  in  the  southwest,  Nottawasaga 
bay  at  the  S.  extremity,  Matchedash  bay  in  the 
southeast,  and  Parry  sound  on  the  E.  shore. 
The  most  important  islands  belonging  to  the 
province  are  a  part  of  the  Thousand  islands 
in  the  St.  Lawrence,  Wolfe  and  Amherst  isl- 
ands at  the  E.  extremity  of  Lake  Ontario, 
Long  Point  in  the  E.  and  Point  Pelee  in  the 
W.  part  of  Lake  Erie,  Walpole  island  at  the 
N.  E.  extremity  of  Lake  St.  Clair,  Grand 
Manitoulin  and  Cockburn  islands,  with  ad- 
jacent islets,  in  Lake  Huron,  St.  Joseph's  isl- 
and at  the  S.  entrance  of  St.  Mary's  strait, 
and  Caribou,  Michipicoten,  Pic,  Slate,  Simp- 
son's, St.  Ignace,  and  Pie  islands,  in  Lake 
Superior.  The  Ottawa  river  forms  the  boun- 
dary of  the  province  (below  Lake  Temiscamin- 
gue)  for  about  400  m.,  and  is  navigable  by 
steamers  in  the  lower  portion  for  about  250  m. 
Its  chief  tributaries  are  the  Montreal  river, 
which  enters  Lake  Temiscamingue  after  a  S.  E. 
course  of  120  m. ;  the  Matawan,  45  m.  long, 
the  outlet  of  several  lakes,  the  westernmost  of 
which  is  separated  only  by  a  few  miles  from 
Lake  Nipissing ;  the  Petawawa,  160  m.  long, 
which  enters  the  Ottawa  about  220  m.  above 
its  mouth;  the  Bonnechere,  110  m.  long,  50 
m.  above  the  city  of  Ottawa ;  the  Madawaska, 
250  m.  long,  some  miles  lower  down ;  below 
this  the  Mississippi,  100  m.  long ;  the  Rideau, 
which  enters  the  main  stream  at  Ottawa  ;  and 
the  South  Petite  Nation,  100  m.  long,  below 
that  city.  The  principal  river  emptying  into 
Lake  Ontario  is  the  Trent  (called  above  Rice 
lake  the  Otonabee),  which  after  a  tortuous 
course  enters  the  bay  of  Quinte ;  it  is  navi- 
gable for  a  considerable  distance  by  steam- 
ers. Grand  river  empties  into  the  E.  end  of 
Lake  Erie,  after  a  S.  E.  course  of  about  130 
m.,  70  m.  of  which  are  navigable  by  small 
craft.  The  Thames  (navigable  to  Chatham, 
18  m.)  discharges  into  Lake  St.  Clair  after 
a  S.  W.  course  of  160  m.  The  principal 
streams  that  discharge  direct  into  Lake  Huron 
are  the  Maitland  and  Saugeen.  The  chief  af- 
fluents of  Georgian  bay  are  the  Nottawasaga 
river,  emptying  into  the  bay  of  the  same  name ; 
the  Severn,  discharging  at  the  S.  E.  extremity 
of  Matchedash  bay ;  the  Muskoka,  a  few  miles 
N. ;  the  Maganetawan,  100  m.  long,  N.  of  this; 
and  French  river,  at  the  N.  end  of  the  main 
bay.  French  river  is  50  or  60  m.  long,  and 
discharges  the  waters  of  Lake  Nipissing;  it 
has  several  mouths,  and  is  little  else  than  a 
continuous  chain  of  long  narrow  lakes,  con- 
nected by  rapids  or  falls.  N.  of  French  river 
are  successively  the  Wahnapitae  and  White 
Fish  rivers,  the  former  the  outlet  of  Wahnapi- 
taeping  lake ;  and  beyond  these,  and  emptying 
into  the  North  channel,  are  Spanish,  Serpent, 
Mississagui,  and  Thessalon  rivers,  the  last  near 
the  entrance  of  St.  Mary's  strait.  Spanish  river 
is  navigable  by  small  craft  for  35  m.  •  Lake 
Superior  receives  among  other  streams  the 


ONTARIO 


635 


Michipicoten,  emptying  into  the  bay  of  the 
same  name ;  the  Pic,  into  the  N.  E.  extremity 
of  the  lake ;  the  Nipigon,  into  Nipigon  bay ; 
the  Black  Sturgeon,  into  Black  bay ;  and  the 
Kaministiquia,  into  Thunder  bay.  The  prin- 
cipal falls  are  those  of  Niagara,  the  Chaudiere 
falls  in  the  Ottawa  just  above  the  city  of  Ot- 
tawa, and  the  falls  of  Kakabika  or  Cleft  Rock 
in  the  Kaministiquia,  about  30  m.  above  its 
mouth.  The  Kaministiquia  here  contracts  to 
the  width  of  about  50  yards,  and  is  precipitated 
down  a  perpendicular  precipice  more  than  130 
ft.  high  into  a  deep  chasm.  The  river  banks 
for  nearly  half  a  mile  below  rise  perpendicu- 
larly, and  in  many  places  overhang  their  bases. 
For  about  20  m.  below  the  falls  the  river 
forms  a  continued  rapid.  There  are  numerous 
lakes.  From  Lake  Ontario  N.  between  the 
Ottawa  and  Georgian  bay,  and  thence  around 
Lake  Superior,  the  country  is  studded  with 
them,  most  of  the  streams  consisting  of  little 
else  than  chains  of  lakes.  Just  N.  of  Lake 
Ontario,  in  Peterborough  and  Victoria  cos.,  is 
a  series  of  them,  which  discharge  through  the 
river  Trent.  The  largest  lakes  of  the  province 
are  Simcoe,  30  by  18  m.,  S.  E.  of  Georgian 
bay,  into  which  it  discharges  through  the  Sev- 
ern river ;  Muskoka,  15  by  8  m.,  N.  of  Simcoe 
and  discharging  through  the  Muskoka  river; 
Nipissing,  50  by  15  m. ;  and  Nipigon,  TO  by 
50  m.,  discharging  through  the  river  and  bay 
of  the  same  name  into  the  N.  extremity  of  Lake 
Superior.  The  watershed  of  Nipigon  lake  forms 
the  N.  extremity  of  the  province.  Lake  Te- 
miscamingue,  on  the  Quebec  border  (about  lat. 
47°  30',  Ion.  79°  SO*),  is  an  expansion  of  the 
Ottawa  river,  at  the  point  where  it  changes 
from  a  W.  to  a  S.  E.  course. — The  geological 
formations  that  occur  in  the  province  are  the 
Laurentian,  Huronian,  Silurian,  and  Devonian. 
The  region  N.  of  Lakes  Huron  and  Superior 
is  mostly  occupied  by  the  lower  Laurentian. 
The  shore  and  islands  of  the  latter,  however, 
from  Pigeon  river  E.  to  Nipigon  bay,  consist 
of  the  Quebec  group  of  the  lower  Silurian, 
while  an  area  of  the  Huronian  occurs  in  the 
N.  E.  angle  of  Lake  Superior.  A  belt  of  the 
Huronian  also  stretches  along  the  North  chan- 
nel from  St.  Mary's  strait  to  the  N.  extremity 
of  Georgian  bay,  whence  it  runs  N.  E.  to  Lake 
Temiscamingue.  S.  E.  of  this  belt  the  region 
between  the  Ottawa  river  and  Georgian  bay 
is  occupied  by  the  lower  Laurentian,  which 
extends  to  the  St.  Lawrence  at  the  Thousand 
islands.  The  E.  extremity  of  the  province  is 
occupied  by  the  Quebec  and  Trenton  groups 
of  the  lower  Silurian,  which  are  separated  from 
the  lower  Laurentian  on  the  west  by  an  irregu- 
lar line  drawn  from  the  St.  Lawrence  below 
the  Thousand  islands  to  the  Ottawa  about  25 
m.  above  Ottawa  city.  The  S.  W.  limit  of  the 
lower  Laurentian  is  a  line  from  Kingston  to 
the  head  of  Matchedash  bay.  The  country  S. 
and  W.  of  this  line  is  occupied  in  succession 
by  belts  of  the  lower,  middle,  and  upper  Silu- 
rian formations,  and  of  the  Devonian.  These 


belts  have  a  general  E.  and  "W".  t»r  S.  E.  and 
N.  W.  direction.  The  middle  Silurian  extends 
through  the  peninsula  of  Cabot's  head  and  the 
Manitoulin  islands,  in  which  the  lower  Silu- 
rian also  appears.  The  mineral  wealth  of  On- 
tario has  been  but  little  developed.  Iron  is 
found  in  large  quantities  in  the  region  between 
Georgian  bay  and  the  Ottawa,  a  short  distance 
back  from  Lake  Ontario ;  and  in  the  same  dis- 
trict occur  copper,  lead,  plumbago,  antimony, 
arsenic,  manganese,  heavy  spar,  calc  spar,  gyp- 
sum, marble,  and  building  stone.  Gold  has 
been  found  here,  but  not  in  paying  quantities, 
and  mica  is  profitably  worked.  Building  stones 
also  occur  in  the  S.  W.  part  of  the  province, 
where  there  are  apparently  inexhaustible  pe- 
troleum wells.  There  are  productive  salt  wells 
on  the  E.  shore  of  Lake  Huron  S.  of  Georgian 
bay.  Large  beds  of  peat  exist  in  various  local- 
ities, and  two  companies  are  engaged  in  its 
manufacture  into  fuel.  Apatite  or  phosphate 
of  lime  is  obtained  in  considerable  quantities 
in  the  E.  part  of  the  province.  Iron  mines 
have  been  opened  in  several  places,  the  prin- 
cipal of  which  are  at  Marmora  in  Hastings  co., 
yielding  from  20,000  to  30,000  tons  of  ore  an- 
nually. Gold  mines  have  been  opened  at  Mar- 
mora, but  have  not  yet  been  profitably  worked. 
N.  of  Lake  Huron,  near  the  entrance  of  St. 
Mary's  strait,  are  the  Bruce  copper  mines ;  the 
ore  yields  19  per  cent,  of  copper.  The  pro- 
duct of  ore  for  four  years  has  been  as  follows  : 

1869,  2,180  tons;   1870,  1,945;    1871,   1,852; 
1872,  1,214,  besides  243  tons  of  copper  pre- 
cipitate yielding  64  per  cent,  of  copper.    Silver 
is  found  on  the  shores  of  Lake  Superior,  par- 
ticularly in  the  vicinity  of  Thunder  bay,  Silver 
islet  in  that  bay  containing  one  of  the  richest 
veins  of  the  metal  ever  discovered.    Mining 
operations  were  commenced  on  the  islet  about 

1870,  and  the  yield  to  the  close  of  navigation 
in  1872  was  $1,232,438  79,  of  which  $648,132  01 
was  produced  in  1871  and  $469,038  20  in  1872. 
The  quantity  of  petroleum  produced  during 
the  three  years  ending  June  30,  1873,  was  as 
follows : 


YEARS. 

Number 
of  refiners. 

Crude  oil  used, 
gallons. 

Refined  oil  pro- 
duced, gallons. 

1871 

50 

17,711,513 

11,628,429 

1872  

45 

19,682,181 

12,209,182 

1873.  . 

38 

25,078,725 

14,520,196 

— The  climate  is  healthy.  The  winters  arc 
cold,  and  the  heat  in  summer  is  occasionally 
severe.  The  S.  W.  portion  has  the  mildest 
climate,  while  in  the  region  N.  of  Lakes  Huron 
and  Superior  the  summers  are  short  and  the 
winters  long  and  severe.  The  following  table 
gives  the  most  important  results  of  meteorolo- 
gical observations  for  33  years  at  Toronto  (lat. 
43°  39'),  and  for  different  periods  at  Windsor 
(lat.  42°  20')  on  the  Detroit  river,  at  Pembroke 
(lat.  45°  50')  on  the  Ottawa,  at  Little  Current 
(lat.  46°)  on  Grand  Manitoulin  island,  and  at 
Fort  William  (lat.  48°  23')  on  Thunder  bay : 


636 


ONTARIO 


LOCALITY. 

AVERAGE  MEAN  TEMPERATURE. 

Highest 
temperature. 

Lowest 
temperature. 

Average  an- 
nual   precipita- 
tion of  rain  and 
melted  inow. 

Year. 

Autumn. 

Winter. 

Spring. 

Summer. 

47-3° 
44-1 
40-5 
39-6 
85-7 

49-4" 
46-8 
43-6 
44-5 
87-8 

24-8° 
16-8 
15-5 
13-5 
10'7 

44-7° 

40-7 
88-8 
35-0 
84-3 

70-2° 
65-1 
67-5 
65-5 
59-9 

98-8° 
99-2 
99'9 

88-9 

—  21° 

rS» 

—  85 

31  -72  in. 
36-09  " 

28-38  " 
29-37  " 
39-40  " 

Little  Current          n       

Fort  William 

— Agriculture  is  the  chief  occupation  of  the  in- 
habitants. The  soil  varies  in  different  localities, 
a  large  proportion  being  of  excellent  quality. 
The  S.  W.  peninsula  has  been  justly  regarded 
as  the  garden  of  Canada,  the  influence  of  the 
surrounding  bodies  of  water  harmonizing  with 
the  natural  richness  of  the  soil.  Wheat  is  the 
staple  crop  of  the  province,  and  large  quantities 
are  produced.  Oats,  barley,  rye,  potatoes,  tur- 
nips, and  Indian  corn  are  also  grown,  but  the 
last  is  not  profitably  cultivated,  except  in  the 
S.  and  S.  W.  parts,  the  climate  elsewhere  being 
too  cold.  In  the  southwest  the  peach  ripens 
and  grows  well,  and  the  apple  orchards  of  this 
district  are  very  productive.  Pears,  plums, 
grapes,  cherries,  and  various  kinds  of  berries 
thrive.  The  extensive  district  lying  between 
the  Ottawa  river  and  Georgian  bay  contains 
large  tracts  of  fertile  land,  and  produces  a  great 
variety  of  timber.  This  district  has  been  dis- 
tinguished into  white  pine  and  red  pine  and 
hard  wood  countries,  owing  to  the  prevalence 
in  different  places  of  those  different  descrip- 
tions of  timber.  The  white  pine  country  lies 
to  the  east,  and  the  red  pine  immediately  W. 
of  it.  The  soil  of  the  red  pine  country  is  sandy 
and  poor,  gravelly  or  stony,  with  a  rugged,  un- 
even, and  rocky  surface.  The  other  division 
contains  a  mixture  of  good  and  tolerable  land, 
generally  fit  for  agricultural  purposes.  Except- 
ing where  tracts  of  hard  wood  land  occur  at 
intervals,  the  red  pine  country  is  pronounced, 
on  official  authority,  unfit  for  settlement.  W. 
of  these  two  divisions  lies  the  hard  wood  coun- 
try. Among  the  timber  which  gives  its  name 
to  this  section  are  interspersed  belts  of  red 
pine,  the  white  having  totally  disappeared. 
This  strip  extends  W.  at  one  point  75  m.,  and 
has  a  length  of  130  m.  from  S.  E.  to  N".  W. 
Between  this  strip  and  Georgian  bay  lies  a  belt 
from  20  to  30  m.  in  breadth  of  barren  soil, 
frequently  terminating  in  naked  rock  near  the 
shores  of  the  bay.  To  the  south,  near  the  ridge 
dividing  the  waters  of  the  Ottawa  from  those 
which  flow  directly  into  the  St.  Lawrence,  belts 
of  poor,  rugged,  stony  land,  about  20  m.  in 
width  and  unfit  for  settlement,  occur.  N.  and 
W.  of  Lake  Nipissing  the  land  is  good,  but  on 
the  French  river  it  is  rocky  and  barren.  In 
the  district  between  the  Ottawa  and  Georgian 
bay  lumbering  is  extensively  carried  on.  In 
the  westernmost  section  of  the  province,  N.  of 
Lakes  Huron  and  Superior,  the  timber,  consist- 
ing chiefly  of  spruce,  balsam  fir,  white  birch, 
poplar,  and  cedar,  is  generally  of  little  com- 
mercial value.  Some  of  the  higher  points  are 


bare  of  trees,  and  the  land  available  for  agri- 
cultural purposes  is  chiefly  confined  to  the  flats 
and  valleys  at  the  mouths  of  the  streams.  Be- 
tween the  Batchewauning  and  Goulais  bays 
and  the  Missisagui  river,  in  the  rear  of  the  vil- 
lage of  Sault  Ste.  Marie,  the  country  is  fine, 
producing  hard  wood  on  the  ridges,  and  pre- 
senting in  the  broad,  alternating  flats  a  deep 
alluvial  soil.  Among  the  hard  wood  there  is 
a  sufficiency  of  white  pine  for  building  pur- 
poses; the  flats  are  principally  covered  with 
cedar,  tamarack,  ash,  elm,  soft  maple,  and  birch, 
except  where  small  prairies,  bearing  a  luxuriant 
growth  of  grass,  intervene.  The  whole  coun- 
try, where  it  has  been  surveyed  and  explored, 
from  Lake  Superior  to  Lake  Nipissing,  presents, 
among  the  rugged  and  broken  portions  that 
intervene,  many  extensive  valleys  of  excellent 
land,  well  adapted  for  settlement.  And  even 
in  the  more  rugged  and  less  prolific  portions 
groves  of  fine  pine  timber  are  frequently  met, 
and  indications  of  mineral  wealth  present 
themselves.  The  valley  of  the  Spanish  river 
presents  important  facilities  for  settlement,  all 
the  land  being  of  good  quality  or  bearing  a 
rich  crop  of  excellent  pine.  In  the  region  N". 
of  Lake  Superior  it  is  believed  that  oats,  bar- 
ley, hay,  potatoes,  the  ordinary  vegetables,  and 
in  places  wheat,  may  be  successfully  cultivated. 
In  the  vicinity  of  Lake  Nipigon  there  is  much 
good  land,  and  the  climate  appears  to  be  as 
well  suited  to  agriculture  as  that  of  the  greater 
part  of  the  province  of  Quebec.  The  timber 
here  consists  chiefly  of  white  spruce,  white 
birch,  aspen,  poplar,  balsam  fir,  tamarack,  and 
white  cedar,  with  occasional  trees  of  black  ash, 
gray  elm,  and  white  pine. — The  wild  animals, 
except  the  smaller  species,  have  mostly  disap- 
peared in  the  S.  portions  of  the  province. 
Domestic  animals,  horses,  cattle,  sheep,  and 
swine,  are  extensively  raised.  In  the  north  and 
west  fur-bearing  animals  are  still  trapped  by 
the  Indians,  and  the  Hudson  Bay  company  has 
several  posts  there.  The  great  lakes,  as  well 
as  many  of  the  smaller  ones  and  many  of  the 
streams,  abound  in  fish.  The  value  of  the 
catch  for  the  year  ending  June  30,  1874,  was 
$446,267  50,  consisting  chiefly  of  whitefish,  with 
some  trout,  herring,  and  other  species.  Fourteen 
vessels,  804  boats,  and  2,195  men  were  em- 
ployed.— Water  power  is  abundant,  but  manu- 
factures, though  increasing,  are  yet  compara- 
tively undeveloped,  while  many  of  the  estab- 
lishments already  in  operation  use  steam  power. 
The  principal  articles  manufactured  are  cotton 
and  woollen  goods,  linen,  furniture,  lumber, 


ONTARIO 


637 


hardware,  paper,  soap,  starch,  hats  and  caps, 
boots  and  shoes,  leather,  steam  engines,  sew- 
ing machines,  &c.  (For  industrial  statistics,  see 
APPENDIX  to  this  volume.) — The  value  of  ex- 
ports to  foreign  countries  for  the  year  ending 
June  30,  1874,  was  $25,157,087,  viz.:  produce 
of  mines,  $1,135,418;  of  the  fisheries,  $78,- 
597;  of  the  forest,  $7,322,811;  animals  and 
their  products,  $4,742,020;  agricultural  prod- 
uce, $7,573,157;  manufactures,  $528,451;  the 
rest  miscellaneous,  including  goods  not  the 
produce  of  Canada.  Of  the  whole  amount, 
$2,132,786  was  to  Great  Britain  and  $19,728,- 
081  to  the  United  States.  The  value  of  imports 
from  foreign  countries  for  the  same  period  was 
$49,443,977;  of  goods  entered  for  home  con- 
sumption, $48,476,357,  of  which  $15,386,224 
was  from  Great  Britain  and  $31,694,999  from 
the  United  States.  The  principal  items  of  im- 


port are  sugar,  tea,  coal,  Indian  corn,  wheat, 
hogs,  iron  and  iron  manufactures,  locomotives 
and  railroad  cars,  cottons,  woollens,  fancy 
goods,  and  other  manufactured  articles.  The 
number  of  entrances  from  the  United  States 
(with  which  country  alone  the  direct  foreign 
commerce  is  carried  on)  for  the  above  men- 
tioned year  was  13,753,  with  an  aggregate  ton- 
nage of  2,516,927;  clearances  for  the  United 
States,  13,979,  tonnage  2,325,717;  built  during 
the  year,  77  vessels,  tonnage  15,478.  The 
number  of  vessels  belonging  in  the  province  at 
the  close  of  1873  was  681,  with  an  aggregate 
tonnage  of  89,111.— The  railroad  system  of 
the  province  has  been  rapidly  extended  during 
the  past  ten  years,  and  now  connects  the  prin- 
cipal points  with  each  other,  and  with  the 
United  States  and  the  province  of  Quebec.  In 
1874  there  were  2,404  m.  of  railway,  as  follows : 


LINES. 

TERMINI. 

Miles  in 
operation   in 
the  prov- 
ince. 

From 

To 

Brockville  and  Ottawa  

Brockville  . 

Carleton  Place 

47 
12 
71 
229 
81 
14 
458 
28 
158 
229 
89 
50 

122& 
6 
8 
9 
81 

18 
24 
8T 
22- 
115 
23 
54 

88 
122 
74 
25 
129 
66# 
19 

Perth  branch  

Smith's  Falls  

Perth 

Canada  Central  

Ottawa  

Canada  Southern  

Victoria  .     . 

Erie  and  Niagara  branch  

Niagara  

Fort  Erie 

Cobourg,  Peterborough,  and  Marmora  
Grand  Trunk  (W.  division)  .     . 

Cobourg  .  . 

Montreal,  Quebec 

Detroit,  Mich  (564  m  ) 

London  branch  

St.  Mary's  

London 

Buffalo  division  

Fort  Erie,  opposite  Buffalo,  N.  Y. 
Clifton,  on  Niagara  river  
Hamilton  

Goderich 

Great  Western  

Windsor  opposite  Detroit 

Toronto  branch  

Toronto  . 

Sarnia  branch  

Komoka  

Sarnia 

Canada  air  line  

Fort  Erie. 

Glencoe  (150  m.);  completed  to  St. 
Thomas 

Petrolia  branch.  ... 

Wyoming  .  .   . 

Petrolia 

Brantford  branch 

Harrisburg 

Allanburg  branch  

Clifton  

Allanburg,  on  Welland  railway  

Hamilton  and  Lake  Erie.  .  . 

Hamilton  . 

Kingston  and  Pembroke 

Kingston 

Pembroke  (120  m.)  ;  completed  to 
Harrowsmith  

London  and  Port  Stanley 

London. 

Port  Stanley 

Midland 

Port  Hope 

Orillia 

Peterborough  branch  

Millbrook  

Lakefleld  ... 

Northern 

Toronto 

Meaford 

Muskoka  branch  

Allendale  

Orillia  

St.  Lawrence  and  Ottawa 

Prescott  

Ottawa  

Toronto  and  Nipissin0" 

Toronto 

Lake  Nipissing   (240   m.)  ;    com- 
pleted to  Coboconk  or  Shedden. 
Teeswater  .        

Toronto,  Grey,  and  Bruce  

TVonto. 

Owen  Sound  branch 

Owen  Sound                 

Welland  

Port  Dalhousie  

Port  Colborne  

Wellington,  Grey,  and  Bruce 

Harrisburg 

South  extension 

Kincardine         

Whitby  and  Port  Perry 

Whitby  Junction  

Port  Perry                          

There  are  a  number  of  other  lines  projected  or 
in  progress.  The  principal  canals  are  the  Wel- 
land, 28  m.  long,  from  Port  Dalhousie  to  Port 
Colborne ;  and  the  Rideau,  from  Kingston  to 
Ottawa,  126  m.  long,  including  the  Cataraqui 
and  Rideau  rivers.  There  are  also  a  number  of 
short  canals  around  rapids  in  the  St.  Lawrence 
and  Ottawa  rivers.  Nine  banks  were  reported 
on  Sept.  30,  1874,  with  a  paid-up  capital  of 
$14,554,962,  besides  which  there  are  numerous 
branches  of  banks  of  the  province  of  Quebec. 
— The  government  is  administered  by  a  lieu- 
tenant governor,  appointed  by  the  governor 
general  of  the  Dominion  in  council  for  five 
years,  assisted  by  an  executive  council  of  five 
members  (attorney  general,  commissioner  of 


agriculture  and  secretary  and  registrar,  trea- 
surer, commissioner  of  crown  lands,  and  com- 
missioner of  public  works),  appointed  by  him- 
self and  responsible  to  the  assembly.  The 
legislative  authority  is  vested  in  a  single  cham- 
ber, styled  the  house  of  assembly,  consisting 
of  88  members  elected  by  the  qualified  voters 
by  districts  for  four  years.  Voting  is  by  bal- 
lot, and  the  right  of  suffrage  is  conferred  on  all 
male  British  subjects  21  years  of  age,  possessed 
of  a  small  property  qualification.  The  judi- 
cial power  is  vested  in  a  court  of  error  and 
appeal,  a  court  of  queen's  bench,  a  court  of 
common  pleas,  a  court  of  chancery,  county 
courts,  and  division  courts.  The  first  consists 
of  a  chief  justice  and  six  judges,  and  has 


638 


ONTAEIO 


appellate  jurisdiction  of  judgments  of  the 
queen's  bench,  common  pleas,  and  chancery 
courts.  The  queen's  bench  and  common  pleas 
•  each  consist  of  a  chief  justice  and  two  puisne 
judges,  and  have  concurrently  with  each  other 
general  original  jurisdiction  in  criminal  cases 
and  in  civil  cases  at  common  law,  and  appellate 
jurisdiction  of  judgments  of  the  county  courts. 
The  court  of  chancery  consists  of  a  chancellor 
and  two  vice  chancellors,  and  has  general  ori- 
ginal jurisdiction  in  equity.  The  judges  of  the 
courts  named  are  appointed  by  the  governor 
general  of  the  Dominion  in  council  for  life. 
A  county  judge  is  appointed  by  the  lieutenant 
governor  for  each  county  or  union  of  counties, 
who  holds  a  county  court  with  jurisdiction  of 
certain  civil  actions  not  involving  more  than 
£50  or  £100,  according  to  the  nature  of  the 
case;  a  court  of  general  sessions,  with  juris- 
diction of  offences  not  capital;  and  a  surro- 
gate court,  with  probate  powers.  Each  coun- 
ty or  judicial  district  is  divided  into  court 
divisions  for  division  court  purposes.  These 
courts  are  held  by  a  county  judge  or  other 
magistrate,  and  make  summary  disposition  of 
cases  not  involving  more  than  £10  or  £25  ac- 
cording to  the  nature  of  the  suit.  Ontario  is 
represented  in  the  Dominion  parliament  by  24 
senators  and  88  members  of  the  house  of  com- 
mons. The  balance  in  the  provincial  treasury 
on  Jan.  1,  1874,  was  $277,948  05 ;  receipts  du- 
ring the  following  nine  months,  $2,413,228  89, 
including  $1,333,569  42  subsidy  from  the  Do- 
minion government ;  amount  withdrawn  from 
special  deposit,  $1,253,380  92;  total  amount 
in  treasury  during  the  period,  $3,944,557  86 ; 
total  payments,  $2,558,887  81 ;  invested  (special 
deposits),  $1,200,000 ;  balance  in  treasury  Sept. 
30,  1874,  $185,670  05.  The  following  were 
some  of  the  more  important  items  of  expendi- 
ture: for  the  civil  government,  $117,244  49; 
legislation,  $108,910  76 ;  colonization  roads, 
$52,804  15 ;  administration  of  justice,  $145,792 
25 ;  public  buildings,  $229,043  41 ;  maintenance 
of  public  institutions,  $198,166  91 ;  agriculture, 
arts,  &c.,  $74,356  24;  immigration,  $74,162 
83 ;  hospitals  and  charities,  $43,020 ;  education, 
$418,403  65 ;  public  works,  $74,400  54.— The 
charitable  and  correctional  institutions  con- 
trolled by  or  receiving  aid  from  the  province 
are  placed  under  the  supervision  of  a  govern- 
ment inspector.  The  provincial  institutions 
are  the  insane  asylums  at  London  and  Toronto, 
the  former  having  a  custodial  department  for 
idiots  and  a  department  for  the  chronic  in- 
sane ;  the  institution  for  the  education  of  the 
deaf  and  dumb,  at  Belleville ;  the  institution 
for  the  education  of  the  blind,  at  Brantford ; 
the  central  prison,  at  Toronto;  and  the  pro- 
vincial reformatory  for  boys,  at  Penetangui- 
shene.  The  central  prison,  opened  on  June  1, 
1874,  is  designed  for  the  incarceration  of  per- 
sons convicted  of  the  graver  class  of  misde- 
meanors ;  the  labor  of  the  prisoners  is  leased 
to  the  Canada  car  company.  There  is  a  peni- 
tentiary at  Kingston  under  the  control  of  the 


Dominion,  in  which  convicted  felons  are  incar- 
cerated; number  of  convicts  at  the  close  of 

1873,  384.     The  Rockwood  insane  asylum  at 
Kingston  is  under  the  control  of  the  Dominion ; 
it  is  used  for  the  custody  of  insane  convicts, 
but  the  greater  number  of  its  inmates  are  not 
convicts,  being  insane  persons  received  from 
Ontario  and  supported  at  the  expense  of  that 
province.     A  provincial  inebriate  asylum  was 
provided  for  by  an  act  of  1873,  and  buildings 
are  (1875)  in  course  of  construction  at  Hamil- 
ton.    There  are  a  few  paying  patients  in  the 
insane  asylum  and  pupils  in  the  deaf  and  dumb 
and  blind  institutions,  but  far  the  greater  num- 
ber are  supported  at  the  public  expense.     The 
inspector  in  his  last  annual  report  recommends 
the  establishment  of  a  training  school  for  idiots 
and  an  industrial  reformatory  for  women.    The 
statistics  of  the  institutions  controlled  or  aided 
by  the  province  for  the  year  ending  Sept.  30, 

1874,  are  as  follows : 


INSTITUTIONS. 

Number 
in  institu- 
tion du- 
ring year. 

Remain- 
ing at 
close  of 
year. 

Amount  expended 
by  the  province. 

Toronto  insane  asylum  
London  insane  asylum.  ..  .  . 

768 
694 

640 
602 

$80,217  60 
81,896  11 

Kingston  insane  asylum.  .  . 
Deaf  and  dumb  institution. 

403* 

357* 
190 

52,195  00 
32,276  42 

Blind  institution 

101 

22,581  08 

Central  prison  

870 

278 

17,786  38 

Provincial  reformatory  
Common  jails  (38)  

188 
9,458 

189 
694 

19,889  58 
129,884  54t 

Hospitals  (10)  

8,587 

862 

29,080  00 

Orphan  asylums  (11)  
Newsboys    lodging  house, 

1,516 

881 

1 

Toronto  ....         

125 

14 

I     18,940  00 

Magdalen  asylums  (2).  

195 

792 

100 
272 

Total 

18,126 

4525 

$479,146  71 

There  were  21  insane  convicts  at  the  close  of 
the  year  in  the  Kingston  asylum,  and  55  in- 
sane persons  in  jails.  The  number  of  persons 
receiving  outdoor  treatment  or  relief  from  the 
hospitals  during  the  year  was  9,184.  The  re- 
ceipts from  the  institutions  under  provincial 
control  amounted  to  $37,448  15. — The  province 
has  an  excellent  system  of  free  public  schools, 
under  the  general  management  of  a  chief  super- 
intendent of  education  and  three  high  school 
inspectors  for  the  province,  77  public  school 
inspectors  in  the  different  cities  and  towns,  and 
counties  or  divisions  of  counties,  and  boards  of 
trustees  for  the  various  school  sections  or  dis- 
tricts. Besides  these,  which  are  unsectarian, 
there  are  Roman  Catholic  separate  schools, 
which  receive  aid  from  the  provincial  treasury. 
The  school  law  provides  for  the  establishment 
and  maintenance  of  three  classes  of  superior 
schools,  viz. :  classical  and  English  high  schools 
for  both  sexes ;  English  high  schools  for  both 
sexes ;  and  collegiate  institutes,  in  which  there 
shall  be  an  average  daily  attendance  of  at  least 
60  boys  in  Greek  and  Latin.  The  public  schools 
are  open  to  all  between  the  ages  of  5  and  21 

*  Number  supported  by  the  province. 

t  More  than  half  this  sum  was  paid  by  the  counties. 


ONTARIO 


639 


years,  and  children  between  7  and  12  years  of 
age  are  required  to  attend  some  school  during 
a  portion  of  the  year.  An  annual  census  of 


those  between  5  and  16  is  taken.  The  follow- 
ing table  contains  statistics  of  the  educational 
institutions  of  the  province  for  1873 : 


INSTITUTIONS. 

Number. 

Teachers. 

« 

\                   RECEIPTS. 

Legislative 
grants. 

County  and  dis- 
trict assessment! 
and  grants. 

Other  sources. 

Total. 

High  schools 

108 
3 
4,562 
170 
16 
265 

252 

5,873 
269 

429 

8,437 
800 
438,911 
22,078 

2,700 

8,758 

$77,464  29 
25,156  78 

j-  245,873  73 
160,000  00 

$96,650  69 

$59,426  40 

$233,541  38 
25,156  78 

2,967,365  15 

217,000  00 
40,626  00 

Normal  and  model  schools  

Public  schools  (ordinary  grade)  
Eoman  Catholic  separate  schools  ...... 
Colleges  and  universities  

2,040,742  87 

680,748  55 

57,000  00 
40,626  00 

Academies  and  private  schools 

Total..            

5,124    |     6,323 

481,679 

$508,494  80 

$2,137,393  56 

$837,800  95 

$3,483,689  81 

The  separate  receipts  of  the  Roman  Catholic 
schools  amounted  to  $83,269  87,  of  which 
$13,358  07  was  derived  from  legislative  grants, 
$47,167  43  from  school  rates  on  supporters, 
and  $22,744  37  from  other  sources.  Of  the 
teachers  (5,642)  in  the  public  and  separate 
schools,  2,581  were  males  and  3,061  females; 
of  the  pupils  (460,984),  242,615  were  males 
and  218,369 females;  average  attendance,  192,- 
190 ;  average  time  of  keeping  schools  open  (in- 
cluding legal  holidays),  1 1 J  months.  The  num- 
ber of  school  sections  or  districts  was  4,805 ; 
number  of  school  houses,  4,791  (1,132  brick, 
463  stone,  2,083  frame,  and  1,112  log) ;  number 
of  children  between  5  and  16  years  of  age, 
504,869.  Eight  of  the  high  schools  were  en- 
titled to  the  name  and  privileges  of  collegiate 
institutes.  The  total  amount  expended  for 
educational  purposes  in  the  province  was  $3,- 
258,125,  viz. :  for  public  and  separate  schools, 
$2,604,526,  of  which  $1,520,123  was  for  teach- 
ers' wages  and  $1,084,403  for  the  erection 
and  repair  of  school  houses,  &c. ;  for  high 
schools,  $198,297,  of  which  $165,358  was  for 
teachers'  wages  and  $32,939  for  the  erection 
and  repair  of  buildings,  &c. ;  and  for  other 
educational  institutions  and  purposes,  $455,- 
302.  The  provincial  normal  school  and  the 
model  schools  mentioned  in  the  table  are  at 
Toronto.  A  second  normal  school  has  recent- 
ly been  opened  at  Ottawa.  The  provincial 
school  of  agriculture  was  opened  in  1874, 
on  a  farm  of  550  acres,  about  a  mile  from 
Guelph.  It  com  prises  seven  departments:  agri- 
culture, horticulture,  natural  sciencesr  chemis- 
try, animal  anatomy  and  physiology,  English 
and  mathematics,  and  practical  work  in  farm- 
ing, stock  raising,  horticulture,  and  mechanics. 
There  are  a  principal  and  four  lecturers  in  the 
first  six  departments,  and  six  instructors  in  the 
seventh.  The  course  is  two  years.  The  estab- 
lishment of  a  provincial  school  of  practical 
science  for  instruction  in  mining,  engineering, 
and  the  mechanical  and  manufacturing  arts  at 
Toronto  was  provided  for  by  an  act  of  1873. 
One  of  the  principal  educational  institutions  is 
University  college  (provincial)  at  Toronto,  with 
a  course  in  arts  and  two  years'  courses  in 
civil  engineering  and  agriculture.  In  1873-'4 
it  had  15  instructors  and  186  matriculated 
618  VOL.  XII.-— 41 


and  82  non-matriculated  students.  It  was  es- 
tablished by  royal  charter  as  King's  college  in 
1827,  and  opened  in  1843.  In  1850  the  name 
was  changed  to  university  of  Toronto,  and  in 
1853  the  institution  was  divided  into  the  Uni- 
versity college  and  the  university  of  Toronto, 
the  latter  merely  holding  examinations  and 
conferring  degrees.  It  has  faculties  of  arts, 
law,  and  medicine.  Other  universities  are 
Queen's  (Presbyterian),  with  faculties  of  arts, 
medicine,  and  theology,  at  Kingston;  Trinity 
(Episcopal),  arts,  medicine,  and  theology,  at 
Toronto;  Victoria  (Methodist),  arts,  law,  and 
theology,  at  Cobourg,  and  medicine  at  Toronto ; 
Albert  (Methodist  Episcopal),  arts,  law,  and  the- 
ology, at  Belleville ;  and  the  college  of  Ottawa 
(Roman  Catholic),  at  Ottawa,  with  university 
powers.  Knox  college  (Presbyterian)  at  To- 
ronto, and  Huron  college  (Episcopal)  at  London, 
are  chiefly  for  theological  instruction.  Assump- 
tion college  (Roman  Catholic)  at  Sandwich,  Bish- 
op Hellmuth  college  and  Bishop  Hellmuth  ladies' 
college  (Episcopal)  at  London,  Upper  Canada 
college  at  Toronto,  the  Wesleyan  female  college 
at  Hamilton,  and  Alexandra  female  college  (M; 
E.)  at  Belleville,  are  important  institutions. 
The  Canadian  literary  institute  (Baptist),  at 
Woodstock,  has  literary  and  theological  depart- 
ments. In  1873  there  were  4,182  public  libra- 
ries, with  755,302  volumes,  of  which  1,283,  with 
258,879  volumes,  were  free  libraries,  under  the 
management  of  school  trustees  and  municipal 
authorities,  receiving  some  aid  from  the  pro- 
vincial treasury;  2,735,  with  367,658  volumes, 
Sabbath  school;  and  164,  with  128,765  vol- 
umes, miscellaneous.  In  1874  there  were  255 
newspapers  and  periodicals,  viz. :  23  daily,  1  tri- 
weekly, 1  semi-weekly,  212  weekly,  1  bi-week- 
ly, 16  monthly,  and  1  bi-monthly.— The  statis- 
tics of  the  principal  religious  denominations, 
according  to  the  census  of  1871,  are  as  follows : ; 


DENOMINATIONS. 

Churchci. 

Buildfagi 
attached. 

Adherents. 

Baptist         

279 

861 

86,680 

Episcopal         

511 

708 

880,995. 

Methodist             

1,924 

2,646 

462,264 

697 

989 

856,442 

298 

458 

274,162 

Other  

889 

491 

110,858 

Total  

4,098 

6,648 

1,620,851 

640 


ONTARIO 


Of  the  Baptists,  10,231  were  Freewill  Baptists 
and  11,438  Tunkers;  of  the  Methodists,  286,- 
911  were  Wesleyans,  92,198  Episcopal,  24,045 
Primitive,  30,889  New  Connection,  and  18,225 
Bible  Christians;  of  the  Presbyterians,  63,167 
were  connected  with  the  church  of  Scotland. 
Among  denominations  not  named  in  the  table 
were  Adventists,  1,449;  Christian  Brethren, 
1,513  ;  Plymouth  Brethren,  1,689  ;  Christian 
Conference,  11,881;  Congregationalists,  12,- 
858;  Evangelical  Association,  4,522 ;  Quakers, 
7,106;  Swedenborgians,  779;  Unitarians, 
1,088 ;  Universalists,  1,722.— The  French  pen- 
etrated this  region  in  the  early  part  of  the 
17th  century,  and  established  some  trading 
posts  ;  but  it  did  not  begin  to  be  perma- 
nently settled  till  toward  the  close  of  the  18th 
century.  In  1763,  with  the  rest  of  Canada, 
it  passed  into  the  hands  of  the  British.  In 
1774  the  newly  acquired  territory  was  organ- 
ized as  the  province  of  Quebec.  In  1791  it 
was  divided  into  two  provinces,  Upper  Canada 
and  Lower  Canada,  and  in  1841  these  were 
reunited  as  the  province  of  Canada.  Upon  the 
organization  of  the  Dominion  of  Canada  in 
1867,  they  were  again  separated,  and  Upper 
Canada  became  the  province  of  Ontario.  An 
elective  assembly  was  granted  to  the  provinces 
in  1791,  and  in  1841  responsible  government 
was  introduced.  The  only  important  disturb- 
ances of  the  peace  of  the  province  have  been 
the  war  of  1812  between  Great  Britain  and 
the  United  States  and  the  Canadian  rebellion 
of  1837. — See  "  Geological  Survey  of  Canada : 
Report  of  Progress  from  its  Commencement 
to  1863 "  (Montreal,  1863 ;  with  atlas,  Mon- 
treal, 1865). 

ONTARIO,  a  county  of  the  province  of  On- 
tario, Canada,  on  the  N.  shore  of  Lake  On- 
tario ;  area,  859  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1871,  45,890, 
of  whom  19,290  were  of  English,  12,098  of 
Irish,  9,976  of  Scotch,  1,723  of  German,  and 
1,418  of  Dutch  origin  or  descent.  It  is  bounded 
N.  W.  by  Lake  Simcoe,  and  is  watered  by  sev- 
eral small  streams.  It  is  traversed  by  the  Grand 
Trunk,  the  Toronto  and  Nipissing,  the  Mid- 
*  land,  and  the  Whitby  and  Port  Perry  railways. 
Capital,  Whitby. 

ONTARIO,  Lake,  the  lowest  and  smallest  of 
the  chain  of  five  great  lakes  of  the  northern 
United  States  and  Canada.  The  name  is  In- 
dian, meaning  beautiful.  The  lake  extends  E. 
and  W.  about  180  m.,  having  a  mean  breadth 
of  35  m.,  and  a  depth  supposed  to  average  about 
500  ft.  The  elevation  of  its  surface  above  tide 
being  231  ft.,  its  bottom  is  about  as  far  below 
the  level  of  the  ocean  as  its  surface  is  above  it. 
The  area  of  the  lake  is  computed  at  6,300  sq. 
m.,  3,300  sq.  m.  less  than  that  of  Lake  Erie, 
the  next  larger  lake.  The  boundary  line  be- 
tween the  United  States  and  Canada  runs 
through  the  central  portion  of  Lake  Ontario, 
from  the  mouth  of  the  Niagara  river  to  the 
outlet  in  the  extreme  N.  E.  corner.  This  is 
the  St.  Lawrence  river,  which,  commencing  at 
this  point,  pursues  a  course  of  nearly  800  m.  to 


the  gulf  of  St.  Lawrence.  From  the  head  of 
the  river  the  coast  of  Lake  Ontario  on  its  E. 
and  S.  sides  as  far  as  Niagara  river  belongs  to 
the  state  of  New  York ;  thence  50  m.  further 
W.  along  the  S.  coast,  and  E.  along  the  N.  side  to 
the  St.  Lawrence  river,  the  lake  is  bounded  by 
Ontario,  Canada.  By  reason  of  its  great  depth 
Lake  Ontario  is  much  less  disturbed  by  storms 
than  Lake  Erie,  and  its  navigation  is  also  much 
less  obstructed  by  ice.  In  the  severest  winters 
the  boats  continue  their  trips  across,  and  are 
rarely  interrupted  by  ice.  When  once  chilled, 
the  water  slowly  recovers  a  warmer  tempera- 
ture ;  and  even  in  the  middle  of  May  for  two 
successive  years,  1837  and  1838,  it  has  been 
found  that  the  temperature  of  the  water  a  little 
below  the  surface  in  the  central  portion  of  the 
lake  was  only  from  36°  to  38°,  while  near  the 
American  shore  it  was  from  52°  to  68°,  and  at 
the  same  times  at  Cobourg  on  the  Canadian  side 
from  48°  to  51°.  Prof.  0.  Dewey,  by  whom 
these  observations  are  recorded  in  the  "  Ameri- 
can Journal  of  Science,"  supposed  that  the 
accumulation  of  ice  in  Lake  Erie,  which  fre- 
quently does  not  disappear  till  some  time  in 
May,  serves  to  retain  the  low  temperature  of 
the  water,  particularly  along  the  course  of  the 
main  current  through  the  central  part  of  Lake 
Ontario.  The  effect  of  this  is  to  retard  the 
approach  of  spring;  but  opposite  causes  op- 
erate in  the  autumn  to  check  the  advance 
of  winter.  The  same  observer  has  recorded 
the  measures  of  the  varying  level  of  the  lake 
from  the  year  1845  to  1859,  made  at  the  mouth 
of  the  Genesee  by  order  of  the  government. 
From  these  it  appears  that  there  is  no  periodi- 
cal rise  and  fall,  and  the  variations  are  depen- 
dent on  very  regular  and  adequate  causes  of 
supply  and  drain.  The  range  of  rise  and  fall 
is  54  inches,  the  maximum  elevation  during 
the  years  of  the  observation  being  in  February 
and  the  minimum  in  August.  The  effect  of 
long  continued  rains  or  of  long  droughts  in 
certain  years  is  observed  in  the  occurrence  of 
the  highest  or  lowest  water  out  of  the  usual 
seasons. — The  country  around  Lake  Ontario  is 
in  general  fertile  and  well  populated  by  agri- 
cultural, manufacturing,  and  commercial  com- 
munities. On  the  N.  side  the  surface  rises  grad- 
ually from  the  lake  shore  and  spreads  out  in 
broad  plains.  From  the  St.  Lawrence  river 
two  thirds  of  the  way  to  the  W.  extremity  of 
the  lake  these  are  underlaid  by  the  lower  Silu- 
rian limestones,  from  which  the  soil  derives  its 
fertility.  These  rocks  near  Toronto  pass  be- 
neath the  group  of  the  Hudson  river  slates,  and 
these  then  occupy  the  surface  nearly  to  Bur- 
lington. The  red  shales  and  sandstones  of  the 
Medina  group  succeed,  and  a  narrow  belt  of 
this  formation  borders  the  lake  on  its  W.  and 
S.  sides.  At  Oswego  the  lower  formations 
begin  to  reappear,  and  their  outcrops  are  suc- 
cessively passed  over  along  the  E.  extremity  of 
the  lake.  The  formations  which  underlie  the 
lake  and  form  its  bottom,  over  the  N.  half  at 
least,  are  no  doubt  these  lower  limestones  slo- 


ONTOLOGY 


OORT 


641 


ping  southwardly  from  the  N.  shore.  A  marked 
feature  in  the  topography  of  the  S.  shore  is 
the  "  Lake  ridge,"  a  narrow  elevation  ranging 
from  Sodus  in  Wayne  co.  to  the  Niagara  river, 
nearly  parallel  with  the  edge  of  the  lake,  and 
at  a  distance  of  from  3  to  8  m.  from  it.  Its 
elevation  is  in  places  nearly  200  ft.  above  the 
lake,  and  generally  exceeds  160  ft.  The  sur- 
face on  each  side  slopes  away  gradually,  so 
that  the  line  of  the  ridge  is  not  everywhere 
distinctly  defined.  In  other  places  it  is  plainly 
marked,  having  a  base  from  56  to  112  ft.  across, 
and  a  width  at  the  summit  of  about  33  ft. 
Sometimes  it  is  divided  into  three  or  four  par- 
allel ridges,  which  extend  a  few  rods  and  then 
unite  in  one.  Being  composed  of  sand  and 
gravel,  it  makes  one  of  the  finest  natural  roads 
in  the  world,  and  the  principal  highway  along 
this  side  of  the  lake  has  been  upon  its  sum- 
mit. There  can'  be  little  doubt  that  this  ridge 
was  an  ancient  shore  line,  and  that  within  a 
recent  geological  period  it  has  been  formed 
by  the  waters  of  the  lake. — Besides  its  main 
feeder,  the  Niagara  river,  the  principal  streams 
which  flow  into  Lake  Ontario  are  the  Gen- 
esee,  Oswego,  and  Black  rivers.  The  Os- 
wego  is  the  outlet  of  almost  all  the  lakes  in 
the  western  part  of  New  York.  On  the  N. 
side  of  Lake  Ontario  a  range  of  hills  extend- 
ing parallel  with  the  lake  and  a  few  miles 
back  from  it  throws  the  drainage  generally  in 
other  directions.  The  Trent  river  alone  finds 
a  passage  through  these  hills,  and  flows  with 
a  number  of  smaller  streams  into  the  bay  of 
Quinte,  a  long  inlet  extending  about  TO  m. 
between  the  peninsula  of  Prince  Edward  near 
the  foot  of  the  lake  and  the  mainland.  The 
largest  island  in  the  lake,  called  Amherst  isl- 
and, is  at  the  mouth  of  this  inlet ;  it  is  10  m. 
long  and  6  broad.  Many  other  smaller  islands 
are  met  with  at  this  lower  extremity  of  the 
lake ;  but  excepting  in  this  part  the  coast  is 
very  regular  and  unbroken.  The  principal 
towns  in  New  York  on  the  lake,  or  near  the 
mouths  of  the  streams  which  flow  into  it,  are 
Lewiston  on  the  Niagara  river,  Kochester  on 
the  Genesee,  Oswego  at  the  mouth  of  the  Os- 
wego river,  and  Sackett's  Harbor  near  the  foot 
of  the  lake.  In  Canada,  Kingston  at  the  foot 
of  the  lake,  Toronto  35  m.  from  its  head,  and 
Hamilton  at  the  extreme  head,  are  the  largest 
towns  on  its  shore.  Its  navigation  is  connect- 
ed with  that  of  Lake  Erie  by  the  Welland  ca- 
nal of  Canada,  28  m.  long. 

ONTOLOGY.     See  PHILOSOPHY. 

ONTONAGON,  the  extreme  N.  W.  county  of 
Michigan,  bounded  N.  W.  by  Lake  Superior, 
and  S.  W.  by  Wisconsin,  from  which  it  is  sepa- 
rated in  part  by  the  Montreal  river,  and  drained 
by  the  Ontonagon,  Fire  Steel,  Iron,  Presque 
Isle,  and  Black  rivers;  area,  about  2,300  sq. 
m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  2,845.  The  surface  is  hilly, 
and  an  elevated  range  called  the  Porcupine 
mountains  traverses  the  northern  portion.  It 
contains  large  quantities  of  copper  and  iron 
ore.  In  1870  there  were  10  copper  mines 


worked,  the  products  of  which  amounted  to 
$256,802.  The  product  in  1872  was  725£  tons 
of  ore.  Capital,  Ontonagon. 

ONYX,  a  variety  of  quartz,  analogous  to  agate 
and  other  cryptocrystalline  varieties,  such  as 
carnelian,  jasper,  chrysoprase,  and  bloodstone. 
It  is  composed  of  layers  of  different-colored 
carnelian,  much  like  banded  agate  in  structure, 
but  the  layers  are  in  even  or  parallel  planes, 
and  the  banding  therefore  straight ;  on  which 
account  it  is  well  adapted  to  the  cutting  of 
cameos,  and  was  much  used  for  that  purpose  by 
the  ancients.  The  colors  of  the  best  are  per- 
fectly well  defined,  and  are  either  white  and 
black,  or  white,  brown,  and  black ;  the  finest 
specimens  are  brought  from  India,  Many  of 
the  cryptocrystalline  varieties  of  quartz,  par- 
ticularly carnelian,  contain  variable  small  por- 
tions of  opal,  a  hydrous  quartz  (see  OPAL), 
which  enhances  their  lustre  and  value.  Sar- 
donyx has  a  structure  like  onyx,  but  is  com- 
posed usually  of  alternate  layers  of  white  chal- 
cedony and  carnelian  (sard),  although  the  ear- 
nelian  may  be  associated  with  layers  of  white, 
brown,  and  black  chalcedony. 

OOLITE  (Gr.  u6v,  an  egg,  and  Wog,  a  stone), 
limestone  composed  of  rounded  particles,  like 
the  roe  or  eggs  of  a  fish.  Each  of  the  grains 
has  usually  a  small  fragment  of  sand  as  a 
nucleus,  around  which  concentric  layers  of 
calcareous  matter  have  accumulated.  Ferru- 
ginous oolites  are  also  found,  as  in  the  Clinton 
group  in  the  United  States,  the  investing  ma- 
terial being  in  this  case  red  oxide  of  iron.  The 
name  oolite  is  also  applied  to  a  group  of  strata 
of  the  Jurassic  period,  largely  developed  in 
England,  in  which  limestone  of  this  character 
occurs.  The  oolitic  epoch  is  embraced  be- 
tween the  liassic  below  and  the  Wealden  above, 
these  three  epochs  forming  the  Jurassic  period, 
the  middle  period  of  the  reptilian  age.  The" 
oolitic  formation  contains  limestones,  part  of 
which  are  oolitic  in  texture,  and  others  arena- 
ceous and  clayey,  all  being  of  marine  origin 
except  the  Purbeck  beds  which  rest  upon  the 
upper  or  Portland  oolite.  The  following  sub- 
divisions are  recognized:  1.  Lower  or  Bath 
oolite,  containing,  among  other  groups,  fuller's 
earth  and  the  great  oolitic  limestone,  beneath 
which  are  the  Stonesfield  slates,  near  Oxford, 
noted  for  the  remains  of  saurians,  insects,  and 
the  earliest  British  mammals.  There  is  also  in 
the  lower  oolite  in  Sutherlandshire  a  bed  of 
good  coal  3|  ft.  thick,  which  has  been  worked 
for  a  long  time.  2.  Middle  oolite,  contain- 
ing calcareous  grits  with  Oxford  clay  between. 

3.  Upper  oolite,  containing  Kimmeridge  clay, 
which  furnishes  material  for  Portland  cement. 

4.  The  Purbeck  beds,  consisting  of  lower,  mid- 
dle, and  upper  Purbeck,  which  contain  fresh- 
water marls,  the  "Portland  dirt  bed"  being  in 
the  lower,  and  containing  the  second  deposit  of 
British  mammals. 

OORT,  Adam  Tan,  a  Flemish  painter,  born  in 
Antwerp  in  1557,  died  there  in  1641.  He  was 
instructed  by  his  father,  a  painter  of  history, 


64:2 


OPAL 


OPERA 


and  had  a  school  in  Antwerp,  where  Rubens 
and  Jordaens  were  instructed,  the  latter  be- 
coming his  son-in-law.  He  was  intemperate, 
brutal,  and  avaricious. 

OPAL,  a  mineral  composed  principally  of 
silicic  acid  combined  with  from  5  to  13  per 
cent,  of  water.  The  finest  varieties  have  the 
most  delicately  resplendent  play  of  iridescent 
colors,  with  a  peculiar  vitreous,  sometimes 
resinous  and  pearly  lustre.  It  is  softer  than 
quartz,  the  hardness  ranging  from  5*5  to  6-5 ; 
specific  gravity  1-9  to  2'3.  The  varieties  pass 
into  one  another,  so  that  it  is  difficult  to  classify 
those  which  form  the  transitions.  Dana  gives 
the  following :  1.  Precious  opal,  spoken  of  by 
Pliny  as  presenting  various  refulgent  tints  in 
succession,  now  one  hue  and  now  another. 
The  specimens  are  rarely  larger  than  a  hazel 
nut ;  there  is  one  in  the  Vienna  museum  the 
size  of  a  man's  fist,  weighing  17  oz.,  but  having 
many  fissures.  2.  Fire  opal,  of  a  hyacinth  red 
to  honey  yellow,  with  fire-like  reflections.  3. 
Girasol,  bluish  white,  translucent,  with  reddish 
reflections  of  bright  light.  4.  Common  opal, 
including  among  other  kinds  resin  opal,  semi- 
opal,  hydrophane  (which  becomes  translucent 
or  transparent  in  water,  whence  its  name, 
though  this  is  a  common  quality  of  opal),  and 
forcherite  (orange  yellow,  colored  by  orpiment, 
from  Reittelfeld  in  Upper  Styria).  5.  Cacho- 
long  (Kascholong,  Perlmutter),  opaque,  bluish 
white  and  reddish,  adhering  to  the  tongue,  con- 
taining a  little  alumina.  6.  Opal  agate.  7. 
Menilite  (Leberopal).  8.  Jasper  opal  (Eisenopal), 
containing  yellow  oxide  of  iron,  and  having 
the  color  of  yellow  jasper.  9.  "Wood  opal, 
consisting  of  wood  petrified  by  opal.  10.  Hy- 
alite, clear  as  glass  and  colorless,  constituting 
globular  concretions,  also  crusts  with  uniform 
surface,  passing  into  translucent.  11.  Fiorite, 
silicious  sinter,  occurring  in  tufa,  in  the  vicin- 
ity of  Santa  Fiora,  Italy,  and  at  the  solfatara 
near  Naples,  in  globular  and  stalactitic  concre- 
tions, resembling  hyalite,  but  pearly  in  lus- 
tre. Thomson  mentions  a  similar  incrusta- 
tion formed  from  the  hot  waters  of  the  Sasso 
lagoons.  Another  variety  of  fiorite  is  michael- 
ite,  from  the  island  of  St.  Michael,  one  of  the 
Azores,  where  it  is  found  in  snow-white  in- 
crustations, capillary  in  structure  and  pearly 
in  lustre;  also  geyserite,  from  the  Iceland 
geysers,  having  porous,  stalactitic,  cauliflower- 
like  forms.  12.  Float  stone  (Schwimmstein), 
in  light,  tuberose,  spongy  masses,  floating  on 
water,  sometimes  having  a  flint-like  nucleus. 
13.  Tripolite,  an  earthy  variety  of  opal,  formed 
from  the  silicious  shells  of  diatoms  and  other 
microscopic  species,  discovered  by  Ehrenberg, 
and  occurring  in  deposits  often  many  miles 
in  area,  containing  several  sub-varieties,  some 
uncompacted  and  some  moderately  hard. — The 
precious  opal  was  known  to  the  ancients,  and 
ranked  among  the  most  valuable  gems.  Pliny 
describes  it  under  the  name  of  opalu^  and 
in  the  Orphic  hymns  it  is  spoken  of  as  the 
,  and  again  as  Traidspue  in  allusion  to 


the  delicacy  of  its  complexion,  like  that  of  a 
child,  TraZf.  Fine  specimens  of  precious  opal 
are  still  valued  as  gems.  Opal  in  some  of  its 
varieties  is  not  rare.  It  occurs  in  veins  in 
porphyry,  sometimes  associated  with  galena 
and  blende,  and  again  in  vesicular  cavities  in 
amygdaloidal  rocks,  sometimes  in  limestone 
and  clay  slate,  and  even  as  the  material  repla- 
cing the  organic  matter  of  fossils.  It  is  ob- 
tained in  various  parts  of  the  world.  Mines 
have  been  worked  for  it  in  Hungary,  in  the 
county  of  Saros,  for  several  centuries,  and  the 
precious  opal  extracted  and  taken  away  by 
Grecian  and  Turkish  merchants  has,  it  is  said, 
found  its  way  by  the  Indies  to  Holland  under 
the  name  of  oriental  opal.  The  same  variety 
is  also  brought  from  Honduras  and  Nicaragua. 
The  fire  opal  is  found  in  the  Faroe  islands, 
Guatemala,  Zimapan  in  Mexico,  Washington 
co.,  Ga.,  and  various  other  places.  Humboldt 
brought  from  Mexico  the  first  specimens  of  it 
seen  in  Europe.  It  is  too  rare  to  be  employed 
like  the  precious  opal  in  jewelry.  The  latter 
is  used  for  rings,  necklaces,  and  other  orna- 
ments, usually  in  oval  or  lens  form,  and  to  best 
advantage  in  a  black  setting.  The  edges  of  the 
stone  on  account  of  its  softness  are  easily  in- 
jured, and  it  must  therefore  be  used  with  care. 
Very  fine  jewels  are  sometimes  protected  by  a 
thin  plate  of  quartz  crystal.  Changeable  red 
and  green  colors  are  the  most  highly  valued. 
Some  opals  are  rated  at  very  high  prices,  as  one 
at  £4,000  from  Hungary  in  the  great  exhibi- 
tion of  1851,  which  weighed  526£  carats.  Two 
belonging  to  the  crown  jewels  of  France  cost 
75,000  francs.  Specimens  imported  into  the 
United  States  are  valued  by  dealers  at  $4  to  $10 
a  carat.  Some  of  the  finest  are  from  Gracias 
a  Dios,  Honduras.  Wood  opal  is  named  from 
its  peculiar  ligneous  structure,  and  occurs  in 
the  form  of  trees  in  trappean  rocks.  Its  local- 
ities are  Hungary,  France,  Iceland,  Greenland, 
Maryland,  Pennsylvaniar  and  Colorado. 

OPATAS,  a  tribe  of  Indians,  occupying  the 
eastern  and  southern  part  of  the  state  of  So- 
nora,  Mexico.  They  are  semi-civilized,  but 
maintain  their  independence  of  the  state  gov- 
ernment, with  which  nevertheless  they  are  on 
good  terms,  and  often  lend  assistance  against 
the  Apaches.  Their  chief  residence  is  on  the 
rivers  Yaqui  and  Mayo,  by  which  names  they 
are  commonly  known.  Their  number  is  esti- 
mated at  30,000. 

OPELOFSAS,  a  town  and  the  capital  .of  St. 
Landry  parish,  Louisiana,  180  m.  W.  N.  W.  of 
New  Orleans;  pop.  in  1870,  1,546,  of  whom 
666  were  colored.  It  is  situated  in  the  midst 
of  a  fertile  and  picturesque  country,  and  has 
considerable  trade.  A  weekly  newspaper  is 
published  in  French  and  English.  Franklin 
college,,  founded  here  in  1839,  has  been  sus- 
pended since  the  civil  war. 

OPERA,  a  species  of  drama  in  which  airs, 
recitatives,  choruses,  &c.,  with  orchestral  ac- 
companiments and  the  ordinary  stage  acces- 
sories, supply  the  place  of  spoken  words.  This 


OPERA 

is  the  true  opera  as  found  on  the  Italian  stage 
at  the  present  day,  and  as  performed  at  the 
academie  in  Paris  ;  but  the  term  is  applied  to 
a  class  of  compositions  familiar  to  the  theatres 
of  Germany,  France,  and  England,  in  which 
the  words  are  partly  spoken,  partly  sung.  The 
idea  of  the  opera  was  probably  derived  from 
the  Greek  drama ;  and  it  is  said  to  have  be- 
come a  recognized  form  of  dramatic  compo- 
sition as  early  as  the  latter  half  of  the  15th  cen- 
tury. There  is  great  doubt,  however,  whether 
any  work  entitled  to  be  called  an  opera  was 
publicly  produced  previous  to  the  year  1600, 
when  Ottavio  Einuccini's  drama  of  Euridice, 
set  to  music  by  Giacomo  Peri,  was  performed 
in  honor  of  the  nuptials  of  Henry  IV.  of 
France  and  Maria  de'  Medici ;  a  conclusion 
strengthened  by  Rinuccini's  statement  in  his 
dedication  of  the  work  to  the  queen,  that  he 
had  written  it  "  merely  to  make  trial  of  vocal 
music  in  that  form."  The  opera  soon  became 
a  popular  species  of  musical  composition  in 
Italy,  and  about  1675  was  established  in  the 
chief  cities  of  the  peninsula.  Monteverde  and 
Carissimi  were  among  the  foremost  composers 
of  that  day.  In  1645  it  was  introduced  into 
France  by  Cardinal  Mazarin,  but  was  soon 
superseded  by  the  national  French  opera 
founded  by  Louis  XIV.,  and  which  received 
its  impetus  from  the  genius  of  Lully  and  Ra- 
meau.  This  was  the  parent  of  the  grand 
French  opera  of  the  present  day,  which  is 
sung  throughout.  The  establishment  of  the 
Italian  opera  in  England  may  be  dated  from 
the  arrival  of  Handel  and  the  production  of 
his  Rinaldo  in  1711.  Before  that  time  operas 
had  been  sung  partly  in  English  and  partly 
in  Italian,  according  to  the  nationality  of  the 
performers.  Bononcini's  Almaliide  was  the 
first  opera  sung  entirely  in  Italian,  and  this 
was  brought  out  in  1720.  The  opera  encoun- 
tered ridicule  and  opposition  from  the  wits, 
from  men  of  letters,  and  from  the  people ;  but 
it  made  its  way  in  spite  of  these  obstacles,  and 
from  the  time  when  Handel  and  Porpora  com- 
posed for  the  London  opera  houses  to  the 
present  day  it  has  maintained  itself  in  Eng- 
land. Great  Britain,  however,  has  failed  to 
give  to  the  world  any  very  eminent  composer; 
Balfe  and  Wallace,  both  Irishmen,  are  among 
the  most  noted.  In  Germany  it  early  took  root, 
and  to  the  composers  of  that  nation  much  of 
its  development  is  due.  Gluck  was  the  first  to 
introduce  extensive  reforms,  and  to  compose 
with  a  view  to  musical  expression  rather  than 
the  display  of  the  singer.  He  wrote  mainly  for 
the  French  stage,  where  after  a  long  contest  he 
was  successful  over  Piccini  and  his  adherents. 
Among  the  composers  who  since  the  time  of 
Gluck  have  done  most  for  the  operatic  stage 
are  Mozart,  Meyerbeer,  and  Von  Weber  among 
the  Germans ;  Oimarosa,  Cherubini,  Spontini, 
Rossini,  Donizetti,  Mercadante,  Bellini,  and 
Verdi  among  the  Italians  ;  and  Bo'ieldieu,  Au- 
ber,  Halevy,  Gounod,  and  Thomas  among  the 
French.  Richard  Wagner,  both  by  his  wri- 


OPHIURANS 


643 


tings  and  his  compositions,  has  done  much  to 
modify  the  theories  upon  which  opera  has  been 
constructed  heretofore.  How  far  his  influ- 
ence and  teachings  will  affect  the  opera  of  the 
future  is  as  yet  problematic,  but  that  his 
theories  have  gained  ground  rapidly  during  the 
past  ten  years  is  not  to  be  questioned. — The 
Italians  divide  operas  into  four  classes,  the 
sacred,  the  serious,  the  semi-serious,  and  the 
buffo  or  comic ;  the  French  recognize  but  two 
divisions,  the  grand  opera  and  the  opera  co- 
mique,  the  latter  of  which  is  partly  spoken ; 
while  the  Germans  subdivide  them  into  grand 
opera,  serious,  tragic,  heroic,  romantic,  comic, 
and  other  classes.  (See  Music.) 

OPHICLEIDE  (Gr.  %f,  a  serpent,  and  /ole/f,  a 
key),  a  large  brass  wind  instrument  of  the 
trumpet  species,  having  a  loud  tone  and  a  deep 
pitch,  and  much  used  in  military  bands.  It 
forms  the  base  to  the  trumpets,  and  has  a  com- 
pass of  three  octaves  and  one  note.  Bass 
ophicleides  are  made  in  0  and  B;,,  alto  ophi- 
cieides  in  F  and  Ej,.  The  latter  are  little  used. 

OPHIDIANS.     See  SERPENT. 

OPIIIR,  a  name  applied  first  (Gen.  x.  29)  to 
one  of  the  sons  of  Joktan,  and  secondly  to  a 
region  from  which  the  fleet  of  Solomon  brought 
gold  and  precious  stones.  The  precise  situation 
of  Ophir  is  a  matter  of  conjecture.  There  are 
four  theories  which  have  an  appearance  of 
probability:  1.  That  Ophir  was  a  general  name 
for  distant  southerly  regions,  just  as  we  say 
the  Indies  for  the  East.  This  theory  is  sup- 
ported by  Father  Acosta,  Heeren,  Tychsen,  and 
others.  2.  That  Ophir  was  on  the  E.  coast  of 
Africa,  embracing  Zanzibar  and  Mozambique. 
Here  have  been  found  mines  of  gold  and  silver, 
which  appear  to  have  been  worked  extensively 
in  ancient  times.  Among  the  advocates  of  this 
theory  are  Grotius,  Petermann,  Charles  Beke, 
and  Halevy.  3.  That  it  was  in  southern 
Arabia,  because  in  Genesis  Ophir  is  spoken  of 
as  one  of  the  sons  of  Joktan  who  settled  be- 
tween Sabasa  and  Havilah ;  because  native  gold 
was  anciently  found  there ;  and  because  in 
Oman  there  is  at  present  a  city  named  El- 
Ophir,  once  the  seat  of  considerable  Arabian 
commerce.  This  opinion  has  been  adopted  by 
Abulfeda,  Niebuhr,  Volney,  Gesenius,  and 
others.  4.  That  Ophir  was  in  India,  because 
that  country  abounds  in  the  articles  mentioned 
as  brought  from  both  Tarshish  and  Ophir ;  be- 
cause several  of  these  articles,  such  as  peacocks 
and  sandal  wood,  are  found  nowhere  else ;  be- 
.cause  the  Hebrew  words  for  apes  and  peacocks 
correspond  with  the  words  used  for  the  same 
on  the  Malabar  coast ;  and  because  there  was  in 
India,  in  the  neighborhood  of  the  modern  Goa, 
a  district  SovTrdpa,  called  by  Arrian  OvTnrapa. 
This  theory  is  maintained  after  Josephus  by 
Bochart,  Ouseley,  Lassen,  and  Ritter,  and  ap- 
parently agrees  with  the  Septuagint. 

OPHITES.     See  GNOSTICS. 

OPHIURANS  (opJiiuridw),  a  family  of  star  fish- 
es in  which  the  five  rays  are  long,  slender,  flex- 
ible, and  snake-like,  whence  the  name ;  in  some 


644: 


OPHTHALMIA 


the  arms  are  very  fragile ;  the  common  name 
of  the  genus  ophiura  is  sand  star,  from  their 
habit  of  hiding  in  the  sand.  The  viscera  are 
confined  to  the  central  circular  disk ;  the  arms 
are  not  excavated  in  grooves  below  for  the 
protrusion  of  ambulacral  tubes ;  they  swim 
and  creep  with  facility  by  means  of  the  spines 
or  the  arms.  In  ophioeoma  the  arms  are  so 
readily  detached,  at  the  will  of  the  animal,  that 


Serpent  Star  (Ophiopholis). 

they  are  called  "  brittle  stars."  In  the  group 
of  euryalcB  the  arms  are  much  branched ;  the 
genus  astrophyton  of  the  North  American  coast 
has  so  great  a  number  of  terminal  subdivisions, 
like  snaky  hairs,  that  it  has  been  called  Medu- 
sa's head ;  it  is  also  called  fisherman's  basket, 
from  occasionally  having,  when  caught  in  deep 
water,  fish  and  other  animals  embraced  in  the 


Astrophyton  Agassizii. 

numerous  flexible  rays.  According  to  T.  Ly- 
man,  there  are  more  than  a  dozen  species  of 
ophiurans  on  the  coast  of  the  United  States. 

OPHTHALMIA  (Gr.  600aA/«'a,  from  bQdafyoe, 
an  eye),  inflammation  of  the  eyes.  Under  the 
head  of  ophthalmia  may  be  included  inflamma- 
tion of  all  the  various  structures  that  enter 
into  the  formation  of  the  eye ;  we  shall  here 
however  confine  ourselves  to  the  inflammation 


of  the  external  and  visible  tissues.  Inflamma- 
tion of  the  white  of  the  eye  assumes  a  vari- 
ety of  forms,  dependent  partly  on  the  special 
character  of  the  inflammation  and  partly  on 
the  constitutional  peculiarities  of  the  patient. 
1.  Catarrhal  Ophthalmia.  Here  the  eyes  are 
bloodshot,  the  redness  being  produced  by  in- 
jection of  the  network  of  vessels  which  covers 
the  white  of  the  eye,  and  early  in  the  disease 
is  most  marked  where  the  conjunctiva  is  re- 
flected from  the  lids,  while  it  gradually  lessens 
as  we  approach  the  cornea.  The  lids  are  swol- 
len, and  sometimes  the  upper  lid  overlaps  a 
little  the  lower  one.  The  patient  complains 
of  a  feeling  as  if  there  were  sand  in  the  eye, 
while  there  is  a  good  deal  of  smarting  and  itch- 
ing at  the  angles  of  the  eyelids  and  along  their 
free  margins.  There  is  at  first  lachrymation, 
which  is  soon  followed  by  the  secretion  of  a 
thin  muco-purulent  discharge  which  accumu- 
lates at  the  corners  of  the  eye,  and  which  with 
an  increased  secretion  of  the  Meibomian  glands 
glues  the  eyelids  together  during  sleep.  The 
disease  may  be  brought  on  by  irritation  or 
injury  of  the  conjunctiva,  though  atmospheric 
influences  are  its  commonest  cause.  It  is  or- 
dinarily mild  and  manageable,  but  when  severe 
or  badly  treated  it  may  produce  ulceration  of 
the  cornea  or  leave  the  lids  thickened  and  gran- 
ular. In  all  cases  of  disease  of  the  eye,  abso- 
lute rest  of  the  organ  should  be  enjoined,  and 
it  should  be  protected  from  strong  light  and 
heat.  In  mild  cases  of  catarrhal  ophthalmia, 
rest,  a  brisk  purgative,  and  the  occasional  ap- 
plication of  tepid  water  to  the  eye,  are  often 
all  that  is  necessary.  If  the  inflammation  does 
not  subside  in  the  course  of  one  or  two  days, 
a  weak  solution  of  nitrate  of  silver  (gr.  ii.-vi. 
aq.  §  i.)  may  be  dropped  into  the  eye  once  a 
day,  and  the  eye  may  be  bathed  several  times 
a  day  with  a  dilute  solution  of  alum  or  of  bi- 
chloride of  mercury ;  while  at  night  the  edges 
of  the  lids  may  be  smeared  with  dilute  cit- 
rine or  red  precipitate  ointment.  In  the  severe 
form,  bloodletting,  either  general,  or  more  com- 
monly by  means  of  cupping  glasses  to  the  tem- 
ples or  of  leeches,  may  be  required.  When  the 
palpebral  conjunctiva  is  congested  and  thick- 
ened, it  may  be  scarified,  and  after  the  active 
inflammation  has  subsided  it  may  be  brushed 
over  with  strong  nitrate  of  silver  ointment  or 
with  undiluted  vinum  opii.  2.  Egyptian  Oph- 
thalmia— Purulent  Ophthalmia.  This  disease 
has  probably  existed  at  various  places  and  va- 
rious times,  but  the  attention  of  the  public  was 
first  strongly  directed  to  it  during  the  wars 
of  Napoleon,  when  the  British  army  returning 
from  the  expedition  to  Egypt  brought  the  dis- 
ease with  them,  and  communicated  it  to  other 
troops  with  whom  they  came  in  contact.  The 
milder  cases  of  purulent  ophthalmia  differ  but 
little  from  the  severer  cases  of  the  catarrhal 
form  of  the  complaint ;  there  is  however  even 
in  these  cases  a  very  marked  tendency  to  a 
granular  condition  of  the  lids.  "When  the  lids 
are  everted  they  appear  velvety,  "  the  enlarged 


OPHTHALMIA 


645 


papillae  being  separated  into  groups  by  furrows 
and  fissures,  or  tuberculated  and  sarcomatous 
looking,  like  a  mulberry."  (Jones,  "  Ophthal- 
mic Medicine  and  Surgery.")  In  the  severer 
forms  of  the  disease  the  eyelids  are  tense,  livid, 
and  often  enormously  swollen,  the  upper  over- 
hanging the  lower  one;  on  separating  them 
they  often  become  everted,  from  the  congested 
and  swollen  state  of  the  palpebral  conjunctiva. 
The  conjunctiva  lining  the  globe,  red  and  swol- 
len, soon  becomes  raised  like  a  wall  around 
the  cornea  (chemosis)',  a  copious  secretion  of 
muco-purulent  matter  is  poured  out,  runs  down 
on  the  cheek,  and  bursts  forth  when  the  swol- 
len lids  are  pressed  asunder.  The  patient  is 
unable  to  bear  the  light ;  there  is  burning  pain 
in  the  eye,  with  pain  around  the  orbit  and  in 
the  temple,  increasing  at  night.  During  the 
violence  of  the  disease  fever  is  present,  though 
commonly  moderate.  The  inflammation  is  not 
confined  to  the  conjunctiva,  but  extends  to  the 
sclerotic  and  the  cornea;  the  latter  becomes 
vascular,  opaque,  and  often  ulcerated;  some- 
times it  bursts,  discharging  the  aqueous  hu- 
mor. The  disease  was  first  attributed  solely 
to  contagion  imported  by  the  British  troops 
from  Egypt,  but  it  is  now  certain  that  it  arises 
sporadically,  and  that  under  favoring  circum- 
stances, such  as  overcrowding,  innutritious 
diet,  or  want  of  cleanliness,  it  becomes  highly 
contagious.  Purulent  ophthalmia  even  in  its 
milder  forms  requires  prompt  and  decided  treat- 
ment, both  because  the  disease  may  at  any  time 
suddenly  assume  a  violent  and  intractable  form, 
and  because  of  its  tendency  to  produce  thick- 
ening and  granulation  of  the  conjunctiva  of 
the  lids.  When  the  disease  is  severe,  or  when 
it  occurs  in  a  strumous  constitution,  there  is 
always  great  risk  of  permanent  injury  to  the 
eye ;  in  the  worst  cases  the  eye  is  sometimes 
destroyed  in  from  24  to  36  hours.  In  the  se- 
verer forms  of  the  disease  recourse  must  be 
had  to  bloodletting,  either  general  or  by  means 
of  leeches  or  cupping  glasses  in  the  commence- 
ment ;  afterward  the  lids  may  be  pencilled  once 
a  day  with  a  solution  of  nitrate  of  silver,  or 
brushed  over  with  the  lunar  caustic  in  sub- 
stance, and  the  eyes  should  be  cleansed  fre- 
quently with  warm  water  or  with  a  weak  warm 
solution  of  alum  or  bichloride  of  mercury  (alum 
gr.  xvi.,  water  §  viii.,  solve ;  or  bichloride  of 
mercury  gr.  i.,  hydrochlorate  of  ammonia  gr. 
vi.,  water  f  viii.).  To  relieve  the  congestion 
and  swelling  of  the  conjunctiva  of  the  lid,  it 
should  be  freely  scarified,  and  when  great 
chemosis  is  present  recourse  must  be  had  to 
incision  of  the  ocular  conjunctiva.  When  the 
inflammation  extends  to  the  iris,  as  evinced  by 
the  irregularity  and  contraction  of  the  pupil 
and  by  the  change  of  color  in  the  iris,  mercury 
combined  with  opium  may  be  cautiously  ad- 
ministered, while  the  pupil  should  be  dilated 
by  the  application  of  extract  of  belladonna 
around  the  eye.  On  the  subsidence  of  active 
inflammation  the  diet  should  be  improved,  and 
iron,  bitter  tonics,  and  quinine  may  be  neces- 


sary. Gonorrhceal  ophthalmia  closely  resem- 
bles the  severest  and  most  intractable  forms  of 
Egyptian  ophthalmia,  and  is  to  be  treated  in 
a  manner  precisely  similar.  Its  only  cause  is 
the  direct  application  to  the  eye  of  gonorrhceal 
virus.  3.  Ophthalmia  Neonatorum.  New-born 
infants  are  subject  within  a  week  or  two  of 
birth  to  a  disease  closely  resembling  catarrhal 
ophthalmia.  The  infant  is  first  observed  to 
have  the  lids  glued  together  after  sleep,  their 
edges  are  red  and  slightly  swollen,  and  the 
eyes  themselves  are  weak  and  watery.  The 
inflammation  is  at  first  mainly  confined  to  the 
lids ;  as  the  disease  advances  they  become  swol- 
len, tense,  red,  and  shining;  on  being  separa- 
ted, a  thick,  yellow  muco-puriform  discharge 
bursts  forth,  the  lids  often  become  everted, 
and  their  conjunctival  surface  is  seen  to  be 
velvety  and  dark  red ;  the  sclerotic  conjunctiva 
is  at  the  same  time  seen  to  be  injected,  and 
more  or  less  chemosis  is  present.  In  the  worst 
cases  the  cornea  may  become  ulcerated  and 
the  eye  destroyed ;  but  if  treated  early  enough 
the  disease  is  easily  subdued.  In  mild  cases 
bathing  and  cleansing  the  eye  several  times  a 
day  with  warm  water,  or  with  a  weak  colly- 
rium  of  alum  water,  may  be  all  that  is  neces- 
sary. In  severe  cases  the  nitrate  of  silver  so- 
lution may  be  applied  to  the  eye  daily,  while 
the  eye  is  cleansed  three  or  four  times  a  day 
with  the  alum  or  bichloride  of  mercury  solu- 
tion. Sometimes  it  may  be  necessary  to  scar- 
ify the  conjunctiva  of  the  lids.  4.  Scrofulous 
or  Strumous  Ophthalmia — Phlyctcenular  Oph- 
thalmia. Strumous  ophthalmia  is  eminently 
a  disease  of  childhood,  and,  excluding  ophthal- 
mia neonatorum,  before  12  years  of  age  inflam- 
mation of  the  eye  assumes  this  form  in  nine 
cases  out  of  ten.  While  it  is  most  common 
in  children  presenting  other  evidences  of  the 
strumous  diathesis,  it  sometimes  occurs  in  those 
whose  constitutions  are  apparently  without 
taint.  It  is  early  marked  by  great  intolerance 
of  light ;  the  child  seeks  the  shade,  shelters  the 
eye  with  the  hand,  bends  down  the  head,  and 
keeps  the  eyelids  nearly  closed.  Any  attempt 
to  open  the  eye  is  resisted  by  a  spasmodic  clo- 
sure of  the  eyelids,  which  the  child  even  if  in- 
clined is  unable  to  resist.  On  forcing  them  open 
there  is  often  little  appearance  of  inflammation, 
merely  a  faint  blush  of  redness,  with  perhaps 
a  few  vessels  running  from  the  angles  of  the 
eye  toward  the  cornea.  As  the  disease  ad- 
vances, one  or  more  phlyctsenulse  form  upon 
the  cornea,  and  these  bursting  leave  small  ul- 
cers. There  is  commonly  little  suffering  except 
from  the  intolerance  of  light,  and  from  the 
excoriation  caused  by  the  tears  running  down 
the  cheek.  The  child  is  fretful,  the  appetite 
irregular,  and  the  digestive  organs  disordered. 
The  disease  is  apt  to  be  obstinate,  with  a  great 
tendency  to  relapse.  When  ulceration  of  the 
cornea  occurs,  a  permanent  cicatrix  (leucoma)  is 
apt  to  be  left.  In  bad  cases  the  ulceration  may 
penetrate  deeply,  the  cornea  be  pierced,  the  aque- 
ous humor  discharged,  and  prolapse  of  the  iris 


64:6 


OPIE 


OPITZ 


take  place.  The  treatment  may  be  commenced 
by  an  emetic  of  antimony  or  ipecacuanha  (vini 
antimonii  ii.,  or  ipecacuanhas  3  i.  -  3  ii.,  every 
ten  minutes  until  vomiting  is  produced ;  after- 
ward a  purgative  dose  of  calomel  and  rhubarb, 
or  of  calomel  followed  by  a  rhubarb  and  soda 
mixture,  may  be  given.  The  bowels  should  be 
kept  open  and  their  secretions  regulated  by 
minute  doses  of  hydrargyrum  cum  creta  or  cal- 
omel with  rhubarb,  soda,  and  ipecacuanha; 
and  finally  sulphate  of  quinia  may  be  given  in 
doses  of  from  one  to  two  grains  three  times  a 
day.  This  last  in  many  cases  seems  to  act  like 
a  specific.  Iron,  in  the  form  of  lactate,  pyro- 
phosphate,  or  ammonio-citrate,  is  often  useful 
in  conjunction  with  the  quinine.  An  infusion 
of  belladonna  applied  as  a  wash  is  frequently 
of  service  in  relieving  the  photophobia.  Fi- 
nally, in  some  cases,  counter-irritation  by  small 
blisters,  applied  behind  the  ears,  may  be  neces- 
sary. 5.  Sclerotitis — Rheumatic  Ophthalmia. 
Here  the  inflammation  in  pure  cases  is  confined 
to  the  sclerotic  coat,  though  it  is  apt  to  extend 
to  the  cornea  or  iris,  or  to  be  complicated  with 
conjunctivitis  (catarrh o-rheumatic  ophthalmia). 
The  redness  of  the  eye  is  of  a  pink  tint,  form- 
ing a  zone  around  the  cornea  when  it  is  most 
marked,  and  gradually  shading  off  toward  the 
circumference  of  the  eye,  the  vessels  being 
minute  and  disposed  in  radiating  straight  lines. 
The  cornea  becomes  dim,  and  vessels  may 
be  seen  encroaching  upon  its  margin  to  the 
extent  of  ^  or  T^  of  an  inch,  and  then  sud- 
denly stopping.  The  iris  becomes  discolored 
and  the  pupil  contracted  and  sluggish,  and 
sometimes  hazy ;  there  is  intolerance  of  light, 
lachrymation,  and  dimness  of  vision.  The 
patient  suffers  from  pain,  compared  to  that  of 
rheumatism,  in  the  temple  or  around  the  orbit, 
which  is  increased  at  night  and  remits  toward 
morning;  and  there  is  also  deep-seated  pul- 
satile pain  in  the  eyeball.  There  is  constitu- 
tional fever,  the  appetite  is  destroyed,  and  the 
rest  broken.  One  eye  alone  is  commonly  affect- 
ed, or  if  both  are  attacked  one  is  much  worse 
than  the  other.  In  mild  cases  a  full  dose  of 
calomel  and  opium  may  be  given  at  bedtime, 
followed  by  a  purgative  on  the  following  morn- 
ing; afterward  nitrate  of  potash,  in  doses  of 
from  gr.  x.  to  gr.  xx.,  may  be  given  three  times 
a  day  dissolved  in  barley  water.  In  severe 
instances  recourse  must  be  had  to  the  abstrac- 
tion of  blood,  and  small  doses  of  calomel  and 
opium  are  to  be  given  every  night  until  the 
gums  are  slightly  affected.  Counter-irritation 
by  means  of  blisters  is  often  decidedly  useful ; 
occasionally  colchicum  has  seemed  to  be  of 
service ;  the  iodide  of  potassium  has  likewise 
been  given  with  success. 

OPIE.  I.  John,  an  English  painter,  born  at 
St.  Agnes,  near  Truro,  Cornwall,  in  1761,  died 
in  London,  April  9,  1807.  He  pursued  his 
studies  without  instruction,  and  had  acquired 
some  skill  when  he  attracted  the  notice  of  Dr. 
Wolcott  of  Truro  (Peter  Pindar),  who  in  1781 
brought  him  to  London.  There  he  was  named 


the  "  Cornish  wonder,"  and  frequently  the 
street  in  front  of  his  residence  was  blocked  up 
by  the  carriages  of  his  visitors,  and  hardly  a 
year  had  passed  before  he  had  painted  the  prin- 
cipal nobility.  His  portraits,  remarkable  for 
vigor  and  truth,  lacked  elegance  and  refine- 
ment, and  his  popularity  sank  almost  as  sud- 
denly as  it  had  risen.  He  had,  however,  already 
earned  a  handsome  competence,  and  sought 
to  increase  it  by  marrying  the  daughter  of  a 
wealthy  pawnbroker.  The  match  proving  un- 
happy, they  were  divorced,  and  Opie  married 
again  in  1798.  He  set  about  correcting  his  de- 
fects, and  applied  himself  to  historical  paint- 
ing, in  which  he  produced  several  popular  pic- 
tures, as  "  The  Murder  of  James  I.  of  Scotland," 
"The  Death  of  Rizzio,"  "Arthur  taken  Pris- 
oner," "Hubert  and  Arthur,"  " Belisarius," 
and  "Juliet  in  the  Garden."  In  1806  Opie 
was  elected  professor  of  painting  at  the  royal 
academy,  and  as  such  he  delivered  in  February 
and  March,  1807,  four  lectures  on  design,  in- 
vention, chiaroscuro,  and  coloring,  but  died 
before  he  had  completed  the  course.  His  lec- 
tures, with  a  memoir,  were  published  in  1809 
by  his  widow.  His  pictures,  though  wanting 
in  dignity  and  grace,  are  distinguished  for  their 
reality  and  homely  truth,  and  for  their  purity 
of  color.  II.  Amelia  (ALDERSON),  an  English 
authoress,  second  wife  of  the  preceding,  born 
in  Norwich,  Nov.  12,  1769,  died  there,  Dec.  2, 
1853.  In  1798  she  was  married  to  Mr.  Opie. 
Previously  she  had  written  much,  but  pub- 
lished nothing  except  a  novel  which  attracted 
no  attention.  On  the  death  of  her  husband 
she  returned  to  her  father's  home  in  Norwich, 
where  she  spent  the  rest  of  her  life.  In  1825 
she  joined  the  society  of  Friends,  and  in  a  great 
measure  gave  up  literary  pursuits.  Her  princi- 
pal publications  are  :  "  Father  and  Daughter  " 
(1801);  "Poems"  (1802);  " Adeline  Mo wbray, 
or  Mother  and  Daughter"  (1804);  "Simple 
Tales"  (1805);  "The  Warrior's  Eeturn,  and 
other  Poems  "  (1808)  ;  "  Tales  of  Real  Life  " 
(1813);  "Illustrations  of  Lying "(1825);  "De- 
traction Displayed  "  (1828) ;  and  "  Lays  for  the 
Dead"  (1833).  Her  life  has  been  written  by 
Miss  0.  L.  Brightwell  (8vo,  London,  1854). 

OPITZ,  Martin,  a  German  poet,  founder  of  the 
first  Silesian  school,  born  in  Bunzlau,  Silesia, 
Dec.  23,  1597,  died  in  Dantzic,  Aug.  20,  1639. 
He  studied  at  Frankfort-on-the  Oder  and  Hei- 
delberg, travelled  with  a  rich  Danish  friend, 
and  lived  subsequently  at  various  petty  courts 
of  Germany,  officiating  also  for  a  time  as  pro- 
fessor of  philosophy  and  belles-lettres  at  Weis- 
senburg  in  Transylvania  (now  Carlsburg).  He 
was  ennobled  by  the  emperor  Ferdinand  II. 
in  1627  under  the  name  of  Opitz  von  Bober- 
feld ;  and  having  fled  before  the  horrors  of 
the  thirty  years'  war  to  Poland,  he  there  be- 
came historiographer  of  King  Ladislas  IV., 
and  fell  a  victim  to  the  plague.  Owing  to  the 
fear  of  contagion,  his  papers  and  manuscripts 
were  put  away  and  lost.  He  rendered  impor- 
tant service  to  German  literature,  especially  in 


OPIUM 


64T 


refining  the  language.  A  good  edition  of  his 
poems  is  in  the  first  volume  of  Wilhelm 
Miiller's  BibliotheTc  deutscher  Dichter  des  17. 
Jahrhunderts  (Leipsic,  1822). 

OPICM,  a  medicinal  drug,  the  inspissated  juice 
of  the  capsules  of  the  white  poppy,  papaver 
somniferum,  and  its  varieties.  (See  POPPY.) 
The  medicinal  qualities  of  the  poppy  were 
known  in  early  times,  and  an  extract  from  the 
whole  plant  called  meconium  {^KUVLOV}  was 
employed ;  this  was  very  much  less  active  than 
that  obtained  from  the  capsules  only,  which  to 
distinguish  it  from  the  other  was  called  opos 
(oTrdf),  the  juice,  from  which  we  derive  the 
word  opium.  The  Arabs  formed  their  name 
afyun  from  opos,  and  from  this  the  Chinese 
get  o-fu-yung,  which  is  one  of  their  names  for 
the  drug ;  they  also  call  it  ya-pien  and  o-pien, 
evidently  from  the  English  opium.  In  the  3d 
century  B.  0.  the  distinction  was  made  be- 
tween opium  and  meconium,  and  very  early 
preparations  were  in  use  called  theriaca,  which 
consisted  of  opium  combined  with  saffron, 
ambergris,  and  various  other  aromatics,  and 
regarded  as  proper  presents  to  sovereigns  and 
other  dignitaries.  It  is  probable  that  the  col- 
lecting of  opium  began  in  Asia  Minor,  and 
gradually  extended  to  other  countries;  it  is 
now  supplied  to  commerce  by  Asia  Minor, 
Persia,  India,  China,  and  Egypt,  while  experi- 
ments in  its  production  have  been  made  in  dif- 
ferent parts  of  Europe,  Algeria,  Australia,  and 
several  of  the  United  States,  including  Cali- 
fornia.— -In  the  various  opium-producing  coun- 
tries the  method  of  collecting  the  drug,  while 
essentially  the  same,  is  modified  in  its  details. 
The  opium  poppy  is  an  annual  requiring  a  rich 
soil,  and  its  time  of  sowing  depends  upon  the 
requirements  of  the  climate ;  in  Asia  Minor  it 
takes  place  in  November,  and  large  cultivators 
sow  at  intervals  for  three  months,  to  guard 
against  losses  by  insects,  storms,  &c.,  as  well 
as  to  avoid  having  the  whole  come  to  maturity 
at  once.  The  land  being  thoroughly  prepared, 
the  seed  is  sown  broadcast,  and  covered  by  the 
use  of  a  drag ;  the  field  is  afterwra'd  laid  off 
into  beds  about  10  ft.  wide,  for  irrigation  and 
to  facilitate  working ;  the  plants  are  thinned 
and  kept  weeded.  A  few  days  after  the  petals 
fall  the  young  capsules,  then  about  1-^  in.  in 
diameter,  are  scarified,  which  is  here  done  with 
a  knife  about  half  way  of  the  capsule  and  trans- 
versely;  much  skill  is  required  to  make  the  in- 
cision just  the  right  depth,  as  if  made  through 
the  wall  of  the  capsule  the  juice  would  flow 
into  the  cavity  and  be  lost ;  the  cut  extends  two 
thirds  around  the  capsule,  or  may  be  made  spi- 
rally and  end  beyond  the  starting  point.  The 
scarifying  is  done  in  the  afternoon,  and  the  fol- 
lowing morning  the  exuded  juice  is  scraped  off 
with  a  knife  and  placed  in  a  leaf  held  in  the  left 
hand.  When  enough  of  the  half-dried  juice  is 
collected  to  form  a  cake,  varying  from  a  few 
ounces  to  2  Ibs.  or  more,  it  is  wrapped  in  pop- 
py leaves  and  put  in  the  shade  to  dry.  The 
opium  in  this  condition  is  purchased  by  the 


buyers,  who  travel  from  one  village  to  another 
and  gather  it  in  small  lots,  and  work  it  over 
themselves,  or  put  it  into  cotton  bags  and  take 
it  to  Smyrna  for  inspection  and  final  working 
and  packing.  This  is  known  in  commerce  as 
Smyrna  or  Turkey  opium,  and  is  the  most  es- 
teemed in  this  country  and  Europe ;  it  comes 
in  tin  cases  soldered  tight  and  enclosed  in  a 
case  of  wood;  each  case  contains  about  140 
Ibs.,  in  lumps  varying  from  an  ounce  to  sever- 
al pounds.  This  variety  when  fresh  is  readily 
moulded  by  the  fingers  and  cut  with  a  knife. 
Egypt  furnishes  some  opium,  but  of  poor  qual- 
ity ;  30  years  ago  it  was  quite  common  in  our 
shops,  but  it  is  now  rare.  Considerable  opium 
is  produced  in  Persia,  some  of  which  has  of 
late  begun  to  be  exported  to  Europe;  it  is 
made  into  cones  an.d  flat  cakes,  and  is  of  vari- 
able quality,  some  being  largely  adulterated. 
Chinese  opium  is  not  known  in  commerce. 
China  not  only  consumes  nine  tenths  of  that 
exported  from  India,  but  all  its  own  product, 
which  has  increased  to  a  large  amount  within 
a  few  years,  and  has  seriously  affected  the  im- 
portations from  India.  The  drug  is  produced 
in  various  parts  of  the  East  Indies,  but  the 
principal  seat  of  its  culture  is  along  the  Gan- 
ges, where,  in  a  tract  about  200  m.  wide  by  600 
m.  long,  in  1872  between  500,000  and  600,000 
acres  were  devoted  to  the  poppy.  In  some  dis- 
tricts the  manufacture  is  under  government 
control,  while  in  others  it  is  left  to  private  en- 
terprise, the  government  exacting  an  export 
duty.  The  methods  of  collection  and  prepa- 
ration differ  somewhat  from  those  followed 
in  Asia  Minor.  Besides  injuries  from  frost, 
storms,  and  insects,  the  poppy  in  India  is  lia- 
ble to  the  attacks  of  a  species  of  broom  rape 
(orolanche),  which  is  parasitic  upon  the  roots 
of  the  plants  and  renders  them  worthless. 
When  the  plants  are  in  full  flower  and  the  pe- 
tals are  about  to  fall,  these  are  carefully  col- 
lected and  made  into  cakes  about  a  sixth  of  an 
inch  thick,  and  10  to  14  in.  in  diameter ;  this 
is  accomplished  by  placing  them  in  successive 
layers  upon  a  plate  of  iron  or  earthenware, 
which  is  sufficiently  heated  to  cause  the  juice 
in  the  petals  to  exude  and  glue  the  mass  toge- 
ther ;  these  cakes  of  petals,  called  leaves,  are 
sold  at  the  government  factories  with  the  opium. 
In  India  the  scarifying  of  the  capsules  is  done 
vertically,  from  the  base  upward,  with  a  knife 
called  a  nutsJiur,  consisting  of  three  or  four 
two-pointed  blades,  bound  together  with  cotton 
thread,  which  is  passed  between  the  contiguous 
blades  so  as  to  slightly  separate  them.  Parallel 
incisions  are  made  at  one  operation,  and  this  is 
repeated  on  the  same  capsule  in  different  places 
at  intervals  of  a  few  days,  from  two  to  six 
times.  The  collection  is  made  the  next  day  by 
means  of  a  sort  of  sheet-iron  spoon,  and  an 
earthen  jar  which  the  operator  carries  at  his 
side.  The  juice  when  collected  is  very  moist, 
consisting  of  a  pinkish  granular  mass,  from 
which  drains  a  coffee-colored  liquid  called  pa- 
sewa;  this  is  drained  off  and  preserved,  while 


648 


OPIUM 


the  more  solid  mass  is  dried  in  the  shade 
for  three  or  four  weeks,  with  occasional  turn- 
ing. The  dead  leaves  and  stalks  of  the  poppy 
plants  are  broken  up  to  a  coarse  powder  called 
trash,  which  is  used  in  packing.  East  India 
opium  is  in  globular  cakes  about  6  in.  in  diam- 
eter, and  weighing  about  4£  Ibs.  The  ball  is 
made  in  a  hemispherical  brass  cup,  which  is 
first  lined  with  the  leaves  or  petals  to  the  thick- 
ness of  half  an  inch  ;  these  are  pasted  together 
with  a  mixture  called  lewa,  which  is  prepared 
from  the  pasewa,  the  washings  of  the  various 
utensils  used  to  contain  opium,  some  good  opi- 
um and  some  poor,  all  boiled  down  to  a  semi- 
fluid paste ;  when  the  leaves  for  half  the  ball 
have  been  pasted,  the  ball  of  opium  is  placed  in 
the  cup,  and  the  other  half  of  it  covered  with 
leaves  in  a  similar  manner ;  the  completed  ball 
is  then  rolled  in  poppy  trash  and  dried  in  the 
sun  for  three  days,  and  then  placed  on  a  frame 
under  cover  and  turned  frequently,  until  the 
exterior  becomes  quite  hard,  when  it  is  ready 
to  be  packed  for  exportation.  Malwa,  Patna, 
and  Benares  are  the  principal  varieties  of  India 
opium,  and  there  are  minor  ones  named  from 
the  districts  producing  them.  Although  all 
our  supplies  of  opium  are  imported  from  Tur- 
key, it  has  been  successfully  produced  in 
France,  England,  and  the  United  States ;  and 
some  entertain  the  opinion  that  the  opium 
poppy  can  be  profitably  cultivated  in  this 
country  both  for  the  sake  of  the  opium  and  for 
the  seed,  from  which  a  fine  bland  oil  can  be 
made  after  the  opium  crop  has  been  collected. 
In  Prussia  opium  has  been  largely  produced 
and  extensively  used  by  morphine  makers.  In 
Turkey,  prior  to  1857,  2,000  baskets  were  con- 
sidered a  fair  crop.  In  1869-'70  the  crop  was 
3,150  baskets,  and  in  1870-'71  over  7,000. 
Subsequent  large  crops  have  been  about  8,000 
baskets.  The  consumption  keeps  pace  with 
this  increased  production,  and  better  prices 
are  obtained  than  formerly.  In  the  year  end- 
ing in  March,  1872,  the  export  from  India  was 
93,364  chests,  of  about  160  Ibs.  each ;  the  net 
revenue  to  the  government  from  the  drug  for 
187l-'2  was  £7,657,213.  The  amount  of  opi- 
um and  its  extracts  imported  into  the  United 
States  in  the  year  ending  June  30,  1873,  was 
319,134  Ibs.,  valued  at  $1,978,502.— The  chem- 
ical composition  of  opium  is  remarkable.  The 
alkaloid  morphia,  its  most  valuable  constituent, 
was  discovered  by  Sertiirner,  an  apothecary  at 
Eimbeck,  Hanover,  who  in  1816  announced 
the  existence  of  an  organic  alkali,  or  alkaloid 
as  it  is  now  termed,  in  opium,  and  thus  opened 
the  way  to  the  discovery  of  similar  principles 
in  many  other  vegetables.  Before  this,  Derosne 
of  Paris  (1803)  had  obtained  crystals  from  opi- 
um which  are  now  known  to  have  been  nar- 
cotine.  The  United  States  government  does 
not  permit  the  importation  of  opium  which 
does  not  assay  10  per  cent,  of  morphia,  from  a 
sample  fairly  representing  an  entire  package. 
The  lumps  of  opium  vary  in  the  amount  of 
morphia  which  they  contain  from  1  to  15  per 


cent.  The  amount  of  moisture  in  crude  opium 
varies  from  5  to  20  per  cent.  The  only  practi- 
cal way  of  getting  a  uniform  morphia  strength 
in  opium  is  to  use  it  in  the  form  of  powder, 
made  by  drying  and  pulverizing  a  full  case  con- 
taining about  100  Ibs.,  whereby  a  product  hav- 
ing 10  to  13  per  cent,  of  morphia  will  be  ob- 
tained. The  United  States  Pharmacopoeia  re- 
quires that  all  the  preparations  shall  be  made 
from  powdered  opium,  to  avoid  the  variation 
in  strength  that  must  result  from  using  the 
crude  drug.  Good  opium  has  a  very  charac- 
teristic narcotic  odor,  to  most  people  very 
offensive.  It  has  a  reddish  brown  or  fawn 
color,  and  its  texture  is  compact.  Opium  is 
mostly  used  in  medicine  in  the  form  of  liquid 
preparations,  of  which  the  following  are  the 
most  important : 

Tincture  of  opium,  or  laudanum. .     13  minims=l  gr.  opium. 

Elixir,  or  deodorized  tincture 11      "  "          u 

Wine  of  opium 8      "  "          " 

Vinegar  of  opium,  or  black  drop . .      6#  "  "          " 

Camphorated  tincture  of  opium,  or 
paregoric  elixir 272      "          "          " 

It  is  the  most  complex  article  of  the  materia 
medica,  not  less  than  twelve  distinct  alkaloids 
and  two  characteristic  organic  acids  having 
been  found  among  the  proximate  principles 
contained  in  it,  besides  a  volatile  odorous  sub- 
stance and  many  others  of  less  importance. 
The  alkaloids  are  mainly  in  the  form  of  salts 
combined  with  meconic,  thebolactic,  and  sul- 
phuric acids.  It  yields  its  virtues  to  water, 
alcohol,  and  diluted  acids,  but  not  to  ether. 
Diluted  alcohol  or  proof  spirit  is  the  menstru- 
um best  adapted  to  make  the  most  complete 
liquid  representative  of  opium ;  it  dissolves 
everything  of  value,  leaving  an  inert  residue, 
which  if  the  opium  is  pure  consists  only  of  the 
scrapings  of  the  poppy  capsules.  About  two 
thirds  of  the  opium  is  dissolved  by  diluted 
alcohol.  Water  will  dissolve  about  one  half 
of  the  opium,  but  it  will  not  take  up  the  res- 
inous and  odorous  matters  that  abound  in  the 
drug.— Morphia  (Ci7Hi9NO3  +  HaO=303)  is  the 
most  abundant  and  by  far  the  most  important 
ingredient  in  opium.  It  probably  exists  in  the 
drug  as  a  meconate,  and  partly  also  as  thebo- 
lactate  and  sulphate,  in  each  of  which  forms  it 
is  quite  soluble  in  water.  There  are  many 
processes  by  which  morphia  can  be  prepared 
from  opium.  The  simplest  and  best  is  the 
Staples  process,  officinal  in  the  United  States 
Pharmacopoeia,  of  which  the  following  is  an 
outline.  An  infusion  of  the  opium  is  evapo- 
rated until  eight  parts  are  obtained  from  one 
of  opium ;  this  is  mixed  with  an  equal  volume 
of  alcohol  and  water  of  ammonia  added  in 
slight  excess,  and  the  mixture  set  aside  for  24 
hours,  during  which  time  the  morphia  sepa- 
rates in  crystals  at  the  bottom  of  the  vessel. 
By  redissolving  in  boiling  alcohol  and  treating 
with  animal  charcoal,  the  coloring  matter  can 
be  removed  and  the  morphia  obtained  in  col- 
orless prismatic  crystals,  having  nearly  6  per 
cent,  of  water  of  crystallization.  They  are  solu- 


OPIUM 


649 


ble  in  about  1,000  parts  of  cold  and  400  parts 
of  boiling  water,  and  in  14  parts  of  boiling 
and  20  parts  of  cold  alcohol ;  they  are  readily 
dissolved  by  the  fixed  alkalies,  but  very  sparing- 
ly by  ammonia.  With  acids  morphia  forms 
salts  soluble  in  water,  of  which  the  sulphate  is 
the  most  important  and  most  used  in  the  Uni- 
ted States.  This  forms  beautiful  white,  mi- 
nute, feathery  crystals,  soluble  in  two  parts  of 
cold  water,  and  still  more  soluble  in  boiling 
water.  One  eighth  of  a  grain  is  equivalent  to 
one  grain  of  powdered  opium.  In  England 
the  muriate  is  most  used.  The  acetate  is  also 
considerably  used  in  both  countries.  Morphia 
and  its  salts  are  characterized  by  striking  a 
blue  color  with  neutral  ferric  chloride,  and  by 
giving  a  red  color  with  nitric  acid,  passing  into 
yellow.  Narcotina  is  an  alkaloid,  and  forms 
salts  with  the  acids  which  are  very  bitter,  but 
is  itself  tasteless.  It  exists  in  opium  for  the 
most  part  free.  It  is  easily  obtained  in  fine 
large  crystals,  which  are  insoluble  in  cold 
water,  soluble  in  400  parts  of  boiling  water, 
and  in  100  parts  of  cold  and  in  24  parts  of 
boiling  alcohol,  which  deposits  in  crystals  on 
cooling;  it  is  very  soluble  in  ether,  which  is 
its  best  solvent.  Oodeia  was  discovered  by 
Eobiquet  in  1832,  and  has  been  to  some  ex- 
tent used  as  a  substitute  for  morphia,  but  is 
far  less  active.  Narceia  was  discovered  by 
Pelletier  in  1832.  It  has  been  employed  to 
a  limited  extent,  but  its  great  cost,  $50  an 
ounce,  will  always  prevent  its  general  employ- 
ment. The  following  statement  of  the  propor- 
tionate quantity  of  the  more  important  con- 
stituents of  opium  is  given  on  the  authority  of 
Messrs.  T.  and  H.  Smith :  from  100  parts  of 
opium,  10  parts  of  morphia,  6  of  narcotina, 
0*15  of  thebaina,  1  of  papaverina,  0*30  of  codeia, 
0*02  of  narceia,  O'Ol  of  meconine,  4  of  meconic 
acid,  and  1*25  of  thebolactic  acid.  Meconic 
acid  is  of  some  consequence  as  the  acid  with 
which  the  alkaloids  are  in  part  naturally  com- 
bined, which  combination  is  restored  in  the 
preparation  known  as  bimeconate  of  morphia. 
It  also  gives  certain  characteristic  color  reac- 
tions, which  may  be  of  value  in  detecting  the 
presence  of  opium  in  mixtures.  To  the  volatile 
odorous  principle  is  due  the  unpleasant  smell 
of  the  drug,  and  perhaps  some  of  its  disagree- 
able after  effects,  since  the  deodorized  tincture 
or  elixir  of  opium  agrees  with  some  persons 
who  cannot  bear  the  ordinary  non-deodorized 
tincture  or  laudanum. — The  physiological  and 
therapeutical  action  of  opium  is  represented, 
with  no  very  important  variations,  by  that  of 
morphia,  the  other  constituents  being  present 
in  opium  in  so  small  quantity  as  not  very  ma- 
terially to  affect  its  operation.  It  is  custom- 
ary and  convenient,  in  speaking  of  the  action 
of  opium  or  morphia,  to  divide  it  into  two 
stages,  a  primary  one  of  excitement  or  stimu- 
lation, and  a  secondary  one  of  narcotism.  A 
small  dose  of  morphia  produces  at  first  a  slight 
mental  excitation,  which  is  usually  quiet  and 
dreamy,  with  but  few  external  manifestations. 


The  pulse  is  somewhat  accelerated  and  the 
temperature  slightly  raised.  This  condition  of 
tranquillity  and  comfort  may  last  for  several 
hours,  or  sooner  or  later  pass  into  a  quiet  sleep, 
which  in  the  daytime  is  likely  to  be  short,  but 
at  night  may  be  continued  into  the  usual  sleep. 
Some  headache,  nausea,  and  lassitude  may  fol- 
low the  awakening ;  but  these  vary  much  with 
the  dose  and  the  individual.  The  secretions, 
excepting  that  of  the  skin,  are  diminished. 
Females  are  somewhat  more  liable  than  males 
to  the  unpleasant  after  effects,  and  nervous, 
excitable  individuals  than  those  of  an  opposite 
disposition.  As  the  dose  increases,  the  stage 
of  stimulation  becomes  shorter,  the  sleep  be- 
comes more  heavy  or  deepens  into  coma,  the 
pulse  and  respiration  become  slow,  the  face 
pale  or  livid,  the  skin  covered  with  a  cold  per- 
spiration, and  the  pupil  contracted.  From 
this  condition  the  patient  may  recover,  or,  the 
breathing  becoming  more  shallow  and  the 
aeration  of  the  blood  less  perfect,  death  en- 
sues. Violent  stimulants  may  arouse  a  per- 
son from  the  condition  last  described  for  a 
few  moments,  only  to  sink  again  into  uncon- 
sciousness as  soon  as  left  to  himself.  When 
pain  is  present,  it  disappears  or  diminishes 
under  the  influence  of  the  drug,  and  the  dose 
may  be  increased  almost  in  direct  proportion 
to  the  severity  of  the  pain.  But  it  is  by  no 
means  necessary  for  the  relief  of  pain  in  all 
cases  to  induce  a  condition  of  unconsciousness 
or  anything  approaching  it.  Severe  neuralgic 
or  spasmodic  pain  will  often  entirely  disappear 
under  a  dose  which  merely  excites  the  patient, 
or  indeed  simply  restores  him  to  his  normal 
condition  of  comfort  and  cheerfulness.  It  is 
impossible  to  state  with  accuracy  the  fatal 
dose,  so  wide  are  the  limits  fixed  by  age,  hab- 
it, and  idiosyncrasy.  The  usual  commencing 
dose  of  morphia  is  from  the  eighth  to  the 
third  of  a  grain,  although  smaller  doses  are  by 
no  means  without  effect,  and  larger  ones  are 
often  used  in  cases  of  severe  pain.  Children 
are  peculiarly  susceptible  to  the  poisonous  ac- 
tion of  the  drug.  The  treatment  of  opium 
poisoning  consists  in  evacuating  the  stomach, 
the  use  of  strong  coffee,  the  application  of  pow- 
erful irritants,  as  flagellation,  the  cold  douche, 
or  the  galvanic  battery,  and  occasionally  small 
doses  of  atropia  or  tincture  of  belladonna.  The 
patient  should  not  be  permitted  to  sleep.  In 
therapeutic  doses  opium  differs  from  morphia  in 
its  somewhat  greater  liability  to  produce  head- 
ache, nausea,  and  constipation.  Their  poison- 
ous action  is  practically  identical.  The  thera- 
peutic uses  of  morphia  and  opium  are  to  relieve 
pain,  cause  sleep,  relax  spasm,  check  over-se- 
cretion, and  in  small  doses  to  act  as  stimulants 
in  various  morbid  conditions.  The  special  dis- 
eases in  which  they  may  be  used  are  too  numer- 
ous to  mention,  but  may  be  inferred  from  the 
foregoing.  Opium  may  be  administered  by 
the  mouth  or  by  the  rectum ;  morphia,  in  addi- 
tion, by  application  to  a  blistered  surface,  or 
more  conveniently  and  efficiently  by  injection 


650 


OPIUM 


OPOKTO 


into  the  tissue  beneath  the  skin  by  a  small 
syringe  attached  to  a  perforated  needle,  called 
the  hypodermic  or  subcutaneous  syringe. — 
Among  the  other  alkaloids  of  opium,  narceia 
and  codeia  possess  hypnotic  powers  consider- 
ably less  than  those  of  morphia,  and  but  little 
if  any  anodyne  effect.  Papaverina  is  said  by 
some  observers  to  have  similar  properties,  while 
others  have  seen  little  or  no  effect  therefrom. 
Narcotina  has  been  held  responsible  for  some 
of  the  disagreeable  after  effects  of  opium,  but 
subsequent  investigation  has  shown  that  it  has 
little  to  do  with  the  narcotic  effect.  It  is  how- 
ever a  bitter,  and  has  been  used  in  India  in 
the  treatment  of  intermittent  fever.  Thebaina 
or  paramorphia  closely  resembles  strychnia  in 
its  action,  but  is  present  in  opium  in  so  small 
quantity  that  its  effect  counts  for  but  little 
in  the  total.  Pseudomorphia  is  interesting  as 
presenting  some  of  the  chemical  without  the 
physiological  properties  of  morphia.  Cryp- 
topia  produces  a  peculiar  delirium  in  the  dog ; 
but  it  has  been  separated  in  such  small  quanti- 
ties that  its  effects  on  man  are  not  known.  Of 
porphyroxia  and  meconia  but  little  is  known 
physiologically.  Opiania  is  probably  narcotic. 
— The  use  of  opium  as  an  habitual  stimulant, 
producing  exhilaration  and  pleasant  flights  of 
fancy  or  dreams,  is  very  prevalent  in  many 
parts  of  the  world,  our  own  country  being  by 
no  means  an  exception.  It  is  a  vice  less  easy 
of  detection  than  alcoholic  intoxication,  which 
it  is  said  to  replace  where  law  and  custom  have 
made  the  latter  disreputable.  Its  evil  effects 
are  most  manifest  upon  the  nervous  and  diges- 
tive systems.  Among  the  symptoms  may  be 
mentioned  loss  of  appetite,  vomiting," pain  in 
the  stomach,  obstinate  constipation  alternating 
with  diarrhoea,  emaciation,  loss  of  strength, 
a  trembling  gait,  pains  in  the  limbs,  mental 
sluggishness,  hallucinations,  and  a  condition 
resembling  delirium  tremens.  The  quantity 
which  opium  eaters  accustom  themselves  to 
take  is  enormous,  often  exceeding  80  grains 
of  opium  or  10  grains  of  morphia.  The  use 
of  opium  by  smoking  and  by  mastication,  to 
produce  a  kind  of  intoxication,  has  existed  in 
the  East  for  centuries ;  but  it  is  not  thought 
that  opium  smoking  was  much  practised  by  the 
Chinese  until  the  middle  of  the  17th  century, 
though  the  drug  was  known  to  them  medici- 
nally in  the  9th.  So  rapidly  did  the  custom 
spread  that  in  1796  an  imperial  edict  was  issued 
against  it ;  and  the  efforts  to  prevent  its  im- 
portation led  to  the  war  with  the  English 
known  as  the  opium  war,  which  terminated  in 
1842  by  a  treaty  which  allowed  opium  to  en- 
ter Chinese  ports.  For  smoking,  the  opium  is 
made  into  an  extract,  and  a  small  pill  of  this 
the  size  of  a  pea  is  placed  in  a  pipe,  lighted, 
and  exhausted  at  a  single  whiff.  The  first  effect 
is  to  make  the  smoker  talk  rapidly  and  laugh 
at  slight  causes ;  but  soon  the  countenance  be- 
comes shrunken  and  pallid,  and  a  deep  sleep 
of  hours  follows. — The  most  celebrated  work 
on  the  effects  of  the  habitual  use  of  opium 


is  De  Quincey's  "Confessions  of  an  English 
Opium  Eater  "  (London,  1822).  See  also  u  The 
Opium  Habit,"  by  Horace  Day,  with  which  is 
incorporated  "  Outlines  of  the  Opium  Cure," 
by  Fitz  Hugh  Ludlow  (New  York,  1868),  and 
"  Opium  and  the  Opium  Appetite,"  &c.,  by  A. 
Calkins,  M.  D.  (Philadelphia,  1870). 

OPODELDOC,  a  name  given  by  Paracelsus  to 
a  plaster  for  all  external  injuries;  now  ap- 
plied to  a  liniment  which  is  much  used  as  an 
anodyne  application  in  sprains,  bruises,  and 
rheumatic  pains.  It  is  prepared  by  dissolving 
3  oz.  of  common  white  soap  in  a  pint  of  alco- 
hol by  the  heat  of  a  sand  bath,  and  adding  an 
ounce  of  camphor  and  a  fluid  drachm  each  of 
oil  of  rosemary  and  oil  of  origanum.  It  becomes 
a  soft,  translucent,  yellowish  white  mass,  of 
the  consistency  of  soft  ointment,  which  lique- 
fies when  rubbed  upon  the  skin. 

OPORTO,  or  Porto  (Port.  0  Porto,  the  port), 
a  city  of  Portugal,  in  the  province  of  Minho, 
on  the  right  bank  of  the  Douro,  about  3  m. 
from  the  sea,  and  173  m.  N.  by  E.  of  Lis- 
bon; lat.  41°  8'  N.,  Ion.  8°  37'  W. ;  pop.  (in- 
cluding the  six  suburbs)  in  1864,  89,194.  It 
is  the  most  important  emporium  of  Portugal, 
and  is  officially  styled  the  "  loyal  and  uncon- 
quered  city  of  Porto."  It  is  built  partly  on 
level  ground  along  the  river,  and  partly  on 
the  sides  and  summits  of  two  hills,  and  pre- 
sents a  fine  appearance  from  the  sea.  On 
the  land  side  it  is  protected  by  a  small  fort 
and  an  old  wall  flanked  with  towers;  and 
the  entrance  to  the  port  is  commanded  by  the 
fort  of  Sao  Joao  da  Foz.  Along  the  river 
for  about  two  miles  extends  a  quay.  A 
broad,  well  paved  street  extends  to  two  other 
good  streets,  which  join  it  obliquely  and  lead 
to  the  upper  parts  of  the  town.  The  other 
streets  on  the  declivities  are  crooked  and  nar- 
row, and  a  portion  of  the  E.  part  is  accessible 
only  by  steps  cut  into  the  rock.  Among  the 
finest  squares  is  that  of  Sao  Ovidio.  The 
houses  are  generally  well  built,  and  are  white- 
washed. There  are  more  than  90  churches 
and  chapels,  the  most  prominent  of  which  are 
the  cathedral  and  the  churches  of  Sao  Francis- 
co dos  Congregados,  Sao  Ildefonso,  and  Dos 
Clerigos,  the  last  famous  for  its  tower,  210  ft. 
high.  Other  notable  edifices  are  the  bishop's 
palace,  15  convents,  now  used  for  secular  pur- 
poses, the  town  hall,  royal  hospital,  foundling 
hospital,  exchange,  and  opera  house.  Among 
the  principal  public  institutions  are  a  library 
of  80,000  volumes,  a  mint,  a  museum,  a  medi- 
cal college,  an  academy  of  navigation  and  com- 
merce, a  seminary,  and  many  schools.  The 
English  factory  house  is  a  handsome  building, 
with  a  library  and  public  rooms.  The  city  is 
lighted  with  gas,  and  has  many  gardens  and 
fountains.  A  suspension  bridge  connects  it 
with  Villa  Nova,  on  the  opposite  bank  of  the 
Douro,  where,  along  the  river,  are  extensive 
wine  vaults.  The  summer  resort  of  Sao  Joao 
da  Foz  adjoins  the  city,  and  near  it  is  the  bar 
of  the  Douro,  which  prevents  the  ingress  of 


OPOSSUM 


651 


vessels  of  more  than  500  tons  burden,  and  is 
noted  for  maritime  disasters.  Measures  for 
improving  its  navigation  are  in  progress.  The 
climate  of  Oporto  is  cold  and  damp  in  winter, 
but  in  summer  it  is  exceedingly  warm.  The 
manufactures,  which  are  of  little  importance, 


consist  chiefly  of  iron  ware,  hats,  silks,  linens 
pottery,  casks,  and  filigree  work.  Local  in- 
dustry is  encouraged,  and  the  consumption  of 
foreign  goods  is  limited  by  a  high  protective 
tariff.  The  total  imports  do  not  exceed  $800,- 
000  annually.  The  exports  consist  principally 


Oporto. 


of  port  wine ;  this  trade  is  almost  exclusively 
in  English  hands,  and  would  be  more  consid- 
erable if  it  were  not  for  the  British  duty  of 
£14  a  pipe  of  115  gallons ;  the  exports  in  1871 
included  31,956  pipes,  or  nearly  3,700,000  gal- 
lons. The  total  value  of  the  exports,  compri- 
sing cattle  (chiefly  oxen),  fruit,  sumach,  and 
lesser  articles,  such  as  oil,  lemons,  oranges,  salt, 
leather,  and  cork,  amounts  annually  to  $9,000,- 
000.  Nearly  700  vessels  enter  the  port  annual- 
ly, upward  of  100  of  which  are  steamers.  The 
city  is  connected  with  Lisbon  and  other  places 
by  railway. — The  site  of  Oporto  was  anciently 
called  Gale,  afterward  Portus  Gale,  whence  the 
name  of  the  country,  Portugal.  It  was  held 
alternately  by  the  Moors  and  Christians  from 
the  8th  to  the  llth  century,  and  in  1092  the 
latter  subdued  it  and  remained  in  undisputed 
possession.  John  II.  conferred  many  privi- 
leges upon  it,  but  they  were  withdrawn  in 
1757  in  consequence  of  the  resistance  of  the 
inhabitants  to  a  wine  monopoly.  The  French 
captured  it  in  1808,  but  retired  in  the  follow- 
ing year  when  Wellington  crossed  the  Douro. 
Oporto  was  conspicuous  during  the  revolu- 
tionary period  of  1820.  It  suffered  terribly 
in  1828-'33,  when  it  was  alternately  the  prin- 
cipal seat  of  Dom  Miguel  and  Doin  Pedro, 
and  again  during  the  revolution  of  1847.  (See 
PORTUGAL.) 

OPOSSUM,  the  general  name  of  the  family  di- 
delpJiidce  of  the  order  of  marsupials,  the  sarigue 
of  the  French.  They  are  confined  to  America, 


extending  from  the  middle  states  to  Buenos 
Ayres  on  the  south,  and,  with  a  few  excep- 
tions, to  the  east  of  the  Andes.  Some  are  as 
large  as  a  domestic  cat,  but  most  are  no  larger 
than  a  rat.  The  form  is  rat-like,  but  the  muz- 
zle is  longer,  ending  in  a  distinct  naked  muffle ; 
the  ears  are  large,  membranous,  rounded,  and 
almost  naked  ;  the  body  rather  stout ; .  tail 
generally  very  long,  with  only  a  few  minute 
scattered  hairs,  except  at  the  root,  and  pow- 
erfully prehensile;  the  feet  five-toed,  planti- 
grade, naked  beneath  ;  all  the  toes  with  mod- 
erate claws,  except  the  inner  one  of  the  hind 
foot ;  the  hind  thumb  is  distinct,  and  opposable 
to  the  other  toes;  maminsB  from  9  to  13,  the 
odd  one  being  in  the  centre  of  a  ring  formed 
by  the  others.  The  teeth  are  50 :  incisors 
|zf,  cylindrical,  arranged  in  a  semicircle,  the 
foremost  two  the  longest;  canines  |z|,  the 
upper  the  longest ;  premolars  £ if,  two-rooted, 
compressed,  and  pointed;  molars  -|~f,  three- 
rooted,  tubercular,  with  five  prickly  cusps.  The 
stomach  is  simple,  and  the  caecum  moderately 
long.  Opossums  are  mostly  nocturnal,  hiding 
among  the  foliage  by  day,  and  active  at  night 
in  search  of  food.  They  are  divided  into  two 
sections,  according  to  the  presence  or  absence 
of  the  pouch.  Among  those  which  have  a 
well  developed  pouch  belongs  the  common 
opossum  (didelphis  Virginiana,  Shaw),  about 
20  in.  long,  and  the  tail  15  in.  additional ;  hair 
long,  soft,  and  woolly,  whitish  at  the  roots  and 
brownish  at  the  tip,  giving  the  animal  a  dusky 


652 


OPOSSUM 


OPPELN 


color ;  long  white  hairs  are  mingled  with  the 
ordinary  fur  of  the  body ;  face  near  the  snout 
white,  dusky  around  the  eyes ;  ears  black,  with 
the  base  and  margin  whitish ;  legs,  feet,  and 
basal  portion  of  tail  brownish  black.  The 
mouth  is  wide,  the  jaws  weak,  the  eyes  small 


Common  Opossum  (Didelphis  Virginians). 

and  high  on  the  forehead,  whiskers  stiff,  and 
tail  capable  of  involution  only  on  the  under 
side.  The  opossum  is  sometimes  active  by 
day,  but  generally  prefers  to  prowl  in  bright 
and  still  nights  around  plantations,  rice  fields, 
and  low  swampy  places.  The  gait  on  the 
ground  is  slow,  heavy,  and  pacing,  but  on 
trees,  to  which  it  takes  when  pursued,  its 
motions  are  very  lively ;  the  sense  of  smell  is 
acute ;  it  is  fond  of  lying  on  its  back  in  the 
sun  for  hours.  It  is  generally  solitary,  unless 
when  bringing  up  a  family.  The  teeth  indicate 
its  omnivorous  character ;  its  food  consists  of 
corn,  nuts,  berries,  persimmons,  roots,  tender 
shoots,  insects,  young  birds  and  eggs,  mice,  and 
similar  small  quadrupeds;  sometimes  it  will 
kill  poultry,  sucking  the  blood  but  not  eating 
the  flesh,  though  it  is  far  less  mischievous  in 
this  respect  than  the  mink,  weasel,  and  skunk ; 
it  is  very  expert  in  climbing  in  search  of  food, 
hanging  by  the  tail  or  swinging  by  it  from  one 
tree  to  another.  When  caught  it  feigns  death, 
and  will  sometimes  in  this  condition  bear  con- 
siderable torture  without  exhibiting  signs  of 
life,  all  the  time  watching  its  opportunity  to 
bite  or  escape ;  hence  the  expression  "  playing 
'possum  ;"  when  wounded,  it  is  very  tenacious 
of  life.  The  flesh  is  edible ;  the  skin  is  fetid ; 
the  hair  is  dyed  by  the  Indians,  and  is  woven 
into  girdles  and  other  ornaments.  When  taken 
young,  it  is  easily  domesticated.  It  is  very 
prolific,  bringing  forth  12  to  16  at  a  birth, 
in  the  early  part  of  March,  May,  and  July, 
in  South  Carolina,  and  having  even  a  fourth 
brood  further  south.  The  nest  is  made  of 
dried  grass,  under  a  bush  or  root  of  a  .tree,  and 
sometimes  the  Florida  rat  or  the  squirrel  is 
forced  to  give  up  its  lodging  place;  the  time 
of  gestation  is  15  or  16  days;  the  young  when 
first  born  are  about  half  an  inch  long,  blind 
and  naked;  the  mother  places  them  with  her 


mouth  in  the  pouch,  which  she  holds  open 
with  her  fore  feet,  where  they  soon  attach 
themselves  very  firmly,  each  animal  to  its  teat ; 
they  grow  very  rapidly,  increasing  nearly  ten- 
fold in  weight  during  the  first  week,  and  are 
very  tenacious  of  life ;  when  about  five  weeks 
old,  or  of  the  size  of  a  mouse,  they  leave  the 
pouch,  returning  to  it  to  suck,  or  at  the  ap- 
proach of  danger;  they  remain  with  their 
mother  about  two  months ;  the  mother  is  very 
fond  of  her  young,  which  are  carried  about, 
twisting  their  tails  around  that  of  the  parent, 
and  clinging  to  various  parts  of  her  body ;  the 
females  are  prolific  at  a  year  old.  This  species 
is  found  from  the  Hudson  river  to  beyond  the 
Missouri ;  it  is  replaced  in  Mexico,  Texas,  and 
California  by  the  D.  Californica  (Benn.),  a 
smaller  animal  with  a  comparatively  longer 
tail,  much  darker  on  the  body  and  limbs,  the 
head  dusky  with  a  brown  streak  through  the 
eye,  chin  and  throat  sooty,  and  the  ears  black. 
The  crab-eating  opossum  ( D.  cancrivora,  Gmel.) 
inhabits  chiefly  the  northern  parts  of  South 
America ;  the  color  is  a  nearly  uniform  brown- 
ish black,  with  the  upper  half  of  the  tail  whi- 
tish ;  the  hair  is  glossy  but  harsh,  very  long 
(even  to  3  in.  on  the  back),  and  dirty  yellowish 
white  next  the  skin ;  the  total  length  is  about 
32  in.,  of  which  the  tail  is  one  half.  It  prefers 
the  swampy  regions  of  Guiana,  where  small 
crabs  abound,  of  which  it  is  very  fond;  it 
also  eats  small  birds,  reptiles,  and  insects ;  its 
flesh  is  eaten  by  the  Indians,  and  is  said  to 
resemble  that  of  the  hare.  Several  other  spe- 
cies of  this  section  are  described  by  Water- 
house. — In  the  section  containing  opossums  in 
which  the  pouch  is  rudimentary  or  entirely 
wanting,  the  size  is  smaller,  and  the  young 
are  carried  principally  on  the  mother's  back, 
retaining  their  position  by  entwining  their 
tails  around  that  of  the  parent ;  here  also  belong 
about  20  species.  Eemains  of  opossums  have 
been  found  in  the  calcareous  caverns  of  Brazil, 
nearly  allied  to,  if  not  identical  with,  existing 
species ;  Cuvier  discovered  in  the  gypsum 
quarries  of  Montmartre,  of  the  Paris  basin,  an 
almost  entire  skeleton  of  a  didelpMs,  which 
shows  the  existence  of  marsupials  in  Europe 
in  the  eocene  geological  period,  contempora- 
neous with  the  anoplotlierium  palaotherium, 
and  other  extinct  ungulates.  (See  YAPOOK.) 

OPPELN,  a  town  of  Prussian  Silesia,  capital 
of  an  administrative  district  of  the  same  name, 
on  the  Oder,  50  m.  S.  E.  of  Breslau ;  pop.  in 
1871,  11,879.  It  contains  an  old  castle  on 
an  island  in  the  Oder,  a  church  built  at  the 
end  of  the  10th  century,  besides  three  othei 
Catholic  and  two  Protestant  churches,  a  syna- 
gogue, a  Catholic  gymnasium,  and  a  royal  in- 
stitute for  midwives.  It  has  an  active  trade 
in  wine,  cattle,  and  minerals,  and  manufac- 
tories of  linen,  ribbons,  leather,  and  pottery. 
Oppeln  was  formerly  a  sovereign  principality 
and  the  residence  of  the  dukes  of  Upper 
Silesia  of  the  house  of  Piast.  The  dynasty 
died  out  in  1532,  when  Oppeln  was  annexed 


OPPEN2EIM 


OPTICS 


653 


to  the  empire,  and  subsequently  it  became  part 
of  Prussia. 

OPPENHEIM,   a  town  of   Germany,   in  the 

rnd  duchy  of  Hesse,  on  the  Rhine,  10  m.  S. 
E.  of  Mentz;  pop.  in  1871,  2,926.  It  occu- 
pies the  site  of  an  ancient  Roman  castle,  and 
at  one  time  was  one  of  the  most  important 
cities  of  the  Rhine;  but  it  was  almost  en- 
tirely destroyed  by  the  French  in  1689.  The 
Protestant  St.  Catharine's  church,  one  of  the 
most  magnificent  Gothic  edifices  of  Germany, 
and  especially  celebrated  for  its  windows,  is 
in  ruins,  excepting  the  E.  part,  which  was  re- 
stored in  1843.  Nier stein  and  other  places  fa- 
mous for  excellent  vintages  are  in  the  vicinity. 

OPPERT,  Jules,  a  French  orientalist,  born  in 
Hamburg,  of  Jewish  parents,  July  9, 1825.  He 
received  a  classical  education,  studied  law  at 
Heidelberg,  and  Sanskrit  and  Arabic  at  Bonn. 
He  next  studied  the  Zend  and  the  ancient  Per- 
sian, and  published  a  treatise  at  Berlin  on  the 
vocal  system  of  the  latter  language.  His  re- 
ligion incapacitating  him  for  a  professorship 
in  a  German  university,  he  went  to  France  in 
1847,  obtained  the  professorship  of  German  at 
the  lyceums  of  Laval  and  Rheims,  and  was  ap- 
pointed on  the  scientific  expedition  sent  by  the 
government  to  Mesopotamia.  After  his  return 
in  1854,  he  submitted  to  the  institute  a  new 
system  of  interpreting  the  inscriptions.  He 
also  laid  before  the  geographical  society  of 
the  institute  a  plan  of  ancient  Babylon.  For 
20  years  he  has  devoted  himself  chiefly  to 
the  study  of  cuneiform  inscriptions.  In  1857 
he  was  appointed  professor  of  Sanskrit  in  the 
school  of  languages  attached  to  the  imperial 
library.  Among  his  works  are:  Les  inscrip- 
tions des  Achemenides  (1852);  fitudes  assyri- 
ennes  ;  L1  Expedition  scientifique  de  France 
en  Mesopotamia  (185 8-' 64);  Grammaire  san- 
scrite  (1859)  ;  Lesfastes  de  Sargon,  in  company 
with  M.  J.  M6nant  (1863);  Grande  inscription 
du  palais  de  Khorsabad  (1864) ;  Histoire  des 
empires  de  Chaldee  et  d'Assyrie,  d'apres  les 
monuments  (1866);  and  IS Immortalite  de  Vdme 
chez  les  Chaldeens,  suivi  d'une  traduction  de 
la  descente  aux  enfers  de  la  deesse  Istar 
Astarte  (1875). 

OPPIAN,  a  Greek  poet,  born  in  Cilicia,  flour- 
ished about  A.  D.  180.  He  belonged  to  a  dis- 
tinguished family.  His  father  having  been 
banished  to  the  island  of  Melita,  Oppian  ac- 
companied him,  and  there  wrote  his  Halieu- 
tica,  a  poem  on  fishing,  in  3,500  verses.  A 
poem  entitled  Cynegetica,  "On  Hunting,"  at- 
tributed to  him,  modern  critics  suppose  to 
have  been  written  by  another  person  of  the 
same  name.  The  best  edition  of  the  two  is 
that  of  Schneider  (Strasburg,  1776). 

OPTICS,  the  science  which  treats  of  the  na- 
ture of  light,  and  of  the  laws  of  the  phe- 
nomena of  light  and  vision.  For  the  theo- 
ries of  light,  and  other  branches  of  the  sub- 
ject, see  the  articles  ABERRATION,  CHROMATICS, 
FLUORESCENCE,  LIGHT,  SPECTRUM,  SPECTRUM 
ANALYSIS,  SPECTACLES,  STEREOSCOPE,  and  VI- 


SION. The  present  article  will  be  devoted 
chiefly  to  the  laws  of  reflection  (catoptrics)  and 
those  of  simple  refraction  (dioptrics).  These 
form  a  large  portion  of  geometrical  or  for- 
mal optics,  in  which,  without  regard  to  any 
theory,  the  actual  phenomena  of  light  are  ob- 
served and  generalized,  and  the  laws  of  the 
changes  effected  in  the  rays  by  surfaces  and 
media  are  ascertained.  In  connection  with 
the  transmission  of  light  one  other  general 
fact  may  be  noticed.  It  is  that,  with  the  ex- 
ception that  some  degree  of  dimness  will  arise 
when  the  interposed  body  of  air  is  of  great 
extent,  a  given  surface,  as  that  of  the  side 
of  a  house,  illuminated  in  the  same  degree, 
appears  equally  luminous,  at  whatever  dis- 
tance it  may  be  regarded.  This  equal  bright- 
ness at  different  distances  is  readily  explained 
when  we  remember  that  the  actual  intensity 
of  light  from  a  point  or  unit  of  surface  dimin- 
ishes in  inverse  ratio  as  the  square  of  the  dis- 
tance increases;  and  that,  since  any  linear 
magnitude  diminishes  in  the  inverse  ratio  of 
,the  simple  distance,  so  a  surface  must  also 
appear  lessened  in  the  ratio  of  the  square  of 
distance;  less  light  comes  to  the  eye  from  a 
given  surface  at  increased  distance,  but  the 
actual  surface  becomes  contracted  into  an  ap- 
parent surface  less  in  the  same  proportion; 
and  thus  one  effect  balances  the  other,  and  the 
actual  illumination  is  reduced  by  the  effect 
of  the  aerial  perspective  only. — The  ancient 
Greeks  and  the  Arabians  made  considerable 
progress  in  formal  optics,  but  chiefly  in  the  dis- 
covery of  the  law  of  reflection,  and  of  conse- 
quences flowing  from  it.  They  had  attained 
the  idea  of  rays  of  light,  the  fact  of  their  or- 
dinary straight-lined  transmission,  and  the  law 
of  equality  of  the  angles  of  reflection  and  inci- 
dence, and  deduced  with  much  completeness 
the  properties  of  shadows,  perspective,  and  the 
convergence  of  rays  by  concave  mirrors.  Eu- 
clid and  the  followers  of  Plato,  however,  taught 
that  these  rays  proceed  from  the  eye,  not  from 
the  visible  object.  Aristotle  reasoned  that  an 
interposed  medium  was  necessary  to  vision; 
this  he  considered  to  be  light,  and  defined  as 
"  the  transparent  in  action."  Of  special  trea- 
tises on  light,  the  earliest  known  are  the  "  Op- 
tics" of  Euclid,  Heron's  "Catoptrics,"  and 
Ptolemy's  "  Optics."  In  the  last  of  these  oc- 
curs an  elaborate  collection  of  measurements  of 
the  refraction  at  different  angles,  from  air  to 
glass,  and  from  glass  to  water — tables  of  much 
interest,  as  furnishing  the  oldest  extant  ex- 
ample of  an  accurately  conducted  physical  in- 
vestigation by  experiment.  Tycho  Brahe  in- 
troduced a  correction  for  atmospheric  refrac- 
tion into  astronomical  calculations;  the  tele- 
scope appears  to  have  been  invented  separately 
by  Metius  and  Jansen  about  the  year  1608; 
and  Kepler,  with  his  usual  fertility  of  mathe- 
matical elements  and  of  hypotheses,  and  incited 
by  these  advances,  strove  earnestly  to  find  the 
true  law  of  relation  of  the  angle  of  refraction 
to  that  of  incidence,  but  reached  only  a  near 


654 


OPTICS 


approximation.  The  actual  relation,  known 
as  the  "law  of  the  sines,"  was  discovered  by 
Willebrord  Snell,  about  1621.  Descartes,  who 
unjustly  claimed  this  discovery,  has  really  the 
merit  of  having  applied  it  so  as  to  explain  the 
general  formation  and  the  angles  of  the  rain- 
bow. Newton  in  1672  published  his  remark- 
able discoveries  in  connection  with  the  decom- 
position of  light  by  aid  of  the  prism,  with  the 
doctrine  and  measure  of  the  refrangibilities  of 
the  different  colors,  and  the  agreement  of  the 
phenomena  with  those  of  the  rainbow.  His 
discoveries  resulted  in  improvements  in  the 
telescope,  and  also  in  explaining  a  prominent 
defect  in  the  refracting  telescope,  that  of  the 
colored  borders  of  images,  due  to  chromatic  ab- 
erration. Dollond  about  1757  discovered  the 
possibility  of  achromatic  combinations  of  lens- 
es, and  produced  the  first  of  these.  The  first 
notice  of  double  refraction  is  that  of  Bartho- 
lin,  1669;  but  Huygens  first  satisfactorily  ex- 
plained the  phenomena,  by  means  of  his  since 
renowned  undulatory  theory  of  light,  his  trea- 
tise upon  which  was  written  in  1678,  and  first 
published  in  1690.  He  also  first  observed  the 
fact  of  polarization;  though  the  distinct  dis- 
covery of  this  phenomenon  was  not  made 
until  more  than  a  century  later,  namely,  by 
Malus  in  1808,  who  commenced  a  thorough 
study  of  the  subject ;  and  this  was  much  ex- 
tended by  Young,  Fresnel,  Arago,  Brewster, 
Biot,  and  Seebeck.  Hooke  appears  first  to 
have  studied  the  colors  of  thin  plates,  which 
he  described  in  1664 ;  and  these  colors  Newton 
and  Young  afterward  turned  to  very  impor- 
tant use.  Diffraction  and  the  fringes  of  shad- 
ows were  discovered  by  Grimaldi  in  1665 ;  de- 
polarization, with  the  production  of  periodi- 
cal colors  in  polarized  light,  by  Arago  in  1811 ; 
the  relation  of  optical  properties  to  the  sym- 
metry and  axes  of  crystals,  by  Brewster  in 
1818.  The  general  explanation  of  most  of 
these  phenomena  by  the  undulatory  theory  is 
due  to  the  labors  of  Young  and  Fresnel,  from 
1802  to  1829;  and  these  have  since  been  car- 
ried forward  and  corrected  by  the  labors  of 
Airy,  Hamilton,  Lloyd,  Cauchy,  and  many 
others.  Still  other  discoveries  in  optics,  espe- 
cially the  more  recent,  as  those  made  in  con- 
nection with  color,  the  velocity  and  physical 
modifications  of  light,  the  various  optical  in- 
struments, and  photography,  will  be  found 
mentioned  under  the  proper  heads.  I.  CATOP- 
TRICS. When  rays  of  light  fall  on  a  surface  of 
an  opaque,  and  in  some  degree  smooth  or  pol- 
ished body,  a  portion  of  those  rays,  greater  or 
less,  but  never  the  whole,  is  thrown  off  again 
from  such  surface,  and  this  light  is  said  to  be 
reflected.  Opaque  surfaces  reflecting  in  a  high 
degree  are  termed  specula,  or  mirrors.  Sup- 
pose a  ray  or  minute  beam  incident  on  a  pol- 
ished plane  surface  in  any  direction  whatever, 
and  let  fall  at  the  point  of  incidence  a  perpen- 
dicular to  the  surface ;  then,  first,  it  is  univer- 
sally true  that  the  reflected  ray  will  be  situated 
in  the  same  plane  in  space  in  which  this 


perpendicular  and  the  line  of  the  incident  ray 
are  situated.  Thus  we  may  always  determine 
the  plane,  vertical  to  the  reflecting  surface,  in 
which  to  look  for  the  reflected  ray.  The  an- 
gle I  O  P,  fig.  1,  included  between  the  perpen- 
dicular and  incident  ray,  is  termed  the  angle  of 


FIG.  1. 

incidence ;  that  between  the  same  perpendicu- 
lar and  the  reflected  ray,  P  O  R,  the  angle  of 
reflection.  These  angles  are  always  equal. 
Thus,  the  fundamental  and  universal  law  of 
reflection  from  plane  surfaces  is  simply  this : 
the  paths  of  the  incident  and  reflected  rays  al- 
ways lie  in  the  same  plane  with  the  perpendic- 
ular to  the  reflecting  surface  drawn  to  the  point 
of  incidence ;  and  in  that  plane  the  angle  of  re- 
flection is  always  equal  to  the  angle  of  incidence. 
This  law  is  strictly  verified  by  experiment  and 
measurement.  Necessary  consequences  of  its 
truth  are,  that  beams  or  rays  parallel  before 
incidence  on  a  plane  mirror  will  remain  paral- 
lel after  reflection,  and  that  divergent  rays  will 
after  reflection  continue  to  diverge,  and  con- 
vergent rays  to  converge,  at  the  same  rates 
as  before  impinging  on  the  reflecting  surface. 
All  the  facts  relating  to  images  in  plane  mir- 
rors follow  from  the  same  law.  But  a  very 
important  truth  in  relation  to  images,  and  one 
too  often  lost  sight  of,  must  be  premised.  Par- 
allel rays  or  beams  of  light,  or  a  single  beam, 
may  show  us  the  existence  of  the  object  emit- 
ting them,  but  they  do  not  enable  us  to  deter- 
mine its  place  or  distance.  We  can  do  this  in 
regard  to  an  object  or  image,'  or  any  point  in  it, 
only  by  means  of  pencils  of  light,  divergent  in 
themselves,  proceeding  from  the  points  or  point 
to  the  eye.  We  necessarily  judge  of  the  size 
of  this  object  chiefly  by  the  angle  subtended 
at  the  eye  by  a  line  joining  its  extreme  points 
(the  visual  angle) ;  and  of  its  distance  by  the 
amount  of  reconvergent  action  the  eye  must 
exert  upon  the  pencils  painting  its  several 
points,  in  order  to  focus  them  upon  the  retina, 
as  well  as  by  the  convergency  of  the  axes  of 
the  two  eyes  upon  the  place  of  the  object,  if 
near.  (See  STEREOSCOPE,  and  VISION.)  The 
pencils  of  light  from  the  various  points  of  an 
object  before  a  plane  mirror,  being  divergent 
at  the  same  rate  after  as  before  reflection,  and 
the  eye  of  necessity  seeing  the  object  in  the 
direction  in  which  the  rays  of  light  finally 
come  to  it,  the  determination  of  the  position 


OPTICS 


655 


and  size  of  images  resolves  itself  into  investi- 
gating the  images  of  a  series  of  points.  And 
first,  the  case  of  a  single  point.  A,  fig.  2,  placed 
before  a  plane  mirror,  M  N,  will  be  considered. 
Any  ray,  A  B,  incident  from  this  point  on  the 
mirror,  is  reflected  in  the  direction  B  O,  ma- 
king the  angle  of  reflection  D  B  O  equal  to  the 
angle  of  incidence  D 
B  A.  If  now  a  per- 
pendicular, A  N,  be 
let  fall  from  the  point 
A  on  the  mirror,  and 
if  the  ray  O  B  be  pro- 
longed below  the  mir- 
ror until  it  meets  this 
perpendicular  in  the 
point  a,  two  triangles 
are  formed,  A  B  N 
FIG.  2.  and  N  B  a,  which  are 

equal,   for   they  have 

the  side  B  N  common  to  both,  and  the  angles 
A  N  B,  A  B  1ST,  equal  to  the  angles  a  N  B, 
a  B  N ;  for  the  angles  A  N  B  and  a  N  B 
are  right  angles,  and  the  angles  A  B  N"  and 
a  B  1ST  are  equal  to  the  angle  O  B  M.  From 
the  equality  of  these  triangles,  it  follows  that 
a  N"  is  equal  to  A  N ;  that  is,  that  any  ray, 
A  B,  takes  such  a  direction  after  being  reflect- 
ed, that  its  prolongation  below  the  mirror  cuts 
the  perpendicular  A  a  in  the  point  a,  which  is 
at  the  same  distance  from  the  mirror  as  the 
point  A.  This  applies  also  to  the  case  of  any 
other  ray  from  the  point  A,  A  0  for  example. 
From  this  the  important  consequence  follows, 
that  all  rays  from  the  point  A,  reflected  from 
the  mirror,  follow  after  reflection  the  same  di- 
rection as  if  they  had  proceeded  from  the  point 
a.  The  eye  is  deceived,  and  sees  the  point  A 
at  a,  as  if  it  were  really  situate  at  a.  Hence  in 
plane  mirrors  the  image  of  any  point  is  formed 
behind  the  mirror  at  a  distance  equal  to  that  of 
the  given  point  from  its  front  surface,  and  on 
the  perpendicular  let  fall  from  this  point  on  the 
mirror.  It  is  manifest  that  the  image  of  any 
object  will  be  obtained  by  constructing  accord- 
ing to  this  rule  the  image  of  each  of  its  points, 
.  or  at  least  of  those  which  are  sufficient  to  de- 
termine its  form.  Fig.  3  shows  how  the  image 


FIG.  3. 

a  5  of  any  object,  A  B,  is  formed.  It  follows 
from  this  construction  that  in  plane  mirrors 
the  image  is  of  the  same  size  as  the  object ;  for 
if  the  trapezium  A  B  C  D  be  applied  to  the  tra- 
pezium D  0  a  5,  they  are  seen  to  coincide,  and 
619  VOL.  xii.— 42 


the  object  A  B  agrees  with  its  image.  A  fur- 
ther consequence  of  the  above  construction  is, 
that  in  plane  mirrors  the  image  is  symmet- 
rical in  reference  to  the  object,  and  not  invert- 
ed. When  an  object  is  between  two  plane 
mirrors  nearly  parallel,  the  primary  images 
seen  in  each  of  these  are  reflected  as  if  at  a 
greater  distance  in  the  other,  and  so  on,  form- 
ing in  each  mirror  a  long  succession  of  images, 
growing  more  and  more  remote.  As  the  mir- 
rors are  turned,  approaching  a  right  angle  with 
each  other,  the  number  of  repetitions  grows 
less,  and  the  whole  take  a  circular  arrange- 
ment. At  a  right  angle,  the  object  and  three 
images  are  visible,  arranged  as  represented  in 
fig.  4.  The  rays  O  0  and  O  D  from  the  point 
O,  after  a  single  reflection,  give,  the  one  an 
image  O',  and  the  other  an  image  O",  while 
the  ray  O  A,  which  has  undergone  two  reflec- 
tions at  A  and  B,  gives  a  third  image  O'". 
When  the  angle  of  the  mirrors  is  60°,  five 
images  are  produced,  and  seven  when  it  is  45°. 
The  number  of  images  continues  to  increase  in 
proportion  as  the  angle  diminishes,  and  when 
it  is  zero,  that  is, 'when  the  mirrors  are  par- 
allel, the  number  of  images  is  theoretically 


o  • -i  o 

FIG.  4. 

infinite.  (See  KALEIDOSCOPE.)  The  amount 
of  light  reflected  from  a  surface  of  given  size 
and  polish  is  different  with  mirrors  of  different 
material ;  and  it  increases  in  all  cases  with  in- 
crease of  the  angle  of  incidence,  though  not  in 
all  cases  regularly.  We  observe  the  image  of 
the  sun  in  water  near  midday  without  difficul- 
ty ;  but  when  near  the  horizon  the  brightness 
of  the  reflected  light  is  usually  intolerable. 
Eemembering  that  the  surface  impinged  on  by 
any  single  ray  of  light  is  extremely  small,  it 
will  be  seen  that  any  curved  reflector  is  in 
effect  simply  a  collection  of  a  great  number 
of  such  minute  planes ;  and  that,  if  we  consid- 
er the  rays  falling  on  such  a  surface  as  reflect- 
ed from  the  same  points  in  as  many  different 
planes  tangent  to  the  surface  at  the  points  of 
incidence,  we  at  once  extend  the  law  for  plane 
surfaces  to  all  curved  surfaces  whatever.  To 
the  points  of  incidence  of  rays  on  any  curved 
surface,  K  A  B,  fig.  5,  let  fall  lines  0  K,  C  I,  0  A, 
&c.,  perpendicular  (normal)  to  the  surface  at 
those  points ;  each  reflected  ray  will  be  in  the 
plane  containing  its  incident  ray  and  its  proper 
normal ;  and  the  angles  of  reflection,  C  K  Z,  0 1 1, 
&c.,  and  of  incidence,  L  K  C,  L I  0,  &c.,  will  be 


656 


OPTICS 


equal  for  each  ray  on  the  two  sides  of  its  nor- 
mal. Ordinary  concave  and  convex  mirrors  are 
parts  of  spherical  surfaces.  The  former  must 
reflect  parallel  rays  convergent,  convergent 
rays  more  rapidly  so,  &c.  The  latter  must  re- 
flect parallel  rays  divergent,  divergent  rays  more 


FIG.  5. 


so,  &c.  Parallel  rays  falling  on  a  concave  mir- 
ror are  reflected  to  a  focus  distant  from  the 
surface  half  the  radius  of  curvature  of  such 
surface,  i.  e.,  at  one  fourth  the  diameter  of  the 
sphere,  as  shown  in  fig.  6,  where  0  D  being  the 
normal  at  the  point  of  incidence  D,  the  angle 


-e- 


FIG   6. 

of  reflection  0  D  F  is  equal  to  the  angle  of  in- 
cidence GDC,  and  is  in  the  same  plane.  It 
follows  from  this  that  the  point  F,  where  the 
reflected  ray  cuts  the  principal  axis,  divides  the 
radius  of  curvature  A  0  very  nearly  into  two 
equal  parts.  For  in  the  triangle  D  F  0,  the  an- 
gle D  0  F  is  equal  to  the  angle  0  D  G,  since  they 
are  alternate  and  opposite  angles ;  likewise  the 
angle  C  D  F  is  equal  to  the  angle  C  D  G,  from 
the  laws  of  reflection ;  therefore  the  angle  F  D  C 
is  equal  to  the  angle  F  C  D,  and  the  sides  F  C 
and  F  D  are  equal  as  being  opposite  to  equal  an- 
gles. The  smaller  the  arc  A  D,  the  more  near- 
ly does  D  F  equal  A  F ;  and  when  the  arc  is 
only  a  small  number  of  degrees,  the  right  lines 
A  F  and  F  0  may  be  taken  as  approximate- 
ly equal,  and  the  point  F  may  be  taken  as  the 
middle  of  A  0.  So  long  as  the  aperture  of  the 
mirror  does  not  exceed  8°  or  10°,  any  other 
ray,  H  B,  will  after  reflection  pass  very  nearly 
through  the  point  F.  Hence,  when  a  pencil  of 
rays  parallel  to  the  axis  falls  on  a  concave  mir- 
ror, the  rays  intersect  after  reflection  in  the  same 
point,  which  is  at  an  equal  distance  from  the 
centre  of  curvature  and  from  the  mirror.  This 
point  is  called  the  principal  focus  of  the  mir- 
ror, and  the  distance  A  F  is  the  principal  focal 
distance.  If  the  angle  of  aperture  of  the  mir- 
ror exceeds  10°,  not  all  of  the  reflected  rays 
will  meet  in  one  and  the  same  focal  point,  but, 
by  reason  of  the  various  angles  of  incidence 
made  by  the  incident  rays  on  the  curved  sur- 
face, the  further  the  point  of  incidence  of  a  ray 
is  from  the  centre  M  of  the  mirror  A  M  B,  fig. 


7,  the  nearer  to  that  centre  will  the  ray  be  re- 
flected ;  but  incident  rays  included  in  an  angle 
of  aperture  of  10°  will  approximately  be  re- 
flected to  one  focus  F.  Fig.  7  is  an  accurate 
representation  of  the  paths  of  the  reflected  ray 
of  an  incident  beam  of  parallel  rays.  M  is  the 
centre  of  figure  of  the  spherical  mirror  A  M  B, 
C  is  the  centre  of  curvature,  and  F  is  the  focus. 
This  departure  from  a  true  focus  of  rays  re- 
flected from  spherical  mirrors  is  called  "spher- 
ical aberration."  The  curved  line  A  L  F  formed 
by  the  intersections  of  the  reflected  rays  is 
called  a  "  caustic."  This  caustic  can  be  easily 
seen  by  placing  a  piece  of  paper  in  the  same 
plane  with  the  axis  of  the  mirror,  or  by  observ- 
ing the  reflection  from  a  curved  polished  clock 
spring  placed  on  a  piece  of  white  paper  in  the 
sunshine.  Spherical  aberration  can  only  be 
avoided  by  using  mirrors  of  small  angles  of 


B 


FIG.  7. 


aperture,  or  by  the  use  of  mirrors  having  para- 
boloid surfaces,  as  shown  in  section  in  fig.  8. 
It  is  a  well  known  property  of  the  parabola 
that  a  normal  bisects  the  angle  made  by  a  di- 


3C 


FIG.  8. 

ameter  at  the  point  of  contact  with  the  line 
drawn  from  that  point  to  the  focus ;  hence  all 
rays,  E  M,  O  B,  in  fig.  8,  parallel  to  the  princi- 
pal axis  A  X,  will  be  reflected  to  one  point  F, 
the  focus  of  the  mirror ;  and  conversely,  if  F 
b@  a  luminous  point,  all  rays  emanating  from 


OPTICS 


657 


it  which  fall  on  the  mirror  will  proceed  out- 
ward in  parallel  lines.  This  last  mentioned 
property  of  paraboloid  mirrors  is  applied  in 
their  use  as  reflectors  on  locomotives,  and  in 
lighthouses.  But  a  large  fraction  of  the  rays 
emanating  from  the  light  at  the  focus  of  the 


FIG.  9. 

paraboloid  do  not  strike  the  mirror,  and  there- 
fore diverge  and  are  not  useful  in  illuminating 
distant  objects.  To  render  these  diverging 
rays  parallel  to  the  axis  of  the  mirror,  Thomas 
Stevenson,  engineer  of  the  English  board  of 
northern  lighthouses,  devised  in  1834  the  in- 
genious plan  of  placing  a  lens,  L,  fig.  9,  before 
the  mirror,  to  intercept  the  cone  of  rays,  M/N, 
which  is  usually  lost  by  divergence.  Opposite 
this  lens  is  a  portion  of  the  mirror,  a  5,  which 
is  not  paraboloidal  but  spherical,  and  the  prin- 
cipal focus  of  the  spherical  mirror  and  of  the 
lens  is  aty.  By  this  simple  device  the  cones  of 
rays  a  fit  and  M/IsT  are  brought  into  a  beam 
of  parallel  rays,  R  S,  which  proceed  in  the  same 
direction  as  the  rays  reflected  by  the  parabo- 
loid. Thus  all  of  the  rays  are  available,  and 
from  this  property  of  these  instruments  they 
have  been  termed  holophotal  reflectors  (Gr. 
SAo?,  entire,  and  <j>&c,  light).  The  object  before 
a  common  concave  mirror  being  anywhere 
without  the  centre  of  curvature,  the  image  is 
between  such  centre  and  the  focus,  inverted, 
real,  and  reduced  in  size;  and  the  places  of 
object  and  image  are  interchangeable — the  foci 
are  "conjugate,"  i.  e.,  mutual.  When  the  ob- 
ject is  brought  within  the  principal  focus,  the 
image  is  erect,  virtual  (behind  the  mirror),  and 
magnified.  The  image  with  convex  mirrors 
is  always  virtual,  diminished,  nearer  the  mir- 
ror than  the  object,  and  erect.  II.  DIOPTRICS. 
When  a  ray  or  a  minute  beam  of  light  passes 
through  any  surface  of  division,  separating 
vacuum  from  any  medium,  or  any  one  medi- 
um from  another  of  different  density,  a  portion 
of  the  light  is  reflected  at  such  surface,  and  an- 
other portion,  never  the  whole,  is  transmitted. 
This  transmitted  light  is  always  bent  out  of 


its  course  at  the  surface  of  division,  never 
within  the  medium,  if  this  be  homogeneous ; 
and  the  light  is  then  said  to  be  refracted.  If 
the  medium  be  one  of  varying  density,  like  the 
atmosphere,  the  ray  is  bent  continually  with- 
in it ;  but  this  case  is  equivalent  to  its  pass- 
ing through  a  succession  of  surfaces,  dividing 
media  more  and  more  or  less  and  less  dense. 
Suppose  a  ray  or  minute  beam  of  light  trans- 
mitted at  a  point  through  a  plane  dividing 
surface,  M  N,  fig.  10,  between  space  and  a 
medium,  or  any  two  media,  and  coming  to  such 
point  in  any  direction  whatever ;  let  fall  to 
this  point  of  transmission,  O,  a  perpendicular 
to  the  surface,  O  P,  and  passing  through  it,  so 
as  to  lie  in  both  the  media;  then,  first,  it  is 
universally  true  that  the  ray,  after  refraction, 
will  be  situated  in  the  same  plane  in  space  in 
which  this  perpendicular  and  the  line  of  the 
ray  before  refraction  are  situated.  Thus  we 
may  always  determine  within  what  plane,  ver- 
tical to  the  refracting  surface,  to  look  for  the 
ray  after  refraction.  The  angle  I  O  P,  included 
between  the  perpendicular  line  and  the  ray 


before  refraction,  is  termed  the  angle  of  inci- 
dence, and  may  be  represented  by  I ;  that  be- 
tween the  same  perpendicular  on  the  other 
side  of  the  surface  and  the  line  of  the  ray  after 
refraction,  R  O  D,  is  the  angle  of  refraction,  E. 
These  angles,  the  media  being  of  different  den- 
sity, are  never  equal;  nor  have  the  angles 
themselves  any  direct  ratio  to  each  other.  But 
if  in  the  course  of  the  ray  before,  and  also  after 
refraction,  equal  radii,  O  B,  O  K,  measured 
from  the  point  where  the  ray  penetrates  the 
surface,  be  taken,  and  from  the  extremities  of 
these  radii  perpendiculars,  B  A  and  R  S,  be 
let  fall  on  the  perpendicular  line  already  drawn, 
these  latter  perpendiculars,  B  A  (or  I'  S')  and 
R  S,  will  be  the  sines  of  the  angles  in  which 
they  are  respectively,  i.  e.,  the  sines  of  the 
angles  of  incidence  and  refraction.  For  any 
two  given  media,  no  matter  what  the  angle  of 
incidence,  the  corresponding  angle  of  refrac- 
tion is  such  that  the  ratio  of  the  sines  is  always 
the  same — is  a  constant  value.  Thus,  the  fun- 
damental and  universal  law  of  refraction  at 
plane  surfaces  is  also  simple,  though  the  con- 


658 


OPTICS 


ditions  to  be  kept  in  view  are  much  more  com- 
plex than  in  the  case  of  reflection  ;  it  is  this  : 
The  paths  of  the  ray  before  and  after  refrac- 
tion always  lie  in  the  same  plane  with  the  per- 
pendicular to  the  refracting  surface  drawn  to 
the  point  of  transmission,  and  on  opposite 
sides  of  that  perpendicular  ;  and  in  that  plane 
the  sines  of  the  angle  of  incidence  and  of  re- 
fraction have  in  all  cases  the  same  ratio  for 
any  two  given  media.  This  is  "  Snell's  law  ;" 
and  it  also  is  rigidly  verified  by  measurements. 
Suppose  the  refraction  be  that  of  a  ray  passing 
from  air  into  ordinary  crown  glass  ;  then,  for 

all  angles  of  incidence,  the  ratio  ™         =     > 


very  nearly.  The  angle  of  incidence  is  the 
greater,  and  the  refraction  is  therefore  toward 
the  perpendicular.  Thi3  is  the  case  whenever 
the  ray  passes  from  a  less  to  a  more  dense 
medium.  And  as,  in  all  such  cases,  we  have 

-  >  1,  this  fact  of  a  ratio  greater  than 


unity  expresses  a  refraction  toward  the  per- 
pendicular. The  value  which  the  ratio  gine  R 

may  have,  being  constant  for  any  two  media, 
is  called  for  such  media  the  "  index"  or  "  co- 
efficient of  refraction,"  c.  From  air  to  water, 
c=f  ;  from  air  to  diamond,  c=f  ;  from  water 
to  crown  glass,  |-  ;  from  crown  glass  to  dia- 
mond, f  .  When  light  passes  successively  from 
air  through  water,  crown  glass,  and  diamond, 
these  refractions  are  not  added  ;  but  the  ray 
has  in  any  one  of  the  media  precisely  the  course 
it  would  have  had  if  passed  from  vacuum  or 
from  air  directly  into  the  given  medium.  Thus, 
in  the  case  supposed,  the  successive  refractions 
would  be  fx|xf=c=f,  the  same  as  if  the 
light  had  passed  at  once  from  air  to  diamond  ; 
and  so  in  all  cases.  When  the  ray  passes,  on 
the  other  hand,  from  a  denser  medium  to  a 

rarer,  we  always  find  the  ratio  =  c  <  1  ; 


and  this  signifies  that  the  ray  is  then  bent  from 
the  perpendicular.  Thus,  from  crown  glass  to 
air,  c=|;  from  water  to  air,  c=f  ;  and  so  on. 
That  is,  in  all  these  cases,  sine  I  must  be  less 
than  sine  R,  or  sine  R  >  sine  I.  But  the  angle 
of  incidence  may  vary  from  0°  up  to  90°  ;  and 
the  angle  of  refraction  cannot  exceed  90°,  be- 
cause this  is  the  whole  space  between  any 
surface  and  a  perpendicular  to  it.  Hence,  for 
light  going  toward  the  rarer  medium,  there 
will  be  a  limit  of  the  angle  of  incidence  beyond 
which  no  angle  of  refraction  can  be  found  suf- 
ficiently large.  Rays  meeting  the  surface  at 
an  angle  greater  than  this  limit  cannot  pass 
the  surface.  There  is  a  mathematical  impos- 
sibility, and  hence  a  physical  ;  and  the  light  is 
wholly  thrown  back  into  the  medium,  i.  e., 
totally  reflected.  Fig.  11  gives  a  correct  view 
of  the  paths  of  the  rays  proceeding  from  a  ra- 
diant point  R  in  the  interior  of  a  mass  of  water 
whose  surface  S  S'  is  contiguous  to  air.  R  P 
is  the  path  of  the  ray  which  is  perpendicular 
to  the  surface  S  S7.  The  rays  which  diverge 


are  bent  away  from  the  perpendicular  when 
they  pass  the  surface  S  S'  into  the  air,  and 
their  directions  are  shown  by  the  lines  1,  2,  3, 
&c. ;  but  when  the  divergence  has  become  so 
great  that  the  sine  of  the  angle  of  refraction 
(in  air)  must  be  greater  than  the  radius  in  order 


Fm.  11. 

that  the  law  of  the  constancy  of  the  ratio  of 
the  sines  shall  hold,  the  rays  do  not  pass  through 
the  surface  S  S',  but  are  reflected  from  that 
surface,  as  shown  by  the  lines  a,  &,  c.  This 
total  reflection  is  readily  observed  on  looking 
in  certain  directions  into  a  prism ;  its  highly 
transparent  surfaces  serve  as  mirrors  for  ob- 
jects situated  so  that  their  light  falls  without 
a  certain  angle  ;  for  crown  glass,  41°  48'.  Any 
small  transparent  body  of  a  density  unlike  that 
of  the  medium  it  is  in,  and  bounded  by  a  curved 
and  a  plane  or  by  two  curved  surfaces,  is  termed 
a  lens.  The  combination  of  spherical  surfaces, 
either  with  each  other  or  with  plane  surfaces, 
gives  rise  to  six  kinds  of  lenses,  sections  of 
which  are  represented  in  fig.  12 ;  four  are 
formed  by  two  spherical  surfaces,  and  two  by 
a  plane  and  a  spherical  surface.  A  is  a  double 
convex  lens,  B  is  a  plano-convex,  C  is  a  con- 
verging concavo-convex,  D  is  a  double  con- 
cave, E  is  a  plano-concave,  and  F  is  a  diverging 
concavo-convex.  The  lens  C  is  also  called  the 


converging  meniscus,  and  the  lens  F  the  di- 
verging meniscus.  The  first  three,  which  are 
thicker  at  the  centre  than  at  the  borders,  are 
converging ;  the  others,  which  are  thinner  at 
the  centre  than  at  the  borders,  are  diverging. 
Lenses  are  most  conveniently  made  of  glass, 


OPTICS 


659 


and  with  spherical  surfaces.  As  with  mirrors, 
so  with  lenses,  by  considering  any  curved  sur- 
face as  composed  of  a  multitude  of  minute 
plane  surfaces,  we  at  once  extend  to  them  the 
law  of  refraction  ;  and  it  is  then  only  necessary 
to  know  the  angles  of  incidence  and  the  value 


ivr 


FIG.  13. 

of  c,  in  order  to  trace  the  course  of  the  rays. 
The  refraction  toward  a  perpendicular  at  the 
first  surface  of  a  lens  will  conspire  with  that 
from  the  perpendicular  at  the  second  surface, 
both  occurring  in  the  same  actual  direction  in 
space.  A  ray  passing  through  the  centres  of 
curvature,  0  and  F,  fig.  13,  of  the  surfaces,  passes 
also  through  the  middle  point  of  the  lens,  and 
is  not  refracted.  This  line  M  F  is  the  axis  of 
the  lens.  Kays  parallel  to  this  axis  are,  when 
the  lens  is  convex,  brought  to  meet  in  a  real 
focus  F  lying  at  some  point  in  the  axis ;  they 
are  made  to  diverge  as  from  a  virtual  focus 
somewhere  in  this  line,  whenever  the  lens  is 
concave.  The  aperture  of  a  lens  is  the  total 
arc  or  number  of  degrees  of  curvature  of  sur- 
face on  the  two  sides  of  the  axis  through  which 
light  is  allowed  to  pass.  Hence,  it  does  not 
depend  on  size  alone ;  and  the  minute  lens 
which  is  merely  a  bead  of  glass  has  almost 
necessarily  a  much  greater  aperture  than  a  lens 
of  some  inches  or  feet  focus.  The  principal 
focus  F  of  a  double  convex  or  double  concave 
lens,  of  crown  glass,  of  equal  curvatures,  is  at 
the  centre  F  of  the  sphere  of  which  the  lens 
surface  END  forms  part ;  the  focal  distance 
is  equal  to  radius;  for  the  plano-convex  and 
plano-concave,  it  is  equal  to  twice  the  radius. 
The  general  rule  for  finding  the  focal  distance 
is :  For  the  meniscus  and  concavo-convex  lens, 
divide  twice  the  product  of  the  radii  of  curva- 


FIG.  14. 


ture  by  their  difference  ;  for  the  double  convex 
and  concave,  by  their  sum.  When,  for  the 
double  convex  lens,  the  object  is  at  any  dis- 
tance greater  than  twice  the  radius,  on  one 
side,  the  image  is  always  somewhere  between 
the  focus  and  the  other  side  of  the  sphere  or 


the  distance  of  twice  the  radius,  on  the  other ; 
and  here,  again,  the  places  of  object  and  image 
are  interchangeable ;  the  foci  are  conjugate. 
Fig.  14  shows  the  manner  in  which  the  image 
I  of  the  candle  0  is  formed  by  the  lens  L  S. 
Cones  of  rays,  having  for  their  basis  the 
surface  of  the  lens  and  for  their  apices  every 
point  on  the  surface  of  the  candle  facing  the 
lens,  are  refracted  by  the  lens  to  points  in 
the  image  corresponding  to  the  points  in 
the  candle  from  which  the  rays  emanated. 
When  the  object  is  brought  within  the  princi- 
pal focus  on  either  side,  the  image  is  then  on 
the  same  side,  or  virtual,  erect,  beyond  the  fo- 
cal distance,  and  magnified.  So,  in  the  former 
case,  the  real  image  is  magnified  by  bringing 
the  object  nearer  the  focus.  The  simple  act 
of  bringing  an  object  at  less  than  the  ordinary 
distance  of  distinct  vision  from  the  eye,  as 
when  we  look  at  small  objects  close  to  the  eye 
through  a  pin  hole,  increases  the  visual  angle, 
and  so  proportionally  magnifies  them.  Hence 
it  is  that,  for  objects  viewed  as  placed  within 
the  principal  focus,  the  magnifying  power  in- 
creases with  diminution  of  focal  distance  of 
the  lens,  being  determined  conveniently  by  the 
quotient  of  the  ordinary  limit  of  vision,  say  8 
inches,  divided  by  the  focal  distance  of  the 
lens.  Thus  a  lens,  focal  distance  -fa  of  an  inch, 
has  a  linear  magnifying  power  of  8-5-^=400 
times;  and  of  course  a  superficial  magnifying 
power  of  4002=160,000  times.  Thus  are  ex- 
plained the  very  high  powers  obtained  by  the 
use  of  minute  spherical  lenses  in  form  of  beads, 
of  perfect  glass.  But  it  is  only  for  a  small 
aperture,  say  6°  or  at  most  8°,  that  the  rays 
are  brought  rigidly  to  one  focus.  Enlarging 
the  aperture,  the  successive  rings  lying  with- 
out bring  their  light  to  foci  successively  nearer 
the  lens  ;  passing  their  foci,  these  rays  diverge, 
and  form  an  indistinct  border  of  light  about 
the  image.  This  is  spherical  aberration  of 
lenses.  It  is  to  some  extent  corrected  by  pe- 
culiar forms  of  lens,  hence  called  aplanatic ; 
the  least  spherical  aberration  thus  obtained  is 
with  a  double  convex  lens,  the  radii  of  whose 
curvatures  are  as  1  :  6 ;  this,  with  the  surface 
whose  radius  is  1  toward  the  object,  gives  an 
aberration  of  TOT  times  its  own  thickness. 
III.  DISPERSION.  The  dispersion  of  light  is  the 
separation  of  the  colors  existing,  actually  or 
potentially,  in  white  or  solar  light.  It  may 
occur  by  refraction,  by  diffraction,  or  by  inter- 
ference. (See  COLOR.)  The  total  length  of 
spectrum  obtained  by  prisms,  i.  e.,  the  total 
dispersion,  and  also  the  amount  of  spreading 
out  of  the  different  colors,  differ  with  the  na- 
ture of  the  medium  or  prism  employed.  Call- 
ing the  refrangibility  of  the  violet  ray  V,  and 
of  the  red  R',  for  a  given  prism,  and  the  coef- 
ficient of  refraction  c,  the  dispersive  power  is 

=Y/"^'.     This  ratio,  for  oil  of  cassia,  is  '139 ; 

for  flint  glass,  "052 ;  Canada  balsam,  -045  ;  dia- 
mond, -038 ;  crown  glass,  '036  ;  water,  -035  ; 
rock  crystal,  '026.  Thus,  for  example,  the  to- 


660 


OPOTTIA 


ORACLE 


tal  dispersion  and  length  of  spectrum  for  a 
hollow  glass  prism  filled  with  oil  of  cassia,  are 
about  four  times  those  of  crown  glass ;  and 
of  flint  glass,  1£  time  those  of  crown  glass. 
Now,  lenses,  like  prisms,  must  disperse  or  de- 
compose light.  The  different  colors  are  real- 
ly brought  to  foci  that,  in  the  case  of  convex 
lenses,  lie  in  the  following  order :  The  focus  of 
the  least  refrangible  or  red  ray  corresponds 
with  the  true  place  of  the  principal  focus ;  and 
the  more  refrangible  rays  are  brought  to  foci 
within  this,  as  the  orange,  yellow,  green,  blue, 
indigo,  and  violet,  lying  nearer  and  nearer  to 
the  lens.  These  colored  rays  cross  at  their 
foci,  and  again  diverge ;  the  effect  is  a  colored 
border  or  fringe,  mainly  blue  or  red,  as  the 
case  may  be,  surrounding  the  image,  and  more 
marked  as  the  aperture  of  the  lens  is  great- 
er, and  in  objects  toward  the  margin  of  the 
field  of  view.  This  is  chromatic  aberration 
of  lenses.  It  is  almost  perfectly  corrected  by 
combining  lenses  in  various  ways,  thus  form- 
ing achromatic  combinations.  The  principal 
of  these  is  usually  that  of  correcting,  for  ex- 
ample, the  less  dispersion  of  crown  glass  by  the 
greater  dispersive  power  of  flint  glass.  To  do 
this,  a  concave  of  flint  of  less  entire  curvature 
is  combined  with  a  crown  glass,  convex,  and 
of  the  greater  entire  curvature.  The  disper- 
sion is  corrected ;  but  part  of  the  refractive  or 
lens  effects  remains  undestroyed,  and  the  focal 
distance  becomes  greater.  (See  AOHEOMATIC 
LENS.) 

OPUNTIA.     See  CACTUS. 

OPZOOMER,  Carolns  Wilhelnms,  a  Dutch  philos- 
opher, born  in  Rotterdam,  Sept.  20,  1821.  He 
studied  at  Leyden,  where  he  wrote  a  "  Letter 
to  Da  Costa,"  and  "  Examination  of  the  Dutch 
Annals  of  Theology,"  both  attacking  Christian- 
ity. In  1846  he  became  professor  of  philos- 
ophy in  the  university  of  Utrecht.  Among 
his  philosophical  writings  is  De  weg  der  weten- 
schapen  ("  The  Path  of  Knowledge,"  Utrecht, 
1851 ;  German  translation,  1852),  in  which  he 
advocated  the  most  absolute  rational  empiri- 
cism. A  revised  edition  was  published  as  Het 
wezen  der  Icennis  (Amsterdam,  1863). 

ORACLE  (Lat.  oraculum,  from  or  are,  to  speak), 
in  ancient  religion,  a  revelation  believed  to  be 
made  by  some  divinity  in  reply  to  the  questions 
of  men ;  applied  also  to  the  place  where  such 
revelations  were  communicated.  The  responses 
were  given  either  by  the  mouths  of  priests  or 
priestesses,  or  by  other  signs.  Responses  of 
the  oracle  at  Dodona  were  given  either  by  the 
movement  of  leaves,  the  noise  of  brazen  ves- 
sels, or  the  murmuring  of  the  waters  of  a 
fountain.  Springs,  fountains,  grottoes,  and 
caves,  the  waters  of  which  were  discovered  to 
have  delirious  or  narcotic  effects,  were  select- 
ed to  be  the  sites  of  oracles.  At  Didyma  the 
vapor  of  the  water  affected  both  the  priestess 
and  the  person  who  came  to  consult  her ;  at 
Colophon  the  priest  drank  of  the  water  of  a 
secret  well  in  a  cavern  ;  at  Delphi  the  priest- 
ess, called  the  Pythia,  delivered  her  utterances 


from  a  tripod  placed  over  a  chasm  from  which 
intoxicating  vapors  arose.  In  some  of  the 
oracles  artificial  fumigations  were  employed. 
Oracular  responses  were  in  general  remarka- 
ble for  obscurity  and  equivocation,  yet  they 
exerted  great  political  as  well  as  religious  in- 
fluence. The  responses  of  the  Pythia  were 
not  authoritative  till  they  had  been  written 
and  interpreted  by  the  presiding  officer.  Del- 
phi, which  was  the  common  centre  of  all  the 
oracles  of  Apollo,  thus  became  the  religious 
and  political  metropolis  of  Greece,  and  after- 
ward extended  its  authority  over  the  Romans. 
The  Neo-Platonists  referred  the  origin  of  ora- 
cles to  demons,  as  did  also  the  early  Christians. 
The  theurgists  sought  to  revive  them  and  to 
oppose  their  power  to  Christianity.  Eusebius 
and  others  affirmed  that  they  became  silent  at 
the  birth  of  Christ,  and  assigned  as  the  rea- 
son that  Christ  put  an  end  to  the  power  and 
the  worship  of  Satan  on  the  earth. — There 
were  22  oracles  for  the  consultation  of  Apollo, 
the  most  important  of  which  was  at  Delphi. 
(See  DELPHI.)  The  principal  others  were  that 
at  Aba3  in  Phocis,  which,  though  burned  by 
Xerxes,  continued  to  be  held  in  repute  as  late 
as  the  reign  of  Hadrian  ;  that  of  the  Branchi- 
dse  at  Didyma,  near  Miletus,  which  was  ad- 
ministered by  a  family  having  the  hereditary 
gift  of  prophecy,  received  from  Croesus  as  rich 
presents  as  that  at  Delphi,  and  was  burned  by 
the  Persians,  but  continued  to  be  consulted; 
that  at  Clarus,  in  the  territory  of  Colophon; 
that  at  Ismenium,  in  Boeotia,  the  national  sanc- 
tuary of  the  Thebans,  which  interpreted  signs 
instead  of  speaking  from  inspiration;  that  at 
Patara,  in  Lycia,  which  was  consulted  only  in 
winter,  and  where  the  prophetess  was  obliged 
to  wait  a  whole  night  in  the  temple  before 
making  communications;  and  that  at  Telmes- 
sus,  also  in  Lycia,  the  priests  of  which  inter- 
preted dreams  and  other  marvellous  events. 
The  most  important  oracles  of  Jupiter  were  at 
Olympia  in  Elis,  and  Dodona  in  Epirus.  That 
at  Olympia  was  chiefly  consulted  by  those  in- 
tending to  take  part  in  the  Olympic  games. 
That  at  Dodona  was  one  of  the  most  ancient 
and  celebrated.  The  responses,  in  sounds  pro- 
duced by  the  rustling  of  the  wind  in  an  oak 
tree  ("the  speaking  oak"),  were  interpreted 
in  early  times  by  men,  but  afterward  by  old 
women.  Its  sacred  oaks  were  cut  down  and 
its  temple  demolished  by  the  JEtolians  in  219 
B.  C.,  but  it  was  consulted  until  the  3d  cen- 
tury A.  D.  There  was  also  an  oracle  of  Ju- 
piter Ammon  in  Libya,  which  was  first  made 
known  to  the  Greeks  by  the  Cyrenseans ;  it 
was  in  decay  in  the  time  of  Strabo.  The 
other  divinities  were  consulted  by  oracles  only 
on  the  special  departments  over  which  they 
presided.  Thus,  Ceres  foretold  at  Patrse  in 
Achaia  the  fate  of  sick  persons  by  means  of 
a  mirror  suspended  in  a  well;  Mercury  was 
consulted  at  Pharse  in  Achaia,  the  person  go- 
ing away  after  a  ceremony,  and  accepting  the 
first  remark  that  he  heard  from  any  one  as 


ORAN 


ORANGE 


661 


the  response  of  the  divinity.  There  was  an  : 
oracle  of  Pluto  and  Proserpine  near  Nysa  in 
Caria,  at  which  priests  divined  concerning  the 
remedies  for  illness  by  passing  a  night  in  a 
sacred  grotto,  where  they  often  took  their 
patients  with  them,  who  would  themselves 
fall  into  a  prophetic  sleep.  An  annual  festi- 
val was  celebrated  there,  the  young  men  dri- 
ving into  the  cave  a  bull,  which  immediate- 
ly fell  dead.  Heroes  sometimes  acted  as  me- 
diators to  reveal  the  will  of  Jupiter  to  men. 
The  spot  near  Thebes  where  Amphiaraus  was 
said  to  have  been  swallowed  up  was  the  seat 
of  an  oracular  sanctuary.  Birds  never  alight- 
ed there,  and  cattle  never  grazed  in  the  neigh- 
borhood. After  a  fast  the  inquirers  slept  in 
the  temple,  and  received  the  revelations  in 
dreams.  If  they  recovered,  they  were  obliged 
to  drop  some  money  into  the  well  of  Amphi- 
araus in  the  interior  of  the  shrine.  Pausanias 
calls  the  oracle  of  Amphilochus,  at  Malms  in 
Cilicia,  the  most  trustworthy  known  in  his 
time.  The  oracle  of  Trophonius,  at  Lebadea 
in  Bceotia,  was  held  in  the  highest  esteem  un- 
til a  very  late  period.  Several  days  of  prelim- 
inary purification  were  required.  The  inqui- 
rer went  into  the  cave  of  Trophonius,  was  re- 
ceived by  two  boys,  bathed  in  the  river  Her- 
cyna,  and  drank  of  two  wells,  one  of  which 
made  him  forget  all  his  former  thoughts,  and 
the  other  prepared  him  for  the  visions  which 
he  was  about  to  have.  He  then  descended  by 
a  ladder  to  the  bottom  of  the  cave,  and  various 
reports  were  made  of  what  was  there  seen, 
and  the  responses  of  the  priests  were  modified 
according  to  these  reports.  There  were  nu- 
erous  oracles  of  JSsculapius,  the  most  celebra- 
ted being  that  of  Epidaurus  in  Argolis.  The 
principal  Roman  oracles  were  those  of  Faunus 
in  the  grove  of  Albunea  and  on  the  Aventine 
hill,  where  the  inquirer  received  his  answer  in 
sleep  in  prophetic  visions ;  those  of  Fortuna, 
where  the  responses  were  given  by  lot ;  and 
that  of  Mars,  which  in  early  times  existed  at 
Tiora  Matiena,  and  at  which  the  revelation 
was  given  through  a  woodpecker. 

ORAX.  I,  A  province  of  Algeria,  on  the 
Mediterranean,  extending  along  the  coast  180 
m.  from  a  point  E.  of  the  mouth  of  the  Shelliff 
to  near  the  mouth  of  the  Muluia,  and  bounded 
JT.  E.  by  the  province  of  Algiers,  S.  and  S. 
W.  by  the  southern  range  of  the  Atlas  moun- 
tains, and  W.  by  Morocco ;  area,  111,831  sq. 
m.;  pop.  in  1872,  513,492,  four  fifths  of  whom 
were  Arabs.  Several  ranges  belonging  to  the 
Little  Atlas  traverse  the  province  in  the  north. 
Among  the  rivers  are  the  Shelliff,  the  Makra, 
and  the  Tafna,  all  of  which  empty  into  the 
Mediterranean.  There  are  several  lakes  in  the 
southern  parts,  and  near  the  capital  is  Lake 
Sale  or  Sebkha.  A  great  part  of  the  soil  is 
fertile,  and  large  tracts  are  covered  with  for- 
ests. The  temperature  is  in  general  higher 
than  that  of  the  other  provinces  of  Algeria, 
but  it  is  somewhat  moderated  by  steady  N. 
W.  winds.  The  province  is  divided  into  the 


administrative  districts  of  Oran  and  Mosta- 
ganem,  and  into  three  military  departments. 
The  principal  towns  on  the  coast  are  Oran, 
Arzeu,  and  Mostaganem,  and  in  the  interior 
Tlemcen  and  Mascara.  Spanish  emigration 
to  this  province  is  rapidly  increasing ;  in  1872 
it  included  10,000  persons.  II.  A  city,  capi- 
tal of  the  province,  on  a  bay  of  the  same 
name,  about  210  m.  W.  S.  "W.  of  Algiers;  pop. 
in  1872,  40,674.  It  is  on  both  sides  of  the 
mouth  of  a  small  stream  called  the  Wad  el- 
Rakhi,  and  at  the  foot  of  the  peak  of  Ste. 
Croix  or  Mergiagio.  It  is  well  fortified  and 
in  general  well  built.  The  principal  edifices 
are  a  former  mosque,  now  converted  into  a 
parish  church,  another  church  built  by  the 
Spaniards  in  the  time  of  Charles  V.,  a  hospi- 
tal, a  castle,  and  an  arsenal.  The  city  is  badly 
supplied  with  water,  and  the  country  around  is 
arid  and  barren.  The  climate,  though  intense- 
ly hot,  is  generally  considered  healthy.  There 
is  no  good  anchorage  immediately  around  the 
town,  but  Mers  el-Kebir,  3  m.  distant,  has  a 
large  and  commodious  harbor.  Here,  as  in 
all  Algerine  ports,  trade  and  industry  are  in 
the  hands  of  Jews,  Spaniards,  and  other  for- 
eigners. Oran  was  long  a  subject  of  conten- 
tion between  the  Spaniards  and  the  Moors. 
The  former,  under  Cardinal  Ximenes,  took  it 
in  1509,  and  retained  it  till  1708,  when  the 
Algerines  expelled  them.  The  Spaniards  re- 
gained it  in  1732,  but  subsequently  gave  up 
the  town,  retaining  only  the  port  and  castle  of 
Mers  el-Kebir.  In  1831  the  French  took  pos- 
session of  the  town.  A  bishopric  was  estab- 
lished here  in  1867. 

ORANGE  (Lat.  aurantium),  the  fruit  of  citrus 
aurantium  and  other  species  or  varieties.    The 


Orange  (Citrus  aurantium). 


genus  citrus  and  a  few  other  allied  genera  were 
formerly  grouped  together  as  the  orange  family 
(aurantiacecB),  but  recent  botanists  have  class- 
ed them  with  the  rue  family,  and  according  to 
the  views  of  the  best  authorities  the  aurantia- 
cea  rank  only  as  a  subdivision  or  tribe  of  the 


662 


ORANGE 


rutacece.  Besides  the  orange  in  its  many  varie- 
ties, the  genus  citrus  includes  the  lemon,  lime, 
citron,  bergamot,  and  shaddock,  which  are  de- 
scribed under  their  own  names ;  but  the  de- 
scription of  the  genus  will  be  given  here.  The 
species  of  citrus  are  shrubs  or  small  trees, 
often  spiny,  with  evergreen  aromatic  leaves, 
the  blade  of  which  is  jointed  to  the  petiole 
(the  leaf  being  properly  compound),  which  is 
usually  winged.  The  very  fragrant  flowers  are 
axillary,  solitary,  or  in  small  clusters,  and  have 
four  to  eight  thickish  petals  ;  the  stamens  are 
numerous  (20  to  60),  with  their  filaments  more 
or  less  united  ;  the  single  compound  pistil  has 
its  many-celled  ovary  surrounded  at  the  base 
by  a  conspicuous  disk ;  there  is  a  single  style 
and  a  knob-like  lobed  stigma.  The  fruit  is  a 
large  thick-rinded  berry,  separated  into  nu- 
merous divisions  by  membranous  partitions, 
each  containing  a  few  seeds  surrounded  by 
large  cells  filled  with  juice.  The  wood  is  hard, 
heavy,  and  close-grained ;  the  leaves,  flowers, 
and  rind  of  the  fruit  abound  in  aromatic  oils, 
and  the  pulp  of  the  fruit  contains  citric  acid. 
Much  confusion  exists  with  regard  to  the  num- 
ber of  species  in  this  genus.  Hooker  and  Ben- 
tham  limit  it  to  five,  while  others  make  more 


1.  Section  of  Flower.    2.  Section  of  Fruit.    8.  Magnified 
Pistil. 

than  that  of  oranges  alone.  Gallesio,  who  made 
a  special  study  of  the  genus  citrus,  thinks  that 
there  are  at  least  four  species  of  orange,  while 
on  the  other  hand  Bentham  regards  all  the  or- 
anges but  as  varieties  of  the  wild  citrus  medica 
or  citron.  For  the  present  purpose  it  is  con- 
venient to  regard  the  sweet  oranges  as  varieties 
of  G.  aurantium,  and  the  bitter  ones  as  forms 
of  C.  vulgaris.  All  the  species  are  natives  of 
tropical  India,  and  by  cultivation  have  become 
distributed  throughout  the  warmer  portions  of 
the  globe.  The  sweet  and  bitter  oranges  are 
not  distinguishable  by  any  important  botanical 
characters ;  the  bitter  has  a  broader  wing  to 
the  leaf  stalk;  the  fruit  has  a  rougher  rind, 


which  is  of  a  deeper  reddish  color,  and  its  juice 
is  more  sour  and  bitter ;  all  parts  of  the  bitter 
orange  are  more  strongly  aromatic  than  the 
corresponding  parts  in  the  sweet  orange.  The 
orange  was  introduced  into  Arabia  and  Syria, 
from  which  it  found  its  way  to  Italy,  Sicily, 
and  Spain,  about  the  llth  century;  apparent- 
ly the  bitter  orange  was  first  introduced,  and 
there  is  reason  to  believe  that  the  sweet  was 
not  cultivated  until  the  15th  century.  The 
first  importation  of  oranges  into  England  was 
in  1290,  in  a  cargo  of  assorted  fruit  from 
Spain.  Not  only  are  oranges  much  disposed 
to  sport,  but  they  are  affected  by  soil,  cli- 
mate, and  other  conditions  ;  established  forms 
cross  with  one  another,  as  do  the  kinds  so  un- 


Orange  with  Horned  Fruit 

like  as  to  be  regarded  as  species ;  a  great  num- 
ber of  named  forms  have  resulted  from  one 
or  another  of  these  causes,  some  of  which  are 
singular  monstrosities,  such  as  those  with  horns, 
with  one  fruit  produced  from  the  centre  of 
another,  or  those  with  the  fruit  deeply  lobed — 
varieties  only  known  in  rare  collections,  and 
recorded  and  beautifully  figured  in  the  elabo- 
rate work  of  Bisso  and  Poiteau.  The  time  re- 
quired after  blossoming  for  the  orange  to  ma- 
ture varies  in  different  climates ;  it  is  at  least 
six  months,  and  sometimes  much  longer.  It 
is  frequently  said  in  books  of  travel  that*  the 
flowering  and  ripening  of  the  fruit  are  con- 
tinuous, and  that  the  trees  have  blossoms,  green 
fruit  in  all  stages,  and  ripe  fruit  upon  them,  at 
the  same  time.  The  tree  blooms  but  once  a 
year,  and  the  presence  of  ripe  fruit  at  flowering 
time  is  due  to  the  custom  in  some  countries  of 
allowing  the  fruit  of  the  year  before  to  remain 
upon  the  tree  in  order  to  attain  greater  perfec- 
tion. In  Italy  the  fruit  that  goes  into  commerce 
is  picked  as  soon  as  mature  and  yet  green,  while 
that  reserved  for  home  use  hangs  on  the  tree 
all  winter,  and  is  in  its  greatest  perfection  the 
following  spring  and  summer. — The  Seville 
orange  of  commerce  is  a  bitter  variety,  not 


ORANGE 


663 


common  in  our  markets ;  its  chief  consumption 
is  in  making  marmalade,  and  its  rind  is  used 
as  a  tonic  aromatic  in  several  medicinal  prep- 
arations; the  peel  is  also  candied  and  used 
in  flavoring  puddings  and  other  cookery.  This 
is  the  brigarade  of  the  French,  who  have  sev- 
eral varieties  of  it,  including  those  with  purple 
and  double  flowers.  The  ordinary  oranges  of 
commerce  are  sub  varieties  of  the  sweet  orange, 
although  they  differ  greatly  in  sweetness,  and 
are  distinguished  by  the  names  of  the  countries 
producing  them,  or  the  ports  whence  they  are 
shipped;  the  Messina,  St.  Michael's,  Maltese, 
and  other  oranges  from  the  south  of  Europe 
are  medium-sized,  smooth,  rather  thin-skinned, 
and  somewhat  flattened  fruit,  with  an  abundant 
but  not  very  sweet  juice ;  these  are  imported 
in  boxes,  each  orange  being  wrapped  in  soft 
paper.  The  St.  Michael's  orange  is  seedless, 
and  the  blood  orange  of  Malta  has  a  crimson 
pulp.  The  mandarin  or  noble  orange,  which 
originated  in  China,  is  one  of  the  most  highly 
esteemed  of  all  the  varieties,  and  when  oc- 
casionally offered  in  our  markets  it  brings  the 
highest  price ;  it  is  a  small,  flattened,  smooth 
fruit,  of  a  rich  color ;  the  rind,  when  the  fruit 
is  fully  ripe,  separates  spontaneously  from  the 
pulp,  which  is  exceedingly  rich  and  agreeable ; 
this  is  so  much  unlike  other  oranges  that  it  has 


Mandarin  Orange. 

been  regarded  as  a  distinct  species  and  called 
citrus  deliciosa.  In  China  it  is  held  in  high 
regard  and  used  as  presents  to  the  mandarins ; 
it  was  introduced  into  Europe  early  in  the 
present  century,  and  is  now  cultivated  in  Al- 
geria, the  Azores,  Brazil,  and  other  countries. 
The  Tangerine  oranges  are  regarded  as  subva- 
rieties  of  the  mandarin;  the  small  Tangerine 
is  only  the  size  of  an  English  walnut,  while  the 
large  is  twice  that  size,  and  they  incline  to  a 
pyriform  shape.  The  Havana  oranges,  which 
also  come  from  other  parts  of  the  West  Indies, 
are  large,  often  rough- skinned,  and  very  sweet; 
as  they  are  imported  in  bulk,  they  are  picked 
in  a  very  green  state,  and  are  rarely  seen  in  the 


market  in  their  best  condition.  A  similar  or- 
ange from  Florida,  having  a  shorter  voyage 
and  gathered  when  more  nearly  ripe,  is  gen- 
erally of  a  better  quality.  The  navel  orange 
of  Brazil,  rarely  offered  for  sale,  is  of  superior 
excellence;  it  is  usually  seedless,  very  sweet, 
and  has  often  a  small  protuberance  at  the  up- 
per end,  from  which  it  receives  its  name.  The 
myrtle-leaved  orange,  which  can  hardly  be  re- 
garded as  a  variety  of  commerce,  is  sold  by  the 
florists  for  a  table  decoration;  it  is  a  dwarf 
sweet  orange  with  small  leaves,  and  flattened 
fruit  1  to  3  in.  in  diameter ;  it  is  a  profuse 
bearer,  producing  fruit  when  only  4  to  6  in. 
high,  which  remains  on  for  several  months. — 
The  chief  use  of  the  orange  is  as  a  dessert  fruit, 
and  to  afford  a  refreshing  beverage  in  fevers, 
but  the  useful  products  of  the  tree  are  not  con- 
fined to  the  ripe  fruit.  The  yellowish  fine- 
grained wood  is  used  for  inlaid  work  and  for 
making  small  turned  articles;  and  straight 
shoots  of  suitable  size,  with  the  bark  on,  are 
imported  for  walking  sticks.  The  leaves  of 
the  tree  are  bitter  and  aromatic,  especially  in 
the  bitter  orange.  In  the  lemon-growing  dis- 
tricts of  the  Mediterranean  the  lemon  trees  are 
grafted  upon  orange  stocks;  these  put  forth 
vigorous  shoots,  which  are  allowed  to  grow 
several  feet  long,  when  they  are  cut  and  ta- 
ken to  the  distiller,  who  prepares  from  them 
an  aromatic  water  called  eau  de  naphre,  or  ex- 
tracts their  essential  oil,  known  as  essence  of 
petit  grain ;  these  shoots  are  also  used  for 
walking  sticks.  The  true  essence  of  petit  grain 
is  distilled  from  the  small  unripe  fruits  which 
fall  during  the  summer;  these  are  carefully 
gathered  for  the  distiller,  and  give  a  volatile 
oil  of  a  flavor  superior  to  that  from  the  leaves ; 
the  essence  produced  from  the  bitter  orange  is 
more  valuable  than  that  from  the  sweet,  and 
that  from  the  berries  is  preferred  to  the  prod- 
uct of  the  leaves ;  these  oils  are  used  in  the 
manufacture  of  eau  de  cologne  and  other  per- 
fumes, and  are  but  little  known  to  our  com- 
merce. The  flowers  of  the  orange,  on  account 
of  their  charming  fragrance  and  pure  whiteness, 
are  considered  essential  to  the  bridal  wreath, 
and  the  trees  are  cultivated  by  florists  solely 
for  their  flowers;  the  bitter  orange  is  pre- 
ferred, as  its  flowers  are  more  fragrant,  and 
there  are  double  and  free  flowering  kinds  es- 
pecially suited  for  this  use.  By  distillation 
with  water  orange  flowers  afford  an  essential 
oil,  the  essence  or  oil  of  neroli,  and  the  water 
from  which  this  is  separated  is  sold  as  orange- 
flower  water.  The  oil  received  its  name  from 
having  been  used  in  the  17th  century  by  Anne 
Marie,  wife  of  the  prince  of  Nerola,  or  Nero- 
li, as  a  perfume  for  her  gloves.  It  possesses 
in  a  concentrated  degree  the  fragrance  of  the 
flowers,  and  is  much  used  in  perfumes  of  vari- 
ous kinds  ;  orange-flower  water  is  employed  in 
pharmacy  to  flavor  mixtures,  and  sometimes 
in  cooking.  The  oil  of  orange  peel,  or  oil  of 
orange,  as  it  is  known  in  commerce,  is  con- 
tained in  the  rind  of  the  fruit  in  vesicles  large 


664 


ORANGE 


enough  to  be  visible  without  a  glass,  and  its 
presence  and  inflammable  character  are  easily 
shown  by  squeezing  a  fragment  of  the  fresh 
peel  near  the  flame  of  a  lamp ;  though  a  vola- 
tile oil,  it  is,  like  that  of  the  lemon,  obtained 
by  pressure ;  one  of  the  methods  is  to  squeeze 
strips  of  the  peel  by  hand  and  receive  the  oil 
from  the  ruptured  vesicles  in  a  fragment  of 
sponge,  which  when  saturated  is  wrung  out 
and  the  oil  received  in  a  bowl,  where  it  sepa- 
rates from  the  water  which  accompanies  it. 
In  France  the  oil  from  the  bitter  orange  is 
known  as  the  essence  de  Mgarade,  and  that 
from  the  sweet  as  essence  de  Portugal.  The 
use  of  the  dried  peel  of  the  bitter  orange  has 
already  been  noted.  A  minor  product  of  the 
orange  tree,  much  less  known  now  than  former- 
ly, is  the  issue  peas ;  under  this  name  the  dried 
unripe  fruits,  turned  smooth  in  a  lathe,  are 
kept  in  the  shops,  and  are  used  to  keep  up  the 
discharge  from  an  issue,  their  odor  making 
them  preferable  to  ordinary  peas,  sometimes 
used  for  the  same  purpose. — The  methods  of 
cultivating  the  orange  differ  but  little.  In  the 
south  of  France  the  tree  probably  receives  a 
more  systematic  culture  and  careful  pruning 
than  elsewhere.  In  some  localities  the  trees 
are  multiplied  by  a  kind  of  layering  :  a  branch 
has  a  circle  of  bark  removed  and  a  mass  of 
earth  bound  over  the  wound ;  this  earth  is 
kept  moist  until  roots  have  formed  in  it,  when 
the  branch  is  severed  and  planted  in  the 
ground;  but  the  general  method  is  to  raise 
stocks  from  seeds  and  bud  them  with  desirable 
sorts,  and  it  requires  about  15  years  from  the 
time  of  sowing  the  seed  for  the  tree  to  come 
into  full  bearing.  In  this  country  the  orange 
is  cultivated  as  an  object  of  profit  in  Florida, 
Louisiana,  and  southern  California ;  Texas  and 
some  other  states  produce  a  small  number  for 
home  consumption.  In  various  parts  of  Florida, 
south  of  lat.  30°,  especially  along  the  St.  John's 
and  Indian  rivers,  there  are  immense  groves 
of  wild  oranges;  Bartram  in  his  "Travels" 
mentions  having  seen  in  1763,  near  Mosquito 
inlet,  a  ridge  about  half  a  mile  wide  and  40  m. 
long,  which  was  one  dense  orange  grove,  inter- 
spersed with  magnolias  and  a  few  other  trees. 
So  thoroughly  established  is  the  tree,  and  so 
generally  is  it  distributed,  that  many  have  sup- 
posed it  to  be  indigenous ;  but  botanists  who 
have  investigated  the  matter  regard  it  as  an 
instance  of  remarkable  naturalization,  and  the  I 
trees  as  having  descended  from  those  which 
are  known  to  have  been  introduced  by  the 
early  Spanish  colonists.  This  wild  orange  is 
bitter,  often  called  in  Florida  the  bitter-sweet, 
and  so  exceedingly  fruitful  that  a  tree  in  full 
bearing  is  an  object  of  great  beauty  ;  the  wild 
orange  furnishes  stocks  on  which  to  bud  other  j 
varieties,  and  the  fruit  is  used  to  make  mar- 
malade. In  Florida  there  are  three  methods 
of  establishing  an  orange  grove :  to  clear  up  a 
wild  grove,  removing  all  trees  not  needed,  and 
budding  with  sweet  fruit  those  that  remain; 
to  take  up  young  wild  trees  and  set  them  in  | 


prepared  ground,  and  there  bud  them ;  and  to 
raise  stocks  from  seed,  bud  them  in  nursery 
rows,  and  when  of  sufficient  size  set  them  in 
the  plantation,  as  is  practised  with  other  fruit. 
Each  method  has  its  advocates,  and  it  is  prob- 
able that  the  last  named,  though  apparently 
slower,  gives  ultimately  better  results.  Some 
maintain  that  there  is  no  need  of  budding 
stocks  raised  from  the  seeds  of  sweet  oranges, 
but  that  the  fruit  reproduces  itself  perfectly 
from  the  seed.  Almost  any  soil  that  is  not  a 
heavy  clay  suits  the  orange,  but  in  a  light 
sandy  one  fertilizers  must  be  applied.  Severe 
frosts  are  fatal  to  the  tree;  in  1835  occurred  a 
frost  of  such  severity  as  to  kill  not  only  culti- 
vated trees,  but  those  in  the  wild  groves.  In- 
sects of  various  kinds,  especially  a  coccus  or 
scale  insect,  are  destructive  ;  a  kind  of  fungus 
affects  the  fruit  and  leaves,  and  there  is  anoth- 
er disease,  not  well  understood,  which  causes 
the  death  of  young  growing  shoots.  None  of 
these  are  regarded  as  formidable  if  the  trees 
have  proper  and  timely  attention,  but  if  neg- 
lected the  value  of  the  grove  is  soon  destroyed. 
The  Jesuit  missionaries  early  introduced  the 
orange  into  the  gardens  of  the  mission  stations 
of  southern  California,  and  some  of  these,  no- 
tably that  of  Los  Angeles,  were  in  full  bearing 
at  the  time  the  country  came  into  our  posses- 
sion. The  American  settlers  soon  extended 
the  culture  of  oranges,  lemons,  and  such  fruits, 
and  it  is  now  one  of  the  principal  industries  of 
Los  Angeles  and  its  vicinity,  and  has  extended 
to  other  parts  of  the  state.  In  the  season  of 
187l-'2  the  orange  crop  of  Los  Angeles  county 
was  stated  at  5,000,000,  worth  on  the  average 
$20  a  thousand.  In  England  orange  culture 
became  popular  in  the  17th  century,  and  an 
orangery  was  regarded  as  an  important  part  of 
the  establishments  of  the  wealthy ;  indeed,  at 
that  time  the  orange  was  the  leading  tender 
exotic  in  cultivation  ;  the  trees  were  imported 
from  Italy  and  grown  in  boxes  or  tubs,  which 
were  placed  out  of  doors  in  summer,  and  in 
winter  taken  to  the  orangery,  which  was  usu- 
ally a  building  of  some  architectural  preten- 
sions, with  a  ceiled  roof  and  glass  only  upon 
the  sides  and  ends.  Such  buildings  have  long 
since  been  replaced  by  those  entirely  of  glass. 
By  giving  the  plants  shelter  in  winter,  where 
they  will  be  protected  from  freezing,  yet  not 
have  heat  enough  to  induce  growth,  but  suf- 
ficient light  to  keep  them  in  health,  the  orange 
can  be  enjoyed  as  an  ornamental  tree  in  north- 
•£rn  climates;  but  in  order  to  have  satisfac- 
tory crops  of  fruit  it  must  have  a  heated  struc- 
ture especially  devoted  to  it. — The  imports  of 
oranges  into  the  United  States  from  the  Medi- 
terranean in  1874  were  751,560  cases,  of  which 
349,701  cases,  containing  131,555,970  oranges, 
were  received  at  New  York,  with  a  loss  of  33 
per  cent.  The  receipts  at  New  York  from  the 
West  Indies  in  the  same  year  were  21,540,130 
oranges,  on  which  the  loss  was  45  per  cent. — 
There  is  but  little  recent  literature  upon  orange 
culture;  a  useful  pamphlet,  "Orange  Culture 


ORANGE 


665 


in  Florida,"  by  J.  H.  Fowler,  was  published  in 
1873  at  Jacksonville,  Fla.  The  standard  Euro- 
pean works  are  Traite  du  genus  citrus,  by  Gal- 
lesio  (Savona,  1818),  and  Histoire  naturelle  des 
Grangers,  by  Risso  and  Poitean.  This  most 
elegant  work,  with  over  100  beautifully  colored 
engravings,  was  originally  issued  at  Paris  in 
1818,  and  within  a  few  years  has  been  repub- 
lished  under  the  editorship  of  the  distinguished 
arboriculturist  Du  Breuil. 

ORANGE,  the  name  of  counties  in  seven  of 
the  United  States.  I.  An  E.  county  of  Ver- 
mont, bordering  on  the  Connecticut  river,  and 
watered  by  various  small  streams  ;  area,  about 
650  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  23,090.  It  has  an 
uneven  surface,  and  the  eastern  range  of  the 
Green  mountains  crosses  the  N.  W.  part;  the 
soil  is  moderately  fertile.  It  contains  great 
quantities  of  iron  ore  and  granite  and  some 
lead  ore.  The  Connecticut  and  Passumpsic 
Rivers  railroad  traverses  the  eastern  margin, 
and  the  Vermont  Central  crosses  the  S.  W.  cor- 
ner. The  chief  productions  in  1870  were  51,- 
952  bushels  of  wheat,  174,261  of  Indian  corn, 
316,148  of  oats,  76,826  of  buckwheat,  490,715 
of  potatoes,  1,062,104  Ibs.  of  butter,  105,285 
of  cheese,  498,749  of  wool,  816,921  of  maple 
sugar,  and  86,544  tons  of  hay.  There  were 
5,778  horses,  10,661  milch  cows,  3,912  working 
oxen,  9,634  other  cattle,  77,816  sheep,  and 
3,366  swine;  10  manufactories  of  agricultural 
implements,  12  of  carriages  and  wagons,  3  of 
paper,  12  of  saddlery  and  harness,  3  of  wool- 
len goods,  10  flour  mills,  and  19  saw  mills. 
Capital,  Chelsea.  II.  A  S.  E.  county  of  New 
York,  bordered  S.  W.  by  New  Jersey  and  E. 
by  the  Hudson  river,  and  drained  by  the  Wall- 
kill  and  Shawangunk  rivers;  area,  838  sq. 
m.;  pop.  in  1870,80,902.  The  Shawangunk 
mountains  cross  the  N.  W.  corner,  and  a 
range  of  precipitous  heights,  having  an  eleva- 
tion of  from  1,000  to  1,500  ft.  and  known  as 
the  Highlands,  are  toward  the  S.  E.  on  the 
Hudson  river.  The  remainder  of  the  surface 
is  chiefly  rolling  upland.  It  is  noted  for  its 
excellent  grazing  and  fine  dairy  produce,  near- 
ly half  the  improved  land  being  in  pasture. 
The  Erie  railway  and  its  Newburgh  and  other 
branches  pass  through  it.  The  chief  produc- 
tions in  1870  were  103,196  bushels  of  wheat, 
66,625  of  rye,  459,343  of  Indian  corn,  412,652 
of  oats,  28,335  of  buckwheat,  324,732  of  pota- 
toes, 1,403,409  Ibs.  of  butter,  and  119,265  tons 
of  hay.  There  were  10,498  horses,  43,830 
milch  cows,  7,859  other  cattle,  6,980  sheep, 
and  13,323  swine;  48  manufactories  of  car- 
riages and  wagons,  11  of  cheese,  14  of  furni- 
ture, 8  of  castings  and  4  of  pig  iron,  ,11  of 
tanned  and  11  of  curried  leather,  11  of  ma- 
chinery, 27  of  saddlery  and  harness,  5  of  sash, 
doors,  and  blinds,  30  of  tin,  copper,  and  sheet- 
iron  ware,  9  of  woollen  goods,  14  distilleries, 
5  saw  mills,  and  25  flour  mills.  Capitals,  New- 
burgh  and  Goshen.  III.  A  N.  E.  county  of 
Virginia,  bounded  N.  W.  by  the  Rapidan  and 
drained  by  branches  of  the  North  Anna  river ; 


area,  about  250  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  10,396, 
of  whom  5,458  were  colored.  Its  surface  is 
somewhat  hilly,  and  the  soil  generally  fertile. 
The  county  is  traversed  by  the  Washington 
City,  Virginia  Midland,  and  Great  Southern 
railroad.  The  chief  productions  in  1870  were 
117,576  bushels  of  wheat,  185,604  of  Indian 
corn,  83,286  of  oats,  58,938  Ibs.  of  butter,  and 
46,460  of  tobacco.  There  were  1,942  horses, 
1,791  milch  cows,  2,673  other  cattle,  3,372 
sheep,  and  5,553  swine.  Capital,  Orange 
Court  House.  IV.  A  N.  county  of  North 
Carolina,  watered  by  the  head  waters  of  the 
Neuse  and  several  small  streams;  area,  about 
700  sq.  m.;  pop.  in  1870,  17,507,  of  whom 
6,420  were  colored.  It  has  an  undulating  sur- 
face and  fertile  soil.  The  North  Carolina  rail- 
road intersects  it.  The  chief  productions  in 
1870  were  89,023  bushels  of  wheat,  193,161  of 
Indian  corn,  92,061  of  oats,  18,157  of  Irish  and 
18,559  of  sweet  potatoes,  179,995  Ibs.  of  but- 
ter, 530,442  of  tobacco,  and  383  bales  of  cot- 
ton. There  were  2,006  horses,  3,216  milch 
cows,  3,404  other  cattle,  7,171  sheep,  and  14,- 
618  swine.  Capital,  Hillsborough.  V.  A  cen- 
tral county  of  the  peninsula  of  Florida,  bound- 
ed E.  by  the  St.  John's  river ;  area,  2,450  sq. 
m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  2,195,  of  whom  198  were 
colored.  It  has  a  level  surface,  covered  with 
extensive  pine  forests  and  savannas,  with  many 
small  lakes  and  swamps  interspersed.  The 
chief  productions  in  1870  were  16,213  bushels  of 
Indian  corn,  18,490  of  sweet  potatoes,  306  bales 
of  cotton,  and  4,856  gallons  of  molasses.  There 
were  254  horses,  3,962  milch  cows,  10,827 
other  cattle,  and  3,693  swine.  Capital,  Or- 
lando. VI.  A  S.  E.  county  of  Texas,  separated 
from  Louisiana  on  the  east  by  the  Sabine  river 
and  bounded  S.  and  W.  by  the  Neches,  which 
meets  the  former  at  Sabine  lake  on  the  S.  E. 
corner;  area,  350  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870, .1,255, 
of  whom  250  were  colored.  It  has  a  nearly 
level  surface,  about  half  of  which  is  covered 
by  a  heavy  growth  of  timber,  principally  pine 
and  cypress,  and  a  portion  is  wet  land  well 
adapted  to  the  cultivation  of  rice.  The  chief 
productions  in  1870  were  8,720  bushels  of  In- 
dian corn,  5,995  of  sweet  potatoes,  and  67  bales 
of  cotton.  There  were  504  horses,  725  milch 
cows,  3,157  other  cattle,  782  sheep,  and  631 
swine.  Capital,  Orange.  VII.  A  S.  county  of 
Indiana,  watered  by  Lost  river  and  Patoka 
creek ;  area,  about  400  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870, 
13,497.  The  S.  part  is  hilly,  and  the  N.  undu- 
lating. The  uplands  are  heavily  timbered,  and 
the  river  bottoms  very  fertile.  The  Louisville, 
New  Albany,  and  Chicago  railroad  intersects 
the  N.  E.  corner.  The  chief  productions  in 
1870  were  156,622  bushels  of  wheat,  498,740 
of  Indian  corn,  145,600  of  oats,  25,532  of  po- 
tatoes, 25,050  Ibs.  of  tobacco,  45,495  of  wool, 
245,381  of  butter,  and  3,904  tons  of  hay. 
There  were  4,798  horses,  3,724  milch  cows, 
6,645  other  cattle,  17,390  sheep,  and  25,164 
swine;  7  manufactories  of  hones  and  whet- 
stones, 1  of  marble  and  stone  work,  3  of  sad- 


666 


ORANGE 


ORANGEMEN 


dlery  and  harness,  3  flour  mills,  and  6  saw 
mills.  Capital,  Paoli. 

ORANGE,  a  city  of  Essex  co.,  New  Jersey,  on 
the  Morris  and  Essex  division  of  the  Delaware, 
Lackawanna,  and  Western  railroad,  3  m.  N.  W. 
of  Newark,  and  12  m.  W.  of  New  York ;  pop. 
in  1870,  9,348.  As  often  used  in  a  general 
sense,  the  name  includes,  besides  the  city,  the 
township  of  East  Orange  (pop.  in  1870,  4,315) 
and  portions  of  the  townships  of  South  Orange 
(pop.  2,963)  and  West  Orange  (pop.  2,106), 
composing  the  original  township  of  Orange, 
set  off  from  Newark  in  1806.  The  average 
altitude  of  Orange  and  East  Orange  is  about 
160  ft.  above  tide.  Their  surface  is  gently 
rolling,  and  is  drained  by  small  tributaries  of 
the  Passaic  and  Raritan  rivers.  A  succession 
of  parallel  swells,  running  N.  E.  and  S.  W., 
affords  a  variety  of  fine  building  sites,  termi- 
nating at  West  Orange  in  Orange  mountain, 
which  has  a  uniform  height  of  about  650  ft., 
with  a  broad  crest  available  for  residences.  On 
its  E.  slope  is  Llewellyn  park  (50  acres),  which 
is  governed  by  an  association  of  its  residents, 
and  under  certain  restrictions  is  open  to  the 
public.  The  region  is  very  healthy,  and  is  a 
favorite  place  of  residence  for  people  doing 
business  in  New  York.  The  city  has  a  police 
force  and  a  paid  fire  department,  and  the  prin- 
cipal streets  are  paved  and  lighted  with  gas. 
In  the  N.  part  is  the  beautiful  Rosedale  ceme- 
tery of  50  acres.  The  manufacture  of  hats  and 
shoes  is  the  chief  industry.  There  are  four 
weekly  newspapers  (one  German).  Horse  cars 
run  to  Newark.  Within  the  limits  of  the 
original  township  there  are  six  railroad  sta- 
tions, a  national  and  two  savings  banks,  seven 
hotels,  two  post  offices,  six  public  school  build- 
ings, two  public  libraries,  a  hospital,  an  orphan 
asylum,  and  22  churches.  At  South  Orange 
are  Seton  Hall  college  and  ecclesiastical  semi- 
nary (Roman  Catholic),  the  former  having  in 
1874-'5  20  instructors,  100  pupils,  and  a  library 
of  8,000  volumes,  and  the  latter  4  professors 
and  34  students. — The  township  of  Orange  re- 
ceived a  town  charter  in  1860,  and  in  the  three 
following  years  East  Orange  and  parts  of  South 
Orange  and  West  Orange  were  set  off.  The 
town  of  Orange  became  a  city  in  1872. 

ORANGE  (anc.  Arausio),  a  town  of  France, 
in  the  department  of  Vaucluse,  formerly  capi- 
tal of  the  principality  of  Orange,  about  3  m.  E. 
of  the  Rh6ne  and  13  m.  N.  of  Avignon;  pop. 
in  1866,  10,622.  The  streets  are  narrow,  but 
the  town  is  pretty  well  built,  has  fine  foun- 
tains, and  contains  a  cathedral  and  several 
other  churches.  There  are  also  Roman  re- 
mains, the  most  important  of  which  is  a  tri- 
umphal arch  60  ft.  high.  Linen,  cotton,  and 
silk  are  manufactured,  and  there  is  trade  in 
corn,  wine,  oil,  and  dyestuffs. 

ORANGE,  Principality  of,  formerly  an  inde- 
pendent seigniory  of  S.  E.  France,  12  m.  long 
by  9  broad,  now  included  in  the  department 
of  Vaucluse.  Its  origin  is  traced  to  the  time 
of  Charlemagne,  and  it  was  held  in  succession 


by  four  houses:  1,  that  of  Giraud-Adhemar, 
which  became  extinct  in  1174;  2,  that  of  Baux, 
which  ruled  it  till  1393;  3,  that  of  Chalons, 
which  ended  in  1530  with  the  celebrated  Phili- 
bert,  one  of  the  greatest  generals  of  the  age; 
4,  that  of  Nassau-Dillenburg,  which  acquired 
full  possession  in  1570,  and  kept  it  until  the 
death  of  William  III.,  king  of  England,  without 
issue,  in  1702.  Many  competitors  claimed  the 
vacant  estate,  Frederick  I.  of  Prussia  and  Prince 
John  William  Friso  of  Nassau-Dietz  being  the 
foremost.  Each  of  the  several  pretenders  as- 
sumed the  title  of  prince  of  Orange ;  but  after 
a  protracted  contest  the  principality  was  ceded 
to  France  by  the  treaty  of  Utrecht  (1713),  and 
has  since  been  a  part  of  that  country.  The 
princes  of  Nassau-Dietz  nevertheless  were  al- 
lowed to  style  themselves  princes  of  Orange, 
and  since  their  accession  to  the  throne  of  Hol- 
land that  title  is  given  to  the  heir  apparent. 

ORANGEBURG,  a  S.  W.  county  of  South 
Carolina,  between  the  Santee  and  Congaree 
rivers  on  the  N.  E.  and  the  Edisto  on  the  S. 
W.,  drained  by  the  North  Edisto  and  other 
streams;  area,  about  900  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870, 
16,865,  of  whom  11,156  were  colored.  The 
surface  is  uneven ;  the  soil  is  moderately  fer- 
tile. It  is  traversed  by  the  South  Carolina 
railroad.  The  chief  productions  in  1870  were 
8,286  bushels  of  wheat,  263,739  of  Indian  corn, 
31,846  of  sweet  potatoes,  6,449  bales  of  cotton, 
and  952,378  Ibs.  of  rice.  There  were  1,527 
horses,  1,077  mules  and  asses,  2,521  milch  cows, 
5,754  other  cattle,  2,973  sheep,  and  15,009 
swine.  Capital,  Orangeburg  Court  House. 

ORANGEMEN,  a  secret  political  society  of  the 
British  empire,  whose  official  designation  in 
its  own  records  is  u  The  Loyal  Orange  Institu- 
tion." It  is  composed  exclusively  of  Prot- 
estants, and  its  professed  objects  are  to  sup- 
port and  defend  the  reigning  sovereign  of 
Great  Britain,  the  Protestant  religion,  the  laws 
of  the  country,  the  legislative  union  of  Great 
Britain  and  Ireland,  and  the  succession  to  the 
throne  in  the  present  royal  family  so  long  as 
it  remains  Protestant.  They  associate  also  in 
honor  of  King  William  III.,  prince  of  Orange, 
whose  name  they  bear,  "  as  supporters  of  his 
glorious  memory."  Members  are  admitted  by 
ballot,  six  sevenths  of  the  votes  cast  being 
necessary  to  admission.  Every  member  must 
belong  to  a  subordinate  lodge,  and  can  only  be 
admitted  on  proof  that  he  is  a  Protestant  of 
known  loyalty  and  over  18  years  of  age.  The 
association  is  divided  into  five  orders  or  de- 
grees, the  first  of  which  is  the  orange,  and 
the  fifth  and  highest  the  scarlet  degree.  The 
officers  of  the  lodge  must  be  of  the  scarlet 
degree,  and  consist  of  a  master,  deputy  mas- 
ter, secretary,  treasurer,  and  five  committee- 
men,  who  hold  office  for  one  year.  Any 
member  who  marries  a  Roman  Catholic  must 
be  forthwith  expelled.  Three  or  more  subor- 
dinate lodges  constitute  a  district  lodge,  of 
which  the  officers  bear  the  same  titles  as  the 
officers  of  the  lower  lodges  with  the  prefix 


ORANGEMEN 


ORANG-OUTANG 


667 


of  "district."  The  district  lodge  meets  four 
times  in  a  year.  Next  above  the  district 
lodges  are  the  county  grand  lodges,  whose 
officers  bear  the  titles  already  enumerated 
with  the  prefix  of  "grand,"  and  are  elected 
by  the  officers  of  the  district  lodges  in  the 
county.  The  county  grand  lodge  meets  twice 
a  year.  Finally  there  is  in  each  of  the  three 
kingdoms  of  Great  Britain  and  in  Wales  a 
grand  lodge,  which  meets  twice  a  year,  and 
consists  of  the  above  mentioned  "  grand  "  offi- 
cers, and  of  a  grand  committee  elected  by  the 
officers  of  the  county  grand  lodges ;  and  these 
grand  officers  also  constitute  the  imperial  grand 
lodge,  at  the  head  of  which  is  the  grand  mas- 
ter of  the  empire,  "who  is  its  chief  and  su- 
preme head.  His  office  is  permanent  and 
uncontrolled."  There  are  also  grand  lodges 
in  the  principal  colonies.  A  collateral  order 
called  the  "  Grand  Black  Order  of  Orange- 
men," or  "Royal  Black  Knights  of  the  Camp 
of  Israel,"  exists  within,  but  separate  from, 
the  Orange  institution,  to  which  no  person  is 
admitted  who  has  not  taken  the  higher  de- 
grees of  the  exterior  society,  or  who  does  not 
profess  to  believe  in  the  holy  Trinity.  Its 
grand,  county,  district,  and  subordinate  lodges 
are  called  chapters  and  preceptories,  and  the 
individual  members  are  called  knights. — The 
Orange  institution  was  founded  in  the  north 
of  Ireland  in  1795,  ostensibly  to  counteract  the 
Roman  Catholic  secret  associations  called  "  the 
defenders  "  or  "  ribbonmen."  These  two  op- 
posite associations  were  soon  involved  in  fierce 
hostility  with  each  other,  and  nearly  all  the 
peasantry  belonged  to  one  or  the  other.  When- 
ever the  opposite  factions  met  in  any  consid- 
erable numbers,  insults  were  exchanged  and 
riots  often  ensued.  The  law  was  powerless 
against  them,  because  witnesses  were  intimi- 
dated, and  jurymen  sometimes  refused  to  con- 
vict culprits  belonging  to  their  own  order.  In 
1828  immense  assemblages  of  the  Orangemen 
and  of  the  "Catholic  association"  gathered  tu- 
multuously  in  the  north  of  Ireland,  and  blood 
was  shed.  In  1829  the  Orange  celebration  of 
the  anniversary  of  the  battle  of  the  Boyne, 
July  12,  caused  bloody  conflicts,  and  the  mili- 
tary with  difficulty  suppressed  the  disturbances. 
In  1835  a  parliamentary  investigation  detected 
Orange  lodges  in  34  regiments  of  the  army; 
and  in  1836  the  imperial  grand  master,  the 
duke  of  Cumberland,  was  compelled  to  dis- 
solve the  institution  in  Ireland.  It  was  revived 
in  1845,  and  is  still  extensively  diffused  in  the 
British  islands,  though  its  processions  are  there 
forbidden  by  law.  It  was  introduced  into 
British  America  in  1829,  and  in  1861  it  had 
1,200  lodges  and  about  150,000  members.  Its 
processions  there  are  not  illegal,  and  its  politi- 
cal influence  is  very  great.  Much  excitement 
was  occasioned  by  the  attempt  in  1860  to  com- 
pel the  prince  of  Wales  during  his  progress 
through  the  provinces  to  recognize  the  order 
and  to  pass  under  its  arches  and  banners,  a 
recognition  steadfastly  refused  by  the  prince 


and  his  suite.  In  1871  the  Orangemen  of  New 
York  and  its  vicinity  celebrated  the  12th  of 
July  by  a  procession  which  was  escorted  by 
the  police  and  by  a  considerable  body  of  mi- 
litia. Some  Irish  Catholics  attacked  the  pro- 
cession as  it  passed  through  8th  avenue,  and 
were  repulsed  by  the  military  with  the  loss  of 
about  60  lives  among  the  assailants. 

ORANGE  RIVER.     See  CAPE  COLONY. 

ORANGE  RIVER  REPUBLIC.     See  BOEES. 

ORMG-OCTMG  (pithecus,  Geoffr.,  or  simia, 
Linn,  and  Illig.),  the  common  name  of  the 
large  tailless  anthropoid  apes  of  S.  E.  Asia 
and  the  islands  of  Borneo  and  Sumatra.  Some 
details  have  been  given  regarding  the  orangs 
under  APE  and  CHIMPANZEE.  The  orang  most 
commonly  seen  in  menageries  is  the  P.  saty- 
rus  (Geoffr.),  of  which  the  adult  has  been  de- 
scribed as  the  P.  WurmMi,  the  pongo  of  au- 
thors and  the  mias  of  the  natives  of  Borneo. 
The  pongo  or  adult  orang  is  more  powerful 
and  less  anthropoid  than  the  chimpanzee 
(troglodytes  niger,  Geoffr.);  it  represents  in 
Asia  the  gorilla  of  Africa,  and  varies  in  height 
from  5  to  7  ft.  The  forehead  is  contracted, 
sloping  directly  backward,  with  no  projecting 
superciliary  ridges ;  the  occiput  is  flattened, 
the  canines  large,  jaws  powerful,  zygornatic 
arches  strong  and  expanded,  and  cranial  ridges 
largely  developed ;  the  crown  is  less  flat  than 
in  the  chimpanzee;  the  brain  cavity  of  the 
adult  is  very  little  larger  than  at  the  period  of 
the  first  permanent  molars,  the  greater  size  of 
the  cranium  depending  on  a  thickening  of  the 
walls  and  the  development  of  the  temporal 
ridges ;  the  latter  commence  at  the  external 
angular  process  of  the  frontal  bone,  and  pass 
upward,  inward,  and  backward  to  meet  at  the 


Orang-outang  (Pithecus  satyrus). 

junction  of  the  sagittal  and  coronal  sutures, 
the  two  including  a  smooth  triangular  portion 
of  the  frontal ;  the  interparietal  crest  is  about 
half  an  inch  high,  as  in  the  large  carnivora, 
dividing  at  the  vertex,  and  passing  behind 
the  lambdoidal  suture  to  the  mastoid  ridge, 


668 


ORANG-OUTANG 


and  a  rough  prominence  continues  from  the 
point  of  divarication  half  way  down  the  occi- 
put. As  compared  with  the  chimpanzee,  it 
comes  nearer  man  in  the  small  portion  of 
the  wing  of  the  sphenoid  which  reaches  the 
parietal,  separating  the  frontal  from  the  tem- 
poral, though  this  character  does  not  hold  good 
in  all  races  of  men  nor  always  in  the  orang ; 
the  occipital  foramen  is  further  back,  and  its 
condyles  are  nearer  together  in  front,  with 
double  anterior  condyloid  foramina;  from  the 
greater  development  of  the  canines,  the  in- 
cisive foramina  are  further  back ;  the  inter- 
maxillary sutures  are  not  obliterated  until  the 
permanent  teeth  are  almost  fully  developed; 
the  single  nasal  bone  is  flat,  with  no  projection 
beyond  the  nasal  processes  of  the  upper  jaw ; 
the  inter-orbital  space  is  relatively  narrower ; 
the  upper  jaw  has  three  infra-orbital  foramina 
instead  of  one,  and  is  larger;  the  incisors  pro- 
ject more  obliquely  forward ;  there  is  a  greater 
height  and  breadth  of  the  rami  of  the  lower 
jaw,  and  greater  depth  of  symphysis.  The  teeth 
are  in  number  the  same  as  in  man,  the  chim- 
panzee, and  gorilla,  the  incisors  and  canines 
especially  being  relatively  larger.  The  spinous 
processes  of  the  cervical  vertebrae  are  simple 
and  very  long,  for  the  muscular  attachments 
rendered  necessary  by  the  backward  position 
of  the  occipital  foramen,  the  great  development 
and  weight  of  the  face,  and  the  general  anteri- 
or inclination  of  the  vertebrae  themselves ;  the 
spinal  column  has  one  general  curve  behind 
from  the  atlas  to  the  beginning  of  the  sacrum, 
where  there  is  a  slight  curve  in  the  opposite 
direction;  the  dorsals  are  12  as  in  man,  the 
chimpanzee  having  13 ;  the  lumbar  are  four, 
with  shorter  spines ;  the  sacrum  consists  of  five 
bones,  and  is  longer,  narrower,  and  straighter 
than  in  the  chimpanzee;  the  coccygeal  bones 
are  three,  anchylosed  together,  but  not  to  the 
sacrum.  Continuing  the  comparison  with  the 
chimpanzee,  the  ilia  are  more  expanded  and 
flatter,  and  the  ischia  are  less  extended  out- 
ward, making  the  lower  part  of  the  pelvis  nar- 
rower ;  the  superior  pelvic  opening  is  nearly  a 
perfect  oval ;  the  chest  is  ample,  as  large  as  a 
man's,  the  transverse  greater  than  the  antero- 
posterior  diameter;  the  ribs  are  narrower  and 
less  flattened;  the  sternum  short  and  wide, 
composed,  below  the  first  bone,  of  a  double 
series  of  seven  or  eight  small  bones,  always 
distinguishable  in  the  young  animal,  but  not  in 
the  chimpanzee ;  the  clavicles  very  little  curved  ; 
the  scapulae  broad  and  short.  The  principal 
difference  is  in  the  relative  length  of  the  upper 
and  lower  limbs ;  the  arms  reach  to  the  heel ; 
in  the  forearm  there  is  greater  space  between 
the  bones,  owing  to  the  outward  curve  of  the 
radius;  the  bones  of  the  hand  are  elongated, 
those  of  the  thumb  slender  and  short,  not 
reaching  to  the  end  of  the  metacarpal  of  the 
forefinger;  proximal  phalanges  curved  for 
easier  prehension  and  climbing,  and  the  last 
row  not  expanded  for  a  wide  sensitive  bulb  of 
a  finger.  The  femur  has  no  ligamentui 


giving  greater  mobility  and  less  solidity  to  the 
motions  of  the  hip  joint,  useful  in  climbing, 
but  rendering  the  gait  on  the  ground  awkward 
and  shuffling ;  the  bones  of  the  leg  are  short, 
with  greater  space  between  them,  owing  to  the 
inward  curve  of  the  tibia ;  the  foot  is  turned 
more  inward,  and  the  os  calcis  does  not  project 
so  far  back ;  the  phalanges  much  elongated,  the 
hind  thumb  not  reaching  to  the  condyle  of  the 
next  metatarsal ;  it  resembles  a  hand  more  than 
a  foot.  The  sutures  are  obliterated  in  the 
adults.  The  large  canines  of  these  anthropoid 
apes  bear  no  relation  to  their  food,  being  used 
principally  as  weapons  of  defence  against  the 
larger  carnivora,  which  their  great  strength 
enables  them  to  cope  with;  the  smaller  the 
species  and  the  more  easily  concealed,  the  less 
developed  are  the  canines.  The  capacity  of  the 
adult  male  orang  skull  is  26  cubic  inches,  of  the 
female  24,  considerably  less  than  in  the  gorilla, 
and  about  the  same  as  in  the  chimpanzee;  in 
the  young,  up  to  the  age  of  about  five  years, 
the  facial  angle  is  60° ;  the  extremities  preserve 
the  proportions  of  a  six-months  human  foatus, 
while  in  the  chimpanzee  they  are  those  of  a 
yearling  infant.  The  numerous  resemblances 
to  the  human  structure  which  have  served  as 
arguments  for  progressive  animal  development 
have  always  been  taken  from  immature  speci- 
mens of  these  anthropoid  apes,  in  which  the 
facial  angle,  teeth,  and  shape  and  relative  size 
of  cranium  assume  human  proportions,  which 
are  lost  as  the  animal  advances  in  age;  the 
docility  and  gentleness  of  the  young  give  place 
to  obstinacy  and  ferocity  in  the  old,  as  the 
cerebral  development  becomes  relatively  less. 
— The  Bornean  pongo  has  long  loose  hair  of  a 
deep  fuscous  color,  approaching  in  some  parts 
to  black,  the  adult  male  having  large  dermal 
fatty  protuberances  over  the  cheek  bones,  not 
found  in  the  Sumatran  species;  the  younger 
specimens,  both  in  Borneo  and  Sumatra,  are 
more  ruddy  brown.  In  the  immature  speci- 
mens, which  are  the  best  known,  the  head  is 
pear-shaped,  expanding  from  the  chin  upward ; 
the  eyes  close  together;  the  external  ears 
small ;  the  nose  confluent  with  the  face,  with 
nostrils  but  slightly  elevated ;  mouth  projecting, 
with  large  gape  and  very  narrow  lips ;  the  ab- 
domen protuberant ;  the  hair  on  the  forearm  re- 
versed. They  are  fond  of  low  marshy  regions, 
well  wooded,  their  whole  organization  being 
fitted  for  progression  on  trees;  they  seldom 
move  far  on  the  ground,  and  then  on  all-fours  or 
by  swinging  the  body  awkwardly  forward  be- 
tween the  arms  supported  by  the  bent  knuckles ; 
they  build  a  kind  of  nest  in  trees,  where  they 
spend  the  night,  leaving  it  late  in  the  morning 
when  the  sun  has  dispersed  the  dew  and  thor- 
oughly warmed  the  air ;  they  do  not  live  in 
society,  except  when  a  pair  have  a  family  in 
charge ;  the  food  consists  of  fruits,  nuts,  tender 
plants,  leaves,  and  shoots,  and  is  entirely  vege- 
table in  a  state  of  nature ;  the  natives  say  they 
always  attack  and  are  attacked  by  the  crocodile 
(C.  biporcatus).  In  captivity  the  disposition  is 


ORANIENBAUM 


ORATORIO 


669 


mild  and  affectionate,  and  the  deportment  grave 
and  often  melancholy;  the  intelligence  and 
powers  of  imitation  are  considerable,  and  they 
get  to  be  fond  of  the  varied  food  of  man,  and 
especially  his  drinks,  as  ardent  spirits  and  coffee. 
The  Sumatran  orang  has  been  described  as  a 
distinct  species,  as  P.  Abelii  or  Hcolor  (Geoffr.) ; 
it  is  of  large  size  and  of  a  reddish  brown  color. 
A  smaller  and  more  anthropoid  species  in  Bor- 
neo has  been  named  P.  morio  by  Owen ;  it  is 
about  4  ft.  high,  and  6£  ft.  between  the  ends 
of  the  outstretched  arms;  the  ridges  of  the 
skull  are  rudimentary,  passing  from  the  exter- 
nal angle  of  the  frontal  bone,  slightly  converg- 
ing but  not  meeting,  and  behind  the  coronal 
suture  soon  subsiding  to  the  level  of  the  skull ; 
the  canines  are  smaller,  and  are  related  to  dif- 
ferences in  the  cranium ;  it  may  be,  according 
to  Owen,  a  now  permanent,  though  dwarfed, 
variety  of  P.  satyrus. 

ORANIENBAUM,  a  town  of  Russia,  on  the  gulf 
of  Finland,  in  the  government  and  20  m.  W.  of 
the  city  of  St.  Petersburg,  opposite  Cronstadt. 
It  is  celebrated  for  its  picturesque  situation, 
and  for  an  imperial  palace,  with  a  magnificent 
park,  built  by  Prince  Menshikoff,  a  favorite  of 
Peter  the  Great,  which  subsequently  became 
the  property  of  the  crown  and  the  favorite  res- 
idence of  Peter  III.  The  palace  consists  of 
three  buildings,  connected  by  colonnades  and 
surrounded  in  every  direction  by  gardens  and 
orangeries  (Oranienbdume),  whence  the  name 
of  the  town.  A  canal  connects  the  pleasure 
grounds  directly  with  the  gulf  of  Finland.  In 
a  neighboring  grove,  in  the  utmost  seclusion, 
is  a  little  chateau  known  as  the  Solitude.  The 
road  from  Oranienbaum  to  St.  Petersburg  is 
lined  almost  continuously  with  parks  and  vil- 
las, and  passes  the  imperial  summer  palaces 
Strielna  and  Peterhof. 

OR  ATORIAXS.  I.  A  religious  society  founded 
by  St.  Philip  Neri.  (See  NERI,  FILIPPO  DE'.) 
In  1551  Neri  associated  with  himself  several 
young  priests,  and  gradually  matured  the  plan 
of  the  "  Congregation  of  the  Oratory."  The 
congregation  was  formally  established  in  1564, 
confirmed  in  1575  by  Pope  Gregory  XIII.,  and 
again  by  Paul  V.  in  1612.  During  the  life- 
time of  St.  Philip  the  congregation  extended 
through  all  parts  of  Italy,  new  houses  being 
established  at  Florence,  Naples,  Lucca,  Padua, 
and  many  other  places.  Neri  remained  the 
superior  of  the  congregation  till  1593,  when 
he  resigned,  and  was  succeeded  by  Baronius. 
The  congregation  was  chiefly  confined  to  Italy 
till  1848,  when,  at  the  suggestion  of  Bishop 
(afterward  Cardinal)  Wiseman,  two  houses  of 
the  Oratory  were  established  in  England  by 
John  Henry  Newman,  one  in  London,  and  the 
other  at  Edgbaston  near  Birmingham.  II*  An 
order  founded  in  France  in  1611  by  the  abb6 
(afterward  Cardinal)  B6rulle,  and  confirmed 
by  a  bull  of  Paul  V.,  May  10,  1613,  under  the 
name  of  "  Priests  of  the  Oratory  of  Jesus." 
Their  aim  was  the  restoration  of  ecclesiastical 
discipline  among  the  clergy.  They  spread  rap- 


idly in  France  and  elsewhere,  and  during  the 
lifetime  of  their  founder  houses  were  estab- 
lished at  Madrid,  Rome,  and  Constantinople, 
and  in  Savoy  and  the  Netherlands.  The  con- 
gregation soon  became  distinguished  for  the 
great  number  of  eminent  scholars  among  its 
members.  They  were  deeply  involved  in  the 
Jansenist  controversy,  and  at  the  election  of 
several  superiors  general  they  were  divided 
into  a  Jansenist  and  an  anti-Jansenist  party. 
After  the  outbreak  of  the  French  revolution  a 
considerable  number  of  Oratorians  joined  the 
constitutional  church.  The  congregation  itself, 
with  all  other  religious  associations,  was  dis- 
solved. On  Aug.  16,  1852,  six  French  priests, 
under  the  guidance  of  the  abbe  Petetot,  under- 
took to  restore  the  French  Oratory.  In  1864 
the  new  congregation,  under  the  title  of  the 
"  Oratory  of  Christ  our  Lord  and  of  Mary  Im- 
maculate," was  approved  by  the  pope.  It  re- 
ceived its  chief  illustration  from  Fathers  Gra- 
try  and  Perraud,  and  is  known  as  the  Oratory 
of  the  Immaculate  Conception. 

ORATORIO  (Lat.  oratorium,  a  small  chapel), 
a  sacred  musical  composition,  consisting  of 
airs,  recitatives,  duets,  trios,  choruses,  &c.,  with 
full  orchestral  accompaniment.  The  subject 
is  generally  taken  from  Scripture,  and  the  text, 
which  is  seldom  dramatic  in  form,  is  sung  and 
recited  without  action  or  any  of  the  adjuncts 
of  theatrical  representation.  The  oratorio  is 
a  modified  form  of  the  mystery  or  religious 
tragedy  of  the  middle  ages,  adapted  to  the  ser- 
vices of  the  church.  Its  origin  has  general- 
ly been  ascribed  to  St.  Philip  Neri,  who  in 
1564  founded  the  congregation  of  the  Oratory 
in  Rome,  one  of  the  objects  of  which  was 
to  deter  young  people  from  profane  amuse- 
ments by  rendering  religious  services  attrac- 
tive. They  began  by  the  introduction  of  can- 
ticles and  spiritual  songs  and  choruses ;  "and 
afterward  Scripture  songs  and  incidents  were 
formed  into  dramatic  poems,  set  to  music  by 
the  best  composers,  and  sung  with  instru- 
mental accompaniment  before  and  after  the 
sermon.  In  the  present  signification  of  the 
term,  however,  oratorios  w^ere  not  produced 
until  about  the  middle  of  the  17th  century. 
They  speedily  became  popular  in  Italy,  where 
they  were  regularly  performed  in  churches  du- 
ring the  carnival,  and  gradually  became  a  rec- 
ognized form  of  musical  composition  in  many 
parts  of  Europe.  In  Germany  they  have  been 
cultivated  by  eminent  composers  from  Bach  to 
Mendelssohn;  and  in  England  for  a  century 
and  a  half  they  have  proved  perhaps  the  most 
popular  species  of  music  extant.  In  the  latter 
country  all  the  great  works  of  Handel,  the 
most  eminent  composer  of  oratorios,  inclu- 
ding "Samson,"  "Israel  in  Egypt,"  "Saul," 
"Jephthah's  Daughter,"  and  the  "Messiah," 
were  originally  produced.  In  some  cities  of 
the  United  States  the  taste  for  this  kind  of 
music  has  been  fostered  by  societies  of  long 
standing.  In  Italy  oratorios  are  performed 
exclusively  in  churches. 


670 


ORATORY 


ORCHESTRA 


ORATORY,  the  art  of  public  speaking.  Aris- 
totle distinguished  three  kinds  of  oratory: 
demonstrative,  deliberative,  and  judicial.  The 
first  included  panegyrics,  invectives,  and  aca- 
demic discourses ;  the  second  included  legisla- 
tive and  other  debates  on  public  policy,  moral 
lectures,  and  all  instructive  oratory ;  and  the 
third  included  pleading,  accusation,  and  de- 
fence, as  before  a  court  of  justice.  The  same 
philosopher  divides  rhetoric  into  the  depart- 
ments of  persuasion,  language  or  expression, 
and  arrangement.  He  makes  the  oration  to 
consist  of~  introduction,  proposition,  confir- 
mation, and  peroration ;  and  most  writers  on 
oratory  have  adopted  his  division.  Oratory 
comprises  the  departments  of  rhetoric  or  com- 
position and  elocution,  the  latter  including 
the  tones  of  the  voice,  utterance,  enunciation, 
and  gesture,  to  which  belongs  the  expression 
of  the  countenance. — The  history  of  oratory 
goes  back  to  the  earliest  days.  The  Old  Tes- 
tament contains  the  valedictory  of  Joshua,  and 
the  able  address  of  King  Abijah  to  the  ar- 
mies of  Judah  and  Israel  on  the  eve  of  bat- 
tle. Homer  records  speeches  of  the  Greek 
heroes  which  may  be  called  orations.  The 
golden  age  of  Greece  is  the  age  of  her  greatest 
orators,  Pericles  ably  heading  the  list,  which 
culminates  in  Demosthenes.  Roman  oratory 
reached  its  height  in  Cicero,  and  declined  with 
the  decline  of  Roman  liberty.  Ancient  orators 
were  generally  ignorant  of  law,  the  Greeks 
being  assisted  by  practitioners  called  pragma- 
tici,  while  the  Romans  generally  intrusted  the 
maintenance  of  the  law  to  their  professed  ju- 
rists. Classic  oratory  adopted  a  minute  sys- 
tem of  rules  reaching  every  tone  and  gesture. 
Greek  eloquence  was  more  simple  and  severe, 
the  Latin  more  florid.  In  neither  was  there 
any  pretence  to  humor  or  wit.  In  the  4th 
and  5th  centuries  the  preachers  of  Christianity 
had  a  wide  reputation  for  eloquence,  Chrysos- 
tom  being  generally  given  the  foremost  place. 
The  middle  ages  show  only  the  eloquence  of 
Peter  the  Hermit,  Abelard,  Bernard,  Francis 
of  Assisi,  Thomas  Aquinas,  and  some  other 
ecclesiastics  ;  but  the  reformation  brought  out 
the  rough  but  powerful  preaching  of  Luther 
contrasted  with  the  gentle  dignity  of  Melanch- 
thon.  The  highest  eloquence  of  the  next  gen- 
eration is  found  in  the  Catholic  pulpit  of 
France,  where  Bossuet,  F6nelon,  Massillon,  and 
Bourdaloue  raised  pulpit  oratory  to  the  very 
highest  place.  The  18th  century  witnessed  the 
wonderful  parliamentary  oratory  of  Chatham 
and  Pitt,  Sheridan,  Burke,  and  Fox.  This  cen- 
tury saw  also  the  great  religious  awakening 
under  Wesley,  and  both  England  and  America 
were  stirred  by  the  preaching  of  Whitefield. 
The  American  revolution  brought  out  the  elo- 
quence of  James  Otis  and  Patrick  Henry,  and 
the  French  revolution  inspired  and  was  stimu- 
lated by  Mirabeau  and  Vergniaud.  More  re- 
cent times  have  been  distinguished  by  the  elo- 
quent sermons  of  Robert  Hall  and  Thomas 
Chalmers,  and  the  political  oratory  of  Lord 


Brougham  and  Canning,  Mr.  Gladstone  and 
John  Bright,  Berryer  and  Guizot,  O'Connell 
and  Kossuth.  In  the  United  States  the  sena- 
torial speeches  of  Henry  Clay,  John  C.  Cal- 
houn,  and  Daniel  Webster  may  be  compared 
with  the  most  perfect  orations  of  any  time. 

ORBIGM.  I.  JJcide  Dessaiines  d',  a  French 
naturalist,  born  at  Coueron,  Loire-Inferieure, 
Sept.  6,  1802,  died  at  Pierrefitte,  near  Paris, 
June  30,  1857.  He  was  educated  at  La  Ro- 
chelle,  and  in  1826  he  was  sent  by  the  govern- 
ment to  South  America,  which  he  explored  for 
eight  years,  from  Brazil  and  Peru  to  Patagonia. 
He  collected  many  valuable  historical  manu- 
scripts, 36  vocabularies  of  American  languages, 
7,000  species  of  animals,  a  large  portion  of 
which  were  entirely  new,  and  2,500  species  of 
plants.  He  published  Voyage  dans  VAme- 
rigue  du  Sud  (9  vols.  4to,  1834-'52),  Paleon- 
tologie  franfaise  (14  vols.,  1840-'54),  and  oth- 
er important  works  on  natural  history  and 
on  palaeontology,  on  which  he  lectured  in  the 
museum  of  natural  history  from  1836  to  1853. 
II.  Charles  Dessaiines  d',  a  French  geologist, 
brother  of  the  preceding,  born  at  Coueron, 
Dec.  2,  1806.  For  the  past  40  years  he  has 
been  attached  to  the  museum  of  natural  his- 
tory in  Paris,  and  he  has  edited,  in  conjunc- 
tion with  others,  the  Dictionnaire  universel 
dhistoire  naturelle  (24  vols.,  Paris,  1839-'49; 
abridged  ed.,  2  vols.,  1844).  Several  of  his 
other  works  relate  to  geology. 

ORCA.     See  GRAMPUS. 

ORCAGNA,  or  Orgagna  (ANDEEA  DI  CIONE),  an 
Italian  artist,  born  in  Florence  in  the  early 
part  of  the  14th  century,  died  in  1375  or  1389. 
He  was  the  son  of  a  Florentine  sculptor  and 
goldsmith  named  Cione,  and  acquired  the  sur- 
name of  L'Archagnuolo  (the  archangel),  which 
was  contracted  into  Orcagna.  He  was  instruct- 
ed by  his  father  and  an  elder  brother,  Bernar- 
do, a  painter.  His  most  memorable  frescoes 
are  the  series  on  the  north  wall  of  the  Campo 
Santo  at  Pisa,  representing  "The  Triumph  of 
Death,"  "The  Last  Judgment,"  and  "Hell." 
These  have  been  greatly  injured  by  time  and 
neglect.  They  were  profoundly  studied  by 
succeeding  painters,  and  Michel  Angelo  and 
Raphael  borrowed  largely  from  the  attitudes 
and  arrangements  of  Orcagna.  As  a  sculptor 
and  architect  Orcagna,  according  to  Vasari, 
was  even  greater  than  as  a  painter.  One  of 
his  most  celebrated  productions  was  the  tab- 
ernacle of  the  Virgin  in  the  church  of  San 
Michele  at  Florence,  a  pyramidal  altar  of  white 
marble,  one  of  the  figures  on  which  represents 
the  artist  himself,  and  is  inscribed  with  his 
name  and  the  date  (1359).  The  church  itself 
was  also  built  from  his  designs ;  but  his  mas- 
terpiece in  architecture  was  the  Loggia  de' 
Lanzi  in  Florence. 

ORCHELLA.     See  LITMUS. 

ORCHESTRA  (Gr.  bprfffrpa,  from  bpxeladai,  to 
dance),  that  part  of  the  Greek  theatre  in  which 
the  chorus  performed  its  dances  and  evolutions. 
It  was  circular,  except  that  a  segment  was 


ORCHIDS 


6T1 


appropriated  to  the  stage,  in  front  of  the 
spectators,  and  surrounded  by  steps.  In  mod- 
ern theatres  the  orchestra  is  the  space  be- 
tween the  audience  and  the  stage  allotted  to 
the  musicians ;  and  in  concert  rooms  it  is  a 
raised  platform  occupied  by  both  vocal  and  in- 
strumental performers.  Previous  to  the  com- 
mencement of  the  18th  century  the  instrumen- 
tal performers  in  theatres  were  placed  in  a  box 
on  the  side  of  the  stage  and  out  of  view  of 
the  greater  part  of  the  audience. — The  term 
orchestra  is  more  commonly  applied  to  a  body 
of  instrumental  performers  in  which  the  vio- 
lin family  predominates.  A  body  of  musicians 
using  principally  wind  instruments  is  popularly 
called  a  band.  One  of  the  earliest  examples  of 
the  composition  of  an  orchestra  is  afforded  by 
Rinuccini's  opera  Euridice  (1600),  in  which  the 
instrumental  part  was  sustained  by  a  harpsi- 
chord, a  large  guitar,  a  viol,  a  large  lute,  and 
flutes.  In  Monteverde's  opera  of  Orfeo,  per- 
formed in  1604,  35  instruments  were  employed, 
including  17  of  the  violin  species,  and  12  wind 
instruments,  chiefly  to  accompany  the  voice, 
although  only  a  few  of  them  were  played  at 
the  same  time.  Subsequently  the  stringed  in- 
struments were  increased,  to  the  almost  total 
exclusion  of  other  kinds,  and  the  works  of 
Oavalli,  Carissimi,  and  Lully  are  written  prin- 
cipally for  violins,  violas  of  different  degrees  of 
power,  bass  viols,  and  double  bass  viols.  Bach 
composed  a  number  of  symphonies  for  orches- 
tra. They  were  written  for  two  horns,  two 
flutes,  two  hautboys,  violins,  viola,  violoncello, 
piano  (Fliigel),  and  double  bass.  Lully  some- 
times employed  flutes,  bassoons,  and  trom- 
bones ;  but  it  was  not  until  after  the  time  of 
Haydn's  later  works  that  the  wind  instruments, 
whether  of  brass  or  wood,  began  to  be  recog- 
nized as  an  indispensable  part  of  the  orchestra. 
The  smallest  number  of  performers  in  a  grand 
orchestra  is  estimated  at  60,  and  the  hall  where- 
in they  play  should  be  of  moderate  size ;  but 
for  the  greatest  effects  100  and  upward  must  be 
employed.  The  instruments  of  which  the  mod- 
ern orchestra  is  composed  are  of  three  classes, 
stringed,  wind,  and  pulsatile,  as  follows : 


STRINGED. 

WIND. 

PULSATILE. 

First  violins. 

Flutes. 

Kettle  drums. 

Second  violins. 
Violas. 
Violoncellos. 

Hautboys. 
Clarinets. 
Bassoons. 

Cymbals. 
Triangle. 

Double  basses. 

Horns. 

Trumpets. 

Trombones. 

To  these  instruments  modern  composers  oc- 
casionally add  others  for  special  effects,  such 
as  the  harp,  pianoforte,  corno  Inglese,  organ, 
tuba,  bells,  and  bass  and  snare  drums. 

ORCHIDS,  a  large  family  of  plants  (orchida- 
cece),  the  typical  genus  of  which  is  orchis  (the 
ancient  name  of  the  plant).  Popularly  any 
plant  of  the  family,  of  whatever  genus,  is  called 
an  orchis.  The  orchids  are  monocotyledonous 
(endogenous),  herbaceous  plants,  differing  con- 
620  VOL.  xii. — 43 


siderably  in  their  manner  of  growth;,  some 
have  their  rootstocks  thickened  to  form  un- 
derground tubers,  while  others  have  the  bases 
of  their  connate  leaves,  together  with  the 
thickened  base  of  the  stem,  much  swollen  to 
form  a  large  above-ground  tuber-like  body, 
called  a  pseudo-bulb.  The  leaves  present  a 
great  variety ;  some  are  thin  and  of  short  du- 
ration, others  thick,  fleshy,  and  persistent ;  and 
while  some  genera  present  a  broad  expanse  of 
foliage,  in  others  the  leaves  are  linear,  or  long 
and  cylindrical,  like  a  piece  of  whip  cord. 
The  flowers  are  terminal  and  solitary,  or  dis- 
posed in  a  raceme  or  panicle ;  and  the  struc- 


FHJ.  1.— Structure  of  Flower  in  Orchids  (Ilabenaria 
orbiculata). 

ture  in  these  is  so  strikingly  unlike  that  in 
other  flowers  that  a  plant  of  this  family  is 
readily  recognized.  The  flowers  are  six-parted ; 
the  three  outer  parts,  corresponding  to  the  ca- 
lyx, are  usually  petal-like,  and  these  with  the 
three  inner  parts,  or  corolla,  are  often  so  unlike 
in  size  and  shape  that  the  flowers  are  usually 
conspicuously  irregular;  this  irregularity  is 
mostly  due  to  one  of  the  three  petals,  which  in 
the  flower  appears  lowermost ;  this  is  called  the 
lip  or  labellum,  and  is  usually  quite  dissimilar 
to  the  other  two  petals.  In  the  greater  green 
orchis  (habenaria  orbiculata),  fig.  1,  selected 
for  illustration  on  account  of  its  simpler  struc- 
ture, the  three  sepals  (1),  the  upper  larger  than 
the  other  two,  are  much  broader  than  the  pe- 
tals, two  of  which  are  seen  (2)  pointing  up- 
ward, while  the  third,  the  lip  (3),  extends 
downward  like  a  long  flat  ribbon;  in  other 
species  the  lip  spreads  out  like  a  broad  fan, 
which  is  sometimes  lobed  and  beautifully 


672 


ORCHIDS 


fringed  ;  in  others  it  has  its  edges  turned  in  to 
form  a  sort  of  tube,  or  it  may  be,  as  in  the 
cypripediums  (see  LADY'S  SLIPPER),  distended 
to  form  a  large  inflated  sac.  It  is  upon  the  lip 
that  the  most  beautiful  colors  and  the  strong- 
est markings  are  displayed,  and  not  only  on 
this  account  but  by  its  greater  size  the  lip  is 
the  most  noticeable  part  of  the  flower.  The 
base  of  the  lip  is  frequently  hollowed  out  to 
form  a  sac,  or  is  prolonged  to  form  a  spur 
which  secretes  honey  ;  this  in  the  greater 
green  orchis  is  very  long  and  conspicuous,  it 
being  the  club-shaped  body  (4),  nearly  twice  as 
long  as  the  lip.  In  the  centre  of  the  flower 
are  the  reproductive  organs,  which  in  this 
family  consist  of  one,  or  at  most  two  stamens, 
united  with  the  pistil,  or  rather  the  style  ;  the 
two  being  blended  into  a  column  makes  the 
structure  at  first  sight  puzzling.  In  fig.  1  the 
column  (5)  is  seen  in  the  centre  of  the  flower, 
and  at  6  it  is  shown  more  enlarged  ;  it  consists 
of  a  large  anther  united  with  a  concave  stigma 
seen  between  its  widely  separated  cells.  In 
the  majority  of  the  orchids  the  pollen  is  ag- 
glomerated in  two  or  more  pollen  masses  (pol- 
linia),  in  which  the  grains  are  held  together 
by  minute  elastic  threads,  or  are  in  a  compact 
waxy  mass  ;  these  pollen  masses  (7),  which  are 
lodged  in  the  cells  or  pockets  of  the  anther,  have 
often  a  little  pedicel  or  stalk,  at  the  base  of 
which  is  a  viscid  disk  or  gland  (8)  ;  this,  com- 
ing in  contact  with  an  insect  visiting  the  flow- 
er, adheres  to  it,  and  the  pollen  mass  is  thus 
withdrawn  from  its  pouch  and  carried  by  the 
insect  to  another  flower  ;  indeed,  the  structure 
is  such  throughout  the  whole  family,  varied 
admirably  in  different  genera,  that  the  flow- 
ers cannot  be  fertilized  except  through  the  aid 
of  insects.  As  early  as  1793  Sprengel  showed 
that  the  pollen  masses  in  some  orchids  could 
only  be  removed  from  their  lodgment  in  the 
pouches  by  the  aid  of  insects;  and  Robert 
Brown  in  1833  announced  the  opinion  that  in- 
sects were  essential  to  the  fructification  of 
most  orchids.  It  remained  for  Darwin  ("  Fer- 
tilization of  Orchids,"  London,  1862)  to  pre- 
sent the  subject  in  all  its  details,  to  show  the 
wonderfully  varied 
mechanism  of  the 
different  genera,  and 
to  point  out  the  ben- 
eficial results  from 
the  intercrossing  at- 
tending this  method 
of  fertilization.  The 
relations  of  our  na- 
tive orchids  to  in- 
sects have  been  stud- 
ied by  Gray  and  oth- 
ers, and  similar  ob- 


FIG  2.—  Pollen  Mass:  or,  justde- 

"*•"  *•«"*'»-*  npon 

plants.  (See  INSECT  FERTILIZATION.)  In  flow- 
ers having  a  structure  similar  to  that  of  the 
greater  green  orchis  the  act  of  fertilization 
is  very  simple,  and  may  be  imitated  by  the 


use  of  a  lead  pencil  or  similar  pointed  im- 
plement. The  disk  at  the  lower  end  of  the 
pollen  masses  is  so  exceedingly  viscid  that 
when  the  pencil  is  thrust  into  the  throat  of 
the  flower  and  withdrawn,  like  an  insect's 
proboscis,  one  or  both  of  the  pollen  masses 
are  brought  out  with  it;  the  viscid  matter 
quickly  hardening  and  fixing  them  firmly,  as 
at  #,  fig.  2.  If  the  pencil  were  now  thrust  into 
the  throat  of  another  flower,  the  pollen  mass 
would  not  come  in  contact  with  the  stigma,  a 
difficulty  which  is  overcome  in  a  most  won- 
derful manner.  The  stem  of  the  pollen  mass 
is  endowed  with  a  remarkable  power  of  con- 
traction, and  in  about  30  seconds  after  its  dis- 
lodgment  from  the  anther  cell  the  pollen  mass 
assumes  the  position  shown  at  &,  always  bend- 
ing toward  the  point  of  the  pencil  or  the  pro- 
boscis of  the  insect ;  so  by  the  time  an  insect, 
with  the  pollen  mass  glued  to  his  head  or  probos- 
cis, can  fly  to  another  plant,  the  mass  is  in  just 
the  position  to  reach 
the  stigma  while  the 
insect  is  searching  for 
honey.  In  the  greater 
green  orchis,  the  tube 
containing  the  honey 
is  so  very  long  that 
but  few  insects  have 
a  proboscis  sufficient 
to  reach  it,  and  it  is 
thought  by  Gray  that 
the  work  of  fertiliza- 
tion is  done  by  some 
of  the  sphinxes,  which 
have  been  caught  with 
pollen  masses  attached 
to  their  eyes,  as  in 
figs.  3  and  4,  from 
Gray.  Fig.  3  gives  a 
side  view  of  the 
head  of  the  moth  as  it 
leaves  a  flower  with 
the  pollinia  freshly  at- 
tached to  its  eyes,  and  fig.  4  is  a  front  view  of 
the  same  head  by  the  time  it  has  reached  an- 
other plant,  the  masses  having  assumed  by 
curving  a  position  which  will  bring  them  in 
contact  with  the  stigma  of  the  next  flower  the 
insect  explores.  The  form  and  position  of  the 


Fie.  3.— Head  of  Sphinx  with 
recently  attached  Pollen 
Masses. 


FIG.  4.— Head  of  Sphinx  with  Pollen  Masses  deflexed. 

pollen  masses  in  other  genera,  and  the  mecha- 
nism of  the  operation,  differ  widely  from  the 
simple  illustrations  here  given ;  for  these  the 
reader  is  referred  to  Darwin's  work.  This 


ORCHIDS 


673 


subject  has  its  economical  application ;  the  at- 
tempts to  produce  vanilla  in  the  East  Indies 
have  failed,  the  plants,  while  they  grow  and 
flower  abundantly,  bearing  no  fruit.  It  is  be- 
lieved that  the  insect  which  fertilizes  the  flow- 
er in  Central  America  is  needed  to  complete 
the  act.  The  ovary  in  orchids  is  inferior  (9, 
fig.  1),  and  is  twisted  half  a  turn  in  such  a 
manner  as  to  reverse  the  position  of  the  parts 
of  the  flower;  thus  the  lip,  which  is  structur- 
ally the  superior  petal,  is  by  this  torsion  of  the 
ovary  made  to  appear  as  the  inferior  or  low- 
er. In  ripening,  the  ovary  forms  a  one-celled, 
leathery  or  membranous,  cylindrical  or  ovoid 
capsule,  with  innumerable  seeds  of  an  appear- 
ance which  has  been  likened  to  fine  sawdust. 
— Orchids  are  found  in  nearly  all  countries  ex- 
cept those  upon  the  borders  of  the  frozen  zone, 
and  those  of  excessive  dryness.  In  northern 
localities  the  species  are  terrestrial,  usually  in- 
habiting marshy  places  or  shady  woods  ;  in 
tropical  countries  many  of  them  are  epiphy- 
tal, growing  upon  the  branches  of  trees  in 
dense  and  humid  forests  without  contact  with 
the  earth.  In  this  country  there  are  east  of 
the  Mississippi  about  70  species  of  orchidacece 
distributed  in  18  genera,  and  all  of  these  are 
terrestrial,  except  two  epiphytal  species  of  epi- 
dendrum  found  in  Florida.  Calypso  lorealis 
extends  in  British  America  as  far  north  as  lat. 
68°;  this  is  also  found  in  northern  Europe, 
and  is  the  most  boreal  species  known.  Our 
most  conspicuous  orchids  are  the  cypripedi- 
ums,  already  referred  to;  but  some  of  the 
smaller  flowered  ones,  such  as  Arethusa  and 
Calypso,  are  plants  of  great  beauty,  while  some 
species  of  pogonia  are  exceedingly  grotesque. 
Our  largest  genus  is  habenaria  (Lat.  habena,  a 
thong  or  rein,  in  reference  to  the  shape  of  the 
lip  in  some  species) ;  this  includes  about  20 
species,  some  of  which,  like  H.  Integra,  are  not 
at  all  showy.  H.  orbiculata,  the  flower  of 
which  has  been  already  mentioned,  is  notice- 
able for  its  two  large,  orbicular  leaves,  some- 
times 8  in.  across,  which  lie  flat  upon  the 
ground ;  this  is  frequently  met  with  in  pine 
and  hemlock  woods.  The  white-fringed  or- 
chis (H.  llepTiariglottis)  and  the  yellow-fringed 
(H.  ciliaris)  are  objects  of  real  beauty ;  and 
there  are  three  fine  lilac  or  purple-flowered 
ones  to  be  found  in  our  moist  meadows  and 
bogs.  Of  the  genus  orchis  we  have  but  a 
single  representative,  the  showy  orchis  (0. 
spectalilis),  which  is  found  from  Kentucky 
northward,  in  rich,  moist  woods;  it  has  two 
oblong  shining  leaves,  3  to  5  in.  long,  from 
between  which  rises  the  flower  stalk,  about 
6  in.  high,  bearing  a  few  handsome  white 
and  pinkish  flowers.  England  has  10  species 
of  orchis. — Though  so  large  a  family,  the  or- 
chidacecB  yield  but  few  useful  products,  the 
most  important  commercially  being  the  pods 
of  several  species  of  vanilla.  (See  VANILLA.) 
The  tubers  of  some  species  contain  a  form  of 
nutritive  starch,  associated  with  a  peculiar 
gum;  these  are  collected  and  dried,  and  are 


found  in  commerce  as  salep.  Orchids  are 
among  the  most  valued  of  cultivated  flowers, 
some  for  their  beauty,  others  for  their  fra- 
grance, and  others  for  their  grotesque  forms. 


FIG.  5.— Butterfly  Orchis  (Oncidium  papilio). 

Their  simulative  forms  are  sometimes  wonder- 
ful ;  the  flowers  of  one  species  are  quite  like 
the  mouth  of  a  cuttle  fish,  in  others  the  re- 
semblance to  a  large  spider  is  equally  strong, 
and  in  several  species  the  flowers  almost  ex- 
actly imitate  various  insects;  this  is  notably 
the  case  in  the  butterfly,  orchis,  oncidium  pa- 
pilio, the  flowers  of  which,  in  size,  form,  and 
color,  are  like  a  gaudy  butterfly.  In  peristeria 
the  column  takes  on  the  form  of  a  dove.  (See 
HOLY  SPIRIT  PLANT.)  Among  wealthy  horti- 
culturists the  cultivation  of  orchids  is  often 
a  passion,  and  fine  specimens  of  rare  species 
are  purchased  at  almost  incredible  prices ;  the 


FIG.  6.— Orchis  in  cultivation  (Phalaenopsis  amabilis). 

growing  of  large  specimens  is  slow  work.  At 
the  sale  of  the  celebrated  collection  of  Mr. 
Mendel  in  England  in  the  spring  of  1873,  sin- 
gle specimens  brought  as  high  as  £20,  £40,  and 


674 


ORCHOMENUS 


ORDEAL 


one  plant  £59  17«.,  the  returns  for  the  whole 
collection  being  £4,361.  At  the  few  sales 
which  have  been  held  in  this  country,  very 
good  prices  have  been  paid.  Some  orchids  are 
remarkable  for  the  duration  of  their  flowers, 
which  renders  them  especially  valuable  in 
floral  decorations.  The  finest  collection  of 
these  plants  in  this  country  (and  one  of  the 
finest  anywhere)  is  that  of  Mr.  George  Such, 
South  Amboy,  N".  J. 

ORCHOMEMS,  a  city  of  ancient  Greece,  in 
N.  W.  Boaotia,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Cephis- 
sus  in  Lake  Copais,  not  far  from  the  site  of 
the  modern  village  of  Skripu.  It  was  said  to 
have  been  the  capital  of  the  kingdom  of  the 
Minyae,  being  named  from  Orchomenus,  the 
son  of  Minyas.  Homer  mentions  it  as  send- 
ing 30  ships  to  the  Trojan  war.  When  the 
Minysa  were  overthrown,  Orchomenus  joined 
the  Boeotian  confederacy.  Its  government  was 
aristocratical,  and  after  the  Peloponnesian  war 
it  assisted  Lysander  the  Spartan  in  his  in- 
vasion of  Bceotia  (395  B.  0.),  and  in  the  fol- 
lowing year  joined  Agesilaus  against  Thebes 
and  Athens,  and  took  part  in  the  battle  of 
Coronea.  By  the  peace  of  Antalcidas  (387) 
the  Thebans  acknowledged  the  independence 
of  Orchomenus.  They  gained  control  of  it 
after  the  battle  of  Leuctra  (371),  and  were  per- 
suaded by  Epaminondas  to  admit  it  as  a  mem- 
ber of  the  Boeotian  confederation ;  but  in  367 
they  accused  it  of  conspiring  against  the 
democratical  constitution,  and  burnt  the  city, 
putting  the  men  to  the  sword  and  selling  the 
women  and  children  into  slavery.  It  was  re- 
built during  the  Phocian  war,  and  made  a 
Phocian  stronghold;  but  at  the  end  of  the 
sacred  war  (346)  it  again  fell  into  the  hands 
of  the  Thebans,  and  was  destroyed  as  before. 
After  the  overthrow  of  the  Thebans  and  Athe- 
nians at  Ohaeronea  (338)  it  was  once  more  re- 
built, under  the  protection  of  Macedon  ;  but  it 
never  regained  any  historic  importance.  Or- 
chomenus was  famous  for  its  musicians,  and  for 
a  festival  in  honor  of  the  Graces  in  which  poets 
and  musicians  from  all  parts  of  Greece  took 
part.  Remains  have  been  discovered  of  the 
treasury  of  Atreus,  and  the  pedestal  of  a  tri- 
pod dedicated  to  the  Graces,  besides  some  an- 
cient inscriptions  in  the  Orchomenian-^Eolic 
dialect,  containing  the  digamma,  which  are 
now  in  the  British  museum. 

ORDEAL  (Ang.  Sax.  ordcel,  from  or,  primi- 
tive, and  dcel,  judgment ;  Ger.  UrtheiT),  an  an- 
cient form  of  trial  for  persons  accused  of  crime, 
designed  to  determine  their  guilt  or  innocence 
by  a  supposed  reference  to  the  judgment  of 
God.  The  earliest  mention  of  such  a  practice 
is  in  the  laws  of  Moses  (Numbers  v.),  accord- 
ing to  which  the  Hebrew  woman  suspected  of 
adultery  is  to  drink  the  "  waters  of  jealousy." 
Trial  by  ordeal  seems  to  have  been  known  in 
Greece,  as  in  the  "  Antigone  "  of  Sophocles  a 
sentinel  who  had  failed  in  fulfilling  a  trust  is 
represented  as  declaring  that  he  is  ready  to 
"  handle  hot  iron  and  walk  over  fire  "  to  prove 


his  innocence.  In  modern  Europe  trials  by  fire 
and  by  water  were  most  usual.  "Fire  ordeal," 
says  Blackstone,  "was  performed  either  by 
taking  up  in  the  hand,  unhurt,  a  piece  of  red- 
hot  iron  of  one,  two,  or  three  pounds  weight ; 
or  else  by  walking  barefoot  and  blindfold  over 
nine  red-hot  ploughshares,  laid  lengthwise  at 
unequal  distances ;  and  if  the  party  escaped  be- 
ing hurt,  he  was  adjudged  innocent ;  but  if  it 
happened  otherwise,  as  without  collusion  it 
generally  did,  he  was  then  condemned  as  guil- 
ty." The  trial  by  fire  was  the  one  commonly 
in  use  among  the  higher  orders,  and  several 
instances  are  recorded  in  which  noble  females 
by  means  of  it  vindicated  their  chastity. — The 
trial  by  water,  the  origin  of  which  is  usually 
ascribed  to  Pope  Eugenius  II.,  was  of  two 
kinds,  that  by  boiling  water  and  that  by  cold 
water.  In  the  former,  the  individual  thrust 
into  a  vessel  of  hot  water  his  arm,  which  when 
withdrawn  was  bound  up  and  sealed,  and  at 
the  end  of  three  days  examined.  If  no  trace 
of  scald  appeared  he  was  declared  innocent. 
In  the  cold  water  ordeal  the  individual  was 
thrown  into  the  water,  and  if  he  floated  with- 
out swimming  he  was  considered  guilty ;  but 
if  he  sank  he  was  deemed  innocent  and  drawn 
out.  A  trace  of  this  practice  lasted  until  a 
late  period  in  the  case  of  persons  suspected  of 
witchcraft,  in  which  the  victim,  with  the  right 
arm  bound  to  the  left  leg  and  the  left  arm  to 
the  right  leg,  was  cast  into  a  pond,  and  if  the 
body  floated  the  charge  was  thought  to  be 
proved.  In  Malabar  the  suspected  criminal 
was  obliged  to  swim  across  a  large  stream 
abounding  in  crocodiles.  As,  according  to 
Blackstone,  the  ordeal  could  be  performed  by 
deputy,  the  principal  answering  for  the  result, 
and  the  deputy  only  venturing  on  some  cor- 
poreal pain  for  hire  or  for  friendship,  language 
has  preserved  a  relic  of  the  practice  in  the 
expression  "  to  go  through  fire  and  water 
to  serve  one." — The  corsned,  or  trial  by  the 
hallowed  bread  and  cheese,  was  chiefly  prac- 
tised by  ecclesiastics.  A  morsel  of  bread  or  of 
cheese,  loaded  with  imprecations,  was  given 
the  accused  to  eat  along  with  the  eucharist ; 
and  if  the  person  were  guilty,  it  was  believed 
he  could  not  swallow  it.  The  ordeal  of  the 
bier,  which  was  common  in  cases  of  murder, 
existed  from  a  very  early  period  and  as  late 
as  the  18th  century.  The  murdered  man  was 
laid  upon  a  bier,  and  the  suspected  criminal 
was  obliged  to  touch  his  body,  and  particu- 
larly the  wound.  If  blood  flowed,  if  foam  ap- 
peared at  the  mouth,  or  if  the  body  moved,  the 
charge  was  deemed  to  be  proved.  The  ordeal 
of  battle  (see  APPEAL,  vol.  i.,  p.  596)  seems 
to  have  been  unknown  among  the  ancients, 
except  by  a  Spanish  tribe  mentioned  in  Livy 
(xxviii.  cap.  21).  William  the  Conqueror  in- 
troduced it  into  England.  Decretals  were  is- 
sued against  this  method  of  deciding  disputes 
by  Pope  Alexander  III.  in  1179  and  by  In- 
nocent III.  in  1215,  and  Louis  IX.  abolished 
it  in  the  ordinance  of  1260.  From  this  time 


ORDERICUS  YITALIS 


ORDINARY 


675 


the  practice  fell  gradually  into  disuse.  Other 
forms  of  ordeal,  chiefly  local,  such  as  the 
weighing  of  witches,  were  practised  in  north- 
ern Germany  as  late  as  the  beginning  of  the 
18th  century.  If  they  were  exceedingly  light, 
they  were  declared  guilty. — The  practice  of 
these  ordeals  sprang  from  a  superstitious  be- 
lief that  a  just  God  would  interfere  to  punish 
the  guilty.  Yet,  although  ordeals  were  per- 
formed upon  consecrated  ground,  and  though 
so  late  as  the  reign  of  King  John  the  clergy  of 
England  had  the  privilege  of  using  ihejudicium 
ferri,  aquae  et  ignis,  the  church  early  and  ear- 
nestly endeavored  to  do  away  with  them.  The 
temporal  power  came  to  the  aid  of  the  spiri- 
tual, and  by  the  16th  century  the  practice  with 
a  few  exceptions  had  been  given  up.  Accord- 
ing to  Sir  Edward  Coke,  it  was  abolished  in 
England  in  the  reign  of  Henry  III. — In  Hindo- 
stan  especially  the  system  of  ordeals  was  devel- 
oped, so  that,  according  to  Warren  Hastings  in 
the  first  volume  of  the  "Asiatic  Researches," 
there  were  nine  kinds  of  ordeal  in  use,  all 
equally  absurd.  The  laws  of  Manu  contain  the 
following  directions :  ' '  According  to  the  nature 
of  the  case,  let  the  judge  cause  him  who  is  un- 
der trial  to  take  fire  in  his  hand,  or  to  plunge 
in  water,  or  to  touch  separately  the  heads  of 
his  children  and  of  his  wife.  Whom  the  flame 
burns  not,  whom  the  water  rejects  not  from 
its  depths,  whom  misfortune  overtakes  not 
speedily,  his  oath  shall  be  received  as  undoubt- 
ed." Ordeals  of  various  kinds,  but  chiefly  the 
trials  by  fire  and  by  water,  are  found  among 
the  Japanese,  the  Chinese,  the  natives  of  Pegu 
and  of  Guinea,  and  the  tribes  of  Asiatic  Russia. 
In  Japan,  while  the  ordeal  of  fire  was  employed, 
accused  persons  were  also  sometimes  required 
to  swallow  a  paper  inscribed  with  mysterious 
characters,  which  was  supposed  to  give  them 
no  rest  if  guilty  till  they  confessed.  In  Siam 
the  accuser  and  the  accused  were  placed  to- 
gether, and  a  tiger  was  let  loose  upon  them. 
If  one  was  spared,  he  was  considered  inno- 
cent; if  both  were  destroyed,  they  were  both 
deemed  guilty.  In  Madagascar  the  trial  by 
ordeal  was  long  practised,  the  supposed  crimi- 
nal being  made  to  drink  a  decoction  of  a  poi- 
sonous fruit  called  the  tangena,  a  small  dose  of 
which  acts  as  an  emetic,  while  a  large  dose  is 
fatal.  By  managing  the  size  of  the  dose,  those 
who  administered  it  could  decide  the  result. 
In  1862  the  practice  was  totally  abolished  by 
royal  edict. — See  "Superstition  and  Force," 
by  Henry  C.  Lea  (Philadelphia,  1870). 

ORDERICl'S  VITALIS,  an  English  chronicler, 
born  at  Attingesham  (now  Atcham),  near 
Shrewsbury,  Feb.  17,  1075,  died  about  1143. 
He  passed  most  of  his  life  in  the  monastery  of 
St.  Evroult  in  Normandy.  He  wrote  an  "  Ec- 
clesiastical History  of  England  and  Normandy  " 
down  to  the  year  1141,  which  was  first  printed 
in  Duchesne's  Historic  Normannorum  Scrip- 
tores  (1619).  There  is  an  English  translation 
by  T.  Forester  in  Bohn's  "Antiquarian  Li- 
brary"  (4  vols.,  1853-'6). 


ORDERS,  or  Holy  Orders.    See  ORDINATION. 

ORDERS,  Religions.  See  RELIGIOUS  OBDERS, 
and  MONACHISM.  . 

ORDERS  IN  COUNCIL,  a  term  applied  to  orders 
made  by  the  sovereign  of  Great  Britain  by 
advice  of  the  privy  council.  Strictly  these  can 
only  be  made  in  the  exercise  of  executive  au- 
thority, and  an  order  in  its  nature  legislative 
would  be  unconstitutional  as  encroaching  upon 
the  authority  of  parliament.  The  famous  or- 
ders in  council  of  1807-'8,  made  in  retalia- 
tion for  the  Berlin  and  Milan  decrees  of  Na- 
poleon, were  condemned  as  legislative,  but 
were  defended  by  the  supporters  of  the  gov- 
ernment as  being  issued  in  pursuance  of  the 
sovereign's  authority  to  declare  and  prosecute 
war.  In  emergencies,  when  parliament  is  not 
in  session,  the  executive  sometimes  assumes  to 
take  legislative  action  on  some  subjects,  rely- 
ing upon  being  indemnified  by  act  of  parlia- 
ment afterward,  as  for  instance  when  circum- 
stances are  thought  to  render  imperative  a 
suspension  of  the  writ  of  habeas  corpus,  or  of 
specie  payments  by  the  bank  of  England. 

ORDINARY  (Roman  law,  judex  ordinarius), 
in  its  proper  sense,  or  that  which  it  bore  in  the 
Roman  law,  a  judge  who  took  cognizance  of 
causes  in  the  regular  course  and  proper  right 
of  his  office,  and  not  by  way  of  special  deputa- 
tion. This  acceptation  of  the  word  is  very  ex- 
actly preserved  in  the  ecclesiastical  law,  though 
in  books  of  the  common  law  the  bishop  who  is 
the  ordinary  in  England  is  familiarly  referred 
to  as  "  one  who  has  ordinary  jurisdiction  in 
causes  ecclesiastical."  The  bishop  of  each  di- 
ocese is  the  ordinary  therein.  In  virtue  of  his 
office  he  certifies  excommunications,  the  law- 
fulness of  marriages,  and  the  like  ecclesiastical 
and  spiritual  matters,  to  the  courts  of  common 
law.  Formerly,  and  until  the  statute  8  Eliza- 
beth, c.  4,  under  claim  of  the  benefit  of  clergy, 
he  asserted  an  exclusive  jurisdiction  over  his 
clerks.  But  the  particular  and  most  prominent 
judicial  function  of  the  ordinary  consisted  in 
his  grant  of  probate  of  wills  and  letters  testa- 
mentary. Of  these  matters  the  bishops,  or  in 
certain  cases  the  archbishops,  had  for  many 
centuries,  and  until  very  recently,  exclusive  ju- 
risdiction. It  has  been  much  discussed  whether 
the  probate  of  wills  and  the  granting  of  admin- 
istrations were  matters  entirely  and  originally 
of  ecclesiastical  cognizance.  It  is  now  the  bet- 
ter opinion  that  they  were  not,  but  that  they 
belonged  to  the  county  courts,  or  to  the  courts 
baron  of  the  lords  of  manors.  Certainly  these 
courts  existed  and  wills  were  made  before  an 
ecclesiastical  jurisdiction  was  established.  Af- 
ter that  was  done,  and  until  the  time  of  the 
conquest,  the  bishop  sat  with  the  earl  in  the 
county  court.  The  spiritual  and  temporal 
courts  were  separated  in  the  time  of  William 
I.,  but  it  is  not  clear  to  which  of  the  two  the 
cognizance  of  wills  was  intrusted.  But  Spel- 
man  asserts,  mainly  on  the  authority  of  Glan- 
vil,  that  in  the  times  of  Henry  I.  and  Henry 
II.  testamentary  causes  were  regularly  heard 


676 


ORDINATION 


OREGON 


in  the  ecclesiastical  courts.  Since  that  time 
the  probate  jurisdiction  of  all  the  dioceses  has 
been  in  the  bishops'  or  archbishops'  courts; 
and  from  it  the  forms  and  method  of  probate 
jurisdiction  were  borrowed  in  the  United 
States,  with  more  or  less  change.  But  by  the 
"probate  act"  of  20  and  21  Victoria  (1857), 
and  by  an  additional  act  of  1858,  the  whole  of 
the  probate  jurisdiction  of  England  was  taken 
from  the  ordinary,  and  vested  in  a  court  of 
probate. — In  the  United  States  the  officer  to 
whom  probate  of  wills  is  committed  is  called 
in  some  judge  of  probate,  in  others  ordinary 
register,  or  surrogate.  (See  PEOBATE.) 

ORDINATION,  the  act  of  conferring  holy  or- 
ders, or  of  initiating  a  person  into  the  ministry 
of  religion,  or  setting  him  apart  for  perform- 
ing ecclesiastical  rites  and  duties.  All  the 
Christian  denominations  which  have  a  special 
ministry  use  some  kind  of  ordination,  but  their 
opinions  greatly  differ  respecting  the  author- 
ity by  which  it  is  conferred,  its  essence,  and 
its  effect.  The  Roman  Catholic,  the  eastern 
(Greek,  Armenian,  Nestorian,  and  Jacobite), 
and  the  Protestant  Episcopal  churches  agree 
in  maintaining  that  ordination  is  a  preroga- 
tive of  the  bishops.  The  Roman  Catholic  and 
the  eastern  churches,  and  the  "  High  Church  " 
party  of  the  Protestant  Episcopal  church,  deny 
the  validity  of  the  orders,  and  even  the  legiti- 
mate existence,  of  a  church  where  there  is  no 
bishop.  The  Presbyterian  churches  hold  that 
the  presbytery  have  authority  for  this  purpose, 
and  that  bishops  and  presbyters  are  in  Scrip- 
ture identical.  The  ordination  of  Wesleyan 
Methodist  ministers  takes  place  in  the  annual 
conference,  with  a  president  at  its  head  and 
without  the  imposition  of  hands.  Among  the 
Calvinistic  Methodists,  ordination  is  performed 
by  the  sanction  and  assistance  of  their  own 
ministers.  Among  the  Independents  and  Bap- 
tists, the  power  of  selecting  for  ordination  lies 
in  the  congregation,  which  tries  the  qualifica- 
tions of  the  candidate,  and  gives  him  a  call  to 
be  its  minister.  Ministerial  brethren  of  stand- 
ing assemble  by  request  of  the  congregation, 
to  examine  his  credentials  and  to  inquire  as  to 
his  religious  and  moral  character  and  his  theo- 
logical views ;  and  should  all  these  prove  satis- 
factory, they  ordain  him  by  prayer  and  laying 
on  of  hands.  The  society  of  Friends  reject 
all  ceremonies  of  ordination.  In  the  Anglican 
church  and  other  Protestant  Episcopal  church- 
es, a  candidate  must  be  23  years  of  age  before 
he  can  be  ordained  deacon,  and  24  before  he 
can  be  ordained  priest.  He  is  also  obliged  to 
subscribe  to  the  thirty-nine  articles.  The  coun- 
cil of  Trent  appointed  that  unbeneficed  candi- 
dates for  the  secular  priesthood  must  possess  a 
competency,  and  a  similar  rule  still  obtains  in 
the  church  of  England.  The  stated  times  of 
ordination  are  the  four  Sundays  immediately 
following  the  Ember  week;  i.  e.,  the  second 
Sunday  in  Lent,  Trinity  Sunday,  and  the  Sun- 
days following  the  first  Wednesday  after  Sept. 
14  and  Dec.  13.  The  bishops  have  the  right,  if 


circumstances  make  it  desirable,  to  ordain  can- 
didates at  any  time.  In  the  Roman  Catho- 
lic church  the  ordination  for  the  four  lower 
orders  may  be  bestowed  in  exceptional  cases 
by  priests,  but  that  for  the  three  higher  or- 
ders (subdeacon,  deacon,  and  priest)  is  reserved 
to  the  bishop.  The  Roman  Catholic  church 
makes  the  validity  of  an  ordination  dependent 
on  the  apostolic  succession  of  the  ordaining 
bishops ;  she  rejects  therefore  the  ordination 
not  only  of  the  Danish,  but  also  of  the  Angli- 
can church,  on  the  ground  that  the  latter  has 
not  proved  the  apostolic  succession  of  her 
bishops.  The  ordination  of  the  Greek  and  the 
other  eastern  churches  is  not  regarded  as  in- 
valid, but  only  as  illicit,  as  is  the  ordination 
by  any  bishop  who  is  not  in  communion  with 
the  pope. — The  Roman  Catholic  and  the  east- 
ern churches  regard  ordination  as  one  of  tho 
seven  sacraments,  called  by  the  Latins  the 
sacrament  of  order  or  of  ordination,  and  by 
the  Greeks  x£lPOTOV'iai  extending  of  hands  (vo- 
ting by  show  of  hands,  election  by  vote),  and 
xeipodecria,  imposition  of  hands.  In  the  opinion 
of  the  Protestant  churches  it  is  only  a  rite  for 
setting  apart  a  minister  for  his  ecclesiastical 
duties.  In  the  Protestant  Episcopal  and  the 
Lutheran  churches,  the  essence  of  the  ordina- 
tion is  a  subject  of  controversy.  According  to 
the  Roman  Catholic  doctrine,  ordination  con- 
fers supernatural  grace  and  fitness  for  the  sa- 
cred office,  and  impresses  on  the  ordained  min- 
ister an  indelible  character,  separating  him  for 
ever  from  the  laity.  On  this  point  there  is 
a  difference  among  the  Protestant  churches, 
some  regarding  ordination  only  as  an  initiation 
into  the  ministerial  office. 

OREBRO,  a  city  of  Sweden,  capital  of  a  Ian 
or  province  of  the  same  name,  situated  at  the 
W.  end  of  Lake  Hjelmar,  which  receives  here 
the  Swarta  river  and  forms  a  harbor,  100  m. 
W.  of  Stockholm ;  pop.  about  9,000.  It  is  of 
great  antiquity.  The  town  has  manufactories 
of  cloth  and  hosiery,  and  an  important  printing 
establishment.  In  the  vicinity  are  the  Adolfs- 
berg  mineral  springs.  Here  were  held  the 
memorable  assemblies  of  the  states  under  Gus- 
tavus  Vasa  in  which  Lutheranism  was  declared 
the  religion  of  the  kingdom  (1529),  and  the 
crown  was  made  hereditary  (1540).  Prelimina- 
ries of  peace  between  Sweden  and  England 
were  concluded  here  in  April,  1812;  and  a 
treaty  of  peace  between  England  and  Russia 
was  signed  here  July  12,  1812. 

OREGON,  a  N.  W.  state  of  the  American 
Union,  on  the  Pacific  coast,  the  20th  admitted 
under  the  constitution,  situated  between  lat. 
42°  and  46°  20'  N.,  and  Ion.  116°  40'  and  124° 
35;  W. ;  average  length  E.  and  W.  about  360 
m.,  average  breadth  about  260  m. ;  area,  95,- 
274  sq.  m.  It  is  bounded  N.  by  Washington 
territory,  from  which  it  is  partly  separated  by 
the  Columbia  river;  E.  by  Idaho,  from  which 
it  is  partly  separated  by  the  Snake  river ;  S.  by 
Nevada  and  California ;  and  W.  by  the  Pacific 
ocean.  The  state  is  divided  into  23  counties, 


OREGON 


677 


viz. :  Baker,  Benton,  Clackamas,  Olatsop,  Co- 
lumbia, Coos,  Curry,  Douglas,  Grant,  Jackson, 
Josephine,  Lake,  Lane,  Linn,  Marion,  Multno- 
mah,  Polk,  Tillamook,  Umatilla,  Union,  "Wasco, 
Washington,  and  Yamhill.  The  chief  city  and 
commercial  metropolis  is  Portland  (pop.  in 
1870,  8,295),  on  the  Willamette  river,  12  m. 
above  its  junction  with  the  Columbia.  Salem 
(pop.  1,139),  the  capital,  is  on  the  E.  bank  of 
the  Willamette,  50  m.  S.  of  Portland.  Other 
places  with  from  500  to  2,000  inhabitants  are 
Astoria,  near  the  mouth  of  the  Columbia ; 
Forest  Grove,  20  m.  W.  of  Portland ;  Albany, 
Corvallis,  Eugene  City,  Harrisburg,  and  Ore- 
gon City,  on  the  Willamette ;  Roseburg,  in  the 
valley  of  the  Umpqua  river;  Jacksonville,  in 
Kogue  river  valley ;  Dalles,  on  the  Columbia ; 
La  Grande,  on  Grande  Ronde  river ;  Pendleton, 
onllmatilla  river;  and , Baker  City,  in  Baker 
co.  The  total  population  (federal  censuses) 
has  been  as  follows:  1850,  13,294;  1860,  52,- 
465;  1870,  90,923,  of  whom  346  were  col- 
ored, 3,330  Chinese,  and  318  non-tribal  Indians. 


State  Seal  of  Oregon. 

According  to  the  state  census  of  1865  it  was 
65,090.  Next  to  Nevada  it  is  the  least  popu- 
lous state  of  the  Union.  Of  the  total  popu- 
lation in  1870,  79,323  were  native  and  11,- 
600  foreign  born,  53,131  males  and  37,792 
females.  Of  the  natives,  37,155  were  born 
in  the  state,  7,061  in  Missouri,  4,722  in  Illi- 
nois, 4,031  in  Ohio,  3,695  in  Iowa,  3,451  in 
Indiana,  3,092  in  New  York,  2,387  in  Ken- 
tucky, 1,930  in  Pennsylvania,  1,710  in  Cali- 
fornia, 1V544  in  Tennessee,  1,447  in  Virginia 
and  West  Virginia,  746  in  Massachusetts,  676 
in  Maine,  and  606  in  Washington  territory; 
and  there  were  persons  living  in  the  state  born 
in  every  other  state  and  every  territory  except 
Dakota.  Of  persons  born  in  the  state,  6,-225 
were  living  in  other  parts  of  the  Union.  Of 
the  foreigners,  besides  the  Chinese,  3,771  were 
natives  of  the  British  isles,  1,875  of  Germany, 
and  1,187  of  British  America.  There  were 
24,608  male  citizens  of  the  United  States  21 
years  old  and  upward  residing  in  the  state. 
The  number  of  families  was  18,504,  with  an 


average  of  4'91  persons  to  each  ;  of  dwellings, 
19,372,  with  an  average  of  4'69  to  each.  There 
were  2,609  persons  10  years  old  and  upward 
unable  to  read,  and  4,427  unable  to  write,  of 
whom  3,003  were  natives  and  1,424  foreigners, 
808  Chinese,  and  118  Indians;  122  insane  per- 
sons, 55  idiotic,  23  deaf  and  dumb,  and  35 
blind ;  paupers  supported  during  the  year  end- 
ing June  1, 133,  at  a  cost  of  $24,800 ;  receiving 
support  on  that  date,  81 ;  persons  convicted  of 
crimes  during  the  year,  80.  Of  the  30,651 
persons  10  years  old  and  upward  returned  as 
engaged  in  all  occupations,  13,248  were  em- 
ployed in  agriculture,  including  3,126  agri- 
cultural laborers  and  9,758  farmers  and  plant- 
ers; 6,090  in  professional  and  personal  ser- 
vices, including  162  clergymen,  830  domestic 
servants,  2,962  laborers,  194  lawyers,  206 
physicians  and  surgeons,  and  410  teachers; 
2,619  in  trade  and  transportation;  and  8,694 
in  manufactures  and  mining,  including  3,965 
miners.  A  majority  of  the  inhabitants  are 
settled  in  the  Willamette  valley,  the  districts 
W.  of  the  Coast  mountains  and  E.  of  the  Cas- 
cade range  being  thinly  inhabited.  The  tribal 
Indians  of  Oregon  in  1875  numbered  about 
8,000,  of  whom  2,500  or  3,000  were  roving 
bands,  chiefly  along  the  Columbia  river  and  in 
the  E.  and  S.  E.  parts  of  the  state;  the  rest 
are  settled  on  reservations  or  at  agencies.  Some 
of  them  are  partially  civilized  and  are  engaged 
in  agriculture.  There  are  seven  reservations : 
the  Alsea,  about  the  centre  of  the  Pacific 
coast;  the  Siletz,  N.  of  this;  the  Grande 
Ronde,  E.  of  the  Siletz ;  the  Klamath,  in  the 
Klamath  basin ;  the  Warm  Springs,  in  the  N. 
part  of  the  state,  just  E.  of  the  Cascade  moun- 
tains ;  the  Umatilla,  in  the  N.  E.  part  of  the 
state ;  and  the  Malheur,  on  the  N.  fork  of  the 
river  of  that  name.  The  Oregon  Indians  com- 
prise numerous  small  bands,  including  Alseas, 
Bannacks,  Calapooyas,  Cayuses,  Clackamas, 
Clatsops,  Coosas,  Klamaths,  Modocs,  Molels,  Nez 
Perces,  Pi-Utes,  Shasta  Scotans,  Shoshones,  Sin- 
selaws,  Snakes,  Terrinoes,  Tillamooks,  Umatil- 
las,  Umpquas,  Walla-Wallas,  Warm  Springs,  and 
Wascoes. — Oregon  is  divided  into  two  unequal 
parts,  known  as  eastern  and  western  Oregon,  by 
the  Cascade  mountains,  which  cross  the  state 
from  N.  to  S.  at  an  average  distance  of  130  m. 
from  the  coast.  The  two  sections  differ  in  cli- 
mate, soil,  and  topography.  The  Cascade  moun- 
tains are  from  4,000  to  10,000  ft.  high,  with  oc- 
casional peaks  rising  still  higher,  of  which  the 
principal  are  Mt.  Hood,  in  lat.  45°  20',  accord- 
ing to  Lieut.  Col.  Williamson  (1867),  11,225 
ft  high;  Mt.  Jefferson,  in  lat.  44°  40',  10,200 
ft  •  the  Three  Sisters,  in  lat.  44°  10',  9,420  ft. ; 
Diamond  peak,  9,420  ft. ;  Mt.  Thielsen,  8,500 
ft  •  Mt.  Scott,  8,500  ft. ;  and  Mt.  McLaughlin 
or  Pitt,  in  lat.  42°  25',  11,000  ft.  All  these  rise 
into  the  region  of  perpetual  snow,  and  all  of 
them  are  extinct  volcanoes.  How  long  they 
have  been  extinct  is  not  known,  but  the  In- 
dians have  traditions  of  a  time  when  Mt. 
Hood  was  an  active  volcano.  Western  Oregon, 


678 


OREGON 


extending  from  the  Cascade  range  to  the  Pacific 
ocean,  embraces  about  a  third  of  the  state, 
and  is  divided  by  mountain  chains  into  four 
districts  differing  somewhat  from  each  other 
in  soil,  climate,  and  topography.  The  Coast 
mountains,  running  N.  and  S.  at  an  average 
distance  of  25  m.  from  the  coast,  vary  from 
1,000  to  4,000  ft.  in  height.  The  tract  be- 
tween them  and  the  ocean  is  broken  and  hilly. 
Between  the  Coast  and  Cascade  mountains, 
terminated  on  the  south  by  the  Calapooya 
range  (1,000  to  2,000  ft.  high),  is  the  Willa- 
mette valley,  a  rolling  prairie  40  by  140  m.  in 
extent.  S.  of  this  is  the  Umpqua  valley,  con- 
sisting of  alternate  hills  and  vales,  and  S.  of 
the  Umpqua  valley  and  separated  from  it  by 
the  Umpqua  mountains  (1,000  to  4,000  ft.  high) 
is  the  Rogue  river  valley,  of  irregular  width 
and  diversified  surface.  It  is  bordered  S.  by 
the  Siskiyou  mountains  (2,000  to  5,000  ft.  high), 
which  lie  along  the  California  border.  East- 
ern Oregon,  embracing  all  the  state  E.  of  the 
Cascade  range,  consists  generally  of  undulating 
table  lands,  seamed  by  deep  cafions,  and  marked 
by  truncated  cones  of  moderate  altitude,  which 
rise  abruptly  from  the  general  level.  It  is  trav- 
ersed by  the  Blue  mountains,  which  extend 
S.  W.  from  near  the  N.  E.  corner  of  the  state. 
These  have  an  average  altitude  of  7,000  ft.,  but 
toward  the  north  fall  to  5,000  ft.  They  throw 
off  spurs  in  various  directions,  which  divide 
the  country,  particularly  on  the  east,  into  a 
series  of  deep  valleys.  The  Eagle  Creek  moun- 
tains are  the  most  important  of  these  spurs, 
extending  40  m.  E.  and  W.,  and  then  N.  along 
the  Snake  river,  including  the  valleys  of  Burnt, 
Powder,  and  Grande  Ronde  rivers.  TSey  are 
cut  in  many  places  by  canons,  with  perpen- 
dicular faces  from  1,000  to  2,000  ft.  high.  In 
the  S.  part  of  eastern  Oregon  are  a  number 
of  minor  mountain  ranges,  having  an  altitude 
of  from  1,000  to  4,000  ft.  The  Great  Basin 
extends  into  eastern  Oregon  from  Nevada, 
stretching  N.  W.  to  the  head  waters  of  the 
Des  Chutes  river. — Oregon  has  a  coast  line  on 
the  Pacific  of  more  than  300  m.  Numerous 
capes  and  promontories  are  formed  by  spurs  of 
the  Coast  mountains,  the  principal  of  which, 
commencing  at  the  south,  are  Cape  Orford  or 
Blanco  (the  westernmost  point  of  the  state), 
Cape  Arago,  Umpqua  head,  Cape  Perpetua, 
Cape  Foulweather,  Cape  Lookout,  Tillamook 
head,  and  Point  Adams,  at  the  mouth  of  the 
Columbia.  The  harbors  are  neither  large  nor 
numerous,  but  are  generally  safe.  The  first  on 
the  south  is  formed  by  Rogue  river  (lat.  42° 
25'),  reported  to  have  two  fathoms  of  water. 
Many  rocks  border  the  shore,  and  a  dangerous 
reef,  with  a  channel  1  m.  wide,  lies  off  the  en- 
trance. Port  Orford  (lat.  42°  40')  is  safe  during 
the  summer,  that  is,  while  the  N.  winds  blow, 
but  is  open  to  the  south  and  is  insecure  during 
the  winter  months.  The  harbor  is  2  m.  long 
and  1  m.  wide,  and  has  good  anchorage  in  from 
4  to  6  fathoms.  It  has  been  proposed  to  make 
it  a  harbor  of  refuge  by  the  erection  of  a  break- 


water to  protect  it  from  S.  winds,  and  the  mat- 
ter has  been  brought  to  the  attention  of  con- 
gress. The  Coquille  river  (lat.  43°  7')  is  acces- 
sible by  vessels  of  light  draught.  Coos  bay  (lat. 
43°  21;)  is  about  10  m.  long  and  2  m.  wide,  and 
has  a  depth  of  from  3  to  4  fathoms ;  the  bar 
sometimes  fills  up  in  winter,  which  prevents 
large  vessels  from  crossing  it  for  a  week  or 
two.  Umpqua  river  (lat.  43°  41')  is  accessible 
by  vessels  drawing  3  to  15  ft.  Yaquina  bay 
(lat.  44°  40')  is  about  4  m.  long  and  2  m.  wide ; 
the  bar  has  a  depth  of  less  than  2  fathoms  at 
low  water.  Tillamook  bay  (lat.  45°  34')  has 
an  area  of  about  6  sq.  m. ;  the  entrance  has  a 
width  of  600  yards,  with  a  channel  135  yards 
wide  and  from  4  to  8  fathoms  deep.  Nehalem 
river  (lat.  45°  41'  30")  forms  a  bay  4  m.  long 
and  8  m.  wide,  with  an  entrance  from  200  to 
400  yards  wide,  and  a  depth  of  18  ft.  at  high 
tide.  False  Tillamook  bay  (lat.  45°  45')  is 
nearly  round,  £  m.  in  diameter,  with  an  en- 
trance J  m.  wide,  opening  to  the  south,  and  is 
secure  except  against  S.  winds.  The  Columbia 
river  furnishes  the  best  harbors  in  the  state. 
Between  Cape  Disappointment  (now  officially 
called  Cape  Hancock)  and  Point  Adams  it  is 
5  m.  wide.  It  has  two  channels:  the  south 
channel,  more  than  2  m.  wide,  with  a  depth  of 
4  fathoms  at  the  lowest  stage ;  and  the  north 
channel,  more  than  600  yards  wide  at  the  nar- 
rowest point,  wkh  a  depth  of  3£  fathoms.  Its 
chief  drawbacks  are  a  shifting  bar  and  the  pre- 
valence of  fogs  at  certain  seasons.  On  Cape 
Disappointment  at  the  N.  entrance  is  a  light- 
house, while  Point  Adams  at  the  south  is  the 
site  of  Fort  Stevens.  There  are  several  other 
lighthouses  on  the  coast. — The  Columbia  forms 
the  N.  boundary  of  the  state  for  about  300  m., 
and  is  navigable  by  steamers  the  entire  dis- 
tance, with  portages  of  6  and  15  m.  at  the 
Cascades  and  the  Dalles  respectively,  around 
which  railroads  have  been  constructed.  Ships 
ascend  115  m.  above  its  mouth.  Its  chief 
tributary  W.  of  the  Cascade  mountains  is  the 
Willamette,  formed  by  the  junction  near  Eu- 
gene City  of  three  streams,  known  as  Coast, 
Middle,  and  McKenzie  forks,  which  rise  in  the 
Cascade  range  S.  of  Diamond  peak.  The  Wil- 
lamette flows  N.  155  m.,  and  joins  the  Colum- 
bia 110  m.  above  its  mouth.  It  is  navigable 
by  light  steamers  in  summer  126  m.  above 
Portland,  and  by  sea-going  ships  18  m.  Navi- 
gation was  formerly  obstructed  by  the  falls  at 
Oregon  City,  but  the  difficulty  is  now  over- 
come by  locks  constructed  at  a  cost  of  $450,- 
000.  The  chief  tributaries  of  the  Willamette 
are  the  Tualatin  and  Yamhill  from  the  west, 
and  the  Clackamas,  Santiam,  and  Calapooya 
from  the  east.  East  of  the  Cascade  mountains 
the  Columbia  receives  the  Des  Chutes  river, 
which  rises  in  the  Cascades  near  the  source  of 
the  Willamette,  and  after  a  N.  course  of  about 
250  m.  joins  the  main  stream  a  few  miles  above 
the  Dalles.  Crooked  river  rises  in  the  Blue 
mountains,  and  after  a  N.  W.  course  of  75  m. 
joins  the  Des  Chutes  near  the  centre  of  the 


OREGON 


679 


state.      John  Day's  river  rises  in  the  Blue 
mountains,  and  has  a  N.  course  of  250  m.,  emp- 
tying into  the  Columbia  a  short  distance  above 
the  mouth  of  the  Des  Chutes.     The  Umatilla 
and  Walla  Walla  rivers  rise  in  the  Blue  moun- 
tains, and  empty  into  the  Columbia  (the  latter 
in  Washington  territory)  after  a  N.  W.  course 
of  75  m.     The  Snake  river  forms  the  E.  bound- 
ary of  the  state  for  more  than  150  m.,  and  is 
navigable  above  the  mouth  of  the  Powder  river. 
Its  chief  tributaries  from  Oregon  are  the  Grande 
Konde,  Powder,  Burnt,  Malheur,  and  Owyhee 
rivers.     The  Grande  Ronde  rises  in  the  Blue 
mountains,  and  drains  the  N.  E.  corner  of  the 
state,  joining  the  Snake  in  Washington  terri- 
tory after  a  N.  E.  course  of  about  100  m.     The 
Powder  (200  m.  long),  Burnt  (100  m.),  and 
Malheur  (140  m.)  also  rise  in  the  Blue  moun- 
tains,   and  have  a  general  E.   course.      The 
Owyhee  enters  the  S.  E.  corner  of  the  state 
from  Idaho,  flows  N.  W.  and  N.  E.  in  a  curve, 
and  joins  the  Snake,  after  a  total  course  of  200 
m.,  at  the  point  where  that  river  first  strikes 
the  boundary.     The  principal  streams  that  flow 
into  the  Pacific  from  this  state  are  the  Rogue 
and  Umpqua  rivers,  each  about  200  m.  long, 
which  rise  in  the  Cascade  mountains  and  flow 
W.,  breaking  through  the  Coast  range.     The 
Umpqua  is  navigable    by   steamers  of    light 
draught  to  Roseburg,  about  90  m.  above  its 
mouth,  though  more  than  half  this  distance  is 
obstructed  by  rapids.     Numerous  streams  rise 
in  the  Coast  mountains  and  flow  W.  to  the 
Pacific,  the  largest  of  which  do  not  exceed  50 
or  60  m.  in  length.      Among  these  are  the 
Nehalem,  Tillamook,  Coos,  and  Coquille.     The 
Nehalem  alone  is  navigable,  and  but  for  a  few 
miles.     The  head   waters   of  Klamath  river, 
which  empties  into  the  Pacific  in  California, 
are  in  the  S.  W.  corner  of  eastern  Oregon,  just 
E.  of  the  Cascade  range.     The  Klamath  marsh, 
6  Jby  20  m.  in  extent,  is  often  submerged  in 
winter,   and  discharges    through   Williamson 
river  into  Upper  Klamath  lake  (6  by  20  m.), 
which  empties  through  Link  river  into  Lower 
Klamath  lake  on  the  .California  border.     The 
latter  lake  is  the  immediate  source  of  the 
Klamath  river.     Lost  river  rises  in  California, 
flows  N".  into  Oregon,  and  then  curving  W. 
and  S.  empties  into  Rhett  or  Tule  lake  on  the 
California  border,  a  few  miles  E.  of  Lower 
Klamath  lake.    E.  of  Tule  lake  is  Goose  lake, 
lying  chiefly  in  California.      Its  waters  find 
their  way  through  Pitt  river  into  the  Sacra- 
mento.     Other    important   lakes  are   Silver, 
Summer,  and  Abert,  N.  and  N.  E.  of  those 
named,  and  Harney  and  Malheur,  near  the  head 
waters  of  the  Malheur  river. — The  principal 
geological  formations  in  Oregon  are  the  eozoic, 
the  volcanic,  the  tertiary,  and  the  cretaceous. 
The  eozoic  occupies  the  Coast  range  and  the 
Blue  mountains,  while  the  Cascade  range  and 
the  E.  and  E.  central  portions  of  the  state  are 
volcanic.     The  tertiary  forms  a  narrow  strip 
along  the  Pacific,  and  occupies  the  Willamette 
valley,  the  upper  portion  of  the  Umpqua  val- 


ley, the  valley  of  the  Grande  Ronde,  and  a 
considerable  tract  E.  of  the  Cascade  mountains 
and  S.  of  the  44th  parallel.     The  cretaceous 
chiefly  occurs  along  the  upper  Des  Chutes  and 
John  Day's  rivers  and  their  tributaries. — Ore- 
gon is  rich  in  minerals.     Gold  is  found  at  va- 
rious points  in  the  southwest  along  the  streams 
and  in  the  sands  of  the  seashore.     It  was  first 
discovered  in  1852  in  Jackson  co.,  and  mining 
is  still  carried  on  in  Jackson,  Josephine,  and 
Douglas  cos. ;  but  the  chief  mining  region  is 
E.  of  the  Cascade  mountains  (where  the  metal 
was  discovered  in  1861),  on  the  head  waters 
of  John  Day's  river  and  on  Burnt  and  Powder 
rivers.      The  most  productive  mines  are  in 
Baker  and  Grant  cos.     The  mines  are  chiefly 
placer,  but  attention  has  recently  been  directed 
also  to  the  quartz  lodes.     Silver  occurs  in  all 
the  quartz  ledges  of  the  state,  and  is  found 
mingled  with  galena  and  other  minerals,  but 
mining  operations  have  not  been  carried  on. 
In  Baker  co.  a  deposit  has  been  found  yielding 
from  $150  to  $300  per  ton  of  ore.     Copper 
has  been  found  not  only  in  the  form  of  oxides 
and  carbonates,  but  also  in  solid  ledges.     It 
occurs  in  all  the  counties  E.  of  the  Blue  moun- 
tains, in  those  W.  of  the  Coast  range,  and  in 
Douglas,   Jackson,   and  Josephine  cos.     The 
only  mine  in  operation  is  in  Union  co.  in  the 
N.  E.  part  of  the  state.     Iron  ore  underlies  a 
great  portion  of  the  surface,  and  in  some  parts 
forms  low  hills.      It  has  been  found  in  the 
Willamette  valley,  along  the  coast,  and  in  the 
S.  and  E.  parts  of  the  state.     Coal  of  a  lignitic 
character,  and  apparently  of  a  miocene  for- 
mation, is  widely  diffused.     It  is  found  along 
the  Coast  range  and  the  region  W.  of  this,  in 
the  Umpqua  and  Willamette  valleys,  E.  of  the 
Blue  mountains,  and  elsewhere.     The  princi- 
pal mine  is  on  Coos  bay,  whence  large  quanti- 
ties are  shipped.     Limestone   is   most  ab.un- 
dant  in  the  south  and  in  the  coast    region. 
Marble  of  good  quality  occurs  in  Jackson  and 
Josephine  cos.     Granite,  sandstone,  slate,  sye- 
nite,  &c.,  suitable  for  building,  are  compara- 
tively abundant  in  western  Oregon.     In  this 
region   also   occur   salt    springs,  which  yield 
large  quantities  of  good  salt.     Steatite  or  soap- 
stone  is  found  in  the  Klamath  basin  and  else- 
where.    Clays  for  brick  making  and  pottery 
occur,  and  the  sand  dunes  of  the  coast  furnish 
an  excellent  material  for  the  manufacture  of 
glass.      The  number  of  gold  mines  returned 
by  the  United  States  census  of  1870  was  168 
(139  placer,  26  hydraulic,  and  3  quartz),  em- 
ploying 880  hands  and  a  capital  of  $321,520; 
wages  paid  during  the  year,  $79,022 ;  value  of 
materials  used,  $29,930;  of  product,  $417,797; 
3ut  these  returns  are  admitted  to  be  imperfect. 
The  number  of  quartz  mills  in  1870  (including 
those  not  in  operation),  according  to  the  report 
of  the  United  States  commissioner  of  mining 
statistics,  was  15  (1  for  the  production  of  sil- 
er  and  14  of  gold),  with  62  stamps  and  19 
irrastras.     The  bullion  product  of  the  state  to 
he  close  of  1867,  according  to  J.  Ross  Browne, 


680 


OREGON 


was  $22,000,000,  which  United  States  Com- 
missioner Raymond  thinks  more  than  50  per 
cent,  too  high.  The  subsequent  yield,  accord- 
ing to  Raymond,  has  been  as  follows :  1868, 
$3,500,000;  1869,  $2,625,000;  1870,  $2,625,- 
000;  1871,  $2,200,000;  1872,  $1,775,000;  1873, 
$1,375,000;  1874,  $650,000;  total,  $14,750,- 
000.  The  entire  product  to  the  close  of  1874 
may  therefore  be  stated  at  from  $26,000,000  to 
$37,000,000.  The  amount  of  gold  deposited  at 
the  United  States  mints  and  assay  offices  from 
Oregon  to  June  30,  1874,  was  $12,314,071  10. 
Mineral  springs,  both  hot  and  cold,  occur  in 
the  Rogue  river  valley,  in  the  Siskiyou  moun- 
tains, and  in  eastern  Oregon. — Western  Ore- 
gon has  a  moist  and  equable  cll.nate ;  eastern 
Oregon,  one  dry  and  variable.  In  the  former 
division  there  are  but  two  seasons,  the  wet  and 
the  dry.  The  wet  season  commences  about 
the  latter  part  of  November  and  lasts  till  March 
or  April,  during  which  drizzling  rains  and  thick 
mists  prevail,  though  there  are  many  clear 
days.  In  the  dry  season  the  sky  is  generally 
clear,  and  though  rain  is  not  entirely  wanting, 
very  little  falls  from  June  to  October.  The  cli- 
mate of  this  division  varies  somewhat  in  differ- 
ent localities.  In  the  southern  portions  the  dry 
season  is  longer  and  the  wet  season  shorter  than 
in  the  northern,  while  in  the  district  "W.  of 
the  Coast  range  the  atmosphere  is  more  humid 
than  between  the  Coast  and  Cascade  mountains. 
Snow  falls  occasionally,  but  seldom  to  any  con- 
siderable depth,  and  generally  soon  disappears. 
Ice  rarely  forms  more  than  an  inch  or  two  in 
thickness,  and  soon  thaws.  In  some  winters 
flowers  bloom  in  the  gardens  even  in  the  N. 
portion  of  the  Willamette  valley.  The  nights 
in  summer  are  always  cool,  and  the  heat  during 
the  day,  seldom  extreme,  is  never  oppressive. 
The  Cascade  mountains  shut  out  from  eastern 
Oregon  the  moisture  of  the  Pacific.  The  tem- 
perature here  is  subject  to  greater  extremes 
than  in  the  west,  but  the  winters  are  shorter 
and  milder,  and  the  summers  cooler  and  more 
equable  than  on  the  Atlantic  coast.  The  win- 
ter commences  late  in  December,  and  generally, 
lasts  three  months.  Snow  frequently  falls  to 
the  depth  of  12  inches  in  the  valleys,  but  6 
inches  is  the  usual  depth.  In  the  high  moun- 
tainous region  of  Grant  co.  a  much  greater 
quantity  falls.  Ice  is  formed  every  winter,  but 
commonly  it  does  not  exceed  a  few  inches  in 
thickness.  A  warm  S.  E.  wind  is  not  uncom- 
mon, before  which  the  snow  speedily  disappears. 
In  summer  the  heat  occasionally  reaches  100°, 
but  owing  to  the  dryness  and  rarity  of  the  at- 
mosphere it  is  not  severely  felt.  Consider- 
able rain  falls  in  spring,  but  in  summer  there 
is  little  rain  and  not  much  dew,  though  crops 
do  not  suffer  from  drought.  In  the  Kla- 
math  valley,  owing  to  its  elevation  (4,200  ft.), 
frosts  occur  every  night  of  the  year,  and  snow 
lies  from  three  to  five  months.  Thunder, 
lightning,  hail,  and  heavy  winds  are  rare  in 
Oregon.  In  most  parts  of  the  state  cattle  are 
wintered  without  shelter  or  prepared  food, 


LOCALITY. 

Spring. 

Summer. 

Autumn. 

Winter. 

Year. 

Port  Orford  
Astoria  
Corvallis  

52-00° 
51-00 
5'2-19 

60-00" 
61-50 
67-13 

55-00° 
54-00 
53-41 

47-50' 
42-50 
89-27 

53-5" 
52-0 
53-0 

Dalles  

53-00 

70-50 

52-00 

35-50 

53'0 

but  loss  is  suffered  in  seasons  of  unusual  se- 
verity. In  western  Oregon  the  most  careful 
farmers  erect  sheds  to  protect  their  stock  from 
cold  rains,  and  furnish  fodder  for  five  or  six 
weeks.  The  mean  temperature  of  the  seasons 
and  year  at  Port  Orford  (lat.  42°  40')  and  As- 
toria (lat.  46°  10')  on  the  coast,  at  Corvallis  (lat. 
44°  30')  in  the  Willamette  valley,  and  at  Dalles 
(lat.  45°  36')  just  E.  of  the  Cascade  range,  is 
stated  by  Murphy  as  follows : 


At  Eola  (lat.  44°  57'),  near  Salem,  the  average 
mean  temperature  of  the  years  1870,  '71,  and 
'72  was  49-66°,  varying  from  49'25°  to  50-4°; 
average  annual  rainfall,  38*62  inches,  varying 
from  37-11  to  40-84  inches;  average  mean 
temperature  of  spring,  47°;  summer,  66-1°; 
autumn,  49-1°;  winter,  37'3°;  maximum  tem- 
perature, 83° ;  minimum,  13°.  The  annual 
rainfall  at  Astoria  is  stated  at  60  inches,  and  in 
eastern  Oregon  at  from  15  to  20  inches.  The 
climate  is  generally  healthy,  and  there  is  no 
prevailing  type  of  disease.  A  species  of  inter- 
mittent fever  occurs  in  the  low  bottoms  along 
some  of  the  watercourses  in  western  Oregon, 
but  it  is  mild  and  readily  yields  to  treatment. 
The  climate  is  believed  to  be  beneficial  to  con- 
sumptives, particularly  in  eastern  Oregon.  The 
number  of  deaths  according  to  the  census  of 
1870  was  622,  viz. :  from  general  diseases,  304, 
including  85  from  fevers,  34  from  diphtheria, 
and  112  from  consumption;  diseases  of  the 
nervous  system,  54;  circulatory  system,  19; 
respiratory  system,  61,  including  23  from  croup 
and  30  from  pneumonia ;  digestive  system,  63 ; 
accidents  and  injuries,  55 ;  the  rest  from  various 
causes. — The  soil  in  the  valleys  of  the  Willa- 
mette, Umpqua,  and  Rogue  rivers  is  very  fer- 
tile. The  district  W.  of  the  Coast  mountains 
is  generally  rugged,  but  along  the  watercourses 
and  at  the  mouths  of  the  streams  are  tracts 
adapted  to  agriculture,  which  possess  a  good 
soil.  These  valleys  are  more  extensive  toward 
the  south.  In  eastern  Oregon  the  chief  agri- 
cultural tracts  are  along  the  streams.  The  most 
extensive  and  productive  valleys  are  those  of 
the  Grande  Ronde,  Powder,  and  Malheur  riv- 
ers. On  John  Day's  and  Crooked  rivers  there 
are  also  productive  lands.  Much  of  the  district 
belonging  to  the  Great  Basin  is  a  desert,  cov- 
ered in  the  east  with  sand  and  sage,  and  in  the 
west  with  volcanic  ashes  and  pumice.  Lava 
terraces  often  rise  one  above  the  other  to  the 
height  of  1,000  ft.,  and  chasms  appear  on  every 
hand.  The  only  tree  is  a  dwarf  pine.  West- 
ern Oregon,  with  the  exception  of  the  extensive 
prairie  tracts  in  the  Willamette  valley  and 
smaller  ones  in  some  of  the  other  valleys,  is 
densely  wooded  with  gigantic  forests.  This  is 
particularly  true  of  the  Coast  range  and  the 


OREGON 


681 


region  W.  of  it.  On  the  Cascade  mountains 
the  forests  extend  to  the  snow  line.  While 
several  varieties  of  deciduous  trees  occur,  the 
forests  consist  chiefly  of  coniferous  evergreens. 
1  These  furnish  excellent  ship  timber,  and  sev- 
eral species  attain  a  height  of  300  ft.,  and  a 
diameter  of  from  8  to  20  ft.  The  principal  va- 
rieties are  the  Douglas  spruce  or  red  fir  (dbies 
Douglasii),  Williamson's  spruce  (A.  William- 
sonii),  the  yellow  or  western  balsam  fir  (A. 
grandis),  the  silver  fir  (A.  amabilis),  the  noble 
fir  (A.  nobilis),  the  twisted  or  scrub  pine  (pinus 
contorta),  the  yellow  pine. (P.  ponderosa),  the 
sugar  pine  (P.  Lairibertiana),  the'  red  cedar 
(thuja  gigantea),  the  white  cedar  (libocedrus 
decurrens),  the  Oregon  yew  (taxus  Iremfolia), 
the  western  juniper  (juniperus  occidentalism 
and  the  Port  Orford  cypress  (cupressus  Law- 
soniana).  The  largest  tree  in  Oregon  is  the 
redwood  (sequoia  sempermrens),  which  grows 
along  the  shores  of  the  Pacific,  and  is  surpassed 
in  size  only  by  the  sequoia  gigantea  of  Califor- 
nia. Among  deciduous  trees  the  most  impor- 
tant are  the  Oregon  oak  (quercus  Garreyana), 
the  only  oak  in  the  state,  confined  to  the 
region  between  the  Coast  and  Cascade  moun- 
tains; the  white  maple  (acer  macrophyllum), 
the  Oregon  ash  (fraxinus  Oregona),  the  Ore- 
gon alder  (alnus  Oregona),  the  western  chin- 
quapin (castanea  chrysophylla  ),  and  Nuttall's 
cornel  (cornus  Nuttalli).  In  eastern  Oregon 
timber  is  scarce,  except  along  the  streams  and 
oh  the  mountains.  The  Blue  mountains  are 
well  wooded.  The  principal  varieties  here  are 
poplar,  cottonwood,  aspen,  birch,  willow,  &c., 
on  the  watercourses,  and  the  larch,  pine,  fir, 
cedar,  maple,  &c.,  on  the  mountains.  Some 
species  are  found  in  both  divisions  of  the  state. 
Among  wild  fruits  are  grapes,  cherries,  plums, 
and  numerous  species  of  berries,  including 
gooseberries,  currants,  cranberries,  strawber- 
ries, and  blackberries.  In  western  Oregon, 
particularly  W.  of  the  Coast  range,  grass  is 
abundant,  owing  to  the  prevalence  of  moisture, 
while  in  the  E.  section  the  nutritious  bunch 
grass  (festuca  scalrelld)  abounds.  The  greater 
part  of  the  state  is  well  adapted  to  stock  and 
sheep  raising.  The  table  lands  of  eastern  Ore- 
gon may  be  profitably  devoted  to  this  industry. 
Wheat  is  the  chief  crop ;  its  yield  is  large  and 
its  quality  excellent.  By  far  the  greater  por- 
tion is  raised  in  the  Willamette  valley.  The 
climate  and  soil  are  also  well  adapted  to  oats 
and  barley.  Rye  and  buckwheat  have  been  lit- 
tle cultivated.  Indian  corn  is  not  extensively 
raised,  the  climate  being  better  suited  to  the 
production  of  the  smaller  grains.  It  grows 
best  in  portions  of  eastern  Oregon  and  in  the 
S.  valleys  between  the  Coast  and  Cascade  moun- 
tains. Potatoes,  peas  and  beans,  cabbages, 
onions,  turnips,  carrots,  and  other  root  crops 
grow  well.  Flax  grows  wild  in  the  vicinity  of 
the  Klamath  basin.  Apples,  pears,  plums,  cher- 
ries, and  grapes  thrive,  and  considerable  quan- 
tities of  apples  are  raised  in  the  Willamette 
valley.  Prunes  are  grown  in  many  portions  of 


western  Oregon,  and  peaches  succeed  well  in 
the  E.  and  S.  sections  of  the  state.  Figs  have 
been  successfully  grown  in  the  S.  part  of 
western  Oregon. — The  principal  indigenous 
quadrupeds  of  Oregon  are  the  grisly  bear,  black 
bear,  American  panther  (felis  concolor),  the 
wild  cat,  the  gray  wolf,  the  coyote  (canis  la- 
trans),  the  mountain  sheep,  the  elk,  the  black- 
tailed  deer,  and  the  antelope.  The  most  promi- 
nent birds  are  the  California  vulture  (cathartes 
Californianus),  turkey  buzzard,  golden  eagle, 
bald  eagle,  fish  hawk,  trumpeter  swan  (cygnus 
buccinator),  American  swan,  Canada  goose, 
snow  goose,  brant,  four  species  of  albatross, 
three  of  pelicans,  and  seven  of  gulls.  Of 
reptiles  there  are  none  deserving  special  men- 
tion, save  the  rattlesnake,  which  is  not  abun- 
dant. The  rivers  of  Oregon  abound  in  salmon 
at  the  proper  seasons;  there  are  several  spe- 
cies. Other  varieties  of  fish  are  the  cod,  hali- 
but, sturgeon,  herring,  smelt,  &c.  Lobsters, 
oysters,  clams,  and  other  shell  fish  are  also 
common.  The  salmon  alone  is  caught  to  any 
considerable  extent.  There  are  a  number  of 
fisheries  near  the  mouth  of  the  Columbia,  and 
several  canning  establishments.  The  total  an- 
nual value  of  the  salmon  fisheries  of  the  state 
is  estimated  at  $1,500,000.  Most  of  the  ani- 
mals, birds,  and  fishes,  as  well  as  the  trees 
and  other  vegetable  productions  of  Oregon, 
differ  from  those  of  the  eastern  states,  and 
are  peculiar  to  the  Pacific  coast. — The  number 
of  acres  of  land  in  farms  in  1870  was  2,389,- 
252  (1,116,290  improved  and  1,272,962  unim- 
proved) ;  number  of  farms,  7,587,  of  which  634 
contained  less  than  10  acres  each,  579  from  10 
to  20,  1,545  from  20  to  50,  1,409  from  50  to 
100,  2,994  from  100  to  500,  338  from  500  to 
1,000,  and  88  more  than  1,000.  The  cash  value 
of  farms  was  $22,352,989;  of  farming  imple- 
ments and  machinery,  $1,293,717;  wages  paid 
during  the  year,  including  value  of  board, 
$719,875 ;  estimated  value  of  all  farm  produc- 
tions, including  betterments  and  additions  to 
stock,  $7,122,790;  value  of  orchard  products, 
$310,041 ;  produce  of  market  gardens,  $105,- 
371 ;  forest  products,  $259,220 ;  home  manu- 
factures, $87,376;  animals  slaughtered  or  sold 
for  slaughter,  $1,365,737;  live  stock,  $6,828,- 
675.  The  productions  were  1,794,494  bushels 
of  spring  wheat,  546,252  of  winter  wheat, 
3,890  of  rye,  72,138  of  Indian  corn,  2,029,909 
of  oats,  210,736  of  barley,  1,645  of  buckwheat, 
12,575  of  peas  and  beans,  481,710  of  Irish  pota- 
toes, 1,970  of  sweet  potatoes,  1,220  of  grass 
seed,  10,988  of  flax  seed,  3,847  Ibs.  of  tobacco, 
1,080,638  of  wool,  1,418,373  of  butter,  79,333 
of  cheese,  9,745  of  hops,  40,474  of  flax,  11  of 
maple  sugar,  1,207  of  wax,  66,858  of  honey, 
1,751  gallons  of  wine,  30  of  maple  molasses, 
107,367  of  milk  sold,  and  75,357  tons  of  hay. 
The  live  stock  consisted  of  51,702  horses,  2,581 
mules  and  asses,  48,325  milch  cows,  2,441  work- 
ing oxen,  69,431  other  cattle,  318,123  sheep, 
and  119,455  swine;  besides  12,923  horses  and 
30,049  cattle  not  on  farms.  The  live  stock 


682 


OREGON 


assessed  in  1874  was  as  follows :  horses,  65,789 ; 
cattle,  232,132;  sheep,  388,241 ;  swine,  72,825. 
— The  number  of  manufacturing  establishments 
in  1870  was  969,  having  88  steam  engines  of 
2,471  horse  power,  and  236  water  wheels  of 


5,806  horse  power;  hands  employed,  2,884;  cap- 
ital invested,  $4,376,849 ;  wages  paid  during  the 
year,  $1,120,173;  value  of  material  used,  $3,- 
419,756;  of  products,  $6,877,387.  The  follow- 
ing are  the  statistics  of  the  principal  branches : 


-1 

i 

« 

1 

s 

§ 

.9 

i 

INDUSTRIES. 

•i! 

.11 

it 

INDUSTRIES. 

ll 

If 

|| 

"3  S 
S  § 

*3  "° 
* 

fc  S 

X 

o 

£* 

*is 

K 

o 

Awnings  and  tents 

1 

3 

$5000 

$56  000 

Lumber  planed. 

8 

25 

40000 

57850 

118 

199 

90068 

286  176 

165 

692 

913  262 

1  014  211 

Boots  and  shoes  

54 

RS 

44525 

98,'312 

Machinery,  not  specified  

2 

7 

9'000 

14360 

Bread  and  bakery  products  
Carpentering  and  buildin" 

6 
104 

19 
248 

12,770 
53395 

62,845 
417  152 

"         engines  and  boilers. 
Meat,  packed  beef 

6 

48 
3 

63,000 
10000 

146,400 
87000 

Clothing 

29 

80 

83430 

120  700 

"           "       pork. 

.j 

12 

50000 

101  750 

Flouring  and  grist  mill  products 

(11 

1  lie'825 

1  972,444 

Quartz,  milled  

4 

19 

36'200 

50800 

Furniture                

PS 

58 

54200 

68  292 

Saddlery  and  harness 

82 

78 

112  892 

131  919 

Iron  castings 

4 

89 

28000 

65000 

Sash  doors  and  blinds 

13 

52 

10(5  800 

97940 

Leather,  tanned  

14 

88 

85'700 

73,555 

Tin,  copper,  and  sheet-iron  ware 

"S 

61 

166,040 

158,462 

"        curried 

10 

21 

11700 

73683 

Upholstery  

5 

95800 

127  tiOO 

Liquors  distilled 

3 

6 

18  500 

10760 

Wheelwrighting. 

61 

98 

61  142 

106435 

u        malt  

18 

80 

52,750 

74,776 

Woollen  goods  

6 

178 

380,500 

492  857 

Oregon  is  divided  into  three  customs  districts, 
Southern  Oregon  (port  of  entry,  Coos  bay), 
Oregon  (port  of  entry,  Astoria),  and  Willa- 


mette (port  of  entry,  Portland).  The  commer- 
cial statistics  for  the  year  ending  June  30, 
1874,  are  given  in  the  following  table : 


DISTRICTS. 

FOREIGN  TRADE. 

COASTWISE  TRADE. 

Vessels  be- 
longing in 
the  state. 

Value  of 
imports. 

Value  of 
exports. 

ENTRANCES. 

CLEARANCES. 

ENTRANCES. 

CLEARANCES. 

No. 

Tons. 

No. 

Tons. 

No. 

Ton*. 

No. 

Tow. 

No. 

Tons. 

$263 

$705,971 

1 

674 

21 

14,829 

150 

2 
157 

168,794 
246 
121,519 

138 

i 

79 

160,016 
218 
83,129 

41 
6 
61 

108 

2,148 
579 
17,769 

Southern  Oregon  

Willamette  

490,217 

1,958,539 

49 

25,651 

75 

96 

48,661 

Total... 

$490,480 

$2,659,510 

50 

26,825 

58,490 

809 

290,559 

218 

243,863 

20.496 

The  chief  exports  were  1,680,837  bushels  of 
wheat,  valued  at  $1,923,351,  and  101,847  bar- 
rels of  flour,  valued  at  $577,016.  Of  the  ves- 
sels belonging  in  the  state,  36,  tonnage  2,253, 
were  sailing  vessels;  60,  tonnage  17,111,  steam- 
ers; and  12,  tonnage  1,132,  barges.  Twelve 
vessels,  tonnage  1,430,  were  built  in  the  state 
during  the  year.  There  are  two  lines  of  rail- 
road (257£  m.  in  1874)  in  operation  in  the  state, 
the  Oregon  and  California  and  the  Oregon  Cen- 
tral. The  former  runs  along  the  E.  bank  of 
the  Willamette  and  through  the  Umpqua  val- 
ley, from  East  Portland  to  Roseburg,  200  m., 
and  is  to  be  extended  thence  to  the  California 
line,  a  total  distance  of  290  m.,  to  connect  with 
the  Oregon  division  of  the  Central  Pacific  rail- 
road. The  Oregon  Central  railroad  is  to  ex- 
tend from  Portland  along  the  W.  bank  of  the 
Willamette  to  Eugene  City,  124  m.,  and  is  com- 
pleted to  St.  Joseph,  57i  m.  There  were  427£ 
m.  of  telegraph  lines  in  1874.  In  that  year 
seven  fire  and  three  life  insurance  companies 
of  other  states  and  countries  were  doing  busi- 
ness in  the  state,  and  there  was  one  national 
bank  (at  Portland),  with  a  capital  of  $250,000. 
— The  government  of  Oregon  is  exercised  by 
a  governor  (salary  $1,500),  a  secretary  of  state 
($1,500),  and  treasurer  of  state  ($800),  who 
are  chosen  by  a  plurality  of  votes  for  four 
years.  The  governor  must  be  a  citizen  of  the 
United  States,  30  years  of  age,  and  for  three 


years  a  resident  of  the  state.  The  secretary  of 
state  is  ex  officio  auditor  of  public  accounts. 
The  governor,  secretary  of  state,  and  treasurer 
are  eligible  for  reelection  for  any  number  of 
terms,  though  not  for  more  than  two  succes- 
sively. A  state  printer  and  superintendent  of 
public  instruction  (salary,  $1,500)  are  chosen 
by  popular  vote  for  four  years.  The  legislature 
is  composed  of  two  branches,  a  senate  of  30 
members  and  a  house  of  representatives  of  60 
members,  and  is  styled  the  legislative  assembly. 
Senators  and  representatives  are  elected  by  the 
qualified  voters  of  the  respective  counties  or 
districts,  the  former  for  four  and  the  latter 
for  two  years,  one  half  of  the  senators  retiring 
every  two  years.  They  are  apportioned  among 
the  different  counties  and  districts  according 
to  population,  and  after  each  decennial  state 
(commencing  in  1865)  and  federal  census  a 
new  apportionment  is  made.  Senators  and 
representatives  must  be  citizens  of  the  United 
States,  21  years  of  age,  and  for  one  year  resi- 
dents of  their  respective  districts  or  counties. 
A  quorum  consists  of  two  thirds  of  each  house, 
and  a  two-thirds  vote  is  necessary  to  set  aside 
the  governor's  veto.  Regular  sessions  are 
held  biennially,  commencing  on  the  second 
Monday  of  September  of  even  years.  Extra 
sessions  may  be  called  by  the  governor  for  any 
period  not  exceeding  20  days.  Members  of 
each  house  receive  $3  a  day  (the  presiding 


OREGON 


683 


officers  $5)  and  $3  for  every  20  miles  of  travel, 
but  it  is  provided  that  the  per  diem  of  no 
member  shall  exceed  $120.  The  power  of 
special  legislation  is  restricted.  It  is  provided 
that  the  legislative  assembly  shall  not  create 
any  debt  or  liabilities  to  an  amount  exceeding 
$50,000,  except  in  case  of  war,  or  to  repel  in- 
vasion or  suppress  insurrection,  and  that  no 
county  shall  create  any  debt  or  liabilities  ex- 
ceeding $5,000,  with  the  like  exceptions ;  that 
the  state  shall  never  assume  the  debts  of  any 
county,  town,  or  other  corporation,  except 
such  as  have  been  created  to  suppress  insur- 
rection, &c. ;  that  the  state  shall  not  subscribe 
to  or  be  interested  in  the  stock  of  any  com- 
pany, association,  or  corporation,  nor  shall  any 
county  or  municipal  corporation  become  a 
stockholder  therein,  raise  money  therefor,  or 
loan  its  credit  thereto;  that  no  money  shall 
be  drawn  from  the  treasury  for  the  benefit  of 
any  religious  or  theological  institution;  and 
that  no  bank  or  moneyed  institution  shall  be 
incorporated,  nor  shall  any  such  exist  with 
power  to  circulate  paper  money.  The  judicial 
power  is  vested  in  a  supreme  court,  circuit 
courts,  county  courts,  and  justices  of  the  peace. 
The  supreme  court,  which  has  appellate  juris- 
diction only  of  final  decisions  of  the  circuit 
courts,  and  holds  one  session  annually  at  Sa- 
lem, consists  of  five  justices  elected  by  districts 
for  a  term  of  six  years,  one  or  more  retiring 
every  two  years.  The  number  of  justices  and 
districts  may  be  increased,  but  cannot  exceed 
seven.  A  circuit  court  is  held  in  each  county 
at  least  twice  a  year  by  a  justice  of  the  supreme 
court.  These  courts  have  general  original  ju- 
risdiction, civil  and  criminal,  and  appellate 
jurisdiction  and  supervisory  control  over  the 
county  courts  and  other  inferior  tribunals. 
A  county  judge  is  elected  in  each  county  by 
the  qualified  voters  for  four  years,  who  holds 
a  county  court  with  probate  jurisdiction  and 
jurisdiction  of  inferior  crimes  and  of  civil  cases 
not  involving  more  than  $500.  Justices  of  the 
peace  have  jurisdiction  of  civil  cases  not  in- 
volving more  than  $250.  Public  officers  can- 
not be  impeached,  but  in  a  criminal  proceeding 
for  incompetency,  corruption,  &c.,  judgment 
of  dismissal  from  office  may  be  given;  and 
judges  of  the  supreme  court  may  be  removed 
from  office  by  the  governor  upon  the  joint 
resolution  of  two  thirds  of  each  house  of  the 
legislature,  alleging  cause.  The  right  of  suf- 
frage is  conferred  by  the  constitution  upon 
every  white  male  citizen  of  the  United  States, 
of  sound  mind  and  not  a  convict,  who  has  at- 
tained the  age  of  21  years  and  has  resided  in 
the  United  States  one  year,  and  in  the  state 
during  the  six  months  immediately  preceding 
the  election,  and  under  the  like  circumstances 
upon  every  white  alien  who  has  declared  his 
intention  to  become  a  citizen  of  the  United 
States  one  year  preceding  the  election.  Colored 
citizens  have  the  right  to  vote  under  the  fed- 
eral constitution.  Voting  is  by  ballot,  and 
electors  may  vote  in  any  county  of  the  state 


YEARS. 

ASSESSED  VALUE. 

True  value 
of  real  and 
personal. 

Real. 

Personal. 

Total. 

1850  

$5,063,474 
28,930,637 
51,558,932 

1860  
1870  

$6,279,602 
17,674,202 

$12,745,313 
14,124,308 

$19,024,915 
31,798,510 

for  state  officers.  General  elections  occur 
biennially  on  the  first  Monday  of  June  of  even 
years.  Amendments  to  the  constitution  must 
be  proposed  by  two  successive  legislatures  and 
ratified  by  a  vote  of  the  people.  The  rate  of  in- 
terest in  the  absence  of  special  agreement  is  10 
per  cent.,  but  as  high  as  12  per  cent,  may  law- 
fully be  agreed  upon.  Oregon,  having  one  rep- 
resentative and  two  senators  in  congress,  has 
therefore  three  votes  in  the  electoral  college. 
—The  valuation  of  property,  according  to  the 
United  States  censuses,  has  been  as  follows : 


The  total  taxation  in  1870  amounted  to  $580,- 
956,  of  which  $177", 658  was  state,  $362,753 
county,  and  $40,550  town,  city,  &c. ;  total 
public  debt,  $218,486,  of  which  $106,583  was 
state,  $105,903  county,  and  $6,000  town,  city, 
&c.  The  balance  in  the  state  treasury  on 
Sept.  1,  1872,  was  $172,597  41 ;  receipts  du- 
ring the  following  two  years,  $628,775  01; 
expenditures,  $663,193  45  ;  balance,  Sept.  1, 
1874,  $138,178  97  ($73,014  23  in  coin  and 
$65,164  74  in  currency).  The  current  ex- 
penses for  the  two  years  ending  Sept.  1,  1876, 
were  estimated  at  $453,350,  viz. :  legislative 
expenses,  $30,000;  salaries  of  executive  offi-1 
cers,  $15,000;  salaries  of  judges,  &c.,  $36,- 
600;  salaries,  &c.,  of  various  officers,  $40,- 
000;  penitentiary,  $80,000;  insane  asylum, 
$120,000 ;  conveyance  of  convicts  and  insane, 
$15,000  each;  public  printing  and  binding, 
$25,000;  agricultural  college,  $10,000;  keep- 
ing and  tuition  of  mutes,  $10,000  ;  support  of 
poor,  $5,000;  blind  school,  $5,000;  orphans' 
aid  society,  $3,000;  miscellaneous,  $48,750. 
The  total  amount  of  taxes  levied  in  1873  for 
state  purposes  was  $238,482  57,  of  which 
$222,701  57  (55  cents  on  $100)  was  on  prop- 
erty and  $15,781  on  polls.  The  equalized 
value  of  property  for  purposes  of  taxation 
in  1874  was  $45,688,924  94,  including  land 
(3,489,394  acres),  $22,220,381  40;  live  stock, 
$8,116,841 ;  property  of  corporations,  $2,283,- 
296  49.  The  actual  value  is  estimated  by  the 
secretary  of  state  at  from  $100,000,000  to 
$150,000,000.  The  total  debt  on  Sept.  1, 
1874,  was  $596,256,  of  which  $247,247  was 
in  bonds  bearing  interest  at  7  per  cent.,  and 
$349,009  in  warrants  bearing  interest  at  10  per 
cent.  The  state  institutions  are  the  peniten- 
tiary (established  in  1854),  deaf-mute  school 
(1870),  and  institute  for  the  blind  (1872), 
at  Salem,  and  the  hospital  for  the  insane 
(1 862),  at  East  Portland.  The  penitentiary  has 
a  farm  connected  with  it ;  a  new  building  of 
brick  has  recently  been  erected.  The  convicts 
are  employed  chiefly  in  brick  making,  but  also 
on  the  farm,  in  the  construction  of  public 


684: 


OREGON 


buildings,  and  in  various  manufactures.  The 
number  of  convicts  in  prison  from  Sept.  1, 
1872,  to  Sept.  1,  1874,  was  211 ;  remaining  at 
the  latter  date,  98.  The  state  has  not  erected 
buildings  for  the  other  institutions.  The  deaf- 
mute  school  is  conducted  in  a  leased  building ; 
the  hospital  for  the  insane  and  the  institute 
for  the  blind  are  carried  on  under  the  control 
and  at  the  expense  of  the  state,  board  and  ac- 
commodations being  furnished  in  each  case  by 
a  contractor.  The  number  of  pupils  in  the 
deaf-mute  school  in  1874  was  29,  of  whom  15 
were  males  and  14  females;  in  the  institute 
for  the  blind,  8,  of  whom  2  were  males  and  6 
females.  The  number  of  patients  in  the  hos- 
pital for  the  insane  from  Sept.  1,  1872,  to  Sept. 
1,  1874,  was  295,  of  whom  205  were  males  and 
90  females,  285  state  patients  and  10  private 
patients;  remaining  at  the  latter  date,  195,  of 
whom  140  were  males  and  55  females,  193  state 
and  2  private  patients,  124  natives  of  the  Uni- 
ted States  and  71  of  foreign  countries. — The 
public  schools  of  Oregon,  considering  the  youth 
of  the  state  and  the  smallness  of  its  popula- 
tion, are  well  supported.  The  board  of  edu- 
cation consists  of  the  governor,  secretary  of 
state,  and  superintendent  of  public  instruction. 
There  are  county  superintendents  of  common 
schools,  elected  by  the  people  for  two  years, 
and  boards  of  district  officers.  The  following 
statistics,  incomplete  owing  to  the  failure  of 
some  districts  to  report  wholly  or  in  part,  are 
from  the  report  of  the  superintendent  of  pub- 
lic instruction  for  1873-'4: 


Number  of  districts 680 

Persons  of  school  age,  4  to  20  years  (21,519  males 

and  19.379  females) 40,898 

Pupils  enrolled  in  public  schools  (11,138  males  and 

9,542  females) 20,680 

Average  attendance 15,169 

Persons  of  school  age  attending  private  schools. .  2.926 

"  "  "  "  no  school 10,711 

Number  of  public  schools  (518  of  ordinary  and  12 

of  advanced  grade) 530 

Number  of  teachers  employed  during  the  year. . .  860 

Largest  number  employed  at  one  time 591 

Average  monthly  salaries  of  teachers,  males $45  92 

"  "  "  u  females....  $3446 

Average  length  of  public  schools 1  •  52  quarter. 

Number  of  districts  having  six  months'  school  or 

more 288 

Number  of  private  schools  (43  primary,  21 

academic,  and  6  collegiate) 70 

Number  of  public  school  houses 555 

Value  of  school  property $332,764  34 

The  schools  of  advanced  grade  include  those 
in  which  most  of  the  pupils  pursue  the  higher 
branches ;  in  many  of  those  of  ordinary  grade, 
probably  100,  some  of  the  higher  English 
branches  are  taught.  The  total  receipts  for 
public  school  purposes  during  the  year  amount- 
ed to  $204,760,  viz. :  from  district  tax,  $47,243 ; 
state  apportionment,  $31,589 ;  county  appor- 
tionment, $87,573 ;  rate  bills  and  subscriptions, 
$34,672;  other  sources,  $3,683.  The  expendi- 
tures were  $215,107,  of  which  $157,103  was 
for  teachers'  wages,  $46,609  for  erection  of 
school  houses,  and  $11,395  for  incidental  ex- 
penses. The  "irreducible  school  fund,"  the 
income  of  which  is  apportioned  among  the  dif- 
ferent districts,  amounted  to  about  $500,000. 
The  statistics  of  the  colleges  for  1873-'4  are 
contained  in  the  following  table : 


INSTITUTIONS. 

LOCATION. 

Date  of 
charter. 

DENOMINATION. 

Number  of 
instructors. 

Students. 

Volumes  in 
libraries. 

Pacific  university  and  Tualatin  acad'my 

Forest  Grove. 

1853 

None  

8 

124 

5,000 

Willamette  university 

Salem. 

1853 

Methodist  Episcopal. 

9 

822 

2,500 

McMinnville  college 

McMinnville 

1859 

Baptist 

6 

150 

Christian  college  

Monmouth  .  . 

1865 

Christian  Brothers  

9 

180 

Philomath  college 

Philomath  .  . 

1865 

United  Brethren 

4 

110 

Corvallis  college. 

Corvallis 

1868 

Methodist  Episcopal  South 

6 

184 

These  institutions,  besides  the  ordinary  college 
courses,  have  classes  of  inferior  grades  which 
embrace  the  greater  part  of  the  students. 
Pacific  university,  Philomath  college,  and  Wil- 
lamette university  admit  females.  A  medical 
department  was  organized  in  Willamette  uni- 
versity in  1866,  which  in  1873-'4  had  11  pro- 
fessors and  14  students.  The  state  agricultural 
college,  endowed  with  the  congressional  land 
grant  of  90,000  acres,  was  organized  as  a  de- 
partment of  Corvallis  college  in  1872.  It  has 
a  farm  connected  with  it,  and  receives  an  an- 
nual grant  of  $5,000  from  the  state.  The 
number  of  students  in  this  department  in  1873 
-'4  was  32.  The  university  of  Oregon  was  es- 
tablished by  the  legislature  in  1872,  and  is  un- 
der the  control  of  a  board  of  nine  directors, 
six  of  whom  are  appointed  by  the  governor. 
It  receives  from  the  state  as  an  endowment 
the  "university  fund,"  amounting  to  more 
than  $50,000.  Grounds  have  been  selected  and 
buildings  erected  near  Eugene  City,  but  the 


institution  has  not  yet  (1875)  been  opened. — 
According  to  the  census  of  1870,  the  number 
of  libraries  was  2,361,  with  344,959  volumes, 
of  which  2,195,  with  273,427  volumes,  were 
private.  Those  not  private  were  classified  as 
follows:  1  state,  3,578  volumes;  1  town,  1,161 ; 
1  court  and  law,  180 ;  4  school,  college,  &c., 
4,400;  126  Sabbath  school,  33,547;  22  church, 
10,420 ;  3  of  benevolent  and  secret  associa- 
tions, 1,096.  The  state  library  in  1874  con- 
tained 6,217  volumes,  chiefly  reports,  public 
documents,  &c.  In  that  year  there  were  41 
newspapers  and  periodicals  published  in  thd' 
state,  of  which  4  were  daily,  1  tri-weekly,  33 
weekly,  1  semi-monthly,  and  2  monthly.  The 
number  of  newspapers  and  periodicals  re- 
turned by  the  census  of  1870  was  35,  issuing 
3,657,300  copies  annually,  and  having  an  ag- 
gregate circulation  of  45,750,  viz. :  4  daily,  cir- 
culation 6,350 ;  26  weekly,  30,400  ;  5  monthly, 
9,0.00.  The  statistics  of  churches  for  that  year 
are  given  in  the  following  table : 


OKEGON 


O'REILLY 


685 


DENOMINATIONS. 

Organi- 
zations. 

Edifices. 

Sittings. 

Value  of 
property. 

Baptist,  regular  
u       other  

26 
2 

14 
2 

4,350 
400 

$28,200 
1  000 

Christian  . 

26 

16 

4400 

25000 

Congregational 

8 

7 

2300 

49  500 

Episcopal  

Evangelical  Association..  . 
Lutheran 

9 
2 
1 

8 
2 
1 

1,800   . 
550 
300 

53,'200 
9,300 
15000 

Methodist  

97 

49 

15100 

113400 

Presbyterian,  regular  
"'            other  
Koman  Catholic  

8 
12 
13 

1 
9 
14 

2.425 
8.250 
2750 

83,000 
11,200 
94500 

Spiritualist  
Unitarian  
United  Brethren  in  Christ 
Universalist  

2 
2 
10 
1 

1 

2 

800 
250 
500 

25,000 
10,000 
1,200 

Union  

1 

1 

250 

1  600 

Total  

220 

135 

39425 

$471  100 

— The  name  Oregon  was  long  applied  to  all 
the  territory  claimed  by  the  United  States  on 
the  Pacific  coast,  extending  from  lat.  42°  to 
64°  40'  N.  Under  the  treaty  of  1818,  the  pro- 
visions of  which  were  continued  in  1827,  it 
was  jointly  occupied  by  Great  Britain  and  the 
United  States  till  1846,  when  the  latter,  by  the 
N.  W.  boundary  treaty,  abandoned  all  claim  to 
the  country  N.  of  the  49th  parallel,  and  the 
name  Oregon  was  restricted  to  the  region  S. 
of  that  line,  to  which  in  turn  Great  Britain 
renounced  all  claim.  Though  the  coast  of 
Oregon  had  been  previously  seen  by  various 
navigators,  its  history  as  known  to  civilized 
man  may  be  said  to  commence  with  the  dis- 
covery of  the  Columbia  river  by  Capt.  Robert 
Gray,  who  entered  its  mouth  in  the  American 
ship  Columbia  from  Boston,  May  7,  1792,  and 
gave  the  name  of  his  vessel  to  the  river.  By 
the  Louisiana  purchase  in  1803  the  United 
States  acquired  whatever  title  France  may 
have  had  to  this  region.  The  report  of  Capt. 
Gray  led  the  administration  of  Jefferson  to 
send  an  exploring  expedition  under  the  com- 
mand of  Captains  Lewis  and  Clarke  across  the 
continent  in  1804-'6.  The  expedition  was  suc- 
cessful, and  gave  the  Americans  an  additional 
title  to  the  country.  In  1811  the  Pacific  fur 
company,  of  which  John  Jacob  Astor  was  the 
leading  member,  established  a  trading  post  at 
the  mouth  of  the  Columbia  river,  and  called 
it  Astoria ;  but  it  was  very  soon  sold  to  the 
Northwest  fur  company  to  save  it  from  being 
taken  during  the  war.  The  Northwest  and  the 
Hudson  Bay  companies,  both  British  associa- 
tions, for  a  while  separate  and  afterward  uni- 
ted, engaged  in  trapping  and  trading,  kept 
many  trappers  and  traders  in  Oregon  until  a 
recent  period,  for  it  was  only  in  1860  that 
their  trading  post  at  Fort  Vancouver  on  the 
Columbia,  a  little  above  the  mouth  of  the  Wil- 
lamette, was  abandoned.  The  Hudson  Bay 
company  employed  many  Canadians  among  its 
trappers,  and  these  formed  for  a  long  time  the 
main  body  of  the  white  population.  Most  of 
them-  took  Indian  wives  and  were  the  fathers 
of  numerous  half-breed  children.  In  1833  the 
emigration  of  Americans  commenced  overland, 
and  previous  to  1850  several  thousand  reached 


Oregon.  In  1848, 1849,  and  1850,  many  of  the 
settlers  were  drawn  away  by  the  gold  excite- 
ment in  California ;  but  in  the  last  named  year 
many  arrived  from  California  in  consequence 
of  the  passage  of  the  "  donation  law  "  by  con- 
gress, giving  without  cost  320  acres  of  public 
land  to  every  person  settled  on  such  land  be- 
fore Dec.  1  of  that  year,  and  320  acres  more  to 
his  wife;  and  to  those  persons  who  should 
settle  between  Dec.  1,  1850,  and  Dec.  1,  1853, 
160  acres  to  each  man  and  160  to  his  wife. 
Under  this  law  8,000  claims  were  registered  in 
Oregon.  Subsequently  the  discoveries  of  gold 
attracted  many  settlers.  The  first  attempt  at 
organized  government  was  made  in  1841,  and 
resulted  in  the  establishment  of  an  executive 
and  a  legislative  committee  in  1843.  In  1845 
the  legislative  committee  framed  an  organic 
law,  which  was  approved  by  the  people,  for 
the  provisional  government  of  the  country 
till  the  United  States  authority  should  be  ex- 
tended over  it.  The  territory  of  Oregon  was 
organized  by  the  act  of  Aug.  14,  1848,  com- 
prising all  the  United  States  territory  "W.  of 
the  summit  of  the  Kocky  mountains  and  N.  of 
the  42d  parallel.  The  territorial  government 
went  into  operation  on  March  3,  1849,  upon 
the  arrival  of  Governor  Joseph  Lane.  The 
act  of  March  2,  1853,  created  Washington  ter- 
ritory, comprising  all  of  Oregon  N.  of  the 
Columbia  river  toward  the  west  and  of  the 
46th  parallel  toward  the  east.  In  1857  a  con- 
vention called  by  the  territorial  legislature 
framed  a  state  constitution,  which  was  rati- 
fied by  the  people  on  Nov.  9  of  that  year ; 
and  by  the  act  of  Feb.  14,  1859,  congress  ad- 
mitted Oregon  into  the  Union  with  its  present 
limits.  The  E.  part  of  the  territory  was  by 
the  same  act  annexed  to  Washington  territory. 
Oregon  has  been  troubled  with  many  Indian 
wars,  the  last  one  being  the  Modoc  war  in 
1872  and  1873.  (See  MODOCS.)— See  "The 
Oregon  Hand-Book  and  Emigrants'  Guide," 
by  J.  M.  Murphy  (Portland,  1873). 

OREGON,  a  S.  county  of  Missouri,  bordering 
on  Arkansas,  drained  by  Eleven  Points  and 
Spring  rivers,  tributaries  of  the  Big  Black; 
area,  about  1,650  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  3,287, 
of  whom  4  were  colored.  It  has  an  undulating 
surface  and  a  fertile  soil.  The  chief  produc- 
tions in  1870  were  15,363  bushels  of  wheat, 
127.001  of  Indian  corn,  16,114  of  oats,  and 
35,376  Ibs.  of  butter.  There  were  960  horses, 
747  milch  cows,  2,319  other  cattle,  3,153  sheep, 
and  8,951  swine.  Capital,  Alton. 

OREGON  RIVER.     See  COLUMBIA  KIVEE. 

O'REILLY,  Alexander,  count,  a  Spanish  soldier, 
born  in  Ireland  about  1725,  died  in  Spain  in 
1794.  He  entered  the  Spanish  service  at^an 
early  age,  and  was  wounded  in  Italy  during 
the  war  of  the  Austrian  succession.  He  after- 
ward served  in  the  Austrian  and  French  ar- 
mies, reentered  the  Spanish  service,  and  was 
made  a  brigadier.  He  introduced  German  tac- 
tics into  the  Spanish  army,  and  was  sent  to 
Havana,  where  he  restored  the  fortifications 


686 


OREL 


ORENBURG 


and  was  made  inspector  general.  In  1765  he 
saved  the  life  of  the  king  during  an  outbreak 
at  Madrid.  On  the  expulsion  of  Ulua  by  the 
French  colonists  of  Louisiana,  O'Reilly  was 
sent  there  with  a  fleet  in  1768,  and  began  by 
trying  Lafreniere  and  other  popular  leaders  by 
court  martial  and  putting  them  to  death  for  a 
crime  against  Spanish  authority  before  Spain 
had  formally  taken  possession.  He  then  abol- 
ished the  French  laws  and  substituted  those  of 
Spain,  with  a  new  black  code.  A  year  after  he 
returned  to  Spain,  where  all  his  acts  were  ap- 
proved. He  commanded  an  unsuccessful  ex- 
pedition against  Algiers  in  1775,  and  was  next 
commandant  general  of  Andalusia  and  gov- 
ernor of  Cadiz,  but  was  for  a  time  in  disgrace. 
In  1794  he  was  called  to  command  the  army  of 
the  eastern  Pyrenees,  but  died  on  the  way. 

OREL.  I.  A  central  government  of  Russia, 
bordering  on  the  governments  of  Kaluga,  Tula, 
Tambov,  Voronezh,  Kursk,  Tchernigov,  and 
Smolensk ;  area,  18,034  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1867, 
1,578,013.  The  surface  is  level.  The  principal 
rivers  are  the  Desna,  a  tributary  of  the  Dnie- 
per ;  the  Oka,  which  runs  through  the  middle 
of  the  government  toward  the  Volga ;  and  the 
Sosna,  in  the  east,  which  flows  to  the  Don. 
Limestone,  sandstone,  and  alabaster  are  abun- 
dant, and  iron  ore  is  found.  The  climate  is 
mild  and  healthy;  grain,  hemp,  flax,  and  to- 
bacco are  raised.  About  one  third  of  the 
surface  is  covered  with  forests.  Beet  sugar 
and  coarse  linen  and  woollen  cloths  are  man- 
ufactured. II.  A  city,  capital  of  the  govern- 
ment, on  the  Oka,  200  m.  S.  S.  W.  of  Moscow, 
with  which  it  is  connected  by  railway;  pop. 
in  1867,  43,575.  There  is  a  large  trade  in 
hemp,  grain,  tallow,  and  cattle.  During  har- 
vest about  10,000  loaded  carts  arrive  daily. 
The  cathedral,  founded  in  1794,  was  not  conse- 
crated till  1861 ;  there  are  eight  other  national 
churches,  besides  chapels  for  Protestants  and 
Catholics.  Orel,  founded  about  1565  on  the 
banks  of  the  Orlik,  above  its  junction  with 
the  Oka,  by  Ivan  the  Terrible,  was  removed 
in  1679  to  its  present  site  in  consequence  of  a 
great  fire.  There  were  also  conflagrations  in 
1848  and  1858. 

ORELLANA,  Francisco,  a  Spanish  adventurer, 
born  in  Trujillo  early  in  the  16th  century,  died 
near  Montalegro,  Brazil,  about  1550.  He  ac- 
companied Francisco  Pizarro  to  Peru  in  1531, 
and  took  part  in  the  conquest  of  that  country. 
When  in  1540  Gonzalo  Pizarro  set  out  to  ex- 
plore the  regions  east  of  the  Andes,  Orellana  was 
second  in  command  of  the  expedition,  which 
comprised  about  350  Spaniards,  4,000  Indians, 
and  1,000  dogs  for  hunting  down  the  natives. 
The  river  Napo  was  discovered  after  a  tedious 
and  perilous  march,  and  Pizarro,  despairing 
of  returning  by  the  route  he  had  traversed, 
constructed  a  brigantine  large  enough  to  hold 
the  weaker  part  of  his  company  and  his  bag- 
gage, and  gave  the  command  of  it  to  Orella- 
na, with  instructions  to  keep  alongside  of  the 
army  while  it  followed  by  land  the  course  of 


the  river.  After  several  weeks  passed  in  the 
descent  through  a  dreary  wilderness,  their  pro- 
visions were  exhausted,  and  Pizarro,  hearing 
of  a  populous  and  rich  district  several  days' 
journey  down  the  river  at  the  point  where  the 
Napo  flowed  into  a  still  greater  stream,  de- 
spatched Orellana  and  50  soldiers  in  the  brig- 
antine to  the  confluence  of  the  waters,  to  pro- 
cure supplies.  The  brigantine  in  three  days 
reached  the  Amazon,  then  for  the  first  time 
navigated  by  a  European  vessel  (1541).  Ore- 
llana found  the  country  a  wilderness,  and  al- 
together unlike  what  had  been  represented. 
To  return  against  the  current  was  difficult,  and 
he  resolved  to  abandon  his  commander  and 
sail  down  the  great  river  to  the  sea.  He 
boldly  prosecuted  the  voyage  for  seven  months, 
attacked  by  the  warlike  natives  whenever  he 
attempted  to  land,  and  often  pursued  by  them 
for  miles  in  canoes.  He  reached  the  ocean 
in  August,  1541,  and  sailed  to  the  island  of 
Cubagua,  and  thence  to  Spain,  where  he  told 
that  he  had  passed  through  a  country  inhabited 
only  by  women,  who  were  warriors  and  con- 
querors, and  that  he  had  received  authentic 
information  of  the  existence  of  an  El  Dorado 
where  gold  was  so  plentiful  that  houses  were 
roofed  with  it.  After  a  few  years  he  obtained 
from  the  Spanish  crown  a  commission  to  con- 
quer and  colonize  El  Dorado,  and  sailed  with 
four  ships  and  400  men.  He  lost  one  ship  and 
150  men  before  he  reached  Teneriffe.  Ascend- 
ing the*  Amazon  some  distance,  he  landed  to 
construct  a  brigantine ;  but  his  last  vessel  was 
wrecked,  and  he  died  of  a  fever. 

ORELLI,  Johnim  Kaspar,  a  Swiss  philologist, 
born  in  Zurich,  Feb.  13,  1787,  died  there,  Jan. 
6,  1849.  He  early  devoted  special  attention 
to  the  study  of  languages,  and  after  a  course 
of  theological  studies  he  settled  in  Bergamo, 
where  from  1807  to  1813  he  delivered  reli- 
gious discourses  in  German,  French,  and  Italian. 
In  1813  he  became  a  teacher  in  the  public 
school  at  Coire,  and  six  years  later  professor 
of  hermeneutics  and  rhetoric  in  Zurich.  He 
edited  a  series  of  Greek  and  Roman  classics, 
of  which  his  editions  of  Horace,  Tacitus,  and 
Cicero  have  received  special  praise.  Among 
his  other  publications  are  Onomasticon  Tulli- 
anum  (3  vols.,  183 6-' 8)  and  Inscriptionum  La- 
tinarum  selectarum  Collectio  (2  vols.,  1828). 
He  was  assisted  in  some  of  his  works  by  Bai- 
ter, and  in  his  turn  took  a  considerable  share 
in  Baiter  and  Sauppe's  edition  of  Plato. — 
His  brother  KONEAD  was  the  author  of  several 
French  grammars,*  and  of  a  work  on  the  life 
and  doctrine  of  Spinoza. 

ORE  MOUNTAINS.     See  ERZGEBIRGE. 

ORENBURG.  I.  A  government  of  Russia, 
partly  in  Europe  and  partly  in  Asia,  consist- 
ing of  two  separated  parts,  and  bordering  on 
Perm,  Tobolsk,  the  Kirghiz  steppes  (province 
of  Turgai),  the  Caspian  sea,  Astrakhan,  Sa- 
mara, and  Ufa;  area,  73,985  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in 
1867,  840,704,  including  Cossacks,  Tartars,  and 
other  tribes.  The  surface  is  diversified  with 


OEENSE 

plains,  swamps,  small  lakes,  and  the  Ural 
mountains,  which  traverse  it  from  N.  to  S. 
The  principal  rivers  are  the  Ural,  Ilek,  Sak- 
mara,  Bielaya,  Samara,  Tobol,  Ui,  and  Miyas. 
The  annual  range  of  the  thermometer  is  very 
great.  Gold,  copper,  iron,  and  salt  are  mined, 
and  large  numbers  of  horses  and  cattle  are 
raised.  The  Orenburg  line  of  border  fortifica- 
tions extends  about  900  m.  from  the  Caspian 
to  the  Tobol.  The  total  number  of  Orenburg 
Cossacks  is  estimated  at  60,000.  II.  A  city, 
capital  of  the  government,  on  the  right  bank 
of  the  Ural,  370  m.  S.  E.  of  Kazan;  pop.  in 
1867,  33,431.  It  is  the  strongest  in  the  Oren- 
burg line  of  defences.  The  streets  are  broad 
and  regular,  but  ill  paved ;  the  houses  mostly 
of  wood.  There  are  ten  churches,  including 
one  Protestant  and  one  Roman  Catholic,  and 
two  mosques.  The  governor's  house,  the  cus- 
tom house,  and  the  Bashkir  caravansary  are 
notable.  Woollen  cloth,  leather,  and  soap  are 
manufactured,  and  immense  amounts  of  tallow 
are  melted.  Trade  with  the  Kirghiz  is  trans- 
acted at  a  large  caravansary  2  m.  E.  of  the 
town.  Orenburg  was  founded  in  1742. 

ORENSE.  I.  A  N".  W.  province  of  Spain,  in 
Galicia,  bordering  on  Pontevedra,  Lugo,  Leon, 
and  Portugal ;  area,  2,739  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in 
1870,  402,796.  It  is  traversed  by  the  Can- 
tabrian  mountains  and  watered  by  the  Minho, 
Sil,  Tamega,  and  Limia.  Tin,  iron,  and  cop- 
per are  found  ;  there  are  numerous  medicinal 
springs ;  and  wheat,  flax,  and  large  quantities 
of  maize  are  raised.  It  is  one  of  the  poorest 
provinces  in  the  kingdom.  II.  A  city,  capi- 
tal of  the  province,  on  the  left  bank  of  the 
Minho,  50  m.  S.  E.  of  Santiago ;  pop.  about 
11,000.  It  has  a  cathedral  which  dates  from 
the  13th  century,  a  theatre,  a  prison,  and  sev- 
eral chapels  and  convents.  The  "  three  mar- 
vels "  of  Orense  are  its  boiling  springs,  the 
miraculous  image,  el  Santo  Cristo,  brought  in 
1330  from  Cape  Finisterre,  and  the  bridge  over 
the  Minho,  about  1,400  ft.  long  and  145  ft.  high, 
built  in  1230.  Linen,  leather,  and  chocolate 
are  manufactured,  and  its  hams  are  celebrated. 

ORENSE,  Jose  Maria  d'Albaida,  marquis,  a  Span- 
ish statesman,  born  about  1802.  He  has  been 
for  the  past  40  years  a  leader  of  republicanism 
in  Spain,  and  has  been  several  times  arrested 
and  banished.  The  deposition  of  Isabella  in 
September,  1868,  brought  him  back  to  the 
cortes.  After  the  proclamation  of  the  French 
republic  (Sept.  4,  1870)  he  urged  his  country- 
men to  join  the  French  against  Germany,  and 
he  proposed  at  Tours  a  republican  federation 
of  Latin  nations.  He  protested  against  Ama- 
deus  as  king  of  Spain  (Nov.  16,  1870),  after 
whose  abdication  in  February,  1873,  he  was 
chosen  a  member  of  the  constituent  assembly, 
but  withdrew  from  the  cortes  in  August. 

OREODAPHNE.     See  LAUEEL. 

ORESTES,  a  Greek  legendary  hero,  son  of 
Agamemnon  and  Clytemnestra.     He  is  rep- 
resented as  the  avenger  of  his  father,  and  the 
deliverer  of  his  sister  Electra,  through  the  mur- 
621  VOL.  xii.— 44 


ORFILA 


687 


der  of  his  mother.  The  tragic  poets  enlarged 
and  embellished  the  Homeric  narrative.  Ac- 
cording to  them,  at  the  time  of  the  murder  of 
Agamemnon  it  was  intended  to  despatch  Ores- 
tes, but  Electra  saved  him,  and  intrusted  him 
to  a  slave,  who  carried  the  boy  to  Strophius, 
king  in  Phocis,  whose  wife  was  the  sister  of 
Agamemnon.  Between  Orestes  and  Pylades, 
the  king's  son,  sprang  up  a  friendship  which 
has  become  proverbial.  To  avenge  his  father's 
death,  the  former  went  secretly  to  Argos,  pre- 
tending that  he  brought  the  tidings  of  Orestes's 
death.  With  the  complicity  of  Electra,  he  killed 
Clytemnestra  and  her  paramour  ^Egisthus,  but 
immediately  became  mad,  and  was  pursued  by 
the  Furies  until  by  the  advice  of  Apollo  he 
took  refuge  with  Minerva  in  Athens.  The 
goddess  commanded  that  his  case  should  be 
decided  by  the  court  of  the  areopagus ;  and 
when  they  were  equally  divided,  she  pronounced 
him  innocent.  According  to  another  legend, 
Apollo  directed  him  to  bring  from  Tauris  in 
Scythia  to  Athens  the  statue  of  Diana  which 
had  fallen  from  heaven.  Orestes  and  Pylades 
sailed  for  Tauris,  and  on  their  arrival  were 
seized  by  the  natives  to  be  sacrificed  to  Diana. 
But  the  priestess  of  Diana  was  Iphigenia,  Ores- 
tes's sister,  and  all  three  escaped  with  the  statue 
of  the  goddess.  The  Furies  were  now  appeased. 
Orestes  ruled  over  his  father's  kingdom  at  My- 
cenae, afterward  became  king  of  Argos,  and 
married  Hermione,  daughter  of  Menelaus.  He 
died  of  the  bite  of  a  snake  in  Arcadia,  and 
was  buried  in  Sparta.  The  story  of  Orestes  is 
the  subject  of  dramas  by  .^Eschylus,  Sophocles, 
and  Euripides. 

OREIJS.    See  HISTLEA. 

ORF  (cyprinus  or/us,  Linn.),  a  species  of  carp, 
one  of  the  handsomest  of  the  family,  and  as 
an  article  of  food  one  of  the  best  in  the  fresh- 
water streams  of  Europe.  It  is  now  very  rare. 
It  somewhat  resembles  the  C.  gibelio  or  C.  ca- 
rassius  of  Germany,  both  called  the  Prussian 
carp,  and  may  be  a  mere  variety.  It  can  thrive 
in  very  dirty  water,  as  it  keeps  near  the  sur- 
face. (See  CAEP.) 

ORFA.     See  UEFA,  and  EDESSA. 

ORFILA,  Mateo  Jos6  BonaYentnra,  a  French  chem- 
ist, born  in  Port  Mahon,  Minorca,  April  24, 
1787,  died  in  Paris,  March  12,  1853.  He  stud- 
ied medicine  at  Valencia  and  Barcelona,  and 
the  junta  of  the  latter  city  resolved  to  defray 
the  cost  of  his  further  education  in  Paris,  on 
condition  that  he  should  return  thither  as  a 
professor.  The  outbreak  of  the  peninsular  war 
soon  deprived  him  of  his  pension,  but  an  un- 
cle at  Marseilles  supplied  him  with  the  ne- 
cessary funds ;  and  the  chemist  Yauquelin  ob- 
tained permission  for  him  to  stay  in  Paris.  He 
graduated  in  October,  1811,  and  became  a  pri- 
vate lecturer  on  chemistry  in  Paris.  The  first 
edition  of  his  Traite  des  poisons,  ou  toxicologie 
generale  (2  vols.),  appeared  in  1813-'15.  He 
made  application  to  become  a  French  citizen  in 
1814,  married  (July,  1815)  a  daughter  of  the 
sculotor  Lesueur,  and  was  elected  corresponding 


688 


ORFORD 


ORGAN 


member  of  the  academy  of  sciences.  In  1816 
he  was  nominated  a  physician  to  Louis  XVIII., 
in  1819  appointed  professor  of  medical  juris- 
prudence in  the  faculty  of  medicine,  in  1823 
professor  of  chemistry,  and  in  1831  dean  of 
that  faculty.  In  1832  he  was  chosen  a  member 
of  the  general  council  of  hospitals  in  Paris, 
subsequently  a  member  of  the  general  council 
of  the  department  of  the  Seine,  and  in  1834 
one  of  the  council  of  public  instruction.  As  a 
toxicologist  he  was  without  a  rival.  He  or- 
ganized the  clinical  hospital,  and  established 
a  new  botanic  garden,  the  museum  of  patho- 
logical anatomy  styled  musee  Dupuytren,  and 
the  Orfila  gallery  of  comparative  anatomy.  In 
1851  he  was  elected  president  of  the  academy 
of  medicine,  and  in  his  will  he  left  to  that  so- 
ciety and  to  six  other  public  institutions  the 
sum  of  121,000  francs.  Perhaps  the  most  origi- 
nal of  his  works  is  his  Traite  de  toxicologie, 
which  was  successively  improved  until  the  fifth 
edition  (2  vols.  8vo,  1852).  He  also  published 
Elements  de  chimie  appliquee  d  la  medecine 
(1817 ;  8th  ed.,  2  vols.,  1851),  and  Traite  des 
exhumations  juridiques  (2  vols.,  1831),  which 
was  afterward  merged  in  the  Traite  de  mede- 
cine legale  (1823-'5 ;  4th  ed.,  3  vols.,  1848). 
He  left  memoirs  of  his  life  which  have  not  yet 
been  published.  His  contributions  to  period- 
icals have  been  collected  and  edited  by  Dr. 
Beaufort,  under  the  title  Recherches  medico- 
legales  et  therapeutiques  sur  Vempoisonnement 
par  Vacide  arsenieux,  precedees  d?une  histoire 
de  Varsenic  metallique  (Paris,  1841). 

ORFORD,  Earls  of.    See  WALPOLE. 

ORGAN  (G-r.  dpyavov,  an  instrument),  a  name 
applied  to  several  musical  instruments  closely 
allied  in  construction  and  principle,  but  more 
distinctly  to  the  church  and  concert  hall  organ, 
a  wind  instrument  having  a  great  number  of 
pipes  of  different  lengths  and  sizes,  from  which 
sounds  are  produced  by  the  admission  (as  de- 
termined by  keys  and  stops  moved  by  the  per- 
former) of  compressed  air  conveyed  to  them 
along  various  channels  from  a  bellows.  The 
organ  ^ugab)  mentioned  in  Genesis  (iv.  21) 
was  probably  nearly  identical  with  the  syrinx 
or  pipe  of  Pan  among  the  Greeks,  consisting 
of  a  number  of  pipes  placed  together  in  ranks, 
according  to  their  succession  of  tones,  and 
sounded  by  the  mouth.  An  instrument  similar 
to  the  Pandean  pipe  was  used  by  the  inhabi- 
tants of  various  parts  of  Asia,  and  by  almost 
all  semi-barbarous  nations.  The  number  of 
the  tubes  or  reeds  as  seen  on  ancient  monu- 
ments varies  from  seven  to  eleven.  At  what 
periods  any  considerable  enlargement  or  im- 
provement in  organ  building  began  is  not  cer- 
tainly known.  Ctesibius  in  the  latter  half  of 
the  3d  century  B.  0.  invented  a  hydraulic 
organ,  the  Jiydraulicon.  A  pneumatic  organ 
is  also  mentioned  by  some  ancient  writers. 
The  distinction  between  these  organs  is  in  the 
manner  of  supplying  air  to  the  pipes.  Mersenne 
describes  an  organ  carved  on  an  ancient  monu- 
ment in  the  Mattei  gardens  at  Rome,  distantly 


resembling  in  form,  and  in  the  operation  of  the 
keys  and  the  bellows,  those  of  the  present  day. 
St.  Augustine,  commenting  on  the  56th  Psalm, 
alludes  to  an  instrument  inflated  by  bellows. 
Pope  Vitalian  is  related  to  have  first  introduced 
organs  into  some  of  the  churches  of  western 
Europe,  about  670 ;  but  the  earliest  trustwor- 
thy account  is  that  of  the  one  sent  as  a  pres- 
ent by  the  Greek  emperor  Constantine  Copro- 
nymus  to  Pepin,  king  of  the  Franks,  in  755. 
Organs  were  common  in  England  before  the 
10th  century,  and  are  said  to  have  exceeded  in 
size  and  compass  those  of  the  continent.  The 
largest  was  obtained  by  Elfeg,  bishop  of  Win- 
chester, in  951,  for  his  cathedral.  They  were 
still  very  rude  in  construction  and  of  limited 
capacity.  The  keys  were  broad  and  large,  and 
were  struck  with  the  fist;  the  pipes  were  of 
brass,  and  harsh  in  tone.  In  the  12th  century 
the  compass  of  these  organs  did  not  exceed  12 
or  15  tones.  About  this  time  semi-tones  were 
introduced  at  Venice.  In  some  of  the  rude  in- 
struments of  the  same  period  a  plan  of  con- 
cords was  so  arranged  that  each  key  called 
forth  not  only  its  own  tone,  but  also,  by  oth- 
er pipes,  its  octave  and  12th  above.  William 
of  Malmesbury  mentions  an  organ  in  playing 
which  a  wind,  "forced  out  by  the  violence  of 
boiling  water,  passing  through  brass  pipes," 
sent  forth  musical  tones ;  a  device  which  would 
seem  to  have  partially  anticipated  the  harsh 
steam  organ,  or  "  Calliope,"  invented  in  the 
United  States.  Pedals,  or  foot  keys,  were 
added  to  the  organ  by  Bernhard,  a  German, 
in  1470 ;  and  in  the  same  century  the  instru- 
ment reached  substantially  its  present  form. 
Among  famous  builders,  the  earliest  were  the 
family  of  Antegnati  of  Brescia,  in  the  15th  and 
16th  centuries,  and  after  these  Serassi  of  Ber- 
gamo and  Callido  of  Venice  in  the  18th  century. 
In  England  very  few  instruments  escaped  the 
organoclasts  in  1641;  at  the  restoration  few 
eminent  builders  survived,  and  foreign  artists 
were  called  in. — The  organ  is  divided  interiorly 
into  four  parts,  the  great,  the  choir,  the  swell, 
and  the  pedal  organ.  Some  instruments  have 
a  fifth  or  solo  organ,  while  in  rare  instances 
there  is  a  sixth  or  echo.  The  structural  portions 
of  an  organ  are:  1,  the  apparatus  for  collecting 
and  distributing  the  wind;  2,  the  mechanism 
controlling  the  keys  and  stops ;  and  3,  the  pipes. 
The  force  of  wind  necessary  for  blowing  the 
organ  is  ascertained  by  the  anemometer  or 
wind  gauge,  consisting  of  a  glass  tube  bent 
after  the  manner  of  that  in  a  barometer,  the 
lower  end  being  fixed  into  a  socket,  the  other 
open  to  the  atmosphere.  Church  organs  with- 
out the  pneumatic  lever  are  usually  voiced  to  a 
weight  of  wind  of  from  two  and  a  half  to  three 
inches.  The  pedal  stops,  when  supplied  by  a 
separate  bellows,  are  usually  voiced  to  a  wind 
a  quarter  or  half  an  inch  stronger  than  the 
above,  which  accelerates  the  speech  and  im- 
proves the  tone  of  the  large  pipes.  The  ten- 
dency, however,  is  constantly  toward  voicing 
instruments  to  higher  pressures  for  the  sake 


ORGAN 


689 


of  the  added  sonority  and  brilliancy ;  and  this 
is  greatly  facilitated  by  the  pneumatic  action 
hereafter  described.  The  wind,  having  been 
collected  and  compressed,  is  conveyed  to  the 
several  main  divisions  or  departments  of  the 
organ  by  means  of  wooden  tubes  called  wind 
trunks,  and  is  received  into  the  wind  chests. 
The  upper  board  of  a  wind  chest  is  something 
like  a  chess  board,  with  a  pipe  set  above  each 
square.  Each  row  of  pipes  from  right  to  left 
is  controlled  by  a  stop,  within  reach  of  the 
performer,  and  each  row  from  front  to  back  is 
controlled  by  a  key.  If  there  are  100  sound- 
ing stops,  there  will  be  from  right  to  left  100 
rows  of  pipes,  with  100  perforated  boards 
which  slide  under  the  pipes  and  admit  or  shut 
off  the  wind  at  the  feet  of  the  pipes.  No 
pipe  can  speak  until  the  drawing  of  a  stop 
frees  the  holes  at  the  bottom  of  the  pipes, 
end  a  key  being  struck  allows  a  supply  of  wind 
to  rush  in  under  the  pipes.  Each  key  con- 
trols its  own  separate  air-tight  compartment  or 
wind  reservoir  in  the  wind  chest,  and  each  stop 
has  one  pipe  over  this  compartment.  In  the 
case  of  mixture  stops  a  cluster  of  several  pipes 
takes  the  place  of  one  pipe  of  an  ordinary  stop. 
Besides  the  stops  and  keys  for  the  hands  to 
play,  there  are  in  organs  of  the  larger  class  two 
octaves  and  a  half  of  large  keys  placed  under 
the  performer's  feet,  called  pedals.  There  are 
also  pedals  and  contrivances  for  moving  num- 
bers of  stops  by  one  effort,  and  another  pedal 
which  opens  and  closes  a  box  in  which  are  the 
pipes  of  the  swell  organ.  As  this  swell  box 
opens,  the  sound  is  increased.  There  are  also 
couplers  for  the  different  rows  of  keys.  A 
coupler  is  an  appliance  by  which  one  keyboard 
can  be  combined  with  another,  or  the  same  cla- 
vier can  be  united  to  itself  in  the  octave  above  or 
below.  The  sound  from  each  key  as  controlled 
by  stops  varies  not  only  in  quality  but  in  pitch. 
If  the  stop  drawn  be  a  simple  diapason,  the 
sound  which  each  key  can  give  is  the  same 
in  pitch  as  that  obtained  from  a  key  occu- 
pying a  similar  position  on  the  keyboard  of 
a  piano.  If  the  stop  be  a  double  diapason,  a 
tone  is  given  an  octave  lower  than  that  from  a 
key  similarly  situated  on  the  piano  keyboard. 
If  the  stop  is  called  a  principal,  the  note  is  an 
octave  higher ;  if  a  fifteenth,  two  octaves  high- 
er ;  and  if  a  mixture,  a  chord  of  several  notes 
is  given.  Thus,  by  putting  one  finger  on  an 
organ  key  and  by  drawing  six  stops,  several 
octaves  of  notes  and  a  chord  can  be  made  to 
sound.  In  large  organs  of  100  stops,  more, 
than  100  notes  are  played  by  simply  pressing 
one  key.  Every  sound  in  music  gives  out 
feebly  in  remote  octaves  every  other  note  of 
the  scale.  (See  HAEMONY.)  When  these  tones, 
called  harmonics,  are  strengthened  judiciously, 
the  result  gives  the  effect  of  a  strong  unison 
note.  When  a  single  key  is  held  and  100  stops 
are  drawn,  the  ear  cannot  detect  the  octaves, 
twelfths,  fifteenths,  and  even  discordant  inter- 
vals which  give  the  strength,  they  being  ab- 
sorbed in  the  foundation  tone. — Pipes  are  made 


of  metal  and  wood.  The  chief  varieties  of 
metal  pipes,  as  regards  form,  are  the  cylindri- 
cal, conical,  conical  surmounted  by  a  bell,  in- 
verted cone,  and  inverted  cone  surmounted  by 
a  bell ;  while  wood  pipes  are  divided  into  four- 
sided,  three-sided,  cylindrical,  pyramidal,  and 
inverted  pyramidal  pipes.  All  pipes  may  be  di- 
vided into  two  classes,  flue  pipes  and  reed  pipes. 
Flue  pipes  are  such  as  have  an  oblong  opening, 
called  the  mouth,  at  the  junction  of  the  body 
with  the  foot  of  the  pipe,  bounded  above  and 
below  by  two  edges  called  lips.  These  pipes  are 
made  to  sound  by  the  wind  first  passing  through 
a  narrow  fissure  called  a  flue  or  wind  way,  and 
they  depend  chiefly  on  the  length  or  short- 
ness of  their  bodies  for  the  gravity  or  acuteness 
of  the  sound  they  produce.  Reed  or  tongue 
pipes  are,  on  the  contrary,  those  which  are 
made  to  sound  through  the  medium  of  a  mouth- 
piece (not  unlike  that  of  a  clarinet)  furnished 
with  an  elastic  plate  of  metal.  Reed  pipes  do 
not  depend  on  the  length  of  the  tube  of  the 
pipe  but  on  the  size  of  the  mouthpiece  and 
the  vibrations  of  the  tongue  for  the  gravity  or 
acuteness  of  the  sound.  The  pitch  of  the  sound 
produced  by  a  reed  pipe  is  determined  by  the 
number  of  beats  or  regular  vibrations  made  by 
the  tongue  in  a  second  of  tune ;  and  the  reeds 
are  therefore  made  small  or  large  according  to 
the  acuteness  or  gravity  of  the  sound  each  is 
required  to  emit.  The  higher  the  pitch,  the 
smaller  must  be  the  reed  and  the  quicker  the 
vibrations  of  its  tongue.  In  a  flue  pipe  the 
pitch  is  governed  by  the  length  of  the  body 
of  the  pipe,  or  more  strictly  speaking  by  the 
length  of  the  column  of  air  within  it.  By 
doubling  the  length  the  sound  produced  is 
an  octave  lower.  The  following  table  exhibits 
the  number  of  vibrations  which  take  place  in  a 
flue  pipe,  and  the  number  of  blows  made  by 
striking  a  reed  in  a  second  of  time,  in  produ- 
cing the  several  C  sounds  used  for  organ-stop 
measurement,  while  to  the  right  the  shortened 
length  of  the  pipe  is  given : 


NAME  OF  C. 

Vibrations  in  flue 
pipe. 

Blows  of 
tongue  in  reed 
pipe. 

Length  o( 
open  fine 
pipe. 

C  C  C  C. 

82 

16 

82ft. 

C  C  C 

64 

82 

16  " 

C  C 

128 

64 

8  « 

Tenor   C  . 

256 

128 

4  " 

Middle  C1          ... 

512 

256 

2  " 

Treble  C»  

1,024 

512 

1  " 

Organ  pipes  vary  in  size  from  a  length  of  three 
fourths  of  an  inch  to  one  of  32  ft. — The  sub- 
ject of  organ  tuning  is  one  of  great  practical 
importance  as  well  as  of  scientific  interest.  In 
early  times,  before  the  invention  of  harmony, 
music  for  the  church  was  written  in  simple 
form  and  without  changes  of  key.  The  organ 
then  was  tuned  upon  a  system  of  perfect  at- 
tunement.  When  harmony  was  introduced  and 
the  semi-tones  added,  the  system  of  unequal 
temperament  was  adopted,  by  which  certain  of 
the  keys  most  in  use  were  put  in  nearly  perfect 


690 


ORGAN 


tune.  This  made  it  possible  to  play  without 
offence  to  the  ear  on  six  of  the  major  and  three 
of  the  minor  scales.  The  remaining  scales 
were  so  discordant  as  to  be  practically  useless, 
as  by  that  system  of  tempering  each  of  the 
black  keys  was  tuned  either  as  the  sharp  of  the 
white  key  at  its  left  or  as  the  flat  of  the  white 
key  at  its  right,  but  not  to  do  duty  both  as  a 
sharp  and  flat.  To  remedy  the  difficulty,  organs 
were  constructed  in  the  16th  and  17th  centu- 
ries having  quarter  tones,  so  as  to  give  both 
the  sharps  and  flats  each  by  itself.  Of  course 
the  mechanism  of  such  an  instrument  became 
complex,  and  the  difficulties  of  playing  upon 
it  were  greatly  increased.  Johann  Sebastian 
Bach  seems  to  have  been  the  first  to  advocate 
the  system  of  temperament  by  which  that  in- 
equality existing  in  every  octave  known  as 
the  wolf  is  distributed  equally  among  the  12 
notes  of  the  octave,  so  that,  while  none  of  them 
are  in  perfect  tune,  none  are  so  much  out  of 
tune  as  to  be  discordant.  He  wrote  his  "  Well- 
tempered  Clavier  "  to  enforce  his  theories.  By 
the  adoption  of  this  system  of  tuning  the  24 
major  and  minor  scales  became  at  once  avail- 
able, and  each  tone  could  be  made  the  keynote 
of  a  scale.  The  scale  became  what  it  now  is,  a 
series  of  compromises.  This  system  of  equal 
temperament  met  with  long  and  strenuous  op- 
position on  the  part  of  musicians  and  organ 
builders.  Among  its  opponents  was  Silber- 
mann,  the  most  celebrated  organ  builder  of  his 
day.  It  was  not  adopted  in  England  until 
quite  recently.  In  1836  George  Hogarth,  in  an 
article  on  the  organ,  said :  "  The  organ  in  Eng- 
land is  tuned  on  a  system  of  temperament  dif- 
ferent from  that  which  prevails  on  the  con- 
tinent, and  the  effect  of  which  is  that  the  har- 
mony is  intolerably  impure  in  all  keys  which 
require  more  than  three  sharps  or  three  flats." 
In  the  system  of  equal  temperament,  the  pitch 
of  0  having  been  obtained,  all  the  thirds, 
fourths,  and  sixths  that  are  tuned  upward  are 
made  a  little  sharp,  those  that  are  tuned  down- 
ward rather  flat ;  the  fifths  being  tuned  slight- 
ly flat  upward  and  slightly  sharp  downward. — 
The  most  important  of  recent  inventions  con- 
nected with  organ  construction  is  the  pneu- 
matic power,  which-has  rendered  possible  effects 
hitherto  deemed  unattainable.  Organs  could 
not  be  built  previously  beyond  a  certain  size, 
because  the  performer  had  not  strength  enough 
in  his  fingers  to  open  the  pallets  or  valves  re- 
quired to  feed  so  many  and  such  large  pipes,  a 
force  of  20  Ibs.  in  some  organs  being  required 
to  press  down  a  finger  key ;  nor  could  the  wind 
pressure  necessary  to  produce  the  power  be 
obtained.  Though  claimed  to  be  an  invention 
of  German  origin,  and  to  have  been  first  applied 
in  1825  by  Joseph  Booth  of  Wakefield,  Eng- 
land, and  by  the  Scotch  organ  builder  Hamil- 
ton, this  wonderful  power,  by  which  the  action 
of  the  largest  organs  is  made  as  light  as  that  of 
a  pianoforte,  was  not  fully  known  until  about 
1840,  when  its  mechanism  was  completed  by 
Mr.  Barker,  an  Englishman  residing  in  Paris. 


His  invention  has  been  improved  in  England 
by  several  organ  builders,  especially  by  Mr. 
"Willis  of  London,  who  invented  the  pneumatics 
or  small  bellows  which  act  on  the  slides.  The 
extreme  ease  of  touch  which  has  resulted  from 
the  introduction  of  the  pneumatic  lever  has 
not  however  been  without  its  evil  effects.  Cer- 
tain organ  builders,  for  the  sake  of  giving  to 
their  instruments  power  and  brilliancy,  have 
increased  the  wind  pressure  to  even  20  or  30 
inches.  What  they  have  gained  in  this  way 
in  force  they  have  lost  in  delicacy.  The  tone 
of  the  instrument  becomes  bold  and  vulgar, 
and  unfit  for  accompanying  voices.  In  1863 
Mr.  Barker  took  out  a  patent  in  France  for 
an  electro-magnetic  contrivance  to  facilitate  the 
playing  of  organs,  and  in  1867  he  extended 
his  patent  to  England.  Since  then  various  im- 
provements in  it  have  been  patented  and  sev- 
eral organs  built  in  which  the  action  has  been 
used.  It  is  an  exceedingly  complicated  appa- 
ratus, combining  both  electric  and  pneumatic 
action,  the  connection  between  the  keys  and 
the  mechanism  which  works  the  pipes  being 
made  by  insulated  copper  wires.  When  a  key 
is  struck  an  electric  current  passes  by  means  of 
these  through  an  electro-magnet,  the  armature 
of  which  is  so  connected  with  a  disk  valve  as 
to  open  it  and  admit  a  current  of  compressed 
air  to  act  on  the  pallets.  The  wires  are  gen- 
erally grouped  together  into  one  cable,  which 
may  be  of  any  length,  so  that  the  keyboard  may 
be  at  one  end  of  the  church  and  the  organ  at 
the  other.  In  St.  Michael's  church,  Cornhill, 
London,  the  organ  and  the  keyboard  are  on 
opposite  sides  of  the  chancel,  the  connection 
being  effected  by  means  of  336  insulated  wires 
gathered  in  a  cable  1J  inch  in  diameter,  and 
carried  under  the  floor.  The  pneumatic  lever 
was  introduced  into  this  country  by  the  Eng- 
lish organ  builder  Thomas  Robjohn,  but  its 
present  perfection  in  many  important  details  is 
due  to  American  organ  builders.  It  has  also 
been  applied  to  moving  the  stops  of  the  organ. 
Now,  by  the  pressure  of  a  small  knob  within 
reach  of  the  performer's  fingers  while  playing, 
whole  combinations  of  stops  can  be  drawn  out 
or  pushed  in,  and  the  changes  from  fortissimo 
to  pianissimo  made  almost  instantly  and  by  a 
single  touch.  An  old  invention  known  as  the 
tubular  action  has  quite  recently  been  revived 
and  improved  upon  with  excellent  effect.  It 
consists  in  the  substitution  of  tubes  of  lead  for 
carrying  wind  to  the  pallets  in  place  of  the  old 
system  of  trackers. — The  largest  organ  in  the 
world  is  in  Albert  hall,  London,  and  was  built 
by  Henry  Willis  in  1 870.  It  contains  138  stops, 
four  manuals,  and  nearly  10,000  pipes,  all  of 
which  are  of  metal.  The  wind  is  supplied  by 
steam  power.  Thirteen  couplers  connect  or  dis- 
connect the  various  subdivisions  of  the  organ 
at  the  will  of  the  performer.  The  organ  at 
St.  George's  hall,  Liverpool,  also  built  by  Mr. 
Willis,  has  100  stops  and  four  manuals.  That  of 
St.  Sulpice,  Paris,  is  of  the  same  magnitude  and 
has  5,000  pipes.  The  largest  organ  in  America 


ORGAN  MOUNTAINS 

is  in  the  music  hall,  Boston,  built  by  Walcker 
of  Ludwigsburg ;  it  has  four  manuals,  89  stops, 
and  4,000  pipes.  The  other  important  organs 
in  this  country  are  by  American  builders,  and 
are  as  follows:  Trinity  church,  New  York, 
built  by  Henry  Erben;  Plymouth  church, 
Brooklyn,  by  E.  and  E.  G.  Hook ;  St.  George's, 
New  York,  by  George  Jardine  and  son ;  Taber- 
nacle, Brooklyn,  by  the  same;  St.  Bartholo- 
mew's, New  York,  by  J.  H.  and  0.  S.  Odell; 
Temple  Emanuel,  New  York,  by  Hall  and  La- 
bagh ;  and  Holy  Trinity,  New  York,  by  H.  L. 
Roosevelt.  These  organs  have  from  2,500  to 
4,000  pipes  and  from  50  to  60  stops,  and  there- 
fore in  point  of  size  will  be  found  equal  to  the 
average  large  organs  of  Europe.  Some  of  them 
contain  all  the  modern  European  and  American 
improvements.  One  of  the  largest  organs  in 
America  is  in  the  Roman  Catholic  cathedral 
at  Montreal,  and  was  built  by  Mr.  S.  R.  War- 
ren of  that  city. — For  further  details  respect- 
ing organs,  see  Lehrbuch  der  Orgelbaulcunst, 
by  Prof.  T.  G.  Topfer  (4  vols.,  Weimar,  1855), 
and  "  The  Organ,  its  History  and  Construction," 
by  Rimbault  and  Hopkins  (London,  1870). — 
The  Alexandre  organ,  so  called,  being  con- 
structed substantially  on  the  principle  of  the 
harmonium,  will  be  considered  with  the  latter 
under  the  head  of  REED  INSTRUMENTS.  In  the 
barrel  or  hand  organ,  a  bellows  within  the  in- 
strument is  worked  by  turning  a  winch,  while 
by  the  same  action,  by  means  of  an  endless 
screw,  a  cylinder  or  drum  is  turned,  on  which 
the  tunes  are  set  in  brass  pins  and  staples,  at 
such  distances  as  required  by  the  lengths  and 
succession  of  the  notes,  as  in  the  pins  studding 
the  cylinder  of  a  musical  box.  The  pins  raise 
keys,  which  press  down  stickers,  and  open  pal- 
lets or  valves,  admitting  air  to  the  pipes  re- 
quired. The  Apollonicon,  built  many  years 
since  in  London,  was  a  gigantic  barrel  organ, 
24  ft.  high  and  30  ft.  broad ;  it  could  be  played 
by  three  large  cylinders,  or  by  six  performers 
on  as  many  sets  of  keys.  The  tone  was  fine, 
and  the  effects  grand  and  novel ;  but  the  sub- 
stitution of  mere  mechanical  action  for  the 
skill  and  taste  of  the  living  organist  was  justly 
deprecated,  and  the  instrument  has  not  come 
into  vogue.  The  organolyricon  is  an  extreme- 
ly complex  instrument  of  French  invention, 
much  on  the  principle  of  the  organ,  but  com- 
bining more  distinctly  a  great  variety  of  instru- 
ments and  effects,  in  imitation  of  a  tolerably 
full  band  or  orchestra. 

ORGAN  MOrariDTS.  See  BRAZIL,  vol.  iii., 
p.  218. 

ORIFLASIME  (Lat.  auriflamma),  the  banner 
of  the  Capetian  kings  of  France.  It  was  origi- 
nally that  of  the  abbey  of  St.  Denis,  being  used 
in  religious  ceremonies,  and  carried  also  by 
the  counts  of  Vexin,  in  their  capacity  of  pa- 
trons of  the  monastery,  in  the  wars  they  waged 
for  its  protection.  Philip  I.  of  France  having 
annexed  Vexin  to  his  dominions,  the  charge  of 
carrying  the  oriflamme  devolved  upon  himself 
and  his  successors.  Louis  VI.  raised  it  for 


ORIGEN 


691 


the  first  time  in  1124.  It  was  disused  after 
the  defeat  of  Agincourt  in  1415.  It  was  of 
red  or  flame-colored  silk,  with  two  notches  at 
its  end,  adorned  with  green  silk  tassels,  and 
hanging  from  a  gilded  shaft. 

ORIGEN  (Gr.  'SLpiyivr)s\  a  father  of  the  church, 
born  as  conjectured  in  Alexandria,  Egypt,  about 
1 85,  died  probably  in  Tyre  in  254.  The  surname 
of  Adamantius  was  bestowed  on  him  by  early 
writers  on  account  of  his  unwearied  diligence 
and  ascetic  temper.  His  father,  the  martyr  Leo- 
nides,  was  a  teacher  of  eloquence ;  and  under 
his  tuition  and  that  of  Clement  of  Alexandria, 
Origen  was  familiarized  from  childhood  with 
the  works  of  Plato  and  the  Stoics,  as  well 
as  with  the  Scriptures.  In  202  Leonides  suf- 
fered for  the  faith,  and  the  confiscation  of  his 
property  left  the  widow  and  seven  orphans 
utterly  destitute.  Origen  opened  a  school,  in 
which  he  taught  at  first  the  ordinary  elements 
of  Greek  literature,  and  then  expounded  the 
Christian  faith  to  catechumens.  But  the  pub- 
lic school  of  catechists  attached  to  the  cathe- 
dral church  of  Alexandria  having  been  left 
without  teachers  in  202  by  the  flight  of  its 
founders,  the  bishop  placed  it  under  the  di- 
rection of  Origen.  The  new  master  confined 
himself  to  religious  instruction.  His  father's 
fame  and  his  own  attracted  a  crowd  of  pupils, 
many  of  whom  suffered  imprisonment  and  mar- 
tyrdom. His  school  was  closed  by  the  magis- 
trates, and  he  was  driven  from  the  city.  When 
permitted  to  return,  he  resumed  his  office  of 
teacher,  but  resolved  to  lead  a  life  of  greater 
austerity  than  before.  He  declined  all  remu- 
neration for  his  labor,  parted  with  his  select 
library  of  pagan  authors  for  a  stipend  of  four 
oboli  a  day,  slept  upon  the  bare  ground,  wore 
only  one  garment  and  no  shoes,  and  gave  up 
all  stimulating  drinks.  In  206,  interpreting 
too  literally  the  passage  in  Matt:  xix.  12,  he 
secretly  emasculated  himself,  revealing  the  cir- 
cumstance only  to  the  bishop  Demetrius.  About 
this  time  he  went  to  Arabia  at  the  request  of  a 
Roman  governor.  In  210  he  avowed  himself 
a  pupil  of  the  Neo-Platonist  Ammonius  Sac- 
cas,  and  about  211  visited  Rome,  where  he 
was  confirmed  in  his  purpose  of  doing  some 
great  work  for  Biblical  scholarship.  Relin- 
quishing part  of  his  duties  to  his  assistant 
Heraclas,  he  devoted  himself  to  the  study  of 
Hebrew,  in  which  he  soon  became  proficient. 
In  212  he  converted  the  Yalentinian  Am- 
brose, whose  learning  and  wealth  afterward 
enabled  him  to  publish  his  commentaries  on 
the  Scriptures.  About  219  he  was  summoned 
to  Antioch  to  meet  the  emperor  Elagabalus 
and  Mammasa,  and  made  such  an  impression 
by  his  learning  and  his  accomplishments  that 
the  persecutions  against  the  Christians  de- 
clined. On  his  return  to  Alexandria,  he  en- 
larged the  sphere  of  his  teaching  so  as  to 
make  the  study  of  all  known  philosophy  a 
preparation  for  the  scientific  study  of  Chris- 
tian theology.  Ambrose  here  not  only  as- 
sisted him  in  teaching,  but  purchased  manu- 


692 


ORIGEN 


scripts  and  provided  seven  amanuenses.  Thus 
appeared  at  Alexandria  his  commentaries  on 
Genesis,  the  Psalms,  and  the  Lamentations  of 
Jeremiah,  the  first  five  tomes  on  the  Gospel  of 
St.  John,  his  tract  on  the  resurrection,  his  Stro- 
mata,  and  his  work  Uepl  'Ap^wv,  "  On  Princi- 
ples." This  last  work,  as  he  afterward  wrote 
to  Fahian,  bishop  of  Kome,  was  published 
against  his  will  by  Ambrose ;  and  its  mixture 
of  Christian  principles  and  Platonic  philosophy 
furnished  his  opponents  at  a  later  period  with 
serious  matter  of  accusation.  About  228  he 
was  sent  by  Demetrius,  bishop  of  Alexandria, 
on  a  mission  to  Greece,  visited  Palestine  on  his 
way,  and  was  everywhere  invited  to  preach  in 
the  churches,  though  not  yet  in  holy  orders. 
Without,  as  it  appears,  asking  the  consent  of 
his  own  bishop,  and  concealing  the  impedi- 
ment of  his  voluntary  mutilation,  he  was  or- 
dained priest.  Demetrius  not  only  refused  to 
acknowledge  the  validity  of  this  ordination, 
but  in  two  synods  held  in  Alexandria  divulged 
the  secret,  denied  him  all  clerical  rank,  and  had 
several  of  his  opinions  condemned  as  heretical. 
Demetrius  is  accused  by  St.  Jerome,  but  with- 
out proof,  of  having  been  moved  by  jealousy 
in  these  proceedings.  Origen,  though  forbid- 
den to  teach  in  the  school  of  catechists,  con- 
cluded his  fifth  tome  on  the  Gospel  of  St.  John, 
and  took  refuge  with  the  bishop  of  Csesarea. 
Meanwhile  a  more  numerous  synod  at  Alexan- 
dria, after  examining  his  work  "  On  Principles  " 
more  in  detail,  pronounced  it  heretical  and  ex- 
communicated its  author.  Origen  was  encour- 
aged to  open  a  school  of  Scriptural  exegesis  in 
Csesarea  (of  Palestine),  and  continued  there  his 
exposition  of  the  Gospel  of  John.  The  bishops 
of  the  eastern  churches  took  up  the  controversy 
concerning  his  ordination  and  heterodoxy ;  and 
those  of  Palestine,  Phoenicia,  and  Arabia  pro- 
nounced in  his  favor.  In  the  western  church 
his  writings,  being  comparatively  little  known, 
attracted  no  great  notice  during  his  life,  but 
afterward  they  were  generally  condemned. 
The  school  in  Csesarea  continued  to  flourish, 
and  a  large  circle  of  distinguished  pupils, 
among  whom  was  Gregory  Thaumaturgus, 
spread  his  fame  and  his  principles  of  inter- 
pretation far  and  wide.  He  prosecuted  all  his 
literary  undertakings  with  increased  ardor; 
wrote  a  treatise  on  the  "  Utility  of  Prayer  " 
and  an  "Exposition  of  the  Lord's  Prayer;" 
maintained  an  active  correspondence  with  the 
most  distinguished  bishops  of  Asia,  and  was 
often  invited  to  be  present  at  church  councils. 
During  the  persecution  of  Maximin  in  236  his 
friend  Ambrose,  and  Protoctetus,  a  priest  of 
Crasarea,  were  imprisoned  and  treated  with 
great  cruelty,  and  Origen  wrote  for  their  con- 
solation a  treatise  "  On  Martyrdom."  He  was 
himself  obliged  to  fly  from  Crasarea,  and  found 
an  asylum  with  Firmilian,  bishop  of  Ca3sarea 
in  Oappadocia.  The  persecution  having  bro- 
ken out  there,  Origen  lay  concealed  for  two 
years  in  the  house  of  Juliana,  and  while  in  this 
retirement  completed  his  collation  of  the  He- 


brew and  Greek  texts  of  Scripture,  known  as 
the  Hexapla.  In  238  he  returned  to  CaBsarea  in 
Palestine  and  resumed  his  labors.  He  was  in- 
vited soon  afterward  to  Athens,  and  finished 
there  his  commentary  on  Ezekiel  and  began 
that  on  Canticles.  On  the  accession  of  Phil- 
ip the  Arabian,  Origen  corresponded  with  his 
family,  and  about  the  same  time  wrote  his  de- 
fence of  the  Christian  religion  against  Celsus, 
his  commentary  on  St.  Matthew,  and  other 
treatises.  In  his  60th  year  (245)  he  first  per- 
mitted his  discourses  to  be  taken  down  by 
short-hand  writers.  He  was  frequently  con- 
sulted by  synods  on  matters  of  special  diffi- 
culty; and  a  numerous  council,  assembled  in 
Arabia,  asked  Origen's  opinion  of  the  doctrine 
that  the  soul  dies  with  the  body  and  is  re- 
stored to  life  at  the  resurrection,  which  was 
by  him  pronounced  heretical.  In  the  Decian 
persecution  he  was  imprisoned  and  subjected 
to  exquisite  and  gradually  increasing  tortures. 
He  wrote  from  his  prison  a  letter  of  exhorta- 
tion and  encouragement  to  his  fellow  suffer- 
ers, but  his  health  was  broken  down.  Many 
of  his  personal  friends  reported  that  he  died 
under  torture  at  Ca3sarea;  but  others  with 
greater  probability  affirmed  that  he  died  at 
Tyre  in  254.  His  tomb  was  preserved  for 
many  centuries  near  the  high  altar  of  the  cathe- 
dral of  Tyre. — The  writings  of  Origen  were 
of  many  kinds,  critical,  philosophical,  polemic, 
and  practical.  Most  of  them  are  lost.  Of 
those  still  extant,  the  principal  are  parts  of 
the  Hexapla  and  Octapla,  commentaries  on 
the  Scriptures,  treatises  "On  Principles,"  "On 
Prayer,"  and  "  On  Martyrdom,"  and  his  eight 
books  "  Against  Celsus."  The  Hexapla  was  an 
edition  of  the  Old  Testament  in  six  parallel 
columns,  in  Hebrew,  Hebrew  text  in  Greek 
letters,  and  in  the  four  versions  of  Aquila, 
Symmachus,  the  Septuagint,  and  Theodotion. 
In  some  books  were  added  the  versions  marked 
5,  6,  7,  whence  the  name  Octapla,  the  two  for- 
mer said  to  have  been  found,  one  in  Jericho, 
and  the  other  at  Nicopolis  in  Epirus.  A  smaller 
Tetrapla  contained  only  the  first  four  of  these 
versions,  without  the  original  text.  This  splen- 
did work,  of  such  value  in  the  recension  and 
purification  of  the  text  of  the  Old  Testament, 
now  exists  only  in  fragments.  Many  eminent 
modern  scholars  have  labored  to  restore  the 
work  and  edit  it  from  these  fragments.  The 
standard  edition  is  that  of  Montfaucon  (2  vols. 
fol.,  Paris,  1713).  The  commentaries  of  Origen 
upon  the  Scriptures  cover  more  ground  than 
those  pf  any  other  ancient  interpreter.  They 
are  remarkable  for  the  constant  use  of  the  al- 
legorical method.  The  literal  sense  is  always 
secondary ;  and  the  critic  never  fails,  where  it 
is  possible,  to  find  in  the  simplest  fact  or  the 
plainest  exhortation  some  hidden  meaning. 
The  work  "  On  Principles  "  remains  only  in 
the  Latin  translation  of  Rufinus,  and  in  this 
is  not  only  incomplete,  but  has  been  altered 
by  the  translator.  Editions  of  this  work  were 
published  in  1836  by  Kedepenning  in  Leipsic, 


ORIHUELA 

and  by  Schnitzer  in  Stuttgart.  The  treatise 
"  On  Martyrdom,"  a  defence  of  death  for  the 
faith,  and  an  admonition  to  constancy,  is  in 
point  of  style  one  of  the  most  finished  of  Ori- 
gen's  works;  it  was  published  by  Wetstein 
(Basel,  1674).  But  his  most  celebrated  work 
is  his  apology  for  Christianity  contained  in  the 
eight  books  "  Against  Celsus."  This  is  regard- 
ed as  the  most  complete  defence  of  the  Chris- 
tian religion  that  has  come  down  from  the 
ante-Nicene  age.  The  Latin  texts  of  the  works 
of  Origen  were  edited  by  J.  Merlin  (2  vols., 
Paris,  1512)  ;  the  work  "Against  Celsus"  was 
first  published  separately  in  Latin  by  Persona 
(Rome,  1481),  and  in  Greek  by  David  Hoschel 
(Augsburg,  1605)  and  W.  Spencer  (Cambridge, 
1658  ;  2d  ed.,  1677)  ;  and  the  Greek  text  of  his 
commentaries  on  the  Bible  by  Huet  (Rouen, 
1668  ;  Paris,  1679).  His  complete  works  were 
published  by  the  Benedictines  0.  and  0.  V.  de 
la  Rue  (4  vols.  fol.,  Paris,  1733-'59),  Lom- 
matzsch  (25  vols.,  Berlin,  1831-'48),  and  in 
vols.  xi.  to  xvii.  of  Migne's  Patrologie  grecque. 
— On  Origen's  life  and  writings,  see  Schnitzer, 
Origenes  uber  die  Grundlehren  der  Glaubens- 
wissenschaft  (Stuttgart,  J836);  Redepenning, 
Origenes,  eine  Darstellung  seines  Lelens  und 
seiner  Lehre  (Bonn,  1841-'6) ;  Fischer,  Com- 
mentatio  de  Origenis  Theologia  et  Cosmologia 
(Halle,  1846) ;  and  Fermand,  Exposition  cri- 
tique des  opinions  d'Origene  BUT  la  nature  et 
Vorigine  du  peche  (Strasburg,  1861). 

ORIHUELA,  a  city  of  Valencia,  Spain,  in  the 
province  and  30  m.  S.  W.  of  the  city  of  Ali- 
cante, situated  in  a  fertile  and  beautiful  country 
on  the  Segura;  pop.  about  10,000.  Several 
large  villages  adjoin  it.  It  was  under  Moorish 
domination  for  500  years,  and  still  has  a  Moor- 
ish look.  It  has  many  squares,  monasteries, 
palatial  private  buildings,  churches,  including 
a  fine  cathedral,  several  educational  institu- 
tions, and  public  libraries.  Linen  and  silks 
are  manufactured.  The  Moors  called  it  Auri- 
welah.  It  was  wrested  from  them  in  1264  by 
James  I.  of  Aragon. 

ORINOCO,  a  river  of  Venezuela,  South  Amer- 
ica, which  falls  into  the  Atlantic  by  numerous 
mouths  between  lat.  8°  40'  and  10°  N.,  after  a 
course  of  about  1,500m.  It  rises  in  the  Sierra 
de  Parirna,  near  lat.  3°  40'  N.,  Ion.  64°  30' W., 
and  flows  mainly  "W.  by  S.  to  lat,  3°  10'  N., 
Ion.  66°  20'  W.,  about  20  m.  W.  of  the  village 
of  Esmeralda,  where  its  waters  are  connected 
with  those  of  the  Rio  Negro,  an  affluent  of  the 
Amazon,  by  the  Cassiquiare.  The  Orinoco 
hence  flows  N.  W.  until  it  receives  the  Ventuari 
on  the  right.  There  it  bends  W.  S.  W.,  but 
after  being  joined  by  the  Guaviare  on  the  left 
at  the  town  of  San  Fernando,  about  lat.  4°, 
Ion.  68°,  it  sweeps  around  to  the  north,  re- 
ceiving several  smaller  affluents  in  its  course, 
and  gradually  verging  toward  the  northeast. 
Near  lat.  6°  20',  Ion.  67°  45',  it  is  joined  on 
the  west  by  the  Meta,  which  forms  part  of  the 
N.  boundary  of  New  Granada.  It  continues 
to  flow  N.  E.  to  its  confluence  with  the  Apure, 


ORIOLE 


693 


lat.  7°  30',  Ion.  66°  45',  whence  it  flows  nearly 
E.  to  the  sea,  its  principal  tributaries  in  this 
part  being  the  Caura  and  Caroni,  both  on  the 
right  bank.  About  130  m.  from  the  sea  it 
forms  a  delta,  by  sending  to  the  north  a  branch 
divided  into  several  streams  called  the  Bocas 
Chicas,  or  small  mouths,  some  of  which  fall 
into  the  gulf  of  Paria  and  the  rest  into  the 
Atlantic.  The  main  stream,  called  the  Boca 
de  Navios,  is  divided  for  about  40  m.  by  a  line 
of  islands  leaving  a  channel  about  2  m.  wide 
on  each  side.  At  the  great  mouth  of  the  river 
the  breadth  is  upward  of  60  m.,  but  a  sand 
bar  extends  across  the  navigable  channel  in 
the  centre,  with  but  15  ft.  of  water.  Several 
of  the  other  mouths  are  navigable,  and  the 
main  stream  may  be  ascended  for  about  half 
its  length.  It  has  more  than  400  navigable 
tributaries,  and  at  a  distance  of  560  m.  from 
the  sea  is  more  than  3  m.  wide.  At  Angos- 
tura, or  Ciudad  Bolivar,  the  head  of  tide 
water,  240  m.  from  the  sea,  it  is  4  m.  wide 
and  390  ft.  deep.  The  region  drained  by  the 
Orinoco,  comprising  an  area  of  250,000  sq. 
m.,  is  entirely  occupied  by  immense  plains, 
stretching  from  the  coast  chain  to  the  Pari- 
ma  mountains,  and  from  the  Atlantic  to  the 
Andes,  rising  in  some  parts  to  the  height  of 
1,300  ft.,  but  in  many  places  little  above  the 
level  of  the  sea.  The  greater  part  of  these 
plains  is  destitute  of  wood,  but  there  are  some 
dense  forests  in  certain  regions  on  the  N.  bank, 
and  along  the  course  of  the  river.  The  waters 
of  the  Orinoco  rise  from  April  to  October, 
attaining  the  greatest  height  in  July  and  Au- 
gust, which  in  the  upper  part  of  the  river  is 
from  30  to  36  ft.,  and  in  the  lower  24  to  25 
ft. ;  but  in  one  confined  place  they  are  said  to 
rise  120  ft.  above  the  usual  level.  The  vast 
plains  through  which  the  river  passes  are  at 
this  season  to  a  great  extent  overflowed.  Two 
remarkable  rapids  occur  in  the  upper  parts  of 
the  Orinoco,  called  the  Maypures  or  Apures, 
and  the  Atures,  the  one  in  lat.  5°  8'  N.,  about 
80  m.  below  the  junction  of  the  Atabapo  and 
Guaviare  with  the  Orinoco,  the  other  about 
36  m.  lower  down.  These  rapids  are  formed 
by  innumerable  little  cascades  succeeding  each 
other  like  steps,  where  numerous  islands  and 
rocks  so  restrict  the  bed  of  the  river  that, 
though  the  breadth  above  is  upward  of  8,000 
ft.,  there  only  remains  an  open  channel  of  20 
ft.  in  width.  It  is  almost  impossible  to  pass 
these  rapids,  and  in  attempting  it  the  canoes 
of  the  natives  are  often  dashed  to  pieces 
against  the  rocks.  From  this  place  the  river 
is  navigated  by  steam  to  the  Meta.  Humboldt 
and  Schomburgk  are  the  principal  explorers  of 
the  Orinoco. 

ORIOLE,  the  name  of  a  subfamily  of  denti- 
rostral  birds  of  the  thrush  family,  characterized 
by  a  bill  as  long  as  the  head,  broad  at  the  base, 
compressed  on  the  sides,  with  elevated  and 
curved  culmen  and  notched  tip ;  wings  long, 
with  the  first  three  quills  equally  graduated, 
and  the  third  and  fourth  the  longest;  tarsi 


694: 


ORIOLE 


ORISSA 


short  and  strongly  scaled ;  toes  moderate,  the 
lateral  ones  usually  unequal.  In  the  typical 
genus  oriolus  (Linn.),  besides  the  above  charac- 
ters, the  tail  is  moderate  and  rounded,  and  the 
claws  long,  strong,  and  curved.  These  orioles 
are  migratory,  scattered  over  various  parts  of 
the  old  world ;  they  are  usually  found  singly 
or  in  pairs,  sometimes  in  small  flocks,  on  the 
edges  of  woods  and  in  fields  and  orchards,  feed- 
ing on  fruits  and  insects,  flying  in  an  undulating 
manner  from  tree  to  tree ;  their  notes  are  loud, 
but  mellow  and  somewhat  plaintive ;  the  plu- 
mage is  generally  brilliant  yellow,  more  or  less 
interrupted  by  deep  black  markings ;  the  form 
is  stout,  and  the  power  of  flight  considerable ; 
some  of  them  display  great  ingenuity  in  the 
construction  of  their  nests.  The  European 
golden  oriole  (0.  galbula,  Linn.)  has  the  body 
clear  brilliant  yellow,  the  wings  and  space  be- 
tween the  bill  and  eye  deep  black ;  the  quills 
are  edged  and  tipped  with  yellowish  white, 
which  sometimes  extends  to  the  tips  of  the 
secondaries ;  a  triangular  spot  of  yellow  on  the 
closed  wing;  two  central  tail  feathers  black, 


European  Golden  Oriole  (Oriolus  galbula). 

the  lateral  ones  with  yellow  tips  increasing 
to  the  outside ;  the  female  is  yellowish  green 
above,  shading  below  into  yellowish  and  pure 
white,  the  wings  brownish  black  with  an  ashy 
tinge ;  it  is  about  as  large  as  the  blackbird,  9£ 
in.  long.  This  species  is  found  abundantly  in 
S.  Europe,  Asia,  and  N".  Africa,  and  some  wan- 
der as  far  north  as  Great  Britain  and  Sweden. 
The  nest  is  skilfully  made,  of  the  ordinary 
round  shape  (according  to  Yarrell),  and  placed 
in  the  horizontal  cleft  of  a  branch,  each  side 
of  which  is  included  in  the  substance  of  the 
nest ;  the  eggs,  four  to  six,  are  clear  white, 
with  brownish  black  spots  most  numerous  on 
the  larger  end ;  the  parents  defend  their  nests 
with  great  courage.  Though  possessing  small 
powers  of  song,  their  beauty  makes  them  in 
request  as  cage  birds  ;  but  they  are  difficult  to 
raise,  and  rarely  live  more  than  two  years  in 
captivity.  In  the  districts  where  they  feed  on 
figs  the  flesh  becomes  very  fat,  and  is  consid- 
ered excellent  eating ;  they  are  very  shy.  The 
African  golden  oriole  (0.  auratus,  Yieill.)  is 


about  as  large  as  the  preceding  species,  which 
it  much  resembles ;  but  the  black  stripe  on  the 
side  of  the  head  extends  behind  the  eye,  and 
there  is  much  less  black  on  the  wings ;  the  bill 
is  red ;  it  migrates  southerly  from  equatorial 
Africa.  More  than  20  other  species  are  de- 
scribed in  Africa,  Asia,  and  the  Indian  archi- 
pelago.— In  the  genus  sphecotheres  (Vieill.)  of 
Australia,  the  bill  is  shorter,  stouter,  and  more 
curved,  and  the  tail  long  and  even ;  the  species 
are  few,  frequenting  the  tops  of  lofty  trees, 
feeding  on  fruits  and  insects.  In  the  genus 
sericulus  (Swains.),  also  Australian,  the  bill  is 
longer  and  more  slender,  and  the  wings  and 
tail  moderate ;  these  birds  live  in  the  large 
bushes,  feeding  principally  upon  figs. — The 
name  oriole  is  erroneously  given  to  many  coni- 
rostral  birds  of  the  starling  family,  especially 
the  subfamily  icterince  or  hang-nests  of  North 
and  South  America.  (See  BALTIMOEE  BIRD.) 

ORION,  a  Greek  mythical  hero,  son  of  Hy- 
rieus,  of  Hyria  in  Bceotia,  called,  by  the  Boeo- 
tians Oandaon.  He  was  a  giant,  strong  and 
handsome,  and,  coming  once  to  Chios,  fell  in 
love  with  ^Ero  or  Merope,  the  daughter  of 
(Enopion.  To  please  her,  he  cleared  the  island 
of  wild  beasts;  but  (Enopion  constantly  put 
off  the  marriage,  and  Orion,  being  intoxicated 
on  one  occasion,  forced  his  way  into  Merope's 
chamber.  To  avenge  this  insult,  the  father  with 
the  aid  of  Bacchus  and  the  satyrs  put  out  Ori- 
on's eyes.  Having  recovered  his  sight  by  going 
toward  the  east  and  exposing  his  eyeballs  to 
the  rising  sun,  he  returned  to  Chios  for  the 
purpose  of  punishing  (Enopion ;  but  being  un- 
able to  discover  him,  he  went  into  Crete,  where 
he  lived  as  a  hunter  with  Diana.  Four  ac- 
counts of  his  death  are  given :  that  he  was 
killed  by  Diana  for  attempting  to  violate  her ; 
that  Apollo,  indignant  at  Diana's  love  for  him, 
challenged  her  to  hit  with  an  arrow  a  distant 
point  in  the  sea,  which  proved  to  be  the  head 
of  Orion  swimming ;  that,  he  having  been  car- 
ried off  by  Aurora,  Diana,  to  please  the  indig- 
nant gods,  put  him  to  death ;  and  that,  having 
boasted  he  would  clear  the  earth  of  wild  beasts, 
the  earth  sent  forth  a  scorpion  which  killed 
him.  After  his  death  he  was  placed  among  the 
stars,  where  he  appears  with  a  girdle,  sword, 
lion's  skin,  and  club,  the  brightest  constellation 
in  the  northern  heavens. 

ORISSA,  an  ancient  province  of  India,  now 
forming  a  commissionership  of  Bengal,  extend- 
ing about  250  m.  along  the  W.  side  of  the  bay 
of  Bengal,  and  bounded  S.  by  Madras  and  W. 
by  the  Central  Provinces ;  area,  23,901  sq.  m. ; 
pop.  in  1872,  4,317,999.  It  consists  of  three 
seaboard  districts,  Balasore  in  the  north,  Pooree 
in  the  south,  and  Cuttack  between  them,  with 
19  tributary  states  in  the  interior.  The  three 
maritime  districts  consist  of  low  and  nearly 
flat  plains,  varying  in  width  from  9  m.  in  Bala- 
sore to  40  m.  in  Cuttack.  The  geological  for- 
mation of  the  tributary  states  belongs  to  the 
metamorphic  series,  and  the  general  surface  is 
composed  of  successive  ranges  of  mountains 


ORISSA 


ORKNEY  ISLANDS 


695 


from  2,500  to  3,500  ft.  high,  stretching  sea- 
ward from  the  plateau  of  central  India,  and 
separated  by  the  valleys  of  the  three  principal 
rivers  of  the  province.  The  greatest  river  is 
the  Mahanuddy,  which  waters  the  southern 
portion  of  Outtack.  False  Point,  at  the  prin- 
cipal mouth  of  the  Mahanuddy,  encloses  one  of 
the  finest  harbors  in  India.  The  Chilka  lake, 
in  the  S.  E.  corner  of  the  province,  near  the 
bay  of  Bengal,  is  44  m.  long,  5  to  20  m.  wide, 
and  only  3  to  6  ft.  deep.  It  is  fresh  in  summer, 
but  salt  in  winter.  Much  salt  is  made  by  solar 
evaporation.  The  climate  of  Orissa  is  hot, 
wet,  and  unhealthy.  In  Cuttack  the  annual 
temperature  averages  84°,  and  the  yearly  rain- 
fall 63-18  inches.  The  tributary  states  and 
the  hilly  border  of  the  organized  districts  con- 
stitute the  forest  region.  The  saul  tree  is  the 
chief  timber  product  of  the  interior;  resin, 
lac,  and  valuable  vine  fibres  are  also  obtained. 
Ebony,  bamboo,  and  rattan  are  produced  in  Poo- 
ree.  There  are  many  wild  animals,  and  large 
coarse  oysters  are  found  in  Pooree.  Rice  is  the 
staple  crop  and  main  article  of  food,  and  pulses 
are  also  extensively  cultivated.  Other  prod- 
ucts are  jute,  hemp,  flax,  tobacco,  sugar  cane, 
maize,  cotton,  and  oil  seeds.  The  government 
has  constructed  a  high  level  canal  from  the 
Brahmani  river  to  the  city  of  Cuttack,  and 
the  Kendrapara  canal  along  the  N.  arm  of  the 
Mahanuddy  delta.  The  commerce  is  chiefly 
carried  on  through  the  port  at  False  Point. 
— The  Indo-Aryan  Hindoo  race  of  Uriyas  con- 
stitute the  largest  portion  of  the  population. 
There  are  several  immigrant  castes  of  Hindoos. 
It  is  estimated  that  one  fourteenth  of  the  pop- 
ulation of  Outtack  consists  of  Mohammedans. 
The  aboriginal  races  are  represented  by  the 
Kandhs,  Kols,  and  Savars,  all  hill  tribes.  Small 
communities  of  native  Christians  exist  in  Poo- 
ree and  Cuttack,  and  the  Roman  Catholics  and 
American  Freewill  Baptists  maintain  missions 
in  Balasore.  The  chief  towns  are  Cuttack, 
the  capital,  on  the  Mahanuddy,  Jeypoor,  Jug- 
gernaut, Balasore,  and  Pooree.  The  govern- 
ment of  the  organized  districts  is  administered 
by  a  commissioner.  The  supervision  of  the 
native  tributary  states  is  intrusted  to  a  su- 
perintendent.— Orissa  first  appears  in  history 
as  an  aboriginal  kingdom  under  the  name  of 
Odra,  although  it  is  called  Kalinga  in  the  an- 
cient Sanskrit  records.  Prior  to  250  B.  C.  it 
was  colonized  by  Aryans,  and  Buddhism  sub- 
sequently became  the  religion  of  the  country. 
About  A.  D.  500  a  Hindoo  dynasty  rose  into 
power,  and  Buddhism  was  gradually  supplant- 
ed by  Brahmanism.  About  1590  the  Hindoo 
kingdom  was  subjugated  by  the  Mohammedan 
emperor  Akbar  and  became  a  dependency  of  the 
Mogul  empire.  In  1751  the  governor  of  Ben- 
gal ceded  it  to  the  Mahrattas,  under  whose  mis- 
rule it  remained  for  upward  of  50  years.  The 
British  permanently  annexed  it  to  their  do- 
minions in  1803.  Orissa  has  repeatedly  suffered 
terrible  famines;  the  latest  occurred  in  1866, 
the  mortality  of  which  is  variously  estimated 


at  from  750,000  to  2,000,000.— See  "Orissa," 
by  W.  W.  Hunter,  director  general  of  the  sta- 
tistical survey  of  India  (2  vols.,  London,  1872). 

ORIZABA,  an  inland  city  of  Mexico,  in  the  state 
of  Vera  Cruz,  160  m.  E.  S.  E.  of  Mexico ;  pop. 
about  20,000.  It  is  on  a  delightful  plain  3,975 
ft.  above  the  sea.  It  has  good  streets  and  some 
fine  houses.  Of  the  12  churches,  the  paro- 
chial alone  is  noteworthy.  There  is  a  very 
good  exchange,  a  house  of  refuge,  a  theatre, 
two  hospitals,  and  several  primary  and  high 
schools.  The  city  has  many  commercial  houses, 
some  industrial  establishments,  and  12  mills. 
It  is  one  of  the  principal  stations  on  the  rail- 
way from  Mexico  to  Vera  Cruz.  The  chief  arti- 
cles of  export  are  tobacco,  coffee,  sugar,  rum, 
honey,  chilli,  and  tropical  fruits. — Orizaba  is 
said  to  be  one  of  the  most  ancient  towns  in 
America,  having  existed  for  many  centuries 
under  the  name  of  Izhuatlan.  It  was  seized 
by  Montezuma  I.  in  1457,  and  remained  sub- 
ject to  the  Aztec  kingdom  until  the  time  of 
the  Spanish  conquest.  A  large  number  of 
Spaniards  were  massacred  in  1521  by  the  na- 
tives, who  submitted  peacefully  to  the  con- 
querors in  1522.  In  1862  Orizaba  was  the 
headquarters  of  the  French  army  of  interven- 
tion ;  and  in  the  same  year  the  Mexican  troops 
were  completely  overthrown  in  an  encounter 
with  the  French  at  the  Cerro  del  Borrego,  a 
high  mountain  at  the  edge  of  the  city. — The 
Pico  de  Orizaba,  or  Citlaltepetl,  an  extinct  vol- 
cano, according  to  recent  measurements  17,176 
ft.  high,  and  covered  with  perpetual  snow,  is 
6  m.  N.  of  the  city. 

ORKNEY  ISLANDS  (Norse,  Orkneyar,  from 
ork,  whale,  and  eyar,  islands ;  Lat.  Orcades),  a 
compact  group  lying  off  the  N.  coast  of  Scot- 
land, separated  from  it  by  Pentland  frith,  be- 
tween lat.  58°  44'  and  59°  23'  N.,  and  Ion.  2° 
24'  and  3°  26'  W. ;  area,  about  500  sq.  m.,  of 
which  about  one  fourth  is  under  cultivation ; 
pop.  in  1871,  31,274.  The  group  includes  67 
islands,  of  which  29  are  inhabited.  The  prin- 
cipal are  Pomona  or  Mainland,  Hoy,  North 
and  South  Ronaldshay,  "Westray,  Sanday,  Eday, 
Stronsay,  Ronsay,  and  Shapinsay.  Many  of  the 
uninhabited  islands  are  small  holms  used  for 
pasturage,  and  others  are  rocky  islets  devoid 
of  herbage.  Sanday  is  the  most  fertile.  Hoy 
alone  of  the  group  can  be  called  mountainous, 
its  greatest  elevation  being  1,600  ft.  Geologi- 
cally the  islands  belong  to  the  old  red  sand- 
stone formation,  though  granite  is  found  near 
Stromness  in  Pomona.  In  the  peat  mosses 
which  abound  throughout  the  group  traces  of 
ancient  forests  have  been  discovered,  but  the 
climate  is  now  unfavorable  to  the  growth  of 
trees.  The  soil  is  chiefly  clay  and  sand,  inter- 
mixed with  peat  mosses,  and  shell  marl  and 
bog  iron  ore  are  met  with.  There  are  no  large 
streams,  but  springs  of  pure  water  abound, 
and  there  are  several  lakes,  the  largest  of  which 
is  Stennis,  in  Pomona,  14  m.  in  circuit.  There 
is  but  little  frost  or  snow ;  the  range  of  the  ther- 
mometer is  from  25°  to  75°,  and  the  mean  an- 


696 


ORKNEY  ISLANDS 


ORLEANS 


nual  temperature  is  45°.  Until  recently  agri- 
culture has  been  neglected,  and  the  manufacture 
of  kelp,  the  fisheries,  and  pasturage  have  been 
prominent.  Much  less  kelp  is  produced  than 
formerly,  and  more  land  has  been  brought  un- 
der cultivation.  The  small  native  breeds  of 
cattle,  sheep,  and  ponies  have  been  improved 
by  the  introduction  of  new  stock.  Rabbits 
and  poultry  are  numerous,  game  abounds,  and 
in  the  season  of  incubation  the  cliffs  swarm 
with  sea  fowl.  The  cod  and  herring  fisheries 
are  very  productive,  and  large  numbers  of 
lobsters  are  exported.  The  leading  manufac- 
ture, employing  about  2,000  girls,  is  straw 
plait  for  bonnets  ;  some  linen  and  woollen 
goods  are  made;  and  boat  building  and  sail 
and  cordage  making  are  among  the  industries. 
Tne  value  of  the  exports,  the  chief  of  which 
are  fish  and  cattle,  is  about  £200,000  a  year. 
The  Orkneys,  with  Shetland,  form  a  district 
returning  one  member  to  parliament. — Pomo- 
na, or  Mainland,  the  principal  island,  is  24  m. 
long,  with  a  breadth  of  from  3  to  15  m. ;  area, 
about  150  sq.  m.  The  coast  is  broken  up  with 
bold  cliffs,  but  has  several  good  harbors.  The 
surface  is  moor  and  moss,  with  much  good 
pasturage,  and  a  few  fertile  valleys.  On  the 
shore  of  Lake  Stennis,  between  Kirkwall  and 
Stromness,  is  a  remarkable  group  of  70  or  80 
large  symmetrical  standing  stones,  in  two  sep- 
arate circles  of  100  ft.  and  360  ft.  diameter, 
the  largest  stones  in  the  smaller  circle.  There 
are  several  smaller  lakes.  Kirkwall,  the  capi- 
tal (pop.  in  1871,  3,434),  is  a  very  ancient  place, 
but  has  many  new  and  handsome  shops  and 
houses.  The  principal  building  is  the  cathe- 
dral of  St.  Magnus,  founded  in  1138;  it  is  a 
superb  structure  of  red  sandstone  in  the  mixed 
Gothic  and  Saxon  style,  and  the  choir  is  used 
as  a  parish  church.  There  are  also  a  Presby- 
terian church,  a  grammar  and  other  schools, 
town  hall,  two  libraries,  and  several  charities. 
Adjoining  the  cathedral  are  the  ruins  of  the 
bishop's  and  the  earl's  palaces,  and  the  mu- 
seum contains  numerous  ancient  relics.  The 
most  remarkable  discovery,  made  in  1858,  con- 
sisted of  massive  pins,  brooches,  bracelets,  and 
other  ornaments,  and  silver  coins  which  are 
believed  to  have  been  contemporaneous  with 
the  earliest  kings  in  Scottish  or  Scandinavian 
history.  Kirkwall  has  a  good  harbor  and  a 
considerable  export  trade.  Stromness,  on  the 
S.  W.  side  of  the  island,  12  m.  from  Kirk- 
wall (pop.  1,619),  is  important  for  its  fisher- 
ies, and  has  a  convenient  and  commodious 
harbor.  The  red  sandstone  in  the  vicinity 
abounds  in  rare  fossils. — The  same  Celtic  peo- 
ple who  colonized  S.  and  N.  Britain  were  the 
original  inhabitants  of  the  Orkneys.  The  isl- 
ands were  visited  by  Agricola,  A.  D.  84,  and 
were  afterward  favorite  resorts  of  the  piratical 
Northmen.  In  876  Harald  Harfager  subdued 
both  the  Orkneys  and  the  Hebrides.  On  his 
return  to  Norway  he  conferred  the  administra- 
tion of  his  conquest  on  Ronald,  the  father  of 
Rollo,  the  ancestor  of  "William  the  Conqueror. 


In  920  Sigurd,  the  brother  of  Ronald,  receiver 
this  dominion  from  him,  and  afterward  added 
to  it  considerable  territory  on  the  mainland  of 
Scotland ;  and  the  two  brothers  thus  became 
the  founders  of  a  long  line  of  Scandinavian 
earls  who  affected  the  style  of  independent 
princes.  In  1098  they  became  subject  to  the 
Norwegian  crown.  When  James  III.  of  Scot- 
land married  Margaret  of  Denmark  (1469),  he 
obtained  the  Orkney  and  Shetland  islands  as 
security  for  her  dowry  ;  and  as  they  were 
never  ransomed,  they  have  ever  since  apper- 
tained to  Scotland. 

ORLEINAIS,  an  ancient  province  of  France, 
near  the  centre  of  the  country,  bounded  N.  E. 
by  lie  de  France,  E.  by  Champagne  and  Bur- 
gundy, S.  by  Berry,  W.  by  Touraine,  Maine, 
and  Perche,  and  N.  W.  by  Normandy.  Be- 
sides Orl6anais  proper,  it  included  the  districts 
of  Blaisois,  Vend6mois,  Dunois,  Sologne,  Gati- 
nais,  Beauce  or  Pays  Chartrain,  and  Perche- 
Gouet.  It  was  originally  the  country  of  the 
Carnutes  and  Senones.  It  was  watered  by 
the  Loire,  Loiret,  Loir,  Eure,  Cher,  Beuvron, 
Yonne,  Essonne,  and  Loing.  It  has  been  di- 
vided into  the  three  departments  of  Loir-et- 
Cher,  Eure-et-Loir,  and  Loiret. 

ORLEANS.  I.  A  N.  county  of  Vermont,  bor- 
dering on  Canada,  watered  by  the  Black,  Bar- 
ton, Clyde,  Lamoille,  and  Missisque  rivers; 
area,  700  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  13,364.  It  has 
an  uneven  surface,  and  lies  between  the  E.  and 
W.  ranges  of  the  Green  mountains.  Numer- 
ous small  lakes  or  ponds  are  scattered  over 
its  surface,  and  Lake  Memphremagog  extends 
some  distance  within  its  borders.  It  is  in- 
tersected by  the  Connecticut  and  Passumpsic 
Rivers  railroad.  The  chief  productions  in  1870 
were  56,432  bushels  of  wheat,  54,589  of  Indian 
corn,  369,319  of  oats,  21,376  of  barley,  38,796 
of  buckwheat,  598,307  of  potatoes,  1,738,526 
Ibs.  of  butter,  67,079  of  cheese,  110,476  of  wool, 
254,429  of  hops,  1,025,502  of  maple  sugar,  and 
68,757  tons  of  hay.  There  were  5,184  horses, 
14,125  milch  cows,  1,961  working  oxen,  8,037 
other  cattle,  22,432  sheep,  and  3,636  swine; 
11  manufactories  of  carriages  and  wagons,  6  of 
sash,  doors,  and  blinds,  13  of  starch,  1  of  wool- 
len goods,  7  wool-carding  and  cloth-dressing 
establishments,  6  tanneries,  and  36  saw  mills. 
Capital,  Irasburg.  II.  A  N.  W.  county  of  New 
York,  bordering  on  Lake  Ontario,  and  watered 
by  Oak  Orchard,  Johnson's,  and  Sandy  creeks ; 
area,  405  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  27,689.  Its 
surface  is  traversed  E.  and  W.  by  the  lake  and 
mountain  ridges  which  divide  it  into  three  level 
or  gently  undulating  plateaus,  and  the  soil  is 
generally  fertile.  The  Erie  canal  and  the  New 
York  Central  railroad  intersect  it.  The  chief 
productions  in  1870  were  550,046  bushels  of 
wheat,  306,972  of  Indian  corn,  430,768  of  oats, 
142,785  of  barley,  23,063  of  buckwheat,  245,097 
of  potatoes,  134,760  of  peas  and  beans,  793,562 
Ibs.  of  butter,  266,282  of  wool,  58,258  of  to- 
bacco, 68,242  of  hops,  25,031  of  flax,  and  38,- 
996  tons  of  hay.  There  were  883  horses,  7,731 


ORLEANS 


697 


milch  cows,  6,411  other  cattle,  49,615  sheep, 
and  7,883  swine  ;  4  manufactories  of  agricultu- 
ral implements,  20  of  carriages  and  wagons,  10 
of  cider,  20  of  cooperage,  7  of  saddlery  and 
harness,  12  flour  mills,  and  21  saw  mills.  Cap- 
ital, Albion.  III.  A  S.  E.  parish  of  Louisiana, 
chiefly  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Mississippi 
river,  bounded  N.  by  Lake  Pontchartrain,  N. 
E.  by  the  Rigolets  pass  connecting  that  lake 
with  Lake  Borgne,  and  S.  E.  by  Lake  Borgne; 
area,  about  150  sq.  m.;  pop.  in  1870,  191,418, 
of  whom  50,456  were  colored.  Since  the  cen- 
sus it  has  been  somewhat  enlarged  by  the 
transference  of  Carrollton  from  Jefferson  par- 
ish to  New  Orleans.  The  population  in  1875 
is  about  210,000,  of  whom  rather  less  than  one 
fourth  are  colored.  The  city  of  New  Orleans 
embraces  the  greater  portion  of  it,  the  islets  at 
the  N.  E.  extremity,  called  Les  Petites  Coquil- 
les,  alone  not  being  included  within  the  city 
limits.  It  has  a  low  and  level  surface,  and  the 
greater  part  of  it  is  swampy  and  liable  to  over- 
flow from  high  water,  with  a  general  inclination 
from  S.  E.  to  N.  W.  The  W.  portion  is  protect- 
ed from  overflow  by  levees,  and  is  tolerably 
well  drained.  The  chief  agricultural  produc- 
tions of  the  parish  in  1870  were  14,357  bush- 
els of  Indian  corn,  2,468  of  Irish  and  4,540  of 
sweet  potatoes,  751  hogsheads  of  sugar,  17,910 


gallons  of  molasses,  and  825,896  of  milk  sold. 
The  value  of  land  in  farms  was  $859,012 ;  of 
live  stock  on  farms,  $173,690;  of  farm  pro- 
ductions, $614,128.  (See  NEW  OELEANS.)  • 

ORLEANS,  an  island  of  the  province  of  Que- 
bec, Canada,  forming  part  of  Montmorency  co., 
in  the  St.  Lawrence,  a  few  miles  below  the 
city  of  Quebec ;  area,  69  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1871, 
4,924.  It  is  well  wooded,  has  a  fertile  soil, 
and  contains  several  villages  and  good  farms. 

ORLEANS  (Fr.  Orleans;  anc.  Gendbum,  after- 
ward Aurelianum},  a  city  of  France,  capital  of 
the  department  of  Loiret,  on  the  right  bank  of 
the  Loire,  68  m.  S.  by  W.  of  Paris;  pop.  in 
1872,  48,976.  The  ancient  fortifications  have 
been  demolished,  to  make  room  for  gardens 
and  public  promenades.  The  cathedral,  begun 
in  the  13th  century,  was  partly  destroyed  by 
the  Huguenots,  and  reconstructed  in  the  17th 
and  18th  centuries.  The  churches  of  St.  Aignan 
and  St.  Euverte,  the  old  city  hall,  an  edifice  of 
the  15th  century  which  is  now  appropriated  to 
a  museum  of  painting  and  sculpture,  the  old 
houses  of  Agnes  Sorel  and  Francis  I.,  and  an 
equestrian  statue  of  Joan  of  Arc,  are  objects 
of  attention.  Orleans  has  a  historical  museum, 
a  museum  of  natural  history,  an  academy  of 
sciences,  belles-lettres,  and  arts,  and  a  public, 
library  of  about  50,000  volumes.  There  are 


Orleans. 


manufactures  of  hosiery  and  woollen  and  cot- 
ton blankets,  numerous  sugar  refineries,  brew- 
eries, and  tanneries;  and  the  town  is  an  impor- 
tant railway  centre. — Ancient  Genabum  was 
destroyed  by  Caesar,  and,  being  rebuilt  by  Au- 
relian,  took  his  name.  Attila  with  his  Huns 
appeared  before  its  walls  in  451 ;  but  the  time- 
ly intervention  of  the  Roman  general  Ae*tius 
rescued  it  from  danger.  It  was  conquered  by 
Clovis  in  496,  and  under  his  successors  became 


the  capital  of  one  of  the  Frankish  kingdoms. 
It  was  pillaged  by  the  Northmen  in  856  and 
865.  Louis  the  Fat  was  crowned  there  in 
1108,  and  a  university  was  established  in  1309. 
After  the  accession  of  the  house  of  Valois  it 
became  the  capital  of  a  duchy,  which  was  be- 
stowed successively  upon  various  princes  of  the 
royal  family.  It  adhered  faithfully  to  the 
French  kings  during  their  long  wars  with  the 
English.  In  October,  1428,  the  latter,  under 


698 


ORLEANS 


Salisbury,  laid  siege  to  the  city,  whose  inhabi- 
tants resisted  heroically ;  it  was  finally  rescued, 
April  29,  1429,  by  Joan  of  Arc.  The  states 
general  convened  there  in  1560.  The  Calvin- 
ists  in  1562  seized  upon  this  stronghold,  and  it 
was  besieged  in  1563  by  the  Catholics  under 
the  duke  of  Guise,  who  was  assassinated  du- 
ring the  siege.  In  1652,  during  the  war  of  the 
Fronde,  the  duchess  of  Montpensier,  daughter 
of  Gaston  of  Orleans,  held  it  against  the  king. 
In  the  Franco-German  war  of  1870-'71  its 
neighborhood  was  the  scene  of  protracted  and 
hotly  contested  battles.  On  Oct.  10  Gen.  von 
der  Tann,  with  the  first  Bavarian  army  corps 
and  other  troops,  drove  back  the  advance  guard 
of  the  "  army  of  the  Loire "  (Gen.  Lamotte- 
rouge)  from  Artenay,  and  moved  toward  Or- 
leans ;  on  the  12th  he  defeated  the  main  army 
and  took  possession  of  the  city.  By  the  be- 
ginning of  November,  however,  the  French 
army  of  the  Loire  had  been  heavily  reenforced, 
and  Gen.  Aurelle  de  Paladines,  during  the  first 
week  of  that  month,  advanced  at  the  head  of 
150,000  men  with  the  design  of  recapturing 
the  place.  Von  der  Tann,  greatly  outnum- 
bered, preferred  to  receive  the  attack  in  the 
open  country,  and  on  Nov.  8  evacuated  the 
•town  (leaving  only  a  regiment  of  infantry)  and 
took  up  a  strong  strategic  position  near  6oul- 
miers,  where  a  fierce  battle  began  on  the  9th. 
Von  der  Tann  held  his  ground  till  night,  and 
then  made  an  orderly  retreat ;  the  troops  left 
in  Orleans  withdrew,  and  the  French  reentered 
it  on  the  10th.  Aurelle  failing  to  follow  up 
his  advantage,  the  Germans  were  allowed  to 
reenforce  their  army  undisturbed ;  and  when 
later  in  the  month  Aurelle  attempted  to  send 
a  great  part  of  his  army  toward  Paris,  he 
encountered  a  strong  force  (10th  corps,  of 
Frederick  Charles's  army),  which  he  attacked 
near  Beaume-la-Rolande,  and  was  defeated  and 
forced  back  to  Neuville-aux-Bois  near  the  city. 
Here  the  10th  Prussian  corps  again  defeated 
him  on  Dec.  3 ;  and  on  the  same  evening  all 
the  other  principal  French  positions  around 
the  city  were  successfully  assailed.  The  attack 
was  continued  on  the  4th,  and  by  9  at  night 
the  Germans  had  pressed  forward  to  the  city 
itself.  An  entrance  was  forced  by  the  grand 
duke  of  Mecklenburg's  division,  and  violent 
street  fighting  was  going  on,  when  the  com- 
mander of  the  city  surrendered  to  the  grand 
duke,  who  occupied  it  at  midnight  (Dec.  4-5). 
Prince  Frederick  Charles  made  a  formal  entry 
on  the  5th,  and  the  Germans  held  Orleans  to 
the  end  of  the  war. 

ORLEANS,  Duchy  and  Families  of.  That  region 
in  France  of  which  the  city  of  Orleans  was  the 
capital  formed  successively  a  viscounty  and  a 
county  under  the  Carlo vingian  and  Capetian 
dynasties.  Philip  VI.  of  France  erected  it 
in  1344  into  a  duchy  and  peerage,  and  be- 
stowed it  as  an  apanage  upon  his  son  Philip, 
who  died  in  1375.  Besides  several  princes  of 
the  royal  family  who  occasionally  bore  the 
title,  it  was  subsequently  held  by  three  families 


or  branches :  1,  that  of  Orleans- Valois  (1392- 
1498),  consisting  of  three  dukes,  Louis  I.,  sec- 
ond son  of  Charles  V.  of  France ;  Charles,  the 
poet;  and  his  son  Louis  II.,  who  ascended  the 
throne  as  Louis  XII. ;  2,  the  first  house  of  Or- 
leans-Bourbon (1626-'60),  which  had  but  one 
duke,  Gaston,  brother  of  Louis  XIII.,  who  died 
without  male  issue ;  3,  the  second  house  of  Or- 
leans-Bourbon (1660-1842),  which  originated 
with  Philippe,  the  brother  of  Louis  XIV.  and 
husband  of  Henrietta  Anna  of  England;  it 
reckons  among  its  members  Philippe,  the  re- 
gent under  the  minority  of  Louis  XV.,  Louis 
Philippe  Joseph,  known  as  Philippe  figalite 
during  the  French  revolution,  and  King  Louis 
Philippe,  whose  eldest  son,  Ferdinand  Philippe, 
who  died  in  1842,  was  the  last  who  held  the 
title  of  duke  of  Orleans. — Of  the  various  fam- 
ilies of  Orleans,  the  following  are  the  most  im- 
portant members.  I.  Louis,  the  head  of  the 
family  of  Orleans- Valois,  born  in  1371,  assas- 
sinated Nov.  23,  1407.  The  second  son  of 
King  Charles  V.  by  Jeanne  of  Bourbon,  he 
was  first  styled  duke  of  Valois,  then  of  Tou- 
raine,  and  finally  of  Orleans  in  1392.  He 
married  Valentina  Visconti,  a  Milanese  prin- 
cess, by  whom  he  had  several  children.  When 
his  brother  Charles  VI.  was  seized  with  mad- 
ness, he  tried  to  share  the  power  with  his 
uncles,  and  through  the  influence  of  Queen 
Isabella  secured  a  considerable  part  in  the 
administration.  On  the  death  of  Philip  of 
Burgundy  in  1404,  he  had  for  a  while  the  full 
control  of  affairs,  under  the  title  of  lieutenant 
general  of  the  kingdom,  in  concert  with  the 
queen;  but  his  maladministration  soon  made 
him  unpopular,  and  John  the  Fearless,  son 
of  Philip  of  Burgundy,  was  hailed  as  a  lib- 
erator when  he  presented  himself  before  the 
gates  of  Paris.  The  rivalry  between  the  two 
princes  foreboded  civil  war ;  but  the  duke  of 
Berry,  their  uncle,  brought  about  a  seeming 
reconciliation,  Nov.  20,  1407.  Three  days 
later  the  duke  of  Orleans  fell  a  victim  to  assas- 
sins hired  by  the  duke  of  Burgundy.  This 
murder  gave  the  signal  for  civil  wars  between 
the  Burgundians  and  the  Armagnacs,  the  latter 
being  the  adherents  of  the  family  of  Orleans. 
II.  Charles,  eldest  son  of  the  preceding,  born  in 
Paris,  May  26,  1391,  died  in  Amboise,  Jan.  4, 
1465.  He  was  educated  under  the  supervision 
of  his  mother,  and  became  familiar  with  the 
poems  of  the  French  trouveres  and  of  the 
great  Italian  writers.  On  his  father's  death  he 
showed  little  executive  ability,  and  when  his 
mother  died  in  1409  he  signed  with  John  of 
Burgundy  a  treaty  of  peace,  styled  the  paix 
fourree  by  French  historians.  But  his  party 
soon  found  a  more  energetic  leader  in  Count 
Bernard  of  Armagnac,  whose  daughter  Charles 
married  in  1410,  his  first  wife,  the  widow  of 
Richard  II.  of  England,  having  died  the  pre- 
vious year.  Under  direction  of  Bernard  civil 
war  was  renewed,  but  was  terminated  by  the 
peace  of  Arras  in  1414.  Charles  joined  the 
French  army  under  the  constable  d'Albret  in 


ORLEANS 


699 


1415,  fought  bravely  at  Agincourt,  was  wound- 
ed, taken  prisoner,  and  carried  to  England, 
where  during  his  captivity  of  25  years  he  com- 
posed a  series  of  miscellaneous  poems.  He 
was  permitted  to  return  to  France  in  1440,  on 
condition  of  paying  a  ransom  of  200,000  gold 
crowns  and  not  bearing  arms  against  England. 
He  now  married  Mary  of  Cleves,  who  22  years 
later  bore  him  a  son  who  was  afterward  Louis 
XII.  On  the  death  of  his  uncle  Filippo  Vis- 
conti,  after  a  fruitless  attempt  to  take  posses- 
sion of  the  duchy  of  Milan,  he  obtained  the 
county  of  Asti,  his  mother's  dowry.  Toward 
the  close  of  his  life  he  became  involved  in  polit- 
ical intrigues  against  Louis  XL,  but  the  mon- 
arch treated  him  with  contempt,  and  the  duke 
is  said  to  have  died  of  grief  in  consequence. 
His  poems  were  brought  to  light  in  1734:  by 
the  abb6  Sallier.  The  best  manuscript  copy  of 
them  is  in  the  British  museum.  The  English 
portion  of  them  was  printed  for  the  Roxburghe 
club  (4to,  London,  1827).  III.  Jean  Baptist*  Gas- 
ton,  the  youngest  son  of  Henry  IV.  and  brother 
of  Louis  XIII.,  born  at  Fontainebleau,  April 
25,  1608,  died  in  Blois,  Feb.  2,  1660.  He  was 
first  known  under  the  title  of  duke  of  Anjou, 
and  early  showed  signs  of  opposition  to  his 
brother's  minister  Richelieu,  shared  in  all  the 
conspiracies  against  him,  and  on  every  occasion 
was  frightened  into  submission  and  the  betray- 
al of  his  friends.  He  consented  to  marry  Mile, 
de  Montpensier,  the  richest  heiress  in  France, 
whom  he  had  previously  refused ;  she  bore  him 
an  only  daughter,  afterward  greatly  celebrated 
under  the  title  of  Mademoiselle,  and  died  sud- 
denly. He  and  his  mother,  and  nearly  all  the 
courtiers,  were  utterly  worsted  by  Richelieu  in 
the  imbroglio  known  as  the  journee  des  dupes, 
October,  1630.  The  next  year,  his  mother 
having  fled  to  Brussels,  he  issued  a  threatening 
manifesto  against  the  minister,  repaired  to  the 
court  of  Charles  III.  of  Lorraine,  whose  sister 
he  secretly  married  notwithstanding  the  pro- 
hibition of  his  brother,  and  then,  joining  his 
mother,  entered  into  a  new  plot  which  ended 
in  open  rebellion.  The  governor  of  Languedoc, 
Henri  de  Montmorency,  was  persuaded  to  take 
part  in  it,  but  was  deserted  by  Gaston  at  the 
battle  of  Oastelnaudary,  in  September,  1632. 
Gaston  submitted  to  terms  dictated  by  Riche- 
lieu, but  soon  escaped  again  to  Brussels,  where 
he  made  his  marriage  known.  The  minister, 
taking  advantage  of  this  avowal,  made  the  duke 
of  Lorraine  pay  for  his  brother-in-law's  revolt, 
and  caused  his  duchy  to  be  forcibly  occupied  in 
1634,  the  king  in  person  taking  the  city  of  Bar- 
le-duc.  Gaston  was  spared,  as  "  being  of  the 
royal  blood  of  France,  which  must  be  respected, " 
but  received  orders  to  retire  to  Blois.  In  1636 
he  was  privy  to,  if  not  an  accomplice  in,  a  plan 
for  the  assassination  of  Richelieu.  In  ]  642  he 
shared  in  the  conspiracy  of  Cinq-Mars,  and 
negotiated  personally  with  Spain ;  but  the  se- 
cret having  been  divulged  and  Cinq-Mars  ar- 
rested, he  gave  evidence  which  sent  his  accom- 
plice to  the  scaffold.  He  evinced  some  personal 


bravery  in  1644-'6  at  the  head  of  the  French 
army  in  Flanders ;  but  during  the  war  of  the 
Fronde  he  served  and  betrayed  by  turns  the 
king,  the  princes,  the  parliament,  and  the  popu- 
lar party.  He  was  finally  exiled  to  Blois.  He 
left  Memoires  de  ce  qui  s^est  passe  deplus  remar- 
quable  en  France  de  1608  d  1635  (Amsterdam, 
1683).  IV.  Philippe  n.,  regent  of  France  during 
the  minority  of  Louis  XV.,  born  at  St.  Cloud, 
Aug.  2,  1674,  died  in  Paris,  Dec.  2,  1723. 
He  was  the  second  duke  of  the  second  house  of 
Orleans-Bourbon,  and  the  son  of  Philippe  I., 
brother  of  Louis  XIV.,  by  his  second  wife, 
Elisabeth  Charlotte  of  Bavaria.  Until  his  fa- 
ther's death  in  1701  he  bore  the  name  of  duke 
of  Chartres.  He  was  highly  gifted  and  accom- 
plished ;  but  from  his  sub-preceptor,  the  abbe 
Dubois,  he  learned  infidelity  and  immorality. 
By  his  advice  he  married  in  1692  Mile,  de  Blois, 
natural  daughter  of  Louis  XIV.  by  Mme.  de 
Montespan,  a  union  no  less  distasteful  to  his 
parents  than  to  himself.  He  distinguished  him- 
self at  the  siege  of  Mons  in  1691,  and  in  the 
taking  of  Namur  in  1692,  and  was  wounded 
at  the  battle  of  Steenkerk.  In  1693,  at  Neer- 
winden,  leading  the  light  cavalry,  he  displayed 
such  skill  and  bravery  that  the  jealousy  of  Louis 
XIV.  obliged  him  to  leave  the  army.  His 
forced  inactivity  led  him  into  dissipation,  but 
he  devoted  a  portion  of  his  time  to  painting 
and  natural  philosophy.  After  the  death  of 
Charles  II.  of  Spain,  he  signed,  in  conjunction 
with  his  father,  a  protest  against  the  late  sov- 
ereign's will,  which  ignored  their  rights  to  the 
Spanish  crown  in  case  the  elder  Bourbon  line 
should  become  extinct.  In  1706  the  king  ap- 
pointed him  commander  of  the  French  army 
in  Italy,  but  placed  him  in  fact  under  the  con- 
trol of  Marshal  Marsin,  who,  opposed  by  Prince 
Eugene,  lost  the  battle  of  Turin,  Philippe  try- 
ing in  vain  by  skilful  manoeuvres  to  retrieve 
the  fortune  of  the  day.  In  1707  in  Spain  he 
subdued  the  provinces  of  Valencia,  Aragon, 
and  Catalonia,  took  Le>ida,  which  60  years 
before  had  frustrated  the  efforts  of  the  great 
Conde,  successfully  conducted  several  expedi- 
tions in  1708,  and  was  received  with  great  hon- 
ors in  Madrid.  Suspected  of  aspiring  to  the 
crown  of  Spain,  he  was  recalled  to  France, 
was  obliged  to  make  a  formal  renunciation  of 
all  his  claims  or  pretensions  to  the  Spanish 
throne,  and  forbidden  to  appear  again  at  Ver- 
sailles. Once  more  exiled  from  active  life, 
he  devoted  much  of  his  time  and  money  to 
chemical  experiments,  and  was  charged  with 
poisoning  the  dauphin,  the  duke  and  duch- 
ess of  Burgundy,  and  their  second  son,  in  order 
to  open  his  way  to  the  throne.  He  repelled 
the  accusation,  and  insisted  upon  a  trial,  his 
chemist  at  the  same  time  offering  to  surrender 
himself ;  but  Louis  XIV.  gave  him  no  oppor- 
tunity of  publicly  establishing  his  innocence, 
though  Philippe  vindicated  his  good  name  after- 
ward by  the  paternal  care  which  he  bestowed 
upon  the  infant  king,  then  the  only  bar  be- 
tween him  and  the  throne.  After  the  death 


700 


ORLEANS 


of  Louis  XIV.- he  persuaded  parliament  to  set 
aside  the  royal  will,  to  place  the  regency  exclu- 
sively in  his  hands,  and  to  confide  to  him  the 
guardianship  of  young  Louis  X Y.  He  was  re- 
gent from  Sept.  2,  1715,  to  Feb.  22, 1723 ;  and 
during  his  administration,  especially  in  the  early 
part  of  it,  he  had  to  contend  against  many  ad- 
verse circumstances.  The  state  was  deeply  in 
debt;  provinces  had  been  desolated  by  pro- 
tracted wars ;  commerce  was  completely  para- 
lyzed. After  attempting  several  measures  of 
relief,  in  1716  the  regent  adopted  John  Law's 
plan  of  a  national  bank,  which  for  a  time  cre- 
ated a  fictitious  prosperity,  but  in  1720  ended 
in  a  terrible  crash  and  an  increase  of  the 
public  debt.  Some  retrenchment  and  reform 
however  was  effected.  The  regent  abandoned 
altogether  the  foreign  policy  of  Louis  XIV. 
Yielding  to  the  representations  of  Dubois,  who 
received  a  large  pension  from  the  English 
government,  he  concluded,  Jan.  4,  1717,  with 
Great  Britain  and  Holland,  the  treaty  known  as 
the  "  triple  alliance,"  by  which  he  consented 
to  expel  the  pretender  from  France,  to  discon- 
tinue the  fortifications  at  Mardyck,  to  destroy 
the  port  of  Dunkirk,  and  not  to  increase  the 
French  navy,  giving  up  at  the  same  time  all  right 
to  trade  in  the  South  sea.  Meanwhile  Alberoni, 
prime  minister  of  Philip  V.  of  Spain,  was  de- 
vising plans  to  overthrow  the  house  of  Han- 
over in  England  and  the  regent  in  France,  and 
restore  Spain  to  her  former  rank  as  a  ruling 
power  in  Europe.  A  conspiracy  plotted  in 
Paris  by  the  Spanish  ambassador  Cellamare, 
the  duchess  of  Maine,  and  some  discontented 
noblemen  in  Brittany,  was  discovered  by  Du- 
bois; but  the  regent  contented  himself  with 
sending  the  ambassador  back  to  Spain  and  the 
duchess  to  her  chateau  at  Sceaux,  and  execu- 
ting four  of  the  insurgent  Bretons.  But  this 
plot  led  to  active  hostilities  with  Spain ;  and 
Austria  having  joined  the  triple  alliance  in  1718, 
the  English  destroyed  the  Spanish  fleet,  and 
Berwick  stormed  some  of  the  northern  strong- 
holds of  Spain.  Alberoni,  whose  plans  were 
baffled,  was  expelled  from  Spain,  and  by  the 
treaty  of  Madrid,  January,  1720,  part  of  west- 
ern Europe  was  remodelled,  mainly  through  the 
influence  of  the  abbe  Dubois,  who  rose  to  the 
rank  of  cardinal  and  archbishop.  After  Louis 
XV.  was  declared  of  age,  Dubois  continued 
prime  minister  for  about  six  months,  and  on 
his  death  the  duke  of  Orleans  resumed  the  reins 
of  government  in  that  capacity ;  but  his  con- 
stitution had  been  shattered  by  debauchery,  and 
before  the  end  of  four  months  he  died  of  apo- 
plexy. By  his  marriage  with  Mile,  de  Blois  he 
had  one  son,  Louis  (1703-'52),  and  six  daugh- 
ters. A  natural  son,  Jean  Philippe,  known  as 
the  chevalier  d' Orleans,  became  high  prior  of 
the  order  of  St.  John  of  Jerusalem,  and  a 
grandee  of  Spain.  V.  Lonis  Philippe  Joseph, 
styled  Philippe  Egalite,  the  fifth  duke  of  his 
house,  and  great-grandson  of  the  regent,  born 
at  St.  Cloud,  April  13,  1747,  guillotined  in 
Paris,  Nov.  6,  1793.  Under  the  title  of  duke 


of  Chartres,  which  he  bore  till  1785,  he  married 
in  1769  Louise  Marie  Adelaide  of  Bourbon- 
Penthievre,  great-granddaughter  of  Louis  XIV. 
and  Mme.  de  Montespan,  who,  owing  to  her 
brother's  death,  brought  her  husband  the  rich 
inheritance  of  her  house.  He  increased  his 
immense  fortune  by  speculation,  and  construct- 
ed three  of  the  rows  of  buildings  around  the 
garden  of  the  Palais  Eoyal.  He  early  showed 
signs  of  opposition  to  the  court,  and  in  1771 
signed  the  protest  of  the  princes  against  the 
dissolution  of  the  ancient  parliaments.  Queen 
Marie  Antoinette  felt  an  instinctive  antipathy 
to  him,  and  he  conceived  a  violent  hatred 
toward  her,  which  occasionally  broke  out  in 
open  hostility.  In  1776  he  became  the  head 
of  "  the  princes'  party,"  in  opposition  to  that 
of  the  queen,  and  charged  Marie  Antoinette 
with  instigating  the  wrongs  and  insults  he  re- 
ceived from  Louis  XVI.  His  claims  to  the 
office  of  grand  admiral  of  France  being  disal- 
lowed, he  participated  in  1778  as  a  volunteer 
in  the  naval  battle  of  Ushant,  when  the  high- 
est praise,  soon  followed  by  ridicule,  was  be- 
stowed upon  his  conduct ;  he  was  then  re- 
called, and  received  the  empty  title  of  colonel- 
general  of  hussars.  After  a  visit  to  London, 
where  he  was  intimate  with  the  prince  of 
Wales,  afterward  George  IV.,  he  devoted  him- 
self to  pleasure  and  dissipation.  During  the 
famous  diamond  necklace  trial,  he  denounced 
Marie  Antoinette,  and  is  charged  with  having 
encouraged  the  libellous  publications  of  the 
countess  of  Lamotte.  In  1787  he  appeared  in 
the  assembly  of  notables,  and  plotted  with  the 
most  ardent  members  of  the  parliamentary  op- 
position. He  opposed  the  financial  policy  of 
the  government,  and  was  consequently  exiled 
to  Villers-Gotterets.  The  popularity  thus  ac- 
quired was  enhanced  by  his  lavish  expenditure 
of  money  to  relieve  the  sufferings  of  the  peo- 
ple during  the  severe  winter  of  1788-'9,  and  in 
the  succeeding  elections  for  the  states  general 
he  was  chosen  at  Paris,  Villers-Ootterets,  and 
Crespy  in  Valois.  He  was  among  the  first  no- 
bles who  joined  the  deputies  of  the  third  estate, 
and  aided  in  transforming  the  states  general 
into  a  national  assembly.  The  Palais  Royal 
became  the  headquarters  of  revolutionary 
demonstrations,  and  thence  came  the  signal 
for  the  storming  of  the  Bastile.  The  events 
of  Oct.  5  and  6,  1789,  were  generally  ascribed 
to  the  Orleans  party;  the  duke  himself  was 
accused  by  the  Ohatelet ;  but  the  assembly  de- 
clared there  was  not  sufficient  reason  to  allow 
one  of  its  members  to  be  arraigned  before  a 
tribunal.  Lafayette,  however,  forced  him  by 
threats  to  go  to  London,  where  he  remained  for 
nine  months.  On  his  return,  July  11,  1790, 
there  were  some  attempts  at  a  reconciliation 
between  him  and  the  court;  he  had  been  at 
last  promoted  to  the  admiralship ;  but  the 
treatment  which  he  received  from  the  courtiers 
estranged  him  for  ever,  and  incited  him  to 
further  revolutionary  projects.  But  his  wa- 
vering and  pusillanimous  conduct  disheartened 


ORLEANS 


701 


his  adherents,  and  Mirabeau,  who  had  favored 
his  aspirations  to  the  throne,  turned  from  him 
in  disgust.  On  the  flight  of  the  king  from 
Paris  he  permitted  the  best  opportunity  for 
the  accomplishment  of  his  plans  to  escape, 
without  even  the  show  of  an  attempt.  His 
party,  however,  continued  to  foster  popular 
movements,  and  the  duke  freely  mingled  with 
the  Jacobins,  the  Cordeliers,  and  the  members 
of  the  revolutionary  commune  of  Paris.  He 
now  dropped  his  patronymic  to  assume  the 
surname  of  Egalite,  was  elected  to  the  conven- 
tion, and  took  his  seat  among  the  montagnards. 
On  the  trial  of  Louis  XVI.,  either  of  his  own 
accord  or  through  compulsion  and  fear,  he 
voted  for  the  death  of  his  cousin.  But  this 
did  not  secure  him  the  confidence  of  the  revo- 
lutionists, who  suspected  him  of  sinister  de- 
signs ;  and  such  suspicions  were  enhanced  by 
the  plot  of  Dumouriez  to  reestablish  the  con- 
stitution of  1791  and  restore  royalty.  The 
committee  of  general  security  ordered  him  to 
be  arrested,  April  6,  1793,  as  well  as  all  the 
members  of  his  family.  He  was  tried  at  Mar- 
seilles and  acquitted ;  but  on  the  proscription 
of  the  Girondists,  he  was  brought  back  to 
Paris  by  order  of  the  convention,  Nov.  5, 
arraigned  the  next  morning  before  the  great 
revolutionary  tribunal,  found  guilty  on  several 
false  or  frivolous  charges,  and  sentenced  to 
death.  On  hearing  this  verdict,  he  exclaimed : 
"  Since  you  were  determined  on  my  death, 
you  ought  at  least  to  have  put  forth  more 
reasonable  grounds  for  my  condemnation !  " 
and  he  insisted  upon  being  at  once  taken 
to  the  scaffold.  He  thenceforth  evinced  re- 
markable self-possession,  firmness,  and  dignity, 
and  met  his  fate  without  the  slightest  percep- 
tible emotion.  His  virtuous  wife  was  a  pris- 
oner through  the  revolution,  and  on  her  release 
in  1797  received  a  pension  of  100,000  francs 
from  the  government,  went  to  Spain,  and 
thence  to  Palermo.  She  returned  to  France  in 
1814,  and  died  in  1821.  Besides  Louis  Philippe, 
she  had  two  sons :  Antoine  Philippe,  duke  of 
Montpensier  (1775-1807),  who  left  interesting 
personal  Memoires,  contained  in  Baudouin's 
and  Barriere's  collections,  and  Alphonse  Leod- 
gar,  count  of  Beaujolais  (1779-1808) ;  and  one 
daughter,  Louise  Marie  Adelaide  Eugenie  (see 
ADELAIDE).  These  children  were  early  sepa- 
rated from  their  mother  and  confided  to  the 
care  of  Mme.  de  Genlis.  VI.  Ferdinand  Philippe 
Louis  Charles  Henri  Joseph,  the  eldest  son  of  King 
Louis  Philippe  and  grandson  of  the  preceding, 
born  in  Palermo,  Sept.  3, 1810,  died  near  Paris, 
July  13,  1842.  As  duke  of  Chartres,  he  was 
educated  in  the  college  of  Henry  IY.  In  1825 
he  was  appointed  by  Charles  X.  colonel  of  the 
first  regiment  of  hussars.  He  was  in  garri- 
son at  Joigny  at  the  time  of  the  outbreak  of 
July,  1830,  upon  which  he  hastened  to  Paris  at 
the  head  of  his  regiment,  and  by  the  election 
of  his  father  to  the  throne  became  duke  of 
Orleans  and  prince  royal.  He  served  in  Bel- 
gium under  Marshal  Gerard,  led  the  advanced 


guard  of  the  French  army,  and  had  a  share  in 
the  siege  of  Antwerp.  In  1835  he  fought  sev- 
eral battles  with  the  Arabs  in  Algeria,  and  was 
wounded  on  the  banks  of  the  Habrah.  He 
married  Helena  of  Mecklenburg-Schwerin,  May 
30,  1837.  In  1839  he  went  again  to  Africa, 
and  led  one  of  the  divisions  of  the  army  which, 
under  Marshal  Valee,  forced  the  defile  of  Bibans 
or  the  Iron  Gates.  In  1840  he  commanded 
the  expedition  against  the  province  of  Tittery, 
routed  the  tribes  headed  by  Ben  Salem,  forced 
the  pass  of  Mouzaiah,  defended  by  Abd-el-Ka- 
der  himself,  carried  Medeah  and  Milianah,  and 
thus  secured  to  the  French  the  right  bank  of 
the  middle  Shelliff.  In  1841  and  1842  he  bu- 
sied himself  in  France  in  improving  the  organ- 
ization of  the  army.  He  was  on  his  way  to 
Neuilly  to  visit  his  parents  when  his  horses  be- 
came ungovernable,  and  in  jumping  from  his 
carriage  he  fell  on  the  pavement  and  fractured 
his  skull.  He  was  taken  to  a  neighboring  house, 
where  he  expired  after  a  few  hours.  The  duke 
of  Orleans  was  very  popular,  and  his  death^was 
universally  lamented.  VII.  llelrnc  Louise  Elisa- 
beth, wife  of  the  preceding,  and  daughter  of 
Prince  Frederick  Louis  of  Mecklenburg-Schwe- 
rin, born  at  Ludwigslust,  Jan.  24,  1814,  died 
in  Richmond,  England,  May  18, 1858.  On  the 
death  of  her  husband  she  devoted  herself  to 
the  education  of  her  two  sons,  Louis  Philippe 
Albert,  count  de  Paris,  born  Aug.  24, 1838,  and 
Robert  Philippe  Louis  Eugene  Ferdinand,  duke 
de  Chartres,  born  Nov.  9, 1840.  A  few  months 
after  her  husband's  death  Louis  Philippe  caused 
a  bill  of  regency  to  be  presented  to  the  two 
chambers,  by  which  she  was  deprived  of  the 
rights  which  belonged  to  her  according  to  pre- 
vious usages  of  the  French  monarchy.  She 
appeared  with  both  her  sons  in  the  chamber  of 
deputies  on  the  eventful  Feb.  24,  1848,  and 
was  on  the  point  of  being  proclaimed  regent 
when  the  hall  was  invaded  by  the  mob.  She 
was  obliged  to  retreat  to  the  H6tel  des  Inva- 
lides  in  company  with  her  brother-in-law  the 
duke  de  Nemours,  and  finally  with  her  sons 
reached  Belgium  in  safety.  She  accepted  the 
hospitality  extended  by  her  maternal  uncle,  the 
grand  duke  of  "Weimar,  and  settled  at  Eisenach. 
When  the  prospects  of  her  son  for  the  throne 
of  France  were  blasted  by  the  success  of  Na- 
poleon III.,  disappointment  preyed  upon  her 
mind;  her  health  failed,  and  during  a  visit 
to  her  husband's  family  in  England  she  died. 
A  collection  of  her  letters  has  been  published, 
and  a  memoir  of  her  life  translated  by  Mrs. 
Austin  from  the  French  (8vo,  London,  1859). 
— The  decree  of  perpetual  exile  of  the  Orleans 
family,  passed  May  30,  1848,  was  abrogated 
by  the  general  assembly  at  Versailles  in  June, 
1871 ;  and  in  November,  1872,  a  bill  was  passed 
restoring  their  immense  estates,  confiscated  by 
Napoleon  III.,  June  22, 1852.  For  accounts  of 
other  members  of  the  family  see  ATJMALE,  CHAE- 
TEES  (duke  de),  JOINVILLE,  Louis  PHILIPPE, 
MONTPENSIER,  NEMOURS,  and  PARIS  (count  de). 
ORLEANS,  Maid  of.  See  JOAN  OF  ABO. 


702 


ORLOFF 


ORMOND 


ORLOFF,  the  name  of  a  Russian  family  which 
rose  into  consequence  early  in  the  18th  cen- 
tury. I*  Ivan,  the  founder  of  the  family,  was 
one  of  the  corps  of  strelitzes  who  in  1689  were 
induced  by  the  princess  Sophia  to  mutiny 
against  her  brother  the  young  czar  Peter  (the 
Great).  Being  sentenced  to  death,  he  showed 
such  coolness  upon  the  scaffold  that  he  was 
pardoned,  and  obtained  a  commission  in  the 
army.  He  adopted  the  name  of  Orloff.  II. 
Grigori  Grigorievitch,  grandson  of  the  preceding, 
born  in  1734,  died  in  Moscow  in  1783.  He  be- 
came an  aide-de-camp  of  Gen.  Shuvaloff,  with 
whose  mistress,  the  princess  Kurakin,  he  had 
an  intrigue  which  brought  him  under  the  notice 
of  Catharine  II.,  then  grand  duchess,  who  took 
him  under  her  protection.  He  was  instrumen- 
tal in  the  deposition  of  her  husband,  Peter 
III.,  and  in  establishing  her  upon  the  throne 
(1762);  a  service  which  gained  him  the  first 
honors  of  the  empire,  including  the  title  of 
count,  conferred  also  upon  his  four  brothers, 
who  had  assisted  him.  He  vainly  aspired  to  the 
hand  of  the  empress.  His  fickleness  and  indis- 
cretion alienated  her  affections,  and  to  rid  her- 
self of  a  discarded  lover  she  charged  him  in 
1771  with  measures  for  arresting  the  plague  in 
Moscow.  His  courage  and  devotion  in  the 
performance  of  this  duty  reinstated  him  tem- 
porarily in  the  good  graces  of  Catharine ;  but 
during  his  absence  in  Wallachia  to  negotiate  a 
peace  with  the  Turks,  he  was  supplanted  by 
another  favorite,  and  on  his  return  to  St. 
Petersburg  the  empress  exiled  him  to  the  cas- 
tle of  Tzarskoye  Selo.  After  wandering  over 
Europe  he  became  insane,  and  died  in  that  con- 
dition. He  left  a  son  by  the  empress,  called 
Count  Bobrinski.  III.  Alexei,  brother  of  the 
preceding,  born  in  1737,  died  in  Moscow  in 
1808.  He  entered  the  army,  and  attracted  the 
favorable  notice  of  Catharine  II.  by  the  daring 
part  he  played  in  the  deposition  of  Peter  III. 
He  is  said  to  have  strangled  Peter  in  prison 
with  his  own  hands.  In  1768  he  was  appoint- 
ed admiral  of  the  fleet  in  the  Grecian  archipel- 
ago, and  by  the  assistance  of  a  British  officer 
named  Elphinston  he  gained  brilliant  successes 
over  the  enemy  off  Scio  and  Tchesme  (July 
5-7,  1770),  for  which  he  received  many  marks 
of  honor,  including  the  surname  of  Tchesmen- 
skoi.  He  was  exiled  from  court  by  Paul,  and 
passed  the  remainder  of  his  life  in  travelling 
or  on  his  estates.  IV.  Fedor,  brother  of  the 
preceding,  born  in  1741,  died  in  Moscow  in 
1796.  He  served  in  the  army  against  the  Turks, 
and  became  general-in-chief.  He  left  four 
illegitimate  sons,  by  whom  the  male  line  of 
the  Orloffs  has  been  continued.  V.  Alexei,  son 
of  the  preceding,  born  in  1787,  died  in  St. 
Petersburg,  May  21,  1861.  He  entered  the 
army  at  an  early  age,  and,  after  participating 
in  the  campaigns  ending  with  the  peace  of 
Paris  in  1814,  became  aide-de-camp  to  Alex- 
ander I.,  and  colonel  of  a  regiment  of  horse 
guards.  During  the  formidable  insurrection 
in  St.  Petersburg  which  followed  the  accession 


of  Nicholas  (1825),  the  energy  of  his  move- 
ments and  the  loyalty  of  his  troops  contributed 
much  to  crush  the  rebels.  He  was  made  a 
count,  appointed  adjutant  general,  and  in  1828 
fought  against  the  Turks.  In  1829  he  nego- 
tiated the  peace  of  Adrianople,  and  during  the 
Polish  insurrection  of  1830-'31  he  was  com- 
missioned to  supervise  the  operations  of  the 
Russian  generals  in  Poland.  The  sudden  deaths 
of  Marshal  Diebitsch  and  the  grand  duke  Con- 
stantine  gave  rise  to  an  accusation  (probably 
unjust)  of  poisoning  against  Orloff.  His  next 
important  service  was  the  negotiation  of  the 
secret  treaty  of  Unkiar-Skelessi,  July  8,  1833, 
for  the  closing  of  the  Bosporus  and  Dardanelles 
against  all  but  Russian  ships  of  war.  In  1844 
he  took  charge  of  the  secret  police  of  Russia, 
and  became  one  of  the  most  formidable  per- 
sonages in  the  empire.  After  the  death  of 
Nicholas  he  exercised  an  equal  influence  in  the 
councils  of  Alexander  II.  In  1856  he  repre- 
sented Russia  at  the  congress  of  Paris  as  first 
plenipotentiary,  after  which  he  was  appointed 
president  of  the  grand  council  of  the  empire, 
and  was  made  a  prince.  VI.  Nikolai,  prince,  a 
Russian  diplomatist,  son  of  the  preceding,  born 
in  1827.  He  distinguished  himself  as  a  soldier 
in  the  Crimea,  losing  an  eye.  In  1859  he  be- 
came minister  at  Brussels,  and  afterward  lieu- 
tenant general  and  aide-cle-camp  of  the  em- 
peror. In  1872  he  was  appointed  ambassador 
in  Paris ;  and  in  January,  1875,  President  Mac- 
Mahon  gave  him  the  grand  cross  of  the  legion 
of  honor.  He  has  written  a  work  on  the  cam- 
paign in  Prussia  in  1806  (St.  Petersburg,  1856). 

ORME,  Robert,  an  English  author,  born  in 
Travancore,  India,  in  1728,  died  at  Ealing, 
England,  Jan.  13,  1801.  He  was  educated  at 
Harrow,  and  in  1742  went  to  Calcutta  and 
engaged  in  business.  In  l757-'8  he  was  com- 
missary and  accountant  general  in  the  East 
India  company's  civil  service.  In  1760  he 
settled  in  London,  and  was  appointed  his- 
toriographer of  the  East  India  company.  He 
wrote  "  History  of  the  Military  Transactions 
of  the  British  Nation  in  Indostan  from  the 
Year  1745  "  (2  vols.,  1763-'78),  extending  to 
the  peace  of  1763;  "Historical  Fragments  of 
the  Mogul  Empire  from  the  Year  1659"  (8vo, 
1782);  and  "A  General  Idea  of  the  Govern- 
ment and  People  of  Indostan"  and  "Origin 
of  the  English  Establishments  at  Broach  and 
Surat,"  published  posthumously,  together  with 
the  "Historical  Fragments"  and  a  life  of  the 
author  (4to,  1805). 

ORMOND,  James  Butler,  duke  of,  lord  lieu- 
tenant of  Ireland,  born  in  London  in  1610, 
died  at  Kingston  hall  in  Dorsetshire,  July  21, 
1688.  He  was  educated  by  Archbishop  Abbot 
as  a  ward  of  King  James,  and  in  1632  suc- 
ceeded his  grandfather  as  earl  of  Ormond. 
When  the  Irish  rebellion  broke  out  in  1640  he 
was  chosen  commander  of  the  royal  troops, 
and  repeatedly  repulsed  the  rebels.  Being 
ill  supported,  he  was  forced  to  make  terms  of 
peace  which  created  much  dissatisfaction  in 


OKMSBY 

England;    yet  he  was  created  marquis  and 
made  lord  lieutenant  of  Ireland  in  1644.     After 
the  success  of  the  parliamentary  party,  he  re- 
signed his  office  and  retired  to  France.     Re- 
turning to  Ireland,  he  attempted  to  restore  the 
royal  power,  caused  Charles  II.  to  be  pro- 
claimed, and  made  an 
unsuccessful   effort   to 
capture  Dublin.     After 
the  restoration  he  was 
raised  to  a  dukedom. 
He  was  again  appointed 
lord  lieutenant  of  Ire- 
land in  1662,  and  held 
the  office  seven  years. 
In  1670,  while  riding  in 
his  carriage  in  London, 
he  came  near  being  as- 
sassinated by  the  noto- 
rious  Col.   Blood   and 
five  accomplices.     (See 
BLOOD,   THOMAS.)     He 
was  again  lord  lieuten- 
ant of  Ireland  from  1676 
to  1685.  He  survived  his 
son,  "  the  gallant "  earl 
of  Ossory,  eight  years. 
Ormond's  life  and  the 
history  of  his  Irish  ad- 
ministration was  written  by  Thomas  Carte  (3 
vols.  fol.,  London,  l735-'6 ;  new  ed.,  6  vols. 
8vo,  Oxford,  1851). 

ORNSBY,  a  W.  county  of  Nevada,  separated 
from  California  on  the  west  by  Lake  Tahoe ; 
area,  172  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  3,668,  of  whom 
769  were  Chinese.  It  embraces  a  portion  of 
the  valley  of  Carson  river,  locally  known  as 
Eagle  valley,  containing  many  fine  farms  and 
gardens.  In  the  E.  part  is  the  Nut  Pine 
range,  once  covered  with  valuable  wood ;  the 
W.  part  is  crossed  by  one  of  the  ridges  of  the 
Sierra  Nevada,  which  is  covered  with  pine. 
Silver,  copper,  and  iron  are  found,  but  the 
mines  have  been  little  developed.  Limestone 
and  freestone  are  quarried.  The  chief  produc- 
tions in  1870  were  3,705  bushels  of  wheat, 
1,245  of  Indian  corn,  2,270  of  oats,  9,320  of 
barley,  22,947  of  potatoes,  and  901  tons  of 
hay.  The  value  of  live  stock  was  $77,968. 
There  were  2  planing  mills,  4  saw  mills,  6 
quartz  mills,  a  brewery,  and  a  soap  and  candle 
factory.  Capital,  Carson  City,  which  is  also 
the  capital  of  the  state. 

ORMUZ,  or  Hoi-muz,  an  island  of  Persia,  on 
the  N.  side  of  the  strait  of  the  same  name, 
leading  from  the  Arabian  sea  to  the  Persian 
gulf,  about  5  m.  from  the  coast;  lat.  27°  5' 
K,  Ion.  56°  29'  E. ;  area,  about  15  sq.  m. ; 
pop.  about  300.  It  is  nearly  circular,  and  the 
surface  is  almost  equally  divided  between  hill 
and  plain.  The  S.  and  S.  W.  sides  present  a 
mass  of  hills  from  300  to  400  ft.  high,  of  re- 
markable geological  character,  consisting  chiefly 
of  rock  salt  worn  into  fantastic  outlines  and 
honeycombed  by  the  rains,  incrusted  with 
bright-colored  earths,  and  destitute  of  vegeta- 
622  VOL.  xii. — 45 


OEMUZ 


703 


tion.  On  the  N.  and  E.  sides  of  the  island 
the  shores  form  a  low  plain,  which  projects 
on  the  north  in  a  sharp  point.  On  the  end 
of  this  are  the  remains  of  the  once  important 
Portuguese  fortress,  a  quadrilateral  bastioned 
fort,  750  ft.  long  by  620  ft.  broad,  separated 


Old  Portuguese  Fort,  Ormuz. 

from  the  mainland  by  a  moat  now  filled  with 
sand.  S.  of  it  are  the  ruins  of  the  Arab  city 
of  Ormuz,  consisting  chiefly  of  mounds  strewn 
with  pottery,  many  water  cisterns,  and  a  mina- 
ret 70  ft.  high.  On  the  S.  E.  end  of  the  island 
are  the  remains  of  one  of  the  palaces  of  the 
old  kings.  The  village  near  the  site  of  the 
city  is  only  a  collection  of  mat  huts,  whose 
inhabitants  export  salt,  salt  fish,  and  a  kind 
of  red  earth  used  in  Calcutta  for  staining  and 
seasoning  wood.  A  few  soldiers  hold  the  fort 
as  a  military  post  for  the  governor  of  Bunder 
Abbas.  (See  OMAN.) — Ormuz  is  probably  the 
Ogyris  of  Strabo  and  the  Organa  of  Arrian 
and  Ptolemy.  At  a  later  period  it  was  called 
Jerun.  In  the  beginning  of  the  14th  century 
Ayaz,  king  of  old  Ormuz,  a  town  on  the  main- 
land which  was  known  to  the  ancients  as  Har- 
mozia,  suffering  from  the  incursions  of  the 
Tartars,  removed  to  the  island  and  built  there 
a  new  Ormuz,  which  eventually  became  the 
capital  of  a  kingdom  comprising  a  consider- 
able part  of  Arabia  and  of  Persia.  In  the  15th 
century  it  had  acquired  great  prosperity,  and 
was  the  entrepot  of  the  commerce  between 
India  and  Persia  and  of  the  trade  of  Samar- 
cand  and  Bokhara.  At  the  beginning  of  the 
16th  century  its  reputed  wealth  and  splendor 
attracted  the  cupidity  of  the  Portuguese,  and  in 
1507  Albuquerque  sailed  against  it,  but  found 
the  city  defended  by  30,000  men.  In  1515  he 
returned  with  27  ships,  reduced  it,  and  built 
the  fortress.  In  1543  the  island  paid  to  Portu- 
gal an  annual  tribute  of  100,000  ducats.  Its 
commerce  soon  began  to  decline,  the  Portu- 
guese allowing  no  ships  to  navigate  those  wa- 
ters except  under  oppressive  conditions;  but 


704: 


ORMUZD 


ORNITHOLOGY 


it  retained  sufficient  importance  in  the  begin- 
ning of  the  17th  century  to  arouse  the  jeal- 
ousy of  Shah  Abbas  of  Persia,  who,  aided  by 
the  ships  of  the  English  East  India  company, 
captured  the  fortress  in  April,  1622,  although 
it  was  defended  by  300  guns  and  2,500  men. 
The  city  was  destroyed  by  the  shah,  who 
wished  to  transfer  its  trade  to  his  new  port 
Bunder  Abbas,  and  a  great  part  of  its  build- 
ing material  was  transported  thither.  At  a 
later  period  the  sultan  of  Oman  took  posses- 
sion of  it.  In  1854  the  Omanite  officials  were 
expelled  by  the  shah,  but  in  1856  they  were 
allowed  by  treaty  to  occupy  it  for  20  years  on 
payment  of  an  annual  tribute. 

ORMUZD,  or  Ahnra  Mazda,  the  supreme  deity 
of  the  ancient  Persians.  He  is  the  god  of  the 
firmament,  the  representative  of  goodness  and 
truth,  and  the  creator  of  the  universe  and  of 
the  beneficent  spirits  who  have  charge  of  the 
well  being  of  man  and  all  created  things.  Ac- 
cording to  Zoroaster,  an  incomprehensible  be- 
ing named  Zeruane  Akerene  (or  Zrvan  Akara- 
na,  time  without  bounds),  existed  from  all  eter- 
nity; from  him  emanated  primeval  light,  and 
from  the  latter  sprang  Ormuzd  and  Ahriman. 
Ahriman  became  jealous  of  his  elder  brother, 
and  was  condemned  by  the  eternal  one  to  pass 
3,000  years  in  a  region  of  utter  darkness.  On 
his  release  he  created  a  number  of  bad  spirits 
to  oppose  the  spirits  created  by  Ormuzd ;  and 
when  the  latter  made  an  egg  containing  good 
genii,  Ahriman  produced  another  full  of  evil 
demons,  and  broke  the  two  together,  so  that 
good  and  evil  became  mixed  in  the  new  crea- 
tion. The  two  great  opposing  principles  are 
called  the  king  of  light  and  the  prince  of  dark- 
ness. Ormuzd  is  described  as  "sitting  on  the 
throne  of  the  good  and  the  perfect  in  regions 
of  pure  light,"  or  as  a  venerable  man  seated  on 
a  bull,  the  emblem  of  creation.  A  later  doc- 
trine, still  professed  by  the  Guebres  and  Par- 
sees,  reduces  Ormuzd  from  a  great  creator  to 
a  mere  demiurge,  or  organizer  of  a  universe 
previously  created.  (See  ZEND-AVESTA.) 

OR\E,  a  N.  W.  department  of  France,  in 
Normandy,  bordering  on  Calvados,  Eure,  Eure- 
et-Loir,  Sarthe,  Mayenne,  and  La  Manche ;  area, 
2,354  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1872,  398,250.  The  chief 
rivers  are  the  Orne,  Eure,  Sarthe,  and  Mayenne ; 
there  are  many  ponds  and  marshes.  The  soil  is 
generally  sandy.  Iron,  plumbago,  and  granite 
are  produced.  Hemp,  fruit,  cattle,  and  poul- 
try are  raised,  and  needles,  linens,  cottons,  and 
lace  are  manufactured.  It  is  divided  into  the 
arrondissements  of  Alencon,  Argentan,  Dom- 
front,  and  Mortagne.  Capital,  Alencon. 

ORNITHICHXITES.     See  FOSSIL  FOOTPRINTS. 

ORNITHOLOGY  (Gr.  bpvig,  bird,  and  Uyog,  dis- 
course), the  department  of  zoology  which  treats 
of  the  structure,  habits,  and  classification  of 
birds,  the  second  class  of  vertebrated  animals. 
For  their  structure  see  BIRDS.  Until  after 
1825  most  ornithologists  classified  birds  accord- 
ing to  the  characters  of  the  bill  and  feet ;  since 
then  several  authors,  especially  Oken,  Nitzsch, 


Sundevall,  Miiller,  Cabanis,  Bonaparte,  and 
Burmeister,  have  drawn  attention  to  the  care 
they  take  of  their  young,  the  song  and  the 
vocal  muscles,  the  number  and  length  of  the 
quills,  the  scales  and  feathers  on  the  legs,  the 
number  of  tail  feathers,  the  position  of  the 
hind  toe,  and  the  absence,  presence,  and  extent 
of  the  webs,  as  data  for  a  natural  classification. 
— Aristotle,  in  the  third  chapter  of  his  eighth 
book  on  animals,  mentions  the  modes  in  which 
birds  subsist,  that  some  are  carnivorous,  oth- 
ers granivorous,  and  others  omnivorous ;  that 
some  are  terrestrial  and  others  aquatic,  and 
many  migratory  during  winter  ;  he  enumerates 
the  names  of  the  species  then  known,  with- 
out descriptions  except  for  the  eagles. — Belon, 
the  reviver  of  natural  history,  in  his  Histoire 
naturelle  des  oiseaux  (fol.,  Paris,  1555),  classed 
birds  by  their  habits  and  the  places  where  they 
are  found,  making  the  four  divisions  of  birds  of 
prey,  waders,  swimmers,  and  birds  which  nes- 
tle in  trees  or  on  the  ground;  his  work  is  illus- 
trated with  numerous  woodcuts.  Aldrovandus, 
in  his  Omithologia  (Bologna,  1599-1606),  fol- 
lows Belon  in  classifying  birds  according  to 
their  places  of  habitation  and  the  nature  of 
their  food,  but  adds  a  great  number  of  new  de- 
scriptions. The  work  of  Willughby,  Ornitho- 
logies libri  tres  (London,  1676),  was  the  first 
systematic  attempt  at  classifying  birds ;  in  this 
the  land  birds  are  divided  into  two  groups, 
one  having  curved  beak  and  talons,  the  other 
with  the  bill  and  claws  more  nearly  straight ; 
the  water  birds  are  also  subdivided  into  waders 
and  swimmers.  Ray,  in  the  Synopsis  Me- 
thodica  Avium  (8vo),  published  in  1713  after 
his  death,  made  some  improvements  upon 
Willughby's  system ;  and  these  two  furnished 
the  basis  of  the  classification  adopted  by  Lin- 
naBus. — In  the  12th  edition  of  the  Sy sterna  Na- 
turce  (1766),  Linna3us  divided  the  class  into  six 
orders :  I.  Accipitres  or  birds  of  prey,  with 
the  bill  bent,  and  the  upper  mandible  dilated 
on  each  side  or  armed  with  a  tooth ;  legs  short 
and  robust,  toes  warty,  and  claws  curved  and 
sharp.  II.  Piece,  with  bill  convex  or  rounded 
above  and  edged  on  the  lower  part ;  legs  short 
and  robust,  but  with  smooth  toes.  III.  An- 
seres  (swimmers),  with  bill  smooth,  covered 
with  an  epidermis,  and  thickened  at  its  point ; 
feet  with  palmated  toes.  IV.  Grallce,  with 
bill  almost  cylindrical,  thighs  half  naked,  and 
legs  formed  for  wading.  V.  Galling  with 
bill  convex,  and  the  upper  mandible  arched 
over  the  under  ;  feet  formed  for  walking,  and 
the  toes  rough  below.  VI.  Passeres,  with  bill 
conical  and  pointed,  legs  formed  for  hopping, 
and  toes  slender  and  divided.  In  ornitholo- 
gy Linnaeus  deserves  the  same  credit  as  in  the 
other  departments  of  zoology,  for  his  excel- 
lent determination  of  genera  and  his  admirable 
system  of  binomial  nomenclature. — Brisson,  in 
his  Omithologia  (4to,  Paris,  1760),  describes 
about  1,300  species  of  birds,  arranged  in  26 
orders  and  115  genera,  whose  characters  are 
drawn  from  the  toes  and  their  membranes,  the 


ORNITHOLOGY 


705 


bill,  and  feathers  of  the  legs ;  the  descriptions 
are  minute  and  accurate,  and  illustrated  by  nu- 
merous copperplate  engravings. — Latham,  in 
his  "  General  Synopsis  of  Birds  "  and  "  Sup- 
plements" (1781-1801),  in  his  Index  Ornitho- 
logicus  (1790),  and  in  his  "History"  (10  vols. 
4to,  Winchester,  1821-'4),  was  the  next  writer 
of  importance  on  general  ornithology.  In  the 
last  work  he  divides  land  birds  into  orders  :  I., 
rapacious  or  accipitrine,  with  4  genera  and  363 
species ;  II.,  pies  (like  the  shrikes,  crows,  par- 
rots, cuckoos,  woodpeckers,  and  kingfishers), 
with  32  genera  and  1,320  species ;  III.,  passe- 
rine (finches,  swallows,  thrushes,  and  flycatch- 
ers), with  17  genera  and  1,444  species;  IV., 
columbine  or  pigeons,  with  a  single  genus  and 
136  species;  V.,  gallinaceous  (turkeys,  pheas- 
ants, grouse,  bustards),  with  12  genera  and  210 
species;  VI.,  struthious  (dodo,  emu,  and  os- 
trich), with  4  genera  and  8  species.  He  divides 
the  water  birds  into  orders  :  VII.,  waders,  with 
cloven  feet  (herons,  snipe,  sandpiper),  with  20 
genera  and  455  species ;  VIII.,  with  pennated 
feet  (coots  and  grebes),  with  4  genera  and  29 
species ;  and  IX.,  web-footed  (flamingo,  alba- 
tross, gull,  duck,  penguin),  with  17  genera  and 
359  species.  He  thus  makes  in  all  111  genera 
and  4,324  species,  of  which  many  are  ill  de- 
termined and  improperly  made. — Lacepede  in 
1799  (Histoire  naturelle}  divided  birds  into  two 
subclasses.  Subclass  I.  (having  the  legs  feath- 
ered, and  no  toes  completely  united  by  wide 
membranes)  contains  divisions:  1,  with  two 
toes  in  front  and  two  behind,  large  and  strong, 
the  climbers  (grimpeurs),  with  6  orders  and  12 
genera ;  and  2,  having  three  toes  in  front  and 
one  or  none  behind,  with  the  1st  subdivision 
of  birds  of  prey,  with  strong  and  curved  claws, 
embracing  a  single  order  and  10  genera;  2d 
subdivision,  having  the  external  toes  free  or 
united  only  along  the  1st  phalanx  (passer eaux), 
with  8  orders  and  36  genera;  3d  subdivision, 
having  the  external  toes  united  for  almost  the 
whole  length  (platypodes),  like  the  hornbill, 
kingfisher,  and  bee-eater,  with  5  orders  and 
7  genera ;  4th  subdivision,  having  the  anterior 
toes  united  at  the  base  by  membrane  (galli- 
naces),  with  a  single  order  and  12  genera.  Sub- 
class II.  (the  legs  without  feathers,  or  with 
many  toes  united  by  a  wide  membrane)  con- 
tains division  1,  with  three  toes  in  front  and 
one  or  none  behind,  with  1st  subdivision,  hav- 
ing the  anterior  toes  united  by  membrane  (wa- 
ter birds,  ducks,  &c.),  embracing  6  orders  and 
17  genera;  2d  subdivision,  with  all  four  toes 
united  by  a  wide  membrane  (oiseaux  d'eau  la- 
tir&mes},  like  the  cormorant  and  pelican,  having 
3  orders  and  6  genera;  and  3d  subdivision, 
having  the  toes  united  at  base  by  membrane 
(shore  birds),  with  7  orders  and  26  genera; 
and  division  2,  with  two,  three,  or  four  very 
strong  toes,  not  united  at  base  by  membrane 
(cursores),  like  ostrich  and  dodo,  with  2  orders 
and  4  genera :  in  all,  39  orders  and  130  genera. 
Meyer  and  Wolff  (Almanack  des  oiseaux  de  VAl- 
lemagne),  in  1810,  made  the  11  orders  of  ra- 


paces,  coraces,  pici,  alcyones,  oscines,  chelidones, 
columbce,  gallina,  cursores,  grallce,  and  nata- 
tores  ;  this  seems  to  be  the  first  work  in  which 
the  terms  oscines,  alcyones,  and  chelidones  are 
applied  to  the  orders  of  birds.  Illiger  (Pro- 
dromus  Systematic  Mammalium  et  Amum, 
1811)  gives  the  7  orders  scansores,  ambulatores 
(including  the  2d,  4th,  5th,  and  6th  orders 
of  Meyer),  raptatores,  rasores  (including  gal- 
linaceous birds  and  pigeons),  cursores  (os- 
trich, bustard,  plover),  grallatores,  and  na- 
tatores,  with  41  families  and  147  genera.— 
Cuvier  (Begne  animal,  1817)  preserved  the  6 
orders  of  Linnaeus,  founded  on  the  characters 
of  the  beak  and  feet,  except  that  he  substituted 
the  previously  used  term  of  scansores  for  those 
of  the  pices  which  have  two  toes  before  and 
two  behind,  placing  the  remainder  among  the 
passeres.  His  orders  are :  I.,  accipitres,  divi- 
ded into  diurnal  (hawks,  &c.)  and  nocturnal 
(owls)  ;  II.,  passeres,  divided  into  tribes  denti- 
rostres  (like  shrikes),  fissirostres  (swallows  and 
goatsuckers),  conirostres  (crows,  buntings,  and 
starlings),  tenuirostres  (humming  birds),  and 
syndactyli  (kingfishers) ;  III.,  scansores  or  climb- 
ers (woodpeckers  and  parrots) ;  IV.,  gallince, 
or  birds  resembling  the  domestic  cock ;  V.,  gral- 
lce or  waders,  divided  into  brempennes  (ostrich), 
pressirostres  (bustards),  cultirostres  (cranes), 
longirostres  (ibis,  curlew,  snipe),  and  macro- 
dactyli  (rail,  jacana)  ;  VI.,  palmipedes,  divided 
into  brachypteri  (penguins  and  grebes),  longi- 
pennes  (terns  and  petrels),  totipalmes  (peli- 
cans), and  lamellirostres  (ducks). — Vieillot  in 
1817,  and  in  the  article  Ornithologie  of  the 
Nouveau  dictionnaire  d'Jiistoire  naturelle,  made 
5  orders  :  I.,  accipitres,  diurnal  and  nocturnal, 
with  4  families ;  II.,  sylmcolcs,  with  2  tribes, 
zygodactyli  and  anisodactyli,  equivalent  to  the 
climbing  and  passerine  birds  of  other  authors, 
with  30  families;  III.,  gallince,  with  families 
nudipedes  and  plumipedes ;  IV.,  grallatores, 
with  the  tribes  di-tridactyli  and  tetradactyli, 
with  15  families ;  and  V.,  natatores,  with  the 
tribes  teleopodes,  ateleopodes,  and  ptilopteri, 
with  7  families. — Temminck  (Manuel  tforni- 
thologie,  2d  ed.,  Paris,  1820-'40)  modified  the 
systems  of  Meyer,  Illiger,'  and  Latham,  and 
made  16  orders,  comprising  202  genera.  His 
orders  are :  I.,  rapaces  or  birds  of  prey ;  II., 
omnivores  (crows,  rollers,  starlings) ;  III.,  in- 
sectivores  (thrushes,  shrikes,  flycatchers,  war- 
blers) ;  IV.,  granivores  (larks,  bunting,  finches) ; 
V.,  zygodactyli  (cuckoos,  toucans,  parrots, 
woodpeckers)  ;  VI.,  anisodactyli  (creepers  and 
hummingbirds)  ;  VII. ;  alcyones  (bee-eaters  and 
kingfishers);  VIII.,  chelidones  (swallows  and 
goatsuckers) ;  IX.,  columbce  or  pigeons ;  X., 
galling;  XL,  alectorides  (agami);  XII.,  cur- 
sores (ostrich  and  bustard) ;  XIII.,  grallatores 
or  waders;  XIV.,  pinnatipedes  (coots  and 
grebes);  XV.,  palmipedes,  swimmers;  XVL, 
inertes  (apteryx  and  dodo).  This  is  followed 
by  Naumann  in  his  Vogel  Deutschlands  (13 
vols.  8vo,  Leipsic,  1822-'52),  and  is  adopted  in 
Stark's  "Elements  of  Natural  History"  (Ed- 


706 


ORNITHOLOGY 


inburgh,  1828).— De  Blainville  (1822)  called 
birds  pennifera,  and  made  the  9  orders  of  pre- 
hensores  (parrots),  raptatores,  scansores,  salta- 
tores  (passeres),  sponsores  (pigeons),  gradatores 
(gallince),  cursores,  grallatores,  and  natatores. 
Besides  this  system,  founded  on  the  charac- 
ters of  the  legs  and  feet,  he  proposed  another, 
developed  by  L'Herminier  in  1827,  based  on 
the  anatomical  peculiarities  of  the  sternum  or 
breast  bone.  (See  Annales  de  la  societe  lin- 
neenne  de  Paris,  vol.  vi.)  He  makes  two  sub- 
classes :  I.,  normal  birds,  in  which  the  sternum 
is  provided  with  a  crest,  and  with  the  three  bones 
in  the  shoulder  distinct  and  simply  in  contact, 
including  34  families  of  ordinary  birds,  from 
the  hawks  to  the  penguins ;  II.,  abnormal  birds, 
in  which  the  sternum  is  formed  of  two  pieces, 
originally  separated,  united  on  the  median  line 
into  a  single  plate,  of  various  forms,  but  always 
without  bony  crest  or  keel ;  the  shoulder  bones, 
distinct  in  the  young,  are  consolidated  in  the 
adult ;  this  includes  the  single  family  of  cur  so- 
res (ostriches).  Lesson  (Manuel  d'ornithologie, 
Paris,  1828),  though  in  his  text  he  adopts  the 
system  of  Cuvier,  gives  another  in  his  intro- 
duction, as  follows :  Section  I.,  terrestrial  birds, 
with  the  orders  :  1,  insessores;  2,  passerini;  3, 
rapaces  ;  4,  rasores  ;  and  5,  heterosoma  (ostrich- 
es). Section  II.,  aquatic  birds,  with  the  orders : 
6,  grallatores  ;  7,  pinnatipedes  ;  8,  natatores  ; 
and  9,  paradoxaux  (including  the  genus  ornitho- 
rhynchus,  now  universally  recognized  as  a  mam- 
mal). Gray  ("  Genera  of  Birds,"  3  vols.  4to, 
London,  1837-'49)  makes  the  system  of  Cuvier 
the  basis  of  his  classification,  but  separates  the 
columbce  as  an  order  from  the  gallince,  and  the 
strutliiones  from  the  grallce,  forming  8  orders 
with  49  families. — The  famous  quinary  system 
of  classification  was  for  many  years  in  vogue 
in  England,  and  exerted  considerable  influence 
upon  ornithology  by  calling  attention  to  many 
affinities  and  analogies  previously  overlooked. 
Macleay,  its  founder  (fforce  Entomologies,  Lon- 
don, 1819-'21),  assumes  that  all  animals  of  a 
group  must  be  analogous  to  those  of  every  oth- 
er group,  besides  forming  a  circle  in  themselves ; 
and  he  therefore  arrays  them  in  circles  and 
groups  so  as  to  bring  out  external  analogies, 
without  much  regard  to  structural  affinity. 
Vigors  ("  Transactions  of  the  Linnmn  Society 
of  London,"  vol.  xiv.,  1825),  following  out  his 
quincuncial  and  circular  arrangement  of  affini- 
ties, adopts  the  five  orders  of  raptor 'es,  inses- 
rasores, grallatores,  and  natatores,  char- 


acterized respectively  by  their  feet  adapted 
for  tearing,  perching,  scratching,  wading,  and 
swimming.  These  five  groups,  which  he  ar- 
ranges as  circles,  are  connected  as  follows  :  the 
raptores  to  the  insessores  by  the  owls  of  the 
former  and  the  goatsuckers  of  the  latter,  the 
immediate  passage  being  made  by  the  Austra- 
lian genus  podargus  (Guv.) ;  the  pigeons  are 
intermediate  between  the  perching  and  galli- 
naceous birds,  but  belong  essentially  to  the  lat- 
ter, and  these  orders  come  nearest  together  at 
the  insessorial  plantain-eaters  and  the  rasorial 
curassows;  the  passage  from  the  gallinaceous 
birds  to  the  waders  seems  to  be  between  the 
bustards  of  the  former  and  the  genera  cedicne- 
mus  (Cuv.)  and  psopkia  (Linn.)  of  the  latter ; 
the  passage  from  the  waders  to  the  swimmers 
is  by  the  coot  (fulica,  Linn.)  of  the  former  and 
the  Australian  goose  (cereopsis,  Lath.)  of  the 
latter ;  the  swimmers  are  brought  back  to  the 
raptores  by  the  frigate  bird  (tachypetes,  Vieill.) 
of  the  former,  and  probably  some  of  the  gypo- 
geranidce  of  the  latter.  The  affinities  are  thus 
represented  (op.  cit.,  p.  509)  : 


NJOATORES.     GRALLATORES. 


Each  of  these  five  tribes  in  each  of  the  five 
orders  is  capable  of  being  subdivided  into  five 
families,  which  may  be  arranged  in  circles  sim- 
ilarly connected.  Swainson  (Lardner's  u  Cabi- 
net Cyclopaedia,"  vol.  xiii.,  1837)  adopts  the 
same  five  orders  and  the  general  quinary  ar- 
rangement, and  expresses  the  analogies  exist- 
ing between  birds  and  mammals  in  the  follow- 
ing tabular  form : 


1.  Typical. 
2.  Subtypical. 
8.  Aquatic. 
4.  Suctorial. 
5.  Kasorial. 

Insessores. 
Raptores. 
Natatores. 
Cfrallatores. 
Kasores. 

Prehensile. 
Carnivorous  ;  retractile  claws. 
Feeding  and  living  in  the  water. 
Jaws  much  prolonged. 
Domestic  ;  feet  for  walking. 

Quadrumana. 
FeroK. 
Cetacea. 
GHres. 
Ungulata. 

He  connects  the  1st  and  2d,  3d  and  4th,  and 
4th  and  5th  orders  by  the  same  tribes  as  does 
Vigors ;  but  he  is  inclined  to  connect  the  2d 
with  the  3d  by  the  dididce  (dodo),  which  he 
places  erroneously  near  the  vultures,  instead  of 
the  gypogeranidce,  which  he  considers  either 


the  grallatorial  or  possibly  the  rasorial  type  of 
the  raptores  ;  he  connects  the  5th  with  the  1st 
by  the  megapodidce  instead  of  the  curassows. 
According  to  the  principle  of  these  systems, 
birds  are  connected  on  the  one  hand  with  rep- 
tiles through  the  pterodactyl,  and  on  the  oth- 


ORNITHOLOGY 


707 


er  with  mammals  through  the  ornithorhynchus 
and  the  ostrich.  Though  these  affinities  can- 
not be  made  the  basis  of  a  natural  classifi- 
cation, they  are  interesting,  ingenious,  and  to 
some  extent  philosophical. — Oken,  in  various 
works  from  1809  to  1843,  published  his  system 
of  classification,  in  which  birds  are  called  ear 
animals,  in  the  division  according  to  the  senses, 
because  in  them  for  the  first  time  the  external 
auditory  meatus  as  well  as  the  cochlea  is  ex- 
hibited in  perfection ;  birds  are  also  nerve  ani- 
mals, in  the  anatomical  division,  as  they  have 
a  complete  nervous  system  with  cerebrum  and 
cerebellum.  They  belong  to  his  2d  province, 
of  sarcozoa,  4th  circle  or  flesh  animals,  and 
12th  class  or  otozoa  or  neurozoa.  They  are  the 
first  encephalic  animals,  as  the  brain  defines 
the  head,  which  is  here  for  the  first  time  freed 
from  the  trunk  and  placed  upon  a  long  neck 
far  removed  from  the  thorax,  hence  also  called 
cervical  animals ;  the  caudal  vertebrae,  on  the 
contrary,  are  fewer  than  in  other  classes.  Birds 
are  capable  of  instruction,  affection,  imitation, 
gratitude,  and  other  mental  manifestations  not 
seen  in  reptiles  and  fishes.  They  are  the  closest 
repetition  of  insects,  the  thorax  predominating 
over  the  rest  of  the  body,  with  large  respirato- 
ry muscles ;  their  lungs  are  a  cluster  of  insect 
tracheae,  full  of  foramina  through  which  air 
penetrates  all  over  the  body,  as  in  insects ;  the 
intestine  lies  in  the  air,  and  the  bird  to  a  cer- 
tain extent  breathes  from  it;  the  whole  bird 
is  lung,  and  its  body  a  thoracic  cavity,  as  the 
latter  is  a  sexual  cavity  in  the  fish  and  an 
abdominal  cavity  in  the  reptile;  the  food  is 
crushed  in  a  muscular  stomach,  as  in  insects ; 
a  bird  is  an  insect  with  fleshy  limbs,  and  a 
feather  is  an  insect's  wing.  With  the  bird,  for 
the  first  time,  the  voice  proper  breaks  forth ; 
"the  bird  speaketh  the  language  of  nature." 
In  Oken's  "  Physiophilosophy  "  (Ray  society 
edition,  London,  1847)  are  given  two  great  di- 
visions of  birds,  according  as  the  young  require 
to  be  fed  by  the  parents  or  not,  the  former  be- 
ing the  lowest ;  this  principle  of  division,  first 
published  in  1821,  has  retained  its  place  in  or- 
nithological science,  and  lies  at  the  base  of  the 
systems  now  generally  followed  in  Europe  and 
in  this  country. — Carus  (1828),  in  his  Grund- 
riss  der  vergleicTienden  Anatomie,  ranks  birds 
in  his  6th  class  or  cephalo-thoracozoa,  charac- 
terized by  great  development  of  the  respirato- 
ry organs.  He  makes  the  orders :  I.,  natantes, 
having  relations  with  reptiles,  especially  such 
of  its  members  as  fly  poorly  or  not  at  all  (like 
the  penguins)  ;  II.,  vadentes  or  waders;  III., 
prendentes,  with  the  suborders  rapaces,  pas- 
seres,  scansores,  and  gallince;  and  IV.,  incedentcs 
or  struthious  birds,  having  relations  to  mam- 
mals. Ehrenberg  (1836)  ranks  birds  as  the  sec- 
ond and  last  class  of  the  nutrientia  or  animals 
which  take  care  of  their  young ;  this  division 
is  not  strictly  natural,  as  some  reptiles  and 
fishes  have  a  care  for  their  progeny. — The  eggs 
of  birds  have  generally  been  selected  for  inves- 
tigations of  embryology.  The  unity  of  anatom- 


ical structure  in  all  vertebrates  is  confirmed  by 
the  common  structure  of  the  primitive  egg,  and 
the  order  of  classification  from  anatomical  evi- 
dence by  the  metamorphoses  which  each  class 
undergoes  to  its  full  development.  The  bird 
goes  through  its  fish-like  and  reptilian  structure 
and  form  ;  the  only  difference  between  the  egg 
of  a  bird  and  a  mammalian  ovum,  as  to  exter- 
nal covering,  is  that  the  former  has  a  hard 
shell  when  laid  protecting  the  immature  chick, 
while  in  the  latter  the  envelopes  remain  mem- 
branous, having  a  peculiar  connection  with  the 
maternal  body  which  is  not  severed  until  the 
birth  of  the  young.  Von  Baer  (1828)  places 
birds  in  his  double  symmetrical  type,  whose 
embryos  acquire  an  allantois,  but  have  no  um- 
bilical cord,  having  wings  and  air  sacs.  Van 
Beneden  (1855)  ranks  birds  as  the  second  class 
of  his  hypocotyledones  or  hypovitellians,  in 
which  the  vitellus  enters  the  body  from  the 
ventral  side.  Prof.  Agassiz  ("Lecture  on  Em- 
bryology," Boston,  1849)  gives  the  results  of 
some  observations  on  the  structure  of  the  bird 
embryo,  from  which  it  appears  that  the  limbs 
are  not  at  first  developed  in  the  form  which  is 
to  be  permanent ;  the  legs  and  wings  are  formed 
as  fins ;  in  all  the  orders  of  birds,  with  their 
various  powers  of  locomotion,  the  legs  and 
wings  are  uniformly  webbed  like  the  fins  of 
fishes ;  in  the  same  manner  the  primary  con- 
dition of  the  heart,  lungs,  and  other  organs  of 
a  bird  is  that  of  these  organs  in  a  fish.  This 
would  indicate  that  the  web-footed  birds  are 
lower  in  the  scale  than  those  with  divided 
toes ;  and  that  the  union  of  all  the  former  into 
one  group,  however  different  the  structure  of 
their  wings,  plumage,  and  internal  organs,  and 
their  mode  of  life — the  almost  wingless  penguin 
with  the  swift-flying  ocean  birds,  the  hook- 
beaked  predaceous  gulls  with  the  flat-billed 
and  timorous  ducks — must  be  an  unnatural  ar- 
rangement. The  examination  of  the  feet  of 
an  embryo  robin,  swallow,  warbler,  and  finch, 
showed  all  four  toes  directed  forward  and 
webbed,  while  in  the  mature  birds  they  are 
separate,  three  directed  forward  and  one  back- 
ward ;  he  found  the  bill  of  the  immature  robin 
resembling  that  of  a  vulturine  bird,  indicating 
the  comparatively  low  type  of  the  latter ;  in- 
deed some  water  birds,  like  lestris  (skua  gull), 
have  a  bill  very  greatly  resembling  that  of  the 
vultures ;  some  birds  of  prey  also  resemble  wa- 
ter birds  in  the  rudiment  of  a  web  between  the 
toes.  He  regards  birds  which  have  all  their 
toes  directed  forward  as  of  a  lower  type  than 
those  in  which  one  is  directed  backward,  as,  for 
instance,  the  pelicans  and  cormorants  among 
water  birds,  and  the  swifts  (genus  cypselw, 
111.)  among  swallows ;  a  similar  idea  was  broach- 
ed by  Sundevall  in  1835.  In  Prof.  Agassiz's 
classification  ("Contributions  to  the  Natural 
History  of  the  United  States,"  vol.  i.,  Bos- 
ton, 1857),  birds  form  the  seventh  class  of  ver- 
tebrates, with  four  orders,  natatores,  gralla, 
rasores,  and  insessores  (including  scansores  and 
accipitres).—1\iQ  principle  of  classification  of 


708 


ORNITHOLOGY 


birds  according  as  the  young  are  or  are  not  fed 
by  the  parents,  proposed  by  Oken,  was  adopted 
by  Sundevall  (Konglik  Vetenskaps-Academiens 
Handlingar,  Stockholm,  for  years  1835  and 
1843),  who  also  used  the  position  of  the  hind 
toe  and  the  powers  of  song  in  his  classification. 
His  sections  are :  A.  Aves  altrices,  which  nour- 
ish their  young  in  the  nest,  having  either  the 
thumb  or  the  external  toe  turned  back  and  en- 
tirely resting  on  the  ground.  These  comprise 
the  divisions  or  legions  :  I.  Volucres  (passeres 
of  Cuvier),  typical  flying  birds,  with  the  thumb 
only  turned  back,  containing  the  passer es  and 
oscines  (singers).  II.  Gressores  or  walkers, 
containing  the  swallows  and  humming  birds, 
woodpeckers,  parrots,  cuckoos,  kingfishers, 
owls,  hawks,  guans,  and  pigeons.  B.  Aves 
prcecoces,  whose  young  seek  their  own  food 
soon  after  birth,  having  the  thumb  elevated  or 
absent.  III.  Cursores,  runners,  the  pheasants 
and  grouse,  the  ostrich  family,  bustards,  her- 
ons, storks,  rails,  and  sandpipers.  IV.  Nata- 
tores  or  swimmers,  with  the  femur  and  base  of 
tibia  included  under  skin  of  abdomen,  inclu- 
ding the  gulls  and  petrels,  pelicans  and  gan- 
nets,  ducks,  loons,  guillemots,  and  penguins. 
Keyserling  and  Blasius  ( Wirbelthiere  Euro- 
pas,  Brunswick,  1840)  make  the  six  orders 
rapaces,  scansores,  oscines,  gallinacecB,  gralla- 
tores, and  natatores. — Though  Cuvier  long 
before  had  drawn  attention  to  the  peculiar 
muscular  apparatus  of  the  larynx  in  true  sing- 
ing birds,  and  to  its  inferior  development  or 
absence  in  others,  J.  Milller  (Berlin  "Trans- 
actions," 1845)  first  laid  stress  on  its  impor- 
tance as  an  element  in  classification;  and  on 
this  and  on  corresponding  external  characters, 
Oabanis,  and  after  him  Burmeister  (Thiere 
Brasiliens,  Vogel,  Berlin,  1856),  divided  the 
insessores  into  strisores,  clamatores,  and  oscines, 
According  to  Oabanis,  the  fusion  of  all  the 
scutellaa  of  the  tarsus  into  a  continuous  enve- 
lope or  "  boot,"  without  indication  of  divisions, 
is  the  type  of  the  highest  bird,  and  the  posi- 
tion of  the  families  and  genera  in  the  scale  is 
high  according  to  their  approach  to  it  and  to 
the  reduction  in  size  of  the  first  quill.  Oaba- 
nis (ArcMv  far  NaturgescMcJite,  Berlin,  1847) 
makes  the  ten  orders  of  oscines,  clamatores 
(crying  birds,  like  shrikes,  rollers,  and  king- 
fishers), strisores  (having  no  power  of  modu- 
lating the  voice,  like  swallows  and  goatsuck- 
ers), scansores,  columbce,  raptatores,  rasores, 
cursores,  grallatores,  natatores ;  the  first  four 
orders  compose  a  subclass  named  insessores  by 
Bonaparte  in  his  catalogue  of  1842.  Prince  0. 
L.  Bonaparte  (Comptes  rendus,  Oct.  31,  1853) 
constructed  a  table  in  which  the  two  great 
subclasses,  altrices  and  prcecoces,  are  made  with 
reference  to  whether  the  young  require  to  be 
fed  by  the  parents.  Yan  der  Hoeven  ("  Hand- 
book of  Zoology,"  English  translation,  1857) 
makes  the  following  six  orders:  natatores, 
grallatores,  gallince,  scansores  or  zygodactyli, 
passerini  (ambulatores  of  Illiger  and  aniso- 
dactyli  of  Vieillot),  and  raptatores.  Prof.  S. 


F.  Baird  ("  Pacific  Eailroad  Survey,"  vol.  ix., 
Washington,  1858)  adopts  a  classification  chief- 
ly from  Keyserling  and  Blasius,  Cabanis,  Bona- 
parte, and  Burmeister.  Prof.  Richard  Owen 
("Anatomy  of  Vertebrates,"  vols.  i.  and  ii., 
London,  1866)  retains  with  slight  modification 
the  orders  as  adopted  by  Gray,  with  the  excep- 
tion of  columba,  which  he  reunites  with  ra- 
sores, and  passeres,  which  he  separates  into  two 
distinct  orders,  the  volitores  (swifts,  goatsuck- 
ers, bee-eaters,  humming  birds,  kingfishers)  and 
cantores  (flycatchers,  warblers,  thrushes,  finch- 
es, crows,  swallows,  creepers).  The  raptores, 
scansores^  volitores,  and  cantores  constitute  his 
first  section,  the  altrices,  while  the  remaining 
orders,  rasores,  cursores,  grallatores,  and  nata- 
tores, are  included  in  the  second  section,  the 
prcecoces.  A  third  section,  the  uroioni,  is  add- 
ed, of  which  the  extinct  archceopteryx  forms 
the  type.  The  classification  of  Prof.  Huxley, 
as  put  forth  in  his  "  Classification  of  Animals  " 
(London,  1869)  and  "Anatomy  of  Vertebrated 
Animals  "  (1871),  departs  widely  from  any  of 
the  foregoing,  and  will  probably  meet  with 
but  little  favor  among  present  ornithologists. 
It  is  founded  mainly  upon  the  characters  of  the 
sternum  (as  in  the  classification  of  De  Blainville) 
and  vomer,  circumstances  which  scarcely  appear 
of  sufficient  significance  to  serve  as  a  basis  in 
a  natural  classification.  Huxley  divides  birds 
into  three  primary  groups,  the  saururce,  ratitce, 
and  carinatcB,  the  first  of  which  corresponds 
with  the  uroioni  of  Owen.  The  ratitce  and 
carinatcB  are  respectively  characterized  by  the 
absence  and  presence  of  a  keel,  the  former 
comprising  the  kiwis,  moas,  cassowaries,  and 
ostriches.  The  carinata  are  further  subdi- 
vided into  four  secondary  groups,  founded 
upon  the  relative  position  and  structure  of  the 
bones  entering  into  the  formation  of  the  palate, 
which  are  in  turn  resolved  into  20  alliances,  to 
each  of  which  the  termination  morphce  is  ap- 
pended; e.  g.,  geranomorphcB,  the  cranes,  and 
coracomorphcB,  the  passerines.  The  arrange- 
ment is  as  follows:  I.,  dromceognathce,  with 
one  alliance  (the  tinamous) ;  II.,  schizognathce, 
with  nine  alliances  (the  plovers,  gulls,  penguins, 
cranes,  hemipods,  fowls,  sand  grouse,  pigeons, 
and  hoazins) ;  III.,  agithognathce,  with  three  al- 
liances, the  passerines,  swifts,  and  woodpeckers ; 
IV.,  desmognathce,  with  seven  alliances  (birds 
of  prey,  parrots,  coccygomorphcB,  including  the 
cuckoos,  kingfishers,  and  trogons,  the  anserine 
birds,  flamingoes,  storks,  and  cormorants). — No 
department  of  zoology  has  been  so  extensively 
and  elegantly  illustrated  as  that  of  ornitholo- 
gy ;  reference  may  be  made  to  the  figures  in 
the  works  of  Sloane,  Catesby,  Sebar  Edwards, 
Albinus,  Brisson,  Sepp,  Browne,  Latham,  Pen- 
nant, Hardwicke,  Bewick,  Donovan,  Lewin, 
Shaw,  Jardine  and  Selby,  Buffon,  Desmarest, 
Le  Vaillant,  Temminck,  Spix,  Vieillot,  Rup- 
pel,  Audebert,  Horsfield,  Lesson,  Swainson, 
Gray,  Gould ;  and  in  America  to  those  of 
Wilson,  Bonaparte,  Audubon,  De  Kay,  Cassin, 
Baird,  and  Brewer;  to  the  "Proceedings  of 


ORNITHORHYNCHUS 


709 


the  Zoological  Society "  of  London  (descrip- 
tions of  Mr.  Sclater  and  others),  and  the  vari- 
ous illustrated  works,  the  results  of  the  nation- 
al expeditions  sent  out  by  England,  France,  the 
United  States,  Russia,  Holland,  &c.  Among 
the  magnificent  works  may  be  mentioned  the 
1,008  planches  enluminees  of  Buffon  (fol., 
Paris,  1770-'86);  the  600  planches  coloriees  of 
Temminck ;  Le  Vaillant's  birds  of  Africa,  par- 
rots, birds  of  paradise  and  rollers,  promerops, 
and  rare  birds  of  America  and  India,  in  all 
about  570  plates ;  Edwards's  362  plates  of  un- 
common birds ;  Vieillot  and  Audebert's  near- 
ly 180  plates  of  birds  of  brilliant  plumage; 
Gould's  series  of  the  birds  of  Australia  and 
Europe,  the  humming  birds,  trogons,  &c. ; 
and  Audubon's  435  plates  in  folio  of  North 
American  birds. — America  has  not  produced 
any  original  system  of  classification  of  birds ; 
but  the  writings  of  Nuttall,  Wilson,  Bonaparte, 
Audubon,  De  Kay,  Baird,  Ooues,  Allen,  Brew- 
er, Lawrence,  and  Cassin  have  well  illustrated 
the  ornithology  of  this  country ;  many  new  and 
beautiful  species  have  been  added  since  1840 ; 
and  Messrs.  Baird,  Brewer,  and  Ridgway  are 
now  (1875)  publishing  a  new  work  on  North 
American  birds. — There  are  probably  6,000 
species  of  birds,  of  which  about  five  sixths  are 
known.  Birds  existed  on  the  earth  before  the 
present  geological  epoch,  but  their  remains  in 
a  fossil  condition  are  comparatively  rare.  The 
oldest  date  claimed  for  birds  is  the  new  red 
sandstone  epoch,  where  in  the  Connecticut 
valley  Dr.  Hitchcock  and  others  have  found 
tracks  which  they  pronounce  those  of  birds; 
but  many  suppose  them  to  have  been  made  by 
reptiles,  and  for  various  reasons  it  is  doubtful 
if  any  birds  existed  at  that  epoch.  Birds  with 
reptilian  characters  certainly  did  appear  in  the 
upper  oolite  (see  ARCELEOPTERYX)  ;  birds  of 
prey  have  been  found  in  the  tertiary  and  dilu- 
vial; passeres  in  the  same;  gallince,  rare  in 
the  tertiary,  are  abundant  in  the  diluvium ; 
among  cursores,  the  genus  rhea  has  been  found 
in  the  caverns  of  Brazil,  and  the  dinornis,  epy- 
ornis,  &c.,  have  been  met  with  in  alluvial  de- 
posits ;  the  palmipedes  are  still  earlier,  and  the 
genus  cimoliornis  (Owen),  coming  near  the  al- 
batross, has  been  found  in  the  chalk  of  Europe. 
ORNITHORHYNCHCS  (Gr.  dpvis,  a  bird,  and 
t>vyx°Si  a  beak),  a  genus  of  implacental  mam- 
mals of  the  order  monotremata,  which  seem  to 
form  a  connecting  link  between  mammals  and 
birds,  and  in  some  respects  having  affinities 
even  with  reptiles.  A  single  species  only  is 
described,  the  platypus  anatinus  (Shaw),  or 
ornithorhynchus  paradoxus  (Blumenb.),  the 
duck-billed  platypus  of  English  writers,  the 
water  mole  of  the  colonists,  and  the  mallan- 
gong  of  the  natives ;  it  inhabits  the  fresh-water 
streams  of  Australia  and  Papua.  It  is  from  18 
to  22  in.  from  the  end  of  the  jaws  to  the  point 
of  the  tail,  the  latter  being  about  5  in. ;  the 
color  above  varies  from  ruddy  to  dark  brown, 
and  is  whitish  below ;  the  jaws  are  enclosed  in 
a  horny  sheath,  very  sensitive,  like  the  bill  of 


a  duck,  and  have  two  horny  teeth  on  each  side 
above  and  below,  flat,  rootless,  composed  of 
perpendicular  horny  tubes;  the  snout  is  flat 
and  broad,  the  lower  jaw  the  narrower  and 
shorter  and  provided  with  lamellae  on  the 
sides;  the  eyes  small  and  brilliant;  ears  not 


Ornithorhynchus  paradoxus. 

apparent  externally,  with  an  aperture  which 
can  be  opened  or  shut  at  will ;  the  tongue  con- 
sists of  two  parts,  the  posterior  broad,  flat, 
with  soft  papillae  and  a  free  process  bearing 
two  pointed  horny  teeth,  the  anterior  narrow 
and  covered  with  upright  points  longest  and 
sharpest  toward  the  tip ;  the  nostrils  are  at  the 
end  of  the  upper  mandible ;  cheek  pouches  are 
present,  and  a  bulb  on  the  back  of  the  tongue 
prevents  the  contents  of  the  mouth  from  pass- 
ing into  the  larynx ;  the  fur  is  soft  and  thick, 
like  that  of  the  otter.  The  legs  are  short,  and 
the  feet  five-toed,  webbed,  and  furnished  with 
strong  claws ;  the  fore  feet  are  the  strongest, 
and  their  loose  webs  extend  beyond  the  claws ; 
the  hind  legs  are  armed  with  a  sharp,  conical, 
bony  spur,  with  a  corneous  investment,  per- 
forated for  the  passage  of  a  duct  communica- 
ting with  a  gland  situated  on  the  thigh ;  the 
tail  is  flat,  broad,  and  beset  with  rigid  hairs. 
As  the  name  of  the  order  imports,  the  alimen- 
tary, urinary,  and  reproductive  organs  open 
into  a  common  cloaca,  as  in  birds;  mamma- 
ry glands  are  present,  secreting  milk  for  the 
nourishment  of  the  young,  which  are  born 
blind  and  naked  ;  there  are  no  prominent  nip- 
ples, and  the  mammary  openings  are  contained 
in  slits  in  the  integument;  the  beak  in  the 
young  is  short  and  flexible,  adapted  for  suck- 
ing; M.  Verreaux  (Revue  zoologique,  1848) 
says  the  young,  when  they  are  able  to  swim, 
suck  in  the  milk  from  the  surface  of  the  water 
into  which  it  is  emitted.  The  shoulder  bones 
are  unlike  those  of  other  mammals,  and  are  in- 
termediate in  arrangement  between  those  of 
birds  and  reptiles ;  in  many  points  of  the  gen- 
erative system,  also,  there  are  ornithic  and  rep- 


710 


ORNITHOSAURIANS 


ORPHEUS 


tilian  affinities.  It  burrows  in  the  banks  of 
streams,  where  it  passes  the  day  in  sleep  rolled 
up  like  a  ball,  coming  out  at  dusk  and  during 
the  night  in  search  of  food ;  it  is  an  excellent 
swimmer  and  diver,  and  feeds  upon  worms,  in- 
sects, and  small  aquatic  animals,  in  the  man- 
ner of  a  duck ;  it  walks  very  well,  and  climbs 
trees  with  facility;  the  burrows,  which  have 
an  opening  below  the  water,  are  sometimes  20 
or  30  ft.  long,  extending  upward  beyond  the 
reach  of  inundations ;  in  the  highest  and  dryest 
part  is  an  enlarged  cavity  for  the  nest  of  them- 
selves and  young.  It  can  remain  under  water 
only  about  seven  or  eight  minutes  at  a  time  ; 
it  is  cleanly  in  habit,  and  fond  of  warmth  and 
dryness.  The  young  in  confinement  are  play- 
ful, and  will  eat  rice  and  egg,  soaked  bread, 
and  finely  chopped  meat ;  they  are  rather  deli- 
cate, and  die  very  soon  from  want  of  food. 
They  do  not  lay  eggs,  but  are  true  mammals  ; 
the  fluid  secreted  by  the  femoral  gland  is  not 
poisonous.  Skins  of  this  animal  are  not  un- 
common, but  its  skeleton  is  rare. 

ORNTTHOSAURIANS,  extinct  flying  reptiles  of 
the  mesozoic  age.  (See  PTEEODAOTYL.) 

OROXSAY.     See  COLONSAY. 

OROXTES,  a  river  of  Syria,  which  rises  not 
far  from  Baalbek  in  Coele-Syria,  flows  N".  be- 
tween the  Lebanon  and  Anti-Lebanon,  and 
through  the  plains  of  northern  Syria,  passing 
Horns  (ancient  Emesa)  and  Hamah  (Hamath 
or  Epiphania),  and  then  turning  "W.  into  the 
valley  of  Antioch,  falls  into  the  Mediterranean 
near  lat.  36°  N".  It  is  about  250  m.  long,  and 
remarkably  picturesque  between  Antioch  and 
the  sea.  Its  Arab  name  is  JSTahr  el-Aasy. 

OROOMIAH.     See  UEUMIAH. 

OROSIUS,  Paulns,  a  Spanish  theologian,  born 
in  Tarragona  about  the  end  of  the  4th  century, 
died  probably  in  Africa.  He  went  to  Africa 
about  A.  D.  414  to  consult  St.  Augustine  on 
points  of  doctrine,  became  his  associate  in  the 
monastic  life,  and  wrote  Consultatio  sive  Com- 
monitorium  Orosii  ad  Augustinum  de  Err  ore 
Priscillianistarum  et  Origenistarum,  to  which 
Augustine  replied  in  the  treatise  Contra  Pris- 
cillianistas  et  Origenistas  Liber  ad  Orosium. 
In  414  or  415  he  set  out  for  Palestine,  to 
counteract  the  influence  of  Pelagius.  He  won 
the  confidence  of  Jerome,  who  shortly  after  at- 
tacked the  Pelagian  doctrines.  In  415  Orosius 
arraigned  Pelagius  for  heresy  before  the  tri- 
bunal of  John,  bishop  of  Jerusalem ;  but  the 
accusation  failed  both  here  and  in  the  appeal 
to  the  council  of  Diospolis.  Orosius,  being 
himself  denounced  by  John  as  a  blasphemer, 
wrote  Liber  Apologeticus  de  Arbitrii  Libertate, 
in  which  he  defended  himself  and  attacked  the 
doctrines  of  Pelagius.  From  Palestine  he  re- 
turned to  Hippo,  and  in  416  went  thence  to 
Spain.  By  the  advice  of  Augustine,  he  com- 
posed his  Historiarum  adversus  Paganos  Libri 
VII,  extending  from  the  creation  of  the  world 
to  the  year  417,  which,  with  the  exception  of 
the  concluding  portion,  is  destitute  of  historical 
value.  The  best  edition  is  that  of  Havercamp 


(4to,  Leyden,  1738).  Of  the  Anglo-Saxon 
translation  of  the  work  by  King  Alfred  there 
are  three  editions  with  English  versions,  by 
Daines  Barrington,  Benjamin  Thorpe,  and  Dr. 
Bos  worth. 

ORPHAT.    See  ARAFAT. 

ORPHEUS,  a  mythical  Greek  personage,  the 
chief  of  a  circle  of  poets,  embracing  Linus, 
Musseus,  Eumolpus,  and  others,  to  whom  were 
attributed  various  hymns  and  poems  inculcating 
religious  conceptions  different  from  those  of 
Homer  and  Hesiod.  An  ante-Homeric  anti- 
quity was  assigned  to  these  apocryphal  writings, 
and  they  were  received  by  the  Greeks  as  a  sort 
of  divine  revelation.  The  name  of  Orpheus 
does  not  appear  in  Homer  or  Hesiod.  He  is 
mentioned  by  Ibycus  in  the  6th  century  B.  0.  as 
the  "renowned  Orpheus;"  by  Pindar  as  son  of 
(Eagrus,  one  of  the  Argonauts,  and  the  father 
of  songs ;  by  Hellanicus  as  the  ancestor  of  both 
Homer  and  Hesiod;  by  ^Eschylus  as  leading 
the  trees  after  him  to  the  sound  of  his  lyre ; 
by  Eratosthenes  as  worshipping  Apollo  rather 
than  Bacchus ;  by  Euripides  as  related  to  the 
Muses,  as  charming  by  his  song  the  rocks,  trees, 
wild  beasts,  and  infernal  powers,  as  connected 
with  the  Bacchanalian  orgies,  as  founder  of 
the  sacred  mysteries,  and  as  living  amid  the 
forests  of  Olympus;  and  by  Aristophanes  as 
one  of  the  oldest  poets  and  the  teacher  of  re- 
ligious initiations.  Though  Plato  quotes  from 
the  Orphic  writings,  he  evidently  regarded 
them  as  spurious;  but  he  seems  not  to  have 
doubted  the  existence  of  Orpheus  or  the  gen- 
uineness of  his  peculiar  theogony.  ,  Aristotle 
held  that  Orpheus  was  altogether  a  fictitious 
personage.  Later  accounts  make  him  a  Thra- 
cian  bard  in  the  era  of  the  Argonauts,  to  whom 
Apollo  gave  a  lyre,  in  the  use  of  which  he  was 
instructed  by  the  Muses,  and  who  on  account 
of  the  miraculous  charm  of  his  song  was  en- 
gaged as  one  of  the  Argonauts.  On  their  ex- 
pedition the  power  of  his  lyre  held  back  the 
moving  Symplegadse,  which  threatened  to  crush 
the  ship,  lulled  the  Colchian  dragon  to  sleep, 
and  rendered  other  important  services.  On  his 
return  he  applied  himself  to  the  civilization  of 
the  rude  inhabitants  of  Thrace,  was  reputed 
to  have  visited  Egypt,  and  according  to  the 
legends  sought  his  deceased  wife  Eurydice  in 
Hades,  where  the  music  of  his  lyre  suspended 
the  tortures  of  the  damned,  and  won  back  his 
beloved  on  condition  that  he  should  not  look 
round  at  her  till  she  reached  the  upper  world. 
He  violated  the  condition,  and  saw  her  vanish. 
In  his  despair  he  treated  the  Thracian  Maenads 
with  contempt,  who  avenged  themselves  by 
tearing  him  to  pieces  in  their  orgies.  Accord- 
ing to  another  legend,  he  perished  by  the  thun- 
derbolts of  Jupiter.  The  remnants  of  his  body 
were  gathered  by  the  Muses,  and  buried  at  the 
foot  of  Olympus,  where  a  nightingale  sang 
above  his  tomb. — The  earliest  of  the  Orphic 
compositions  are  now  usually  ascribed  to  Ono- 
macritus,  who  lived  at  the  court  of  Hipparchus. 
About  the  same  time  the  Orphici,  or  associa- 


ORPINE 

tions  of  the  followers  of  Orpheus,  transformed 
the  Dionysiac  worship,  making  it  ascetic  and 
mystical  rather  than  orgiastic.  This  worship 
was  further  modified,  and  its  influence  on  the 
Greek  religion  increased,  by  the  union  of  Or- 
phic and  Pythagorean  societies  and  doctrines. 
According  to  the  Orphic  cosmogony,  which 
has  an  oriental  pantheistic  character,  Cronos 
(time)  was  the  first  principle,  from  which  pro- 
ceeded Chaos  and  ^Ether.  The  former  was 
an  infinite  and  shapeless  mass,  which,  in  con- 
densing under  the  influence  of  the  latter,  as- 
sumed an  ovoid  form,  containing  in  its  centre 
the  cosmical  germ.  From  this  germ  sprang 
the  gold- winged  Eros  or  Phanes,  the  first  mani- 
festation of  intelligence  or  light,  who  in  union 
with  Nyx  (night)  created  the  heavens  and  earth. 
Ericap&os  was  the  creative  word  which  gave 
birth  to  the  gods.  The  soul  was  brought  to 
the  surface  from  the  depths  of  matter.  Zeus 
had  four  predecessors,  and  among  his  progeny 
was  Zagreus  Dionysus.  From  the  latter  were 
expected  a  golden  age,  the  liberation  of  souls, 
and  a  state  of  beatitude  at  the  end  of  all  things. 
The  Orphic  writings  increased  in  honor  during 
the  declining  centuries  of  paganism,  and  by 
both  the  Christian  and  pagan  Neo-Platonists 
of  the  3d  and  4th  centuries  were  believed  to 
be  the  most  ancient  summary  of  the  Greek 
faith.  They  then  received  a  large  accession  of 
forgeries  by  Christian  philosophers.  The  apoc- 
ryphal productions  included  under  the  title 
of  OrpJiica  are :  a  poem  on  the  Argonautic 
expedition,  in  1,384  hexameters ;  a  collection 
of  hymns  in  hexameters,  evidently  of  Neo-Pla- 
tonic  origin ;  Lithika,  better  than  either  of  the 
preceding,  and  treating  the  properties  of  stones 
and  their  uses  in  divination;  and  fragments, 
chiefly  of  the  theogony,  containing  the  only 
remains  of  the  early  Orphic  literature.  The 
best  edition  is  that  of  Hermann  (Leipsic,  1805). 

ORPINE.    See  SEDUM. 

ORR,  James  Lawrence,  an  American  statesman, 
born  at  Craytonville,  S.  C.,  May  12, 1822,  died 
in  St.  Petersburg,  May  5,  1873.  He  gradu- 
ated at  the  university  of  Virginia  in  1842,  was 
admitted  to  the  bar  and  practised  in  Anderson, 
S.  C.,  and  in  1844-'5  was  a  member  of  the  legis- 
lature. From  1848  to  1859  he  was  a  member 
of  congress,  and  was  speaker  of  the  house  of 
representatives  in  the  35th  congress.  He  was 
a  member  of  the  South  Carolina  convention 
which  voted  for  secession;  was  one  of  the 
state  commissioners  to  Washington  in  Decem- 
ber, 1860 ;  and  in  1862-'5  was  a  Confederate 
States  senator.  From  1865  to  1868  he  was 
provisional  governor  of  South  Carolina  under 
federal  appointment,  and  afterward  acted  with 
the  republican  party.  In  1870  he  became 
judge  of  the  state  circuit  court,  and  in  1873 
was  appointed  United  States  minister  to  Rus- 
sia, dying  soon  after  his  arrival. 

ORRERY,  a  machine  representing  the  motions 
of  the  planetary  bodies.  Distinct  names  have 
been  given  to  various  modifications  of  it :  the 
planetarium,  which  exhibits  the  orbital  paths 


ORSINI 


711 


of  the  planets  and  their  satellites ;  the  telluri- 
um, which  shows  the  motions  of  the  earth 
causing  day  and  night,  the  seasons,  and  the  va- 
riable length  of  the  former  as  dependent  upon 
the  latter ;  the  lunarium,  which  shows  the  mo- 
tions of  the  moon ;  and  the  satellite  machine, 
chiefly  intended  to  represent  the  motions  of 
Jupiter  and  his  satellites.  The  ordinary  orrery 
was  invented  by  George  Graham  about  1715, 
and  first  patronized  by  the  earl  of  Orrery. 

ORRIS  ROOT.     See  IRIS. 

ORSAY,  Alfred  Gnillaume  Gabriel  d>,  count,  a 
man  of  fashion,  born  in  Paris,  Sept.  4,  1801, 
died  there,  Aug.  4,  1852.  He  was  the  son  of 
a  general,  and  early  served  in  the  French  army. 
He  became  acquainted  with  the  earl  and  coun- 
tess of  Blessington  on  his  first  visit  to  London 
about  1822  with  his  sister,  the  duchess  de  Gra- 
mont.  In  1827  he  married  the  earl's  daughter 
by  his  first  wife,  but  separated  from  her  some 
time  after  her  father's  death  in  1829.  Almost 
from  the  beginning  of  the  acquaintance  he  was 
a  constant  companion  of  Lady  Blessington  in 
her  travels,  and  at  Gore  house  in  London.  In 
1849  they  went  to  Paris,  where  she  died  June 
4.  In  London  he  was  an  oracle  in  fashionable 
life.  He  was  singularly  handsome  and  bril- 
liant, and  excelled  as  a  painter  and  sculptor. 
He  was  a  friend  of  most  of  the  eminent  men 
of  his  day,  including  Louis  Napoleon,  who 
shortly  before  the  count's  death  appointed  him 
director  of  fine  arts.  Engravings  of  his  "  Gal- 
lery of  Portraits"  appeared  in  New  York  in 
1875. — The  countess  d'Orsay,  who  married 
soon  after  his  death  the  Hon.  Charles  Spencer 
Cowper,  died  Dec.  17,  1869. 

ORSINI,  an  Italian  family,  conspicuous  in  the 
middle  ages.  Their  ancestors  were  distin- 
guished at  Rome  as  early  as  the  first  half  of 
the  12th  century.  Giordano,  for  his  services 
to  the  pope  as  a  soldier,  was  made  a  cardi- 
nal in  1145,  and  in  1152,  in  the  capacity  of 
legate,  was  sent  to  Conrad  III.  of  Germany ; 
while  his  nephew,  Matteo,  held  the  post  of 
prefect  of  Rome.  Toward  the  end  of  the  12th 
century  Orso  ruled  the  city  as  its  senator, 
while  another  member  of  the  family,  Celestine 
III.,  was  pope.  Another  Matteo,  styled  the 
Great,  was  elected  senator,  at  the  same  time 
holding  large  fiefs  in  the  Campagna.  One  of 
Matteo's  sons,  Giovanni,  became  pope  under 
the  name  of  Nicholas  III.  in  1277,  and  endeav- 
ored to  perpetuate  the  dignity  of  senator  in 
his  family,  for  whom  he  secured  princely  al- 
liances. The  Orsinis  now  reached  the  zenith 
of  their  fortune,  and  their  quarrels  with  the 
Colonnas  filled  the  annals  of  Rome.  They 
were  Guelphs,  and  generally  found  on  the 
side  of  the  popes,  while  their  rivals  adhered 
to  the  Ghibelline  party.  The  castle  of  Bracci- 
ano,  on  the  lake  of  that  name,  was  the  chief 
residence  of  the  family,  who  possessed  besides 
many  strongholds  in  Rome  and  its  vicinity. 
The  Orsini,  with  the  Colonna  and  Savelli  fam- 
ilies, were  the  special  objects  of  the  enmity  of 
Pope  Alexander  VI.— The  Neapolitan  branch  of 


712 


ORSINI 


ORTOLAN 


the  family  is  still  extant.  Some  of  its  early 
members  became  counts  of  Nola  and  dukes  of 
Gravina  in  the  15th  century.  Pietro  Fran- 
cesco gave  up  his  duchy  to  his  brother  Dome- 
nico,  entered  the  church,  and  in  1724  became 
pope  under  the  name  of  Benedict  XIII.  The 
family  still  hold  the  highest  rank  among  Ital- 
ian nobles.  Prince  Domenico  Orsini,  duke  of 
Gravina,  born  Nov.  23,  1790,  died  in  Rome, 
April  18,  1874.  He  was  a  lieutenant  general, 
and  bore  the  honorary  appellations  of  assistant 
prince  of  the  holy  see  and  senator  of  Rome. 
He  married,  Feb.  6,  1823,  Maria  Luisa,  daugh- 
ter of  the  celebrated  banker  Torlonia,  duke  of 
Bracciano,  who  bore  him  three  daughters  and 
one  son,  Filippo,  present  duke  of  Roccagorsa. 
The  seat  of  the  family  is  still  at  Rome,  but 
their  usual  residence  until  the  revolution  of 
1860  was  at  Naples  in  the  Gravina  palace. 

ORSINI,  Felice,  an  Italian  revolutionist,  born 
in  Meldola,  near  Forli,  in  1819,  executed  in 
Paris,  March  13, 1858.  He  early  engaged  with 
his  father  in  political  plots,  and  when  scarcely 
25  years  of  age  was  sentenced  to  penal  labor 
for  life.  Restored  to  liberty  in  1846,  he  par- 
ticipated in  various  revolutionary  movements. 
After  the  suppression  of  the  revolution  of 
1848-'9  he  lived  for  some  years  in  England, 
and  was  employed  in  several  revolutionary  mis- 
sions by  Mazzini.  In  1854  he  was  arrested 
in  Hermannstadt,  Transylvania,  and  carried  to 
the  fortress  of  Mantua,  whence  he  succeeded  in 
escaping  in  1856.  Returning  to  England,  he 
published  "  The  Austrian  Dungeons  in  Italy." 
In  1857  he  went  to  Paris  to  assassinate  Napo- 
leon III.,  whom  he  considered  the  main  ob- 
stacle to  the  progress  of  revolution.  He  had 
three  associates  named  Pieri,  Rudio,  and  Go- 
mez. On  the  evening  of  Jan.  14,  1858,  as  the 
emperor  and  empress  were  approaching  the 
Grand  Opera,  three  bombs  were  thrown  under 
their  carriage  and  exploded,  killing  or  wound- 
ing a  large  number  of  persons,  though  the 
intended  victims  escaped.  Orsini,  Pieri,  and 
Radio  were  sentenced  to  death  and  Gomez  to 
hard  labor  for  life.  Through  the  intercession 
of  the  empress  Eugenie  the  life  of  Rudio  was 
spared.  Orsini  died  with  perfect  composure, 
having  a  few  days  before  his  execution  ex- 
horted Napoleon  in  a  letter  to  liberate  Italy. 
His  autobiography,  translated  by  G.  Carbonel, 
was  published  at  Edinburgh  in  1857. 

ORTHOCERAS  (Gr.  bp66^  straight,  and  /c£pa<r, 
horn),  a  fossil  tetrabranchiate  cephalopod,  con- 
fined to  the  palaeozoic  and  early  mesozoic  pe- 
riods, in  which  it  played  the  part  now  taken  by 
the  carnivorous  cuttle  fish.  Though  the  shell 
is  chambered,  with  a  perforating  siphon,  as  in 
the  living  nautilus,  it  is  generally  straight ;  in 
some  allied  genera,  as  lituites  and  cyrtoceras, 
the  shell  is  partially  coiled,  but  never  so  com- 
pletely as  in  the  mesozoic  ammonites.  It  is  like- 
ly that  the  animal  could  not  get  entirely  within 
the  outer  chamber,  and  that  from  the  buoyancy 
of  the  shell  it  must  have  remained  head  down- 
ward. It  attained  a  very  large  size,  some  being 


more  than  10  ft.  long,  and  as  large  round  as 
a  man's  body.  None  have  been  found  in  strata 
later  than  the  triassic  age.  They  are  allied  to 
the  nautilus  on  the  one  hand  and  to  ammo- 
nites on  the  other.  It  is  interesting  to  ob- 
serve that  these  Silurian  straight  tetrabranchi- 


Orthoceras  explorator. 

1.  Side   view  of  fragment,  showing  septa.     2.   Transverse 
section  of  same,  showing  the  siphuncle,  3. 

ate  cephalopods  gradually  gave  place  to  forms 
more  and  more  coiled,  till  the  tightly  coiled 
ammonites  of  the  mesozoic  age  appeared; 
then,  as  the  type  retrograded  from  this  culmi- 
nating point,  the  whorls  began  to  unroll  again, 
and  such  forms  as  ancyloceras,  toxoceras,  sca- 
phites,  Tiamites,  and  baculites  marked  the  ex- 
tinction of  the  many-chambered  cephalopods, 
whose  principal  present  form  is  the  nautilus. 

ORTHOPTERA,  an  order  of  insects,  with  chew- 
ing jaws,  two  rather  thick  and  opaque  upper 
wings,  slightly  overlapping  on  the  back,,  and 
two  larger  thin,  plaited,  straight  wings  under 
these;  they  undergo  partial  transformation, 
and  the  larvae  and  pupae,  though  wingless,  are 
active.  It  contains  the  four  groups  of  runners 
(earwigs  and  cockroaches),  graspers  (mantes  or 
soothsayers),  walkers  (spectres  and  walking 
leaves),  and  jumpers  (crickets,  grasshoppers, 
and  locusts).  The  mantes  are  carnivorous,  and 
the  other  groups  are  more  or  less  destructive 
to  vegetation  and  household  articles.  Some  of 
the  strangest  insect  forms  occur  in  this  order. 

ORTOLAN,  or  Ortolan,  a  bunting  of  the  ge- 
nus emberiza  (Linn.).  The  bill  is  small,  acute, 
and  conical,  and  the  palate  is  furnished  with  a 
prominent  bony  knob ;  the  wings  are  moder- 
ate, the  tail  lengthened  and  somewhat  forked, 
with  feathers  rather  lanceolate ;  tarsi  as  long 
as  the  middle  toe.  This  well  known  bird  (E. 
hortulana,  Linn.)  is  about  6J  in.  long;  the 
head  and  neck  are  greenish  gray  with  dusky 
spots ;  the  throat,  space  around  eye,  and  band 
from  bill  downward,  yellow  ;  upper  parts  red- 
dish bay,  each  feather  black  in  the  middle; 
below  bay  red,  tipped  with  gray ;  tail  blackish ; 
the  female  is  smaller,  with  brown  spots  on  the 
breast  and  fainter  colors.  Rare  in  England,  it  is 
very  abundant  in  southern  Europe,  where  great 
numbers  are  caught  in  snares  in  early  autumn, 
and  fattened  for  the  table  in  constantly  lighted 


ORTON 

rooms  on  oats,  millet,  and  spiced  bread,  on 
which  the  flesh  becomes  very  fat  and  of  a  high 
and  delicious  flavor ;  they  are  considered  per- 
fect when  they  attain  the  weight  of  three 
ounces.  Ortolans  are  numerous  in  Japan,  and 
are  very  abundant  on  the  island  of  Cyprus, 


ORYIETO 


713 


Ortolan  (Emberiza  hortulana). 

where  they  are  pickled  in  casks  with  spice  and 
vinegar,  each  cask  containing  300  or  400  birds ; 
in  some  years  the  number  of  casks  exported 
has  amounted  to  400.  In  ancient  Eome  epi- 
cures paid  enormous  prices  for  these  delicacies, 
and  they  are  still  greatly  relished ;  many  are 
annually  prepared  for  the  tables  of  the  rich.  It 
is  a  handsome  bird,  and  has  a  flute-like  warble, 
but  is  chiefly  prized  for  the  table. 

ORTON,  James,  an  American  naturalist,  born 
at  Seneca  Falls,  N.  Y.,  April  21,  1830.  He 
graduated  at  Williams  college  in  1855,  and 
at  the  Andover  theological  seminary  in  1858, 
and,  after  travelling  in  Europe  and  the  East, 
was  ordained  a  Congregational  minister  in  1860. 
In  1866  he  became  instructor  in  the  natural 
sciences  in  Rochester  university,  and  in  1867 
led  an  expedition  from  Williams  college  across 
South  America,  by  Quito,  the  Napo,  and  the 
Amazon,  discovering  the  first  fossils  found  in 
the  Amazon  valley.  Since  1869  he  has  been 
professor  of  natural  history  in  Vassar  college. 
In  1873  he  made  a  second  journey  across  South 
America,  from  Para  up  the  Amazon  to  Lima 
and  Lake  Titicaca.  He  has  published  "  The 
Miner's  Guide  and  Metallurgist's  Directory " 
(18mo,  New  York,  1849) ;  "The  Proverbialist 
and  Poet "  (8vo,  Philadelphia,  1852) ;  "  The 
Andes  and  the  Amazon "  (8vo,  New  York, 
1870) ;  "  Underground  Treasures  :  how  and 
where  to  find  them  "  (12mo,  Hartford,  1872); 
"  The  Liberal  Education  of  Women  "  (12mo, 
New  York,  1873);  and  "Comparative  Zoolo- 
gy" (8vo,  1875). 

ORTYGIA.     See  DELOS,  and  SYRACUSE. 

ORURO.  I.  A  W.  department  of  Bolivia, 
occupying  a  large  proportion  of  the  great  plain 


of  its  own  name,  sometimes  also  called  the 
valley  of  the  Desaguadero,  bordering  on  Peru ; 
area,  21,600  sq.  m. ;  pop.  about  112,000.  It 
lies  between  the  eastern  and  western  cordi- 
lleras  of  the  Andes,  but  no  appearance  of  vol- 
canic action  is  anywhere  presented,  and  the 
department  is  never  visited  by  earthquakes. 
The  face  of  the  country  is  generally  undulating. 
It  is  drained  by  the  river  Desaguadero,  which 
is  the  only  outlet  of  Lake  Titicaca,  and  flows 
into  Lake  Aullagas  in  this  department,  which 
has  no  visible  issue.  The  silver  mines  of  the 
Cerro  de  Oruro,  of  El  Turco  in  the  province 
of  Carangas,  and  of  Popo  have  long  been 
celebrated  for  their  abundant  yield.  Gold  is 
also  found.  The  tin  mines  of  this  department 
are  among  the  richest  in  the  world  ;  and  large 
quantities  of  rock  salt  have  been  exported 
from  Carangas  and  Curahuara.  On  this  great 
plateau,  notwithstanding  a  mean  elevation  of 
13,340  ft.  above  the  sea,  extremes  of  heat  and 
cold  are  rare;  but  violent  tempests  are  fre- 
quent during  the  wet  season,  from  November 
to  April.  The  chief  agricultural  products  are 
potatoes  and  quinoa,  a  common  substitute  for 
them.  Barley  and  wheat  do  not  ripen  here, 
but  are  cut  for  forage.  In  the  more  sheltered 
valleys  fruits  are  plentiful,  the  vine  thrives, 
and  very  good  wine  is  made.  Guanacos,  al- 
pacas, llamas,  and  vicunas  everywhere  abound, 
and  there  are  numerous  cattle  and  sheep  in 
Carangas.  The  department  is  divided  into  the 
provinces  of  Oruro,  Popo  or  Poopo,  Carangas, 
and  Porco.  II.  A  fortified  city,  the  capital  and 
only  important  town  of  the  department,  in  a 
valley  about  27  m.  long,  about  200  m.  N.  W.  of 
Sucre.  It  has  regular  streets,  but  the  houses, 
once  among  the  finest  in  the  republic,  are  now 
much  dilapidated.  The  only  public  edifices  of 
importance  are  nine  churches,  the  town  hall, 
and  barracks.  Agriculture,  mining,  and  the 
manufacture  of  coarse  woollens  and  cheese  are 
the  chief  occupations.  Oruro  was  founded  in 
1590,  and  called  San  Felipe  de  Austria.  The 
seat  of  the  executive  government  of  Bolivia 
was  transferred  thither  in  1869  from  La  Paz; 
and  a  railway  to  Tarapaca  in  Peru  was  con- 
tracted for  in  1872. 

ORYET.     See  BLINDWORM. 

ORVIETO,  a  town  of  Italy,  in  the  province 
of  Perugia,  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Paglia,  at 
the  confluence  of  the  Chiana,  60  m.  N.  N.  W. 
of  Rome ;  pop.  about  8,000 ;  of  the  commune, 
about  15,000.  It  has  been  the  seat  of  a  bishop 
since  509.  It  has  a  magnificent  Gothic  cathe- 
dral of  white  and  black  marble,  dating  from 
the  14th  century  and  filled  with  remarkable 
works  of  art;  several  palaces,  one  of  which 
is  also  rich  in  works  of  art;  and  deserted 
convents  and  ruined  churches.  The  town  is 
on  a  high  steep  hill,  and  is  well  built  and  clean 
and  surrounded  by  a  wall.  Orvieto  is  cele- 
brated for  its  white  wine,  and  has  a  consid- 
erable trade  in  cattle,  grain,  and  silk.  Since 
the  opening  of  the  Orte  trunk  railway,  March 
13,  1874,  it  has  grown  rapidly  in  population 


714 


ORYX 


OSAGE  OKANGE 


and  importance.  From  its  strong  position  it  ' 
has  often  been  a  place  of  refuge  for  the  popes 
in  troublous  times.  Tombs  and  relics  discov- 
ered here  make  it  certain  that  it  was  the  site 
of  an  ancient  Etruscan  city,  and^the  present 
name  is  supposed  to  be  a  corruption  of  Urb& 
Vetus  (old  city),  probably  applied  to  the  ruins 
after  the  real  name  had  been  lost. 

ORYX.     See  ANTELOPE. 

OSAGE.  I.  A  central  county  of  Missouri, 
bounded  K  by  the  Missouri  river  and  N".  W.  by 
the  Osage,  and  intersected  by  the  Gasconade ; 
area,  about  850  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  10,793, 
of  whom  326  were  colored.  It  has  an  uneven 
surface,  and  near  the  streams  a  fertile  soil. 
The  Missouri  Pacific  railroad  passes  through 
it.  The  chief  productions  in  1870  were  222,- 
173  bushels  of  wheat,  426,563  of  Indian  corn, 
97,320  of  oats,  32,329  of  potatoes,  100,018  Ibs. 
of  butter,  23,422  of  Wool,  119,617  of  tobacco, 
and  2,324  tons  of  hay.  There  were  3,535 
horses,  1,431  mules  and  asses,  3,962  milch  cows, 
5,726  other  cattle,  12,144  sheep,  and  22,532 
swine.  Capital,  Linn.  II.  An  E.  central  coun- 
ty of  Kansas,  watered  by  the  Osage  river  and 
its  branches ;  area,  792  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870, 
7, 648.  It  is  traversed  by  the  Atchison,  Topeka, 
and  Santa  Fe  railroad.  The  surface  is  some- 
what diversified,  and  the  soil  productive.  Tim- 
ber grows  along  the  margin  of  the  streams, 
and  coal  abounds.  The  chief  productions  in 
1870  were  21,201  bushels  of  wheat,  221,880  of 
Indian  corn,  30,740  of  oats,  25,518  of  potatoes, 
99,398  Ibs.  of  butter,  30,900  of  cheese,  and 
10,396  tons  of  hay.  There  were  2,782  horses, 
3,339  milch  cows,  6,838  other  cattle,  2,875 
sheep,  and  14,033  swine.  Capital,  Burlingame. 

OSAGE  ORANGE,  the  name  in  general  use  for  a 
tree  of  the  genus  Madura,  closely  allied  to  the 


Osage  Orange  (Maclura  aurantiaca). 

mulberry  (morus) ;  it  is  the  M.  aurantiaca. 
The  tree  having  been  first  found  in  the  coun- 
try of  the  Osage  Indians,  this  fact  and  the  ap- 
pearance of  the  fruit  are  recognized  in  the 


name.  The  French  finding  that  the  Indians 
made  their  bows  of  it,  called  it  bois  djarc 
(bow  wood),  which,  corrupted  into  lodock,  is 
the  common  name  in  the  southwest.  It  is 


Fruit  cut  to  show  the  structure. 

also  one  of  the  several  trees  which  are  some- 
times called  yellow  wood.  The  tree  is  com- 
monly from  20  to  30  ft.  high,  but  in  the  rich 
bottom  lands  of  Texas  and  Arkansas  it  some- 
times reaches  60  ft.  The  leaves  are  lance- 
ovate,  entire,  and  with  the  upper  surface  very 
smooth  and  shiny.  The  flowers  are  dioecious, 
the  sterile  in  small  racemes  of  about  a  dozen 
minute,  four-parted  flowers,  the  fertile  in  a 
dense  spherical  cluster  about  the  size  of  a 
cherry;  each  flower  consisting  of  an  unequally 
four-parted  calyx  and  a  single  pistil,  the  style 
to  which  is  nearly  an  inch  long ;  these  styles 
projecting  all  over  the  surface  give  the  cluster 
the  appearance  of  a  globular  mass  of  threads. 
As  the  fruit  enlarges,  the  parts  of  the  flowers 
of  which  it  is  composed  become  fleshy  and 
blended  in  such  a  confused  mass  that  it  is  diffi- 
cult to  distinguish  them.  When  ripe,  the  fruit 
is  the  size  of  an  orange,  irregularly  spherical, 
and  with  the  surface  tessellated  with  small 
protuberances,  becoming  yellow  when  ripe, 
and  when  fully  mature  somewhat  pulpy,  sweet- 
ish, but  acrid  and  inedible ;  when  cut  open  the 
mass  shows  the  remains  of  the  flowers  radia- 
ting from  the  centre,  and  the  seeds,  which  are 
about  the  size  of  orange  seeds.  The  leaves 
and  all  parts  of  the  tree  have  a  milky  juice, 
and  this,  together  with  its  close  relationship 
with  the  mulberry,  early  suggested  the  use  of 
the  foliage  as  food  for  silkworms.  The  re- 
ports of  experiments  with  them  are  variable ; 
while  some  found  the  leaves  a  poor  substitute 
for  the  mulberry,  others  assert  that  the  worms 
fed  upon  them  give  a  better  silk.  The  wood 
is  of  a  fine  yellow  color,  close-grained,  hard, 
strong,  and  elastic ;  these  qualities  and  its  great 
durability  make  it  one  of  the  most  valuable  of 
our  native  woods.  It  is  said  by  those  who  live 


OSAGE  KIYER 

where  the  tree  is  abundant,  that  while  the  ex- 
posed wood  may  gradually  waste  away  at  the 
surface  from  the  action  of  the  weather,  a  rot- 
ten or  decayed  stick  is  never  seen ;  the  wood 
changes  but  little  with  alternate  wetting  and 
drying,  and  is  regarded  as  especially  valuable 
for  wheels,  and  as  it  will  take  a  fine  polish  it 
is  suitable  for  ornamental  work.  The  wood 
abounds  in  a  yellow  coloring  matter,  and  the 
bark  of  the  root  is  of  an  intense  orange  color ; 
a  related  Central  and  South  American  species 
(M.  tinctoria)  yields  the  well  known  yellow 
dyewood,  fustic.  The  bark  of  the  Osage  or- 
ange affords  a  fibre  similar  to  that  of  the  paper 
mulberry.  (See  MULBEEEY.)  Though  not  found 
growing  wild  far  above  the  Arkansas  river,  the 
Madura  is  hardy  much  further  north,  and  en- 
dures the  winter  perfectly  well  in  the  climate 
of  New  York  city.  It  is  rarely  seen  as  an  or- 
namental tree,  but  it  has  much  to  commend  it 
to  the  planter  ;  it  does  not  make  so  handsome 
a  head  as  some  other  trees,  but  the  deep  green 
and  shining  leaves  are  more  beautiful  than 
those  of  the  orange,  and  in  this  respect  ex- 
ceed those  of  any  other  hardy  deciduous  tree ; 
and  with  the  large  and  abundant  fruit  added  to 
the  fine  foliage,  the  tree  becomes  highly  orna- 
mental on  the  lawn.  The  great  value  of  the 
tree  is  as  a  hedge  plant,  on  account  of  its  gen- 
eral freedom  from  disease  and  insects,  the  fine 
green  of  its  foliage,  its  thorny  branches,  and 
the  manner  in  which  it  bears  severe  clippings. 
It  may  be  propagated  from  cuttings  of  the 
roots ;  but  for  hedging,  plants  raised  from  the 
seed  are  preferred.  (See  HEDGE.) 

OSAGE  RIVER.    See  MISSOUEI,  vol.  xi.,  p.  664. 

OS  AGES,  a  tribe  of  Indians  of  the  Dakota  fam- 
ily. Marquette  in  1673  put  them  down  on  the 
Missouri  under  the  name  Wshage  (Wasashe). 
They  were  allies  of  the  Illinois,  and  before  1700 
were  driven  down  by  enemies  to  the  Arkansas. 
In  1712  a  party  of  them  aided  the  French  at 
Detroit  against  the  Foxes.  In  1719  Dutisne" 
visited  them  and  set  up  the  French  arms,  but 
the  next  year  a  Spanish  expedition  from  New 
Mexico  to  join  them  in  crushing  out  the  Mis- 
souris  was  destroyed  by  the  latter.  The  visit 
of  some  chiefs  to  France  in  1726  confirmed 
their  attachment.  They  operated  with  the 
French  against  the  Chickasaws,  and  against 
the  English  in  their  final  struggle.  At  the  be- 
ginning of  this  century  they  were  at  war  with 
the  Sacs  and  Foxes,  but  peace  was  made  in 
1804.  The  Great  Osages  (Barharcha)  were 
then  chiefly  at  the  forks  of  the  Arkansas  un- 
der Big  Track,  with  a  few  on  the  Great  Osage ; 
the  Little  Osages  (Oodzatau)  had  moved  from 
the  Missouri  to  the  Great  Osage.  They  were 
estimated  in  all  at  6,300.  They  ceded  some 
of  their  lands  by  a  treaty  made  Nov.  10,  1808, 
with  Papuisea,  grand  chief  of  the  Big  Osages, 
Nichu  Malli  of  the  Little,  the  Osages  of  the 
Arkansas  under  Clermont  and  Big  Tract  con- 
senting. Government  did  not  immediately 
carry  out  this  treaty,  and  the  Osages  declared 
that  it  had  been  signed  without  authority,  but 


OSBORN 


715 


it  was  too  late.  They  had  been  great  thieves 
and  plunderers  before,  and  now  became  worse. 
They  were  constantly  at  war  with  neighboring 
tribes,  and  especially  with  the  Oherokees,  who 
in  1817  killed  Clermont  and  destroyed  his 
town.  A  series  of  treaties  ceding  lands  fol- 
lowed: Sept,  12,  1815;  Sept.  25,  1818;  Aug. 
31,  1822 ;  June  2,  and  Aug.  10,  1825.  They 
comprised  at  this  time  the  Great  Osages  of  the 
Osage  and  of  the  Neosho,  and  the  Little  Osages 
and  the  Chanees  of  the  Arkansas.  A  mission 
and  school  of  the  American  board  were  estab- 
lished about  this  time,  but  were  abandoned  in 

1845.  They   were  constantly  warring  with 
other  tribes,  plundering,  and  showing  no  in- 
clination to  agriculture.     A  visit  of  some  to 
France  revived  the  old  French  influence,  and 
at  their  request  the  Jesuits  began  a  mission  in 

1846.  A  treaty  in  1839  ceded  lands  and  led  to 
increased  annuities,  but  in  a  few  years  the  set- 
tlement of  Kansas  and  the  consequent  trou- 
bles almost  drove  them  from  their  reservation, 
while   epidemic  diseases  swept  away  many. 
At  the  beginning  of  the  civil  war  about  1,000 
went  south;  treaties  in  September,  1865,  and 
May,  1868,  prepared  for  the  removal  of  the 
whole.     In  1870  the  tribe,  reduced  to  3,150, 
accepted  an  act  conveying  their  lands  in  trust 
to  the  United  States,  and  providing  for  their 
removal  to  Indian  territory.     The  government 
had  utterly  failed  to  protect  them,  and  their 
horses,  cattle,  and  houses  had  been  taken  from 
them.      Their  new  reservation  was  between 
Kansas  and  the  Creek  country,  west  of  Ion. 
96°.     Here  they  were  placed  under  the  soci- 
ety of  Friends.     Some  progress  in  agriculture 
is  said  to  have  been  made,  2,000  acres  being 
planted.     A  school  was  established  on  the  res- 
ervation, and  33  pupils  were  maintained  at  the 
Osage  mission  school  in  Kansas.     The  tribe 
received  interest  on  $300,000,  and  the  interest 
of  $110,000  is  applied  to  education.     Some 
educational  works  have  been  issued  in  the  lan- 
guage, but  there  is  no  grammar  or  dictionary. 

OSAKA.     See  OZAKA. 

OSBOR\,  Sherard,  an  English  author,  born 
April  25,  1822,  died  in  May,  1875.  He  en- 
tered the  navy  in  1837,  served  in  the  search 
for  Sir  John  Franklin,  in  the  Crimean  war,  and 
in  Japan  and  China,  where  the  emperor  gave 
him  in  1862  the  command  of  a  squadron  for 
the  suppression  of  piracy;  but  he  withdrew 
from  this  engagement,  and  in  1864  assumed  the 
command  of  the  Royal  Sovereign  to  test  the 
turrets  invented  by  Capt.  Cole.  Subsequently 
he  was  for  a  few  years  managing  agent  of  the 
great  Indian  Peninsula  railway  at  Bombay. 
After  his  return  to  England  he  became  rear 
admiral.  The  lords  of  the  admiralty  delegated 
to  him  at  the  close  of  1874,  in  conjunction 
with  Rear  Admirals  Richards  and  Sir  Leopold 
McClintock,  the  power  to  fit  out  an  arctic  ex- 
pedition, to  sail  in  1875.  His  works  include 
"  Stray  Leaves  from  an  Arctic  Journal  "  (Lon- 
don, 1852);  "Quedah,  or  my  Journal  in  Ma- 
layan Waters"  (1857) ;  "A  Cruise  in  Japanese 


716 


OSBORNE 


OSCEOLA 


Waters"  (1859);  "The  Career,  Last  Voyage, 
and  Fate  of  Sir  John  Franklin  "  (1860)  ;  "  The 
Past  and  Future  of  British  Relations  in  China  " 
(1860);  and  "Japanese  Fragments"  (1860). 

OSBORNE,  a  N".  county  of  Kansas,  intersected 
by  the  S.  fork  of  Solomon  river  ;  area,  900  sq. 
m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  33.  The  surface  is  rolling 
and  consists  mostly  of  prairies;  the  soil  is 
good.  Capital,  Osborne. 

OSBORNE,  Lord  Sydney  GodolpMn,  an  English 
philanthropist,  born  Feb.  5, 1808,  died  in  1873. 
He  was  the  third  son  of  the  first  Lord  Godol- 
phin,  and  brother  of  the  present  duke  of  Leeds. 
He  graduated'  at  Oxford  in  1830,  and  became 
rector  of  Stoke  Pogis,  and  in  1841  of  Durwes- 
ton,  Dorsetshire.  He  has  published  "Glean- 
ings in  the  West  of  Ireland"  (London,  1850), 
the  result  of  a  visit  to  Ireland  during  the  famine 
of  1847;  "Lady  Eva,  her  Last  Days,  a  Tale" 
(1851);  "Scutari  and  its  Hospitals"  (1855), 
which  he  visited  and  aided  in  improving ;  and 
many  brief  essays  for  the  promotion  of  various 
charities. 

OSCAXS.    See  ITALIC  RACES  AND  LANGUAGES. 

OSCAR  I.,  Joseph  Francis,  king  of  Sweden  and 
Norway,  born  in  Paris,  July  4,  1799,  died  in 
Stockholm,  July  8,  1859.  He  was  a  son  of  the 
French  general  Bernadotte,  afterward  king 
of  Sweden,  his  mother  being  Desiree  Clary, 
the  sister  of  Mme.  Joseph  Bonaparte.  He 
began  his  education  at  the  Louis  le  Grand 
college,  and  was  but  11  years  old  when  his 
father  was  elected  by  the  Riksdag  of  Sweden 
crown  prince,  as  future  successor  of  Charles 
XIII.  He  soon  acquired  a  perfect  command 
of  the  Swedish  language,  and  showed  remark- 
able proficiency  in  literature,  science,  and  the 
fine  arts,  especially  music.  Some  of  his  songs, 
hymns,  and  marches  are  still  performed  in 
Sweden.  He  gave  particular  attention  to  poli- 
tics and  the  military  art,  and  in  1818  entered 
the  university  of  Upsal,  on  which  occasion  he 
was  elected  its  chancellor.  He  had  renounced 
Roman  Catholicism  to  embrace  the  national  or 
Lutheran  creed.  He  published,  besides  various 
essays,  a  work  "  On  Penal  Laws  and  Estab- 
lishments" (1841),  which  had  a  large  circula- 
tion throughout  Europe.  On  his  accession  to 
the  throne,  March  8,  1844,  he  adopted  liberal 
measures,  and  caused  bills  to  be  presented  to 
the  Riksdag  for  the  removal  of  the  civil  dis- 
abilities of  the  Jews,  the  freedom  of  manufac- 
tures and  commerce,  and  parliamentary  reform. 
The  latter  project  led  to  violent  and  repeated 
discussions,  and  was  baffled  by  the  opposition 
of  the  nobility.  He  was  more  successful  in 
his  exertions  for  religious  and  temperance  re- 
forms and  the  improvement  of  the  social  con- 
dition of  women.  On  the  outbreak  of  the 
eastern  war,  in  concert  with  the  king  of  Den- 
mark, he  issued  a  declaration  of  armed  neu- 
trality ;  and  on  Nov.  21,  1855,  he  concluded  a 
defensive  treaty  with  France  and  England. 
Constitutional  disease,  increased  by  grief  for 
the  death  of  his  second  son  Gustavus  in  1852, 
led  him,  on  Sept.  25,  1857,  to  resign  his  au- 


thority into  the  hands  of  his  eldest  son,  Charles, 
as  regent.  Oscar  married  in  1823  Josephine 
Maximilienne  Eugenie,  daughter  of  Eugene 
Beauharnais,  the  son  of  the  empress  Josephine. 
Besides  Charles  XV.,  who  succeeded  him,  he 
left  two  sons,  Oscar  Frederick,  duke  of  Ostro- 
gothia,  and  Augustus,  duke  of  Dalecarlia,  and 
two  grandsons. 

OSCAR  II.,  king  of  Sweden  and  Norway,  third 
son  of  the  preceding,  born  Jan.  21, 1829.  He 
succeeded  his  brother  Charles  XV.  on  Sept.  18, 
1872.  He  has  continued  the  policy  of  his  pre- 
decessors, endeavoring  to  enlarge  the  liberty 
and  increase  the  prosperity  of  all  classes  of  the 
people.  He  has  carried  out  measures  of  reform 
pending  at  the  time  of  his  brother's  death, 
especially  the  law  abolishing  stamp  duties  on 
journals.  He  married,  June  6,  1857,  Sophia, 
daughter  of  William,  duke  of  Nassau,  and  has 
four  children:  Gustavus,  Oscar,  Charles,  and 
Eugene. 

OSCEOLA.  I.  A  N.  W.  central  county  of  the 
S.  peninsula  of  Michigan,  drained  by  Muskegon 
river  and  branches  of  the  Manistee ;  area,  576 
sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  2,093.  The  surface  is 
level,  and  along  the  streams  swampy ;  the  soil 
is  fertile.  It  is  traversed  by  the  Flint  and 
Pere  Marquette  and  the  Grand  Rapids  and 
Indiana  railroads.  The  chief  productions  in 
1870  were  4,763  bushels  of  wheat,  1,127  of 
rye,  6,087  of  Indian  corn,  9,532  of  oats,  653 
of  barley,  37,467  of  potatoes,  16,490  Ibs.  of 
butter,  and  2,532  tons  of  hay.  The  value  of 
live  stock  was  $65,767.  Capital,  Hersey.  II. 
A  N.  W.  county  of  Iowa,  bordering  on  Minne- 
sota, and  watered  by  Rock  river,  a  tributary 
of  the  Big  Sioux,  and  by  the  Little  Sioux; 
area,  432  sq.  m. ;  returned  as  having  no  pop- 
ulation in  1870.  The  surface  consists  of  un- 
dulating and  fertile  prairies.  It  is  traversed 
by  the  Sioux  City  and  St.  Paul  railroad. 

OSCEOLA  (Seminole,  As-se-Jie-ho-lar},  a  chief 
of  the  Seminole  Indians,  born  in  Georgia  in 
1804,  died  at  Fort  Moultrie,  near  Charleston, 
Jan.  30,  1838.  He  was  the  son  of  an  Indian 
trader,  an  Englishman  named  Powell,  and  his 
mother  was  the  daughter  of  a  chief.  In  1808 
he  removed  with  his  mother  to  Florida,  where 
he  became  influential  among  the  Seminoles.  In 
1835,  while  on  a  visit  to  Fort  King,  his  wife 
was  claimed  as  a  slave,  and  carried  off  as  such. 
Osceola,  angry  because  of  this  and  other  inju- 
ries, made  use  of  threatening  expressions,  and 
was  seized  by  order  of  Gen.  Thompson,  the 
United  States  Indian  agent,  and  put  in  irons, 
but  released  after  a  very  short  imprisonment. 
He  lay  in  wait  for  Gen.  Thompson  for  weeks 
and  months,  and  at  length  finding  him  outside 
of  the  fort,  Dec.  28,  killed  him  and  four  other 
whites.  This  was  the  beginning  of  the  second 
Seminole  war.  Osceola  immediately  took  com- 
mand of  a  band  of  Indians  and  fugitive  slaves, 
who  on  the  same  day  had  surprised  and  mas- 
sacred Major  Dade  and  a  detachment  of  110 
soldiers.  On  Dec.  31,  with  200  followers,  he 
encountered  Gen.  Clinch  and  600  Americans 


OSCODA 

at  the  crossing  of  the  Withlacoochee,  and  after 
a  hard-fought  action  of  upward  of  an  hour 
was  compelled  to  retreat.  The  Seminole  chief 
was  disabled  early  in  the  battle.  Subsequently 
he  fought  several  actions  against  the  troops 
under  Gen.  Gaines,  and  on  June  8,  1836,  led  a 
most  daring  and  well  conducted  assault  upon 
the  fortified  post  at  Micanopy,  which  was  re- 
pulsed with  difficulty  by  the  garrison  of  300 
regular  troops.  On  Aug.  16  he  was  attacked 
at  Fort  Drane,  and  narrowly  escaped  capture. 
For  upward  of  a  year  he  conducted  the  struggle 
against  superior  forces  with  energy  and  skill ; 
but  on  Oct.  21,  1837,  while  holding  a  con- 
ference under  a  flag  of  truce  with  Gen.  Jesup 
near  St.  Augustine,  he  was  seized  with  several 
of  his  followers,  and  confined  at  Fort  Moultrie. 

OSCODA,  a  N.  E.  county  of  the  S.  peninsula 
of  Michigan,  intersected  by  the  An  Sable  river ; 
area,  576  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  70.  The  sur- 
face consists  of  rolling  table  lands;  the  soil 
has  but  moderate  fertility. 

OSEL.    See  OESEL. 

OSGOOD,  David,  an  American  clergyman,  born 
in  Andover,  Mass.,  Oct.  14,  1747,  died  in  Med- 
ford,  Dec.  12,  1822.  He  graduated  at  Har- 
vard college  in  1771,  studied  theology  in  Cam- 
bridge, was  ordained  Sept.  14,  1774,  and  set- 
tled in  Medf ord,  where  he  continued  as  minis- 
ter for  nearly  50  years.  He  was  a  zealous  fed- 
eralist, and  one  of  his  sermons  in  1794,  occa- 
sioned by  Citizen  Genet's  appeal  to  the  people 
against  the  government,  passed  through  sev- 
eral editions.  He  was  a  thorough  Calvinist, 
though  most  of  his  intimate  associates  were 
Unitarians.  A  volume  of  his  sermons  was 
published  after  his  death  (Boston,  1824). 

OSGOOD,  Frances  Sargent,  an  American  poetess, 
born  in  Boston,  June  18,  1811,  died  in  Hing- 
ham,  Mass.,  May  12, 1850.  She  was  the  daugh- 
ter of  Mr.  Locke,  a  merchant  of  Boston.  In 
1835  she  was  married  to  Mr.  S.  S.  Osgood,  a 
painter,  with  whom  she  went  to  London,  and 
there  published  a  small  volume  entitled  "  The 
Casket  of  Fate,"  and  a  collection  of  her  po- 
ems entitled  "A  Wreath  of  Wild  Flowers 
from  New  England  "  (8vo,  1839).  She  after- 
ward lived  in  New  York,  and  edited  several 
gift  books.  Her  poems  were  published  in 
1846,  and  a  complete  collection  in  1850. 

OSGOOD,  Samuel,  an  American  clergyman, 
born  in  Cllarlestown,  Mass.,  Aug.  30,  1812. 
He  graduated  at  Harvard  college  in  1832,  and 
at  the  Cambridge  divinity  school  in  1835.  In 
1836-'7  he  was  an  editor  of  the  "Western 
Messenger,"  at  Louisville,  Ky.  In  1837  he 
was  settled  over  the  Unitarian  church  .in 
Nashua,  N.  H.,  whence  he  was  called  in  1841 
to  the  Westminster  church,  Providence,  E.  I., 
and  in  1849  to  the  church  of  the  Messiah,  New 
York,  in  which  city  he  still  resides.  From 
1850  to  1854  he  was  an  editor  of  the  "Chris- 
tian Inquirer  "  in  New  York.  In  1869  he  re- 
signed his  pastoral  charge  of  the  church  of 
the  Messiah  after  20  years'  service,  and  went 
to  Europe  for  rest  and  health  ;  and  on  his  re- 


OSHKOSH 


717 


turn  in  1870  he  entered  the  Protestant  Epis- 
copal church.  He  received  the  degree  of  D.  D. 
from  Harvard  college  in  1857,  and  that  of 
LL.D.  from  Hobart  college  in  1872.  He  has 
been  active  in  literary  and  educational  interests 
in  New  York  and  New  England,  and  was  for 
years  domestic  corresponding  secretary  of  the 
New  York  historical  society.  His  first  publica- 
tions were  translations  from  Olshausen  and  De 
Wette,  "The  History  of  the  Passion"  (1839), 
and  "  Human  Life  "  (1842).  His  original  works 
are  :  "  Studies  in  Christian  Biography  "  (1851) ; 
"  The  Hearthstone  "  (1854) ;  "  God  with  Men  " 
(1854) ;  "  Milestones  in  our  Life  Journey " 
(1855) ;  "  Student  Life  "  (1860) ;  and  "  Ameri- 
can Leaves  "  (1867).  He  has  contributed  large- 
ly to  the  "  Christian  Examiner,"  and  published 
some  articles  in  the  "North  American  Ee- 
yiew,"  the  "Bibliotheca  Sacra,"  and  the  lead- 
ing monthly  magazines.  His  printed  sermons, 
speeches,  and  orations  are  numerous.  He  has 
of  late  given  his  time  largely  to  lectures  and 
literary  labor,  writing  for  leading  journals  and 
magazines,  and  lecturing  and  speaking  at  col- 
leges and  other  institutions  of  science  and  art. 

OSHIBIA  (big  island),  the  name  usually  ap- 
plied by  the  Japanese  to  the  larger  of  a  pair 
of  adjacent  islands,  the  smaller  being  called 
Koshima  (little  island).  The  0  of  the  first  is 
long ;  that  of  the  second,  short.  Oshima,  off 
the  province  of  Idzu,  is  the  best  known  of  the 
many  oshimas  in  Japanese  waters.  Foreigners 
sometimes  call  it  Vries  or  Barneveld's  island. 
It  is  the  largest  and  most  northern  of  the  chain 
fronting  the  gulf  of  Yedo,  is  oval,  about  8  in. 
long  and  5  m.  wide.  At  its  centre  is  an  active 
volcano,  2,556  ft.  high,  over  which  a  white 
vapor  cloud  is  usually  floating,  which  at  night 
often  reflects  like  a  mirror  the  glare  of  the 
fires  in  the  crater,  and  forms  a  beacon  for  the 
mariner.  In  clear  weather  the  island  is  a  con- 
spicuous landmark,  visible  for  many  leagues. 
The  slopes  of  the  mountains  are  well  cultiva- 
ted, and  there  are  many  villages  with  a  con- 
siderable population.  There  is  a  junk  harbor 
in  the  S.  E.  point  of  the  island. 

OSHKOSH,  a  city  and  the  capital  of  Winne- 
bago  co.,  Wisconsin,  on  the  W.  shore  of  Lake 
Winnebago,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Upper  Fox 
river,  and  on  the  Chicago  and  Northwestern  and 
the  Oshkosh  and  Mississippi  railroads,  about 
80  m.  N.  E.  of  Madison,  and  80  m.  N.  N.  W. 
of  Milwaukee;  pop.  in  1860,  6,086;  in  1870, 
12,663;  in  1875,  estimated  by  local  authorities 
at  more  than  16,000.  It  extends  along  both 
banks  of  the  river,  here  spanned  by  two  rail- 
road and  two  ordinary  bridges,  for  nearly  3  m. 
from  Lake  Winnebago  to  Lake  Buttes  des  Morts, 
and  covers  an  area  of  about  8  sq.  m.,  about 
half  of  which  is  closely  built  upon.  The  river 
is  here  about  600  ft.  wide,  forming  a  capacious 
harbor.  The  surrounding  country  is  fertile, 
and  the  Wolf  river,  which  falls  into  the  Fox 
12  m.  above  the  city,  affords  communication 
with  the  rich  lumber  region  to  the  north.  The 
city  is  lighted  with  gas.  The  principal  busi- 


718 


OSHMOONEYN 


OSIER 


ness  blocks  are  substantially  built  of  brick,  and 
many  of  the  residences  are  surrounded  with 
handsome  grounds.  The  main  business  street 
is  paved,  and  the  other  principal  streets  are 
gravelled  and  bordered  with  shade  trees,  af- 
fording fine  drives.  The  chief  public  buildings 
are  the  court  house ;  the  northern  state  insane 
asylum,  with  a  frontage  of  800  ft.,  costing 
more  than  $600,000 ;  the  high  school  building, 
erected  at  a  cost  of  more  than  $60,000 ;  and 
the  state  normal  school  building.  The  building 
and  grounds  of  the  stock  growers'  association, 
where  the  northern  state  fairs  are  held,  are 
worthy  of  mention.  The  trade  of  Oshkosh  is 
important,  the  sales  of  merchandise  amounting 
to  about  $4,000,000  a  year.  Lines  of  steamers 
in  the  season  of  navigation  ply  to  New  London 
on  the  Wolf  river,  to  Berlin  on  the  Upper  Fox, 
and  to  Green  Bay ;  and  sailing  vessels  trans- 
port lumber,  building  stone,  sand,  and  brick 
to  and  from  the  E.  shore  of  Lake  Winnebago. 
The  city  is  largely  engaged  in  manufacturing, 
the  chief  establishments  being  24  saw  mills, 
15  shingle  mills,  3  founderies  and  machine 
shops  (producing  steam  engines,  circular  mills, 
and  other  iron  work),  8  planing  mills,  7  sash 
and  door  factories,  3  wood-turning  establish- 
ments, 2  match  factories,  2  grist  mills,  2  manu- 
factories of  furniture,  2  of  agricultural  imple- 
ments, 2  of  steam  boilers,  1  of  extension  tables, 

1  of  ornamental  fence,  1  of  boots  and  shoes,  1 
of  soap  and  candles,  1  of  trunks,  several  of 
carriages,  1  of  barrels,  2  ship  yards,  6  brew- 
eries, 2  tanneries,  lime  works,  &c.     The  annual 
value  of  the  manufactures  is  about  $4,000,000. 
There  are  two  national  banks  and  a  savings 
bank.     Oshkosh  is  divided  into  six  wards,  and 
is  governed  by  a  mayor  and  a  board  of  three 
aldermen  from  each  ward.      It  has  a  small 
police  force  and  a  fire  department.     Sessions 
of  the  United  States  courts  for  the  eastern 
district  of  Wisconsin  are  held  here  once  a  year. 
There  are  four  leading  hotels,  an  opera  house, 
a  business  college,  several  private  schools,  a  dai- 
ly and  four  weekly  (one  German)  newspapers, 
two  monthly  periodicals,  and  a  library  associ- 
ation possessing  about  1,500  volumes.    Besides 
the  high  school  building  there  are  nine  public 
school  buildings,  with  graded  schools,  attended 
by  about  2,300  pupils.     The  churches,  19  in 
number  besides  two  missions,  are  as  follows : 

2  Baptist,    1  Congregational,   2  Episcopal,   1 
Evangelical  Reformed,  2  Lutheran,  1  Lutheran 
Evangelical,  3  Methodist  Episcopal,  1  Metho- 
dist Oalvinistic,  2  Presbyterian,  3  Roman  Cath- 
olic, and  1  Universalist. — Trading  posts  were 
established  by  the  French  Canadians  on  the 
site  of  Oshkosh  soon  after  1820,  but  the  perma- 
nent settlement  of  the  city  dates  from  1836. 
It  was  incorporated  in  1853.     Four  destructive 
fires  have  swept  over  it:  in  May,  1859;  May, 
1866;  July,  1874;  and  April,  1875. 

OSHMOONETO,  or  Ashmoonein.  See  HEKMO- 
POLIS  MAGNA. 

OSIANDER,  Andreas,  often  called  by  his  Ger- 
man name  of  HOSEMANN  or  HOSSMANN,  a  Ger- 


man reformer,  born  at  Gunzenhausen,  Fran- 
conia,  Dec.  19,  1498,  died  Oct.  17,  1552.  He 
studied  at  Leipsic,  Altenburg,  and  Ingolstadt, 
became  teacher  of  Hebrew  in  the  Augustinian 
convent  of  Nuremberg,  and  in  1522  pastor  of 
a  church  in  that  city,  which  post  he  held  for 
26  years.  He  joined  Luther's  party  immediate- 
ly after  the  attack  on  indulgences,  participated 
in  the  conference  in  1529  at  Marburg  between 
the  Swiss  and  Lutheran  divines  in  regard  to 
the  doctrine  of  the  real  presence,  and  was 
present  at  Augsburg  in  1530,  and  at  Schmal- 
kalden  in  1546.  On  the  promulgation  of  the 
Augsburg  Interim  in  1548  he  left  Nuremberg, 
but  was  invited  by  Albert,  duke  of  Prussia,  to 
become  pastor  and  professor  of  theology  in 
the  university  of  Konigsberg.  He  propaga- 
ted opinions  concerning  penitence,  the  divine 
image  in  man,  the  two  natures  of  Christ,  and 
justification,  which  were  combated  by  Melanch- 
thon,  and  led  to  a  warm  controversy,  which 
continued  for  years  after  his  death,  ending  in 
the  execution  of  his  son-in-law  and  partisan 
Funck  and  two  of  his  friends  for  sedition,  trea- 
son, and  promoting  the  false  doctrines  of  Osian- 
der,  with  the  formal  condemnation  of  their 
heresies  (1566).  Osiander  was  very  learned 
and  eloquent,  but  a  violent  controversialist. 
He  published  works  on  the  "  Harmony  of  the 
Gospels,"  on  the  "  Last  Times  and  the  End  of 
the  World,"  on  "  Prohibited  Marriages,"  &c. 

OSIER  (Fr.  osier;  Gr.  oZrof),  the  name  of 
those  willows  the  long  and  pliant  shoots  of 
which  are  used  for  basket  making.  In  Eng- 
land the  basket  makers  use  the  name  exclusive- 
ly for  the  rods  of  the  white  osier  (salix  mmi- 
nalis)  and  a  few  other  soft  kinds,  while  the 


Common  Osier  (Salix  viminalis).    Staminate  and  Pistillate 
Catkins  and  Flowers. 

harder  and  better  rods  produced  by  other  spe- 
cies are  known  as  basket  willows,  or  simply 
willows.  In  English  works  30  or  40  species 
and  varieties  of  willow  are  named  as  producing 
useful  osiers,  some  of  which  are  naturally  large 
trees,  but  are  kept  small  by  the  treatment  to 


OSIER 

which  they  are  subjected.  Not  only  do  dif- 
ferent species  and  varieties  furnish  osiers  of 
various  qualities,  but  the  product  is  affected  by 
the  kind  of  soil  on  which  they  grow,  by  the 
distance  the  plants  stand  apart,  and  by  the 
treatment  of  the  rods  after  they  are  cut.  The 
points  taken  into  account  in  judging  of  the 
quality  of  willows  are  toughness  and  elasticity ; 
the  smoothness  of 'the  surface,  and  its  color 
when  peeled ;  the  readiness  with  which  the 
rod  may  be  split ;  the  quantity  of  pith,  and  the 
length  of  the  shoot  in  proportion  to  its  thick- 
ness. Though  the  wild  willows  are  most  fre- 
quently found  along  the  margins  of  streams 
and  in  wet  places,  moist  land  is  not  required 
for  their  successful  cultivation ;  in  England  it 
is  found  impossible  to  raise  willows  of  good 
quality  upon  land  which  would  need  draining 
if  other  crops  were  to  be  put  upon  it.  The 
land  being  thoroughly  prepared,  as  for  any 
other  crop,  the  sets  are  planted  at  distances 
depending  upon  the  variety  of  willow;  some 
are  placed  as  close  as  16  by  8  in.,  and  coarser 
kinds  20  by  12  in.  The  sets  are  pieces  of  twigs 
of  the  previous  season's  growth,  about  a  foot 
long,  and  sharpened  at  the  lower  end.  A 
frame  of  slats  is  used  to  secure  regularity  in 
planting ;  the  slats  are  of  the  proper  distance 
apart  for  the  rows,  and  upon  them  are  cut 
notches  indicating  the  places  for  the  sets.  The 
planter,  having  his  hand  protected  by  a  leather 
shield,  thrusts  the  sets  into  the  soil,  one  at  each 
notch  on  the  frame,  pushing  them  into  the 
ground  in  a  slanting  position,  and  quite  out  of 
sight.  The  object  in  planting  so  thickly  is  to 
induce  a  growth  of  slender  upright  shoots,  with- 
out any  side  branches.  The  shoots  produced  the 
first  season  after  setting  are  small  and  of  little 
or  no  value,  but  they  must  be  carefully  cut,  or 
the  crop  of  the  second  year  will  be  much  in- 
jured. The  crop  of  the  third  year  is  expected 
to  pay  all  the  expenses,  rent,  taxes,  &c.,  of 
establishing  the  plantation;  and  the  land  is 
kept  in  willows  10  or  12  years,  when  the  roots 
are  ploughed  and  grubbed  out  and  the  land 
given  to  some  other  crop.  The  land  must  all 
the  time  be  kept  clear  of  weeds,  and  if  it  shows 
signs  of  exhaustion,  manure  must  be  applied. 
The  willows  are  cut  as  soon  as  the  leaves  fall, 
with  a  heavy  hooked  knife ;  the  cutting  should 
be  close  to  the  ground,  as  stumps  would  be 
liable  to  the  attacks  of  insects  and  diseases. 
The  rods  are  tied  in  bundles,  having  a  girth  of 
3  ft.  at  the  larger  end.  The  after  treatment  of 
the  crop  depends  upon  the  use  for  which  it  is 
intended.  If  for  peeling  white,  the  bundles 
are  set  upright  with  their  buts  in  6  or  8  in.  of. 
water  ;  and  in  the  following  spring,  when 
growth  begins,  the  bark  peels  off  readily.  If 
for  peeling  buff,  as  it  is  called,  the  bundles  are 
set  upright  until  sufficiently  dry  to  be  put  under 
cover,  or  stacked  and  thatched  over.  To  peel 
these  dried  willows,  they  are  steamed  or  boiled; 
the  baskets  made  from  them  are  much  firmer 
and  more  durable  than  those  from  the  white 
rods.  The  peeling  is  usually  done  by  drawing 
623  VOL.  xii.— 46 


OSIRIS 


719 


the  rods  through  an  implement  made  of  a  half- 
inch  iron  rod  something  like  a  prolonged  letter 
V.  Several  machines  have  been  invented  for 
peeling,  some  of  which  do  the  work  very  com- 
pletely. In  parts  of  Great  Britain  willows  are 
an  important  crop,  and  it  is  estimated  that 
there  are,  including  Ireland,  between  6,000  and 
7,000  acres  devoted  to  their  cultivation  ;  both 
France  and  Belgium  produce  large  quantities 
of  excellent  osiers,  and  many  tons  of  the  coarser 
kinds  are  exported  from  Holland.  While  every 
few  years  some  interest  has  been  awakened  in 
this  country  in  regard  to  willow  culture,  it  has 
never  gained  much  foothold,  although  neither 
climate  nor  soil  presents  any  obstacle  to  suc- 
cess. Nurserymen  and  gardeners  find  a  small 
patch  of  osiers  very  useful  to  furnish  bands 
for  tying  up  bundles  of  trees,  to  supply  straight 
slender  stakes  for  plants,  and  for  various  other 
uses ;  to  keep  such  trees  in  a  productive  state, 
they  should  be  headed  back  each  autumn  to 
induce  an  abundant  growth  of  strong  straight 
wands.  In  Europe  osiers  are  also  grown  for 
hoop  poles ;  for  this  purpose  the  plants  are  set 
about  twice  as  far  apart  as  for  basket  making, 
and  allowed  to  grow  two  and  three  years  be- 
fore cutting. — The  white  or  common  osier  of 
England  is  salix  viminalis  ;  it  is  the  most  rapid 
growing  of  all,  producing  on  good  land  shoots 
10  to  12  ft.  long  in  one  season ;  but  it  is  the 
least  tough  of  any  of  the  basket  willows,  and 
brings  the  lowest  price.  It  is  naturalized  in 
this  country,  and  in  the  older  states  is  not  rare 
in  wet  meadows.  The  rose  of  purple  willow 
(S.  purpurea,  also  called  8.  Tielix  and  by  several 
other  synonymes)  appears  to  be  a  variable  spe- 
cies, some  forms  of  which  are  highly  esteemed 
and  rank  among  the  best  small  willows.  The 
golden  willow,  a  variety  (var.  mtellina)  of  the 
common  white  willow  (S.  alba),  very  frequent 
as  a  large  tree  in  the  older  parts  of  the  country, 
and  readily  recognized  by  the  bright  yellow- 
color  of  its  shoots,  when  treated  as  an  osier,  is 
an  excellent  basket  willow.  The  almond  wil- 
low (8.  amygdalina  and  8.  triandra),  called 
also  the  brown  Norfolk,  is  much  cultivated  for 
basket  work,  and  is  regarded  as  the  most  pli- 
able of  all  willows.  There  is  perhaps  no  genus 
of  plants  in  which  so  much  confusion  exists  as 
among  the  willows,  and  it  is  very  difficult  to 
assign  the  proper  botanical  names  to  the  many 
kinds  in  cultivation,  a  difficulty  increased  by 
the  fact  that  many  of  them  are  sports,  or  forms 
fixed  by  selection,  of  one  species. 

OSIRIS,  one  of  the  principal  divinities  of  an- 
cient Egypt.  The  inscriptions  speak  of  him  as 
"king  of  life,"  "king  of  gods,"  "lord  of  in- 
numerable days,"  and  "  ruler  of  eternity."  He 
is  represented  as  having  a  human  form,  and 
always  has  the  head  of  a  man.  He  is  colored 
green  as  the  god  of  vivification.  His  sacred 
symbols  are  the  evergreen,  the  tamarisk,  and 
a  sort  of  ibis  with  two  long  plumes  at  the  back 
of  the  head.  He  is  the  son  of  Seb  (Cronos, 
time),  and  represents  the  element  of  water, 
symbolizing  in  a  higher  sense,  according  to 


720 


OSKALOOSA 


OSMUNDA 


Brugsch  (Eistoire  tffigypte,  2d  ed.,  1875), 
finished  existence,  or  the  past.  In  the  mytho- 
logical legends  he  is  represented  as  the  origi- 
nator of  human  civilization,  and  as  engaged 
subsequently  to  his  philanthropic  services  in 
a  terrible  contest  with  Typhon,  or  Evil  (called 
in  Egyptian  Set  or  Sutekh).  Typhon  prevails ; 
Osiris  is  slain,  and  his  dead  body  is  fitted  into 
a  chest,  thrown  into  the  Nile,  and  swept  out 
to  sea.  Isis,  the  consort  of  Osiris,  learns  of  his 
death,  and  ransacks  the  world  in  search  of  his 
body.  She  finds  it  mutilated  by  Typhon.  Then 
Osiris  descends  into  the  infernal  regions,  and 
has  a  later  and  different  existence  under  the 
name  of  Serapis.  Typhon  is  eventually  slain 
by  Horus,  the  son  of  Isis.  Ancient  writers  say 
the  Egyptians  believed  that  the  soul  of  Osiris 
entered  the  bull  Apis,  and  it  is  assumed  that 
the  temple  of  Serapis  mentioned  by  the  Greeks 
was  the  temple  of  Osarapi,  or  Osiris  Apis.  On 
the  judgment  of  Osiris  and  his  assessors,  in  the 
"hall  of  double  judgment"  to  which  all  the 
dead  are  led,  depended  the  eternal  fate  of  the 
soul.  The  "Book  of  the  Dead"  (see  EGYPT, 
LANGUAGE  AND  LITERATUKE  OF,  vol.  vi.,  p.  477) 
gives  an  account  of  the  pilgrimage  of  the  dead 
to  Hades,  where  they  are  judged  by  Osiris. 

OSKALOOSA,  a  city  and  the  capital  of  Mahas- 
ka  co.,  Iowa,  on  the  Keokuk  and  Des  Moines 
Valley  and  the  Central  Iowa  railroads,  55  m.  E. 
S.  E.  of  Des  Moines ;  pop.  in  1870,  3,204 ;  in 
1875,  5,500,  the  city  having  been  enlarged.  It 
is  situated  on  an  elevation  between  the  Des 
Moines  and  South  Skunk  rivers,  and  is  well 
drained.  It  contains  two  planing  mills,  three 
founderies  and  machine  shops,  two  flouring 
mills,  two  woollen  factories,  gas  works,  a  grain 
elevator,  a  national  and  two  private  banks,  and 
four  hotels.  There  are  three  public  school 
buildings,  four  weekly  newspapers,  and  12 
churches.  It  is  the  seat  of  two  colleges :  Os- 
kaloosa  college,  established  in  1861,  under  the 
control  of  the  Disciples,  and  Penn  college, 
founded  in  1873,  belonging  to  the  Friends. 
The  former  in  1873-'4  had  5  instructors  and 
254  students,  and  the  latter  5  instructors  and 
219  students. 

OSMAtf.    See  OTHMAN. 

OSMIUM,  a  metal  belonging  to  the  platinum 
group,  discovered  by  Tennant  in  1803  in  pla- 
tinum ore,  associated  with  iridium,  ruthenium, 
and  small  quantities  of  rhodium,  as  an  alloy 
called  osmiridiura  or  iridosmine,  and  which 
forms  the  residue  left  after  the  treatment  of 
platinum  ore  by  aqua  regia.  The  method  for 
separating  these  different  metals  is  that  of 
Fremy,  and  depends  upon  the  readiness  with 
which  osmium  is  oxidized  and  upon  the  vola- 
tility of  the  tetroxide  produced.  About  200 
grammes  of  the  platinum  residue  is  roasted  in 
a  current  of  dry  air  in  a  porcelain  or  platinum 
tube  heated  to  redness.  Tetroxide  of  osmium 
or  osmic  acid  is  formed,  and  being  volatile  is 
passed  into  a  series  of  glass  flasks  connected 
with  the  tube  leading  from  the  furnace,  where 
it  is  condensed  in  beautiful  needle-shaped  crys- 


tals. The  last  flask  contains  a  solution  of 
caustic  potash  to  absorb  any  tetroxide  that  may 
remain  uncondensed,  and  an  aspirator  is  at- 
tached to  it  to  draw  the  air  through  the  appa- 
ratus. The  oxide  is  then  by  Berzelius's  method 
digested  with  hydrochloric  acid  and  mercury 
in  a  closed  vessel  at  284°  F.  Calomel  is  pro- 
duced by  the  decomposition  of  mercurous  ox- 
ide which  is  formed  by  the  union  of  the  mer- 
cury with  the  oxygen  of  the  osmic  acid,  and 
the  osmium  is  left  in  a  metallic  state  in  the 
form  of  a  black  powder  (OsO4  +  8Hg+8Hcl 
=Os+4HgaCla  +  4H9O).  The  metal  may  also 
be  obtained  by  digesting  osmic  acid  with  hy- 
drochloric acid  and  zinc.  The  properties  of 
osmium  vary  with  the  mode  of  preparation. 
In  the  black  pulverulent  state  its  specific  grav- 
ity is  about  10,  but  when  heated  to  the  fusing 
point  of  rhodium  it  acquires  a  density  of  21*4. 
At  a  still  higher  temperature,  capable  of  melt- 
ing ruthenium  and  iridium  and  volatilizing 
platinum,  osmium  likewise  volatilizes,  but  does 
not  melt ;  and  it  is  in  fact  the  most  refractory 
of  all  metals.  In  a  finely  divided  state  it  is 
highly  combustible,  and  is  easily  oxidized  by 
nitric  or  nitro-muriatic  acid,  in  both  cases  be- 
ing converted  into  tetroxide.  Five  oxides  of 
osmium  are  known,  viz.,  OsO,  Os20s,  OsOs, 
OsO3,  and  Os04.  The  first  three  form  salts  with 
acids ;  the  fourth  forms  with  a  few  bases  salts 
called  osmites.  The  tetroxide,  often  called  os- 
mic acid,  forms  salts  which  are  very  unstable ; 
it  can  scarcely  be  regarded  as  a  true  acid,  and 
its  solution  in  water  has  no  acid  reaction  with 
test  paper.  It  is  a  powerful  oxidizing  agent, 
decolorizing  indigo  solution,  and  converting  al- 
cohol into  aldehyde  and  acetic  acid.  Its  vapor 
is  intensely  pungent,  irritates  the  mucous  mem- 
brane, and  is  exceedingly  poisonous.  Accord- 
ing to  Fremy,  another  oxide  exists,  OsOs,  but 
it  is  very  unstable.  There  are  four  chlorides, 
OsCla,  OsCl3,  Os014,  and  OsCle,  called  respec- 
tively dichloride,  trichloride,  tetrachloride,  and 
hexachloride.  Osmium  burns  in  the  vapor  of 
sulphur,  forming  it  is  said  fixed  sulphides,  anal- 
ogous to  the  oxides.  All  osmium  compounds 
when  heated  with  excess  of  nitric  acid  yield 
an  unpleasant  odor  of  tetroxide  of  osmium. 

OSMCNDA,  a  genus  of  ferns  popularly  known 
as  flowering  ferns.  With  one  other  genus  they 
form  the  suborder  Osmundacea,  in  which  the 
spore  cases  are  naked,  globose,  and  each  with 
a  short  pedicel  or  stalk ;  their  surface  is  cov- 
ered with  a  fine  network,  and  they  open  into 
halves  by  a  longitudinal  slit.  The  name  flow- 
ering fern  is  of  course  a  misnomer,  and  was 
probably  given  on  account  of  the  showy  char- 
acter of  the  fructification.  They  are  the  largest 
and  most  conspicuous  of  our  native  ferns,  and 
are  abundant  in  low  grounds  almost  every- 
where, north  and  south,  forming  large  clumps ; 
each  rootstock  throws  up  numerous  fronds, 
which  are  often  5  ft.  high.  We  have  three 
species.  The  royal  fern,  0.  regalis,  differs 
from  the  others  in  having  twice-pinnate  fronds, 
which  bear  the  fructification  at  the  top,  where 


OSNABRtfCK 

it  forms  a  showy  panicle.  This  species  is  also 
found  in  Europe,  where  it  attains  a  much 
greater  size  than  with  us ;  here  it  is  rarely  over 
5  ft.  high,  but  in  favorable  situations  in  Eng- 
land it  not  unfrequently  grows  to  8  or  10  ft., 
and  specimens  as  high  as  11  ft.  have  been 


OSSIAN 


721 


Eoyal  Fern  (Osmunda  regalis). 

found.  The  other  two  species  have  their  sterile 
fronds  once  pinnate.  Clayton's  flowering  fern 
(0.  Claytoniana)  rarely  exceeds  3  ft.;  from 
two  to  five  pairs  of  the  divisions  in  the  middle 
of  the  frond  are  fertile,  and  being  covered  with 
spore  cases  have  a  very  different  appearance 
from  the  rest  of  the  frond.  The  third  species 
is  the  cinnamon  fern  {0.  cinnamomea),  which 
differs  from  the  others  in  having  some  of  its 
fronds  entirely  fertile  and  the  others,  from 
the  same  rootstock,  entirely  sterile.  This  is 
very  common  in  swamps  and  wet  places,  and 
in  early  spring  the  unfolding  sterile  fronds, 
clothed  with  a  rusty  wool,  are  conspicuous ; 
they  become  smooth  when  full-grown ;  the  fer- 
tile fronds  are  in  the  centre,  1  to  2  ft.  long, 
and  covered  with  bright  cinnamon-colored 
spore  cases ;  these  decay  early,  and  the  sterile 
fronds  grow  to  a  length  of  4  or  5  ft. 

OSNABRUCK  (commonly  called  in  English  Os- 
nciburg),  a  city  of  Prussia,  in  the  province  of 
Hanover,  capital  of  a  district,  on  the  Hase,  71 
m.  W.  of  Hanover ;  pop.  in  1871,  23,308.  It  is 
surrounded  with  old  walls,  and  the  streets  are 
crooked  and  narrow.  Its  cathedral  was  built 
in  the  12th  century.  The  final  conference  on 
the  peace  of  Westphalia  was  held  in  the  town 
hall  in  1648.  There  are  two  gymnasia,  two 
normal  schools,  and  a  school  of  midwifery. 
The  manufactures  consist  of  leather,  linejns, 
woollens,  iron,  machinery,  and  especially  to- 
bacco ;  all  of  which  have  recently  been  stimu- 
lated by  increased  railway  facilities. — Osna- 
briick,  with  a  considerable  territory  on  both 
sides  of  the  Hase,  was  until  1803  a  bishopric, 
which  owed  its  foundation  to  Charlemagne. 


By  the  terms  of  the  peace  of  Westphalia  it 
was  agreed  that  it  should  be  alternately  gov- 
erned by  a  Roman  Catholic  and  a  Protestant 
bishop.  The  last  bishop,  Frederick  of  York, 
ceded  the  country  to  Hanover,  in  which  it  was 
designated  a  principality,  and  with  Meppen, 
Lingen,  and  other  territories  formed  the  Land- 
drostei  of  its  name.  It  afterward  became  part 
of  the  kingdom  of  Westphalia,  then  of  the 
French  empire,  and  after  the  fall  of  Napoleon 
reverted  to  Hanover.  The  inhabitants  are  of 
Saxon  descent.  The  present  diocese  of  Osna- 
briick  embraces  the  entire  district  and  East 
Friesland. 

OSNABURG.    See  OSBTABKUCK:. 

OSORIO,  Hieronymo,  a  Portuguese  author,  born 
in  Lisbon  in  1506,  died  in  Tavira,  Aug.  20, 
1580.  He  studied  at  Salamanca,  Paris,  and 
Bologna,  and  became  archdeacon  of  Evora, 
and  subsequently  bishop  of  Silves.  At  the  re- 
quest of  Cardinal  Henrique  he  wrote  in  Latin 
a  history  of  the  reign  of  King  Emanuel  (trans- 
lated into  English  by  James  Gibbs,  2  vols.  8vo, 
London,  1752).  Among  his  other  works  is  a 
treatise  De  Gloria  Lilri  V,  so  much  admired 
for  its  pure  Latinity  that  he  has  been  called 
the  Cicero  of  Portugal.  A  complete  collection 
of  his  works  was  published  in  Rome  by  his 
nephew  (4  vols.  fol.,  1592).  His  library  was 
taken  from  Cadiz  by  Lord  Essex  in  1596,  and 
added  to  the  Bodleian  library. 

OSPREY.    See  FISH  HAWK. 

OSSIAtf,  a  Celtic  bard,  who  is  supposed  to 
have  flourished  in  the  2d  or  3d  century  of  the 
Christian  era,  and  whose  compositions  in  the 
Celtic  language  were  for  many  ages  preserved 
among  the  Scottish  and  Irish  peasantry.  His 
father  Fingal  was  one  of  the  most  famous  of 
the  Celtic  legendary  heroes.  Public  attention 
was  first  called  to  the  Celtic  poetry  of  Scot- 
land by  Alexander  McDonald,  who  published 
in  1751  a  volume  of  his  own  songs  in  Gaelic, 
in  the  English  preface  to  which  he  proposed 
to  make  a  collection  of  Gaelic  poems  still  in 
existence  in  the  highlands  of  Scotland,  and,  as 
he  asserted,  of  great  excellence.  He  is  con- 
sidered the  ablest  of  the  modern  Gaelic  poets, 
and  was  a  man  of  good  character  and  of  much 
general  culture ;  but  the  highlanders  were  at 
that  time,  in  consequence  of  their  recent  re- 
bellion, very  unpopular  in  the  rest  of  Great 
Britain,  and  his  project  met  with  no  encourage- 
ment. Jerome  Stone,  a  person  of  Saxon  de- 
scent, who  was  principal  of  an  academy  in  a 
Gaelic  district,  and  had  mastered  the  language, 
published  in  the  "Scots  Magazine"  in  No- 
vember, 1755,  a  letter  in  which  he  said  of  the 
Gaelic :  "  There  are  compositions  in  it  which 
for  sublimity  of  sentiment,  nervousness  of  ex- 
pression, and  high-spirited  metaphor  are  hardly 
to  be  equalled  among  the  chief  productions  of 
the  most  cultivated  nations."  This  letter  at- 
tracted the  attention  of  John  Home,  then  cele- 
brated for  his  tragedy  of  "Douglas,"  and  he 
consulted  on  the  subject  Prof.  Ferguson  of 
Edinburgh,  a  good  Gaelic  scholar,  who  con- 


722 


OSSIAN 


firmed  the  opinion  expressed  by  Stone.  In 
1759  Home  became  acquainted  with  James 
Macpherson,  then  a  young  man  of  21,  of  good 
classical  education,  who  had  already  published 
two  or  three  poems  in  English  of  very  little 
merit.  He  was  acquainted  with  the  Gaelic 
language,  and  on  being  questioned  by  Home 
as  to  the  existence  of  ancient  Gaelic  poetry 
answered  that  there  was  a  great  deal  of  it, 
and  in  his  judgment  it  was  very  good.  Home 
persuaded  him  to  translate  some  of  it  into 
English,  and  he  produced  16  short  pieces, 
which  he  said  were  episodes  of  a  long  poem 
by  Ossian  on  the  wars  of  Fingal.  These  were 
published  in  1760  under  the  title  of  "Frag- 
ments of  Ancient  Poetry  collected  in  the  High- 
lands of  Scotland,"  with  a  commendatory  pre- 
face by  Hugh  Blair,  the  distinguished  critic 
and  professor  of  rhetoric,  to  wham  Home  had 
shown  the  poems.  They  were  received  with 
great  favor  by  the  public,  and  excited  so  much 
interest  that  several  eminent  scholars  in  Scot- 
land warmly  solicited  Macpherson  to  make  a 
journey  through  the  highlands  in  order  to 
gather  what  he  could  of  the  Ossianic  poems. 
He  complied  with  reluctance,  declaring  that  he 
was  unfit  for  the  task,  but  finally  set  out  ac- 
companied by  two  gentlemen,  both  of  them 
good  Gaelic  scholars.  The  result  of  their  re- 
searches was  the  publication  in  1762  of  "Fin- 
gal,"  and  in  1763  of  "Temora,"  with  five 
minor  poems,  all  translated  by  Macpherson 
into  English  prose  of  a  declamatory  and  some- 
what turgid  description.  They  created  a  pro- 
digious sensation,  and  almost  immediately  ex- 
cited a  fierce  controversy.  The  poems  were 
translated  into  almost  all  the  languages  of  Eu- 
rope, and  ran  through  many  editions.  Among 
their  eminent  admirers  may  be  mentioned 
Goethe,  Schiller,  and  Napoleon.  In  Scotland 
their  merit  and  their  authenticity  were  main- 
tained by  nearly  all  the  leading  men  of  let- 
ters, while  in  England  Dr.  Johnson,  whose 
critical  authority  was  at  that  time  nearly  un- 
questioned, denounced  them  as  impudent  for- 
geries, the  composition  of  Macpherson  himself. 
Gaelic  he  said  was  the  rude  speech  of  a  bar- 
barous people,  and  there  were  no  manuscripts 
in  it  more  than  100  years  old.  In  reply,  it 
was  proved  that  the  Advocates'  library  at 
Edinburgh  contained  Gaelic  manuscripts  500 
years  old,  and  one  of  even  greater  antiquity. 
The  gentlemen  who  travelled  with  Macpherson 
in  the  highlands  testified  that  they  took  down 
some  of  the  poems  from  oral  recitation  and 
transcribed  others  from  old  manuscripts.  Gen- 
tlemen resident  in  the  highlands  testified  that 
they  gave  manuscripts  to  Macpherson,  and  oth- 
er persons  of  unquestionable  character  also  de- 
clared that  Macpherson  on  his  return  from  the 
highlands  showed  them  several  volumes  of 
Gaelic  manuscripts  containing  poems  by  Ossian. 
Macpherson,  in  fact,  carried  his  manuscripts 
to  London,  deposited  them  with  his  publishers 
in  the  Strand,  where  they  remained  for  a  year, 
advertised  in  the  newspapers  that  he  had  done 


OSSOLI 

so,  and  offered  to  publish  them  if  a  sufficient 
number  of  subscribers  came  forward.  No  at- 
tention was  paid  to  his  offer  or  to  the  manu- 
scripts, and  finally  Macpherson,  a  man  of  proud, 
irascible,  and  haughty  nature,  grew  disgusted 
with  being  called  a  forger  and  a  liar,  and  for 
the  rest  of  his  life  treated  his  assailants  with 
contemptuous  indifference.  Recent  investiga- 
tions by  competent  scholars  seem  to  have  clear- 
ly established  the  authenticity  of  Ossian  and 
justified  Macpherson  from  the  charges  against 
him. — See  "The  Poems  of  Ossian  in  the  Ori- 
ginal Gaelic,"  by  the  Rev.  Archibald  Clerk 
(2  vols.,  Edinburgh  and  London,  1870). 

OSSOLI,  Margaret  Fuller,  marchioness,  an  Ame- 
rican authoress,  born  in  Cambridgeport,  Mass., 
May  23,  1810,  died  by  shipwreck  on  Fire  Isl- 
and beach,  off  Long  Island,  July  16, 1850.  She 
was  the  eldest  child  of  Timothy  Fuller,  who 
conducted  her  early  education.  At  six  years  of 
age  she  read  Latin ;  at  eight  she  began  to  pore 
over  Shakespeare,  Cervantes,  and  Moli&re;  and 
her  lonely  studies  had  induced  a  habit  of  mel- 
ancholy and  reserve  before  she  was  sent  to 
school  at  Groton,  Mass.  There  she  was  re- 
markable for  her  capacity  and  freaks  of  pas- 
sion, and  for  eccentricities.  She  returned  home 
at  the  age  of  15,  and  began  an  extended  course 
of  self-culture.  She  began  to  study  German 
in  1832,  and  within  a  year  had  read  the  prin- 
cipal works  of  Goethe,  Schiller,  Tieck,  Korner, 
and  Novalis.  The  family  removed  to  Groton 
in  1833  ;  her  father  died  two  years  afterward, 
leaving  little  property ;  and  she  began  to  teach 
languages  in  Boston  to  private  classes  and  in 
Mr.  Alcott's  school.  In  1837  she  became  prin- 
cipal of  a  school  in  Providence.  Emerson  thus 
describes  her  personal  appearance  at  this  period : 
"  She  was  rather  under  the  middle  height ;  her 
complexion  was  fair,  with  strong  fair  hair.  She 
was  then,  as  always,  carefully  and  becomingly 
dressed,  and  of  lady-like  self-possession.  For 
the  rest,  her  appearance  had  nothing  prepos- 
sessing. Her  extreme  plainness,  a  trick  of  in- 
cessantly opening  and  shutting  her  eyelids,  the 
nasal  tone  of  her  voice,  all  repelled."  On  bet- 
ter acquaintance  he  found  her  more  agreeable : 
"  She  was  an  active,  inspiring  companion  and 
correspondent,  and  all  the  art,  the  thought,  and 
the  nobleness  in  New  England  seemed  at  that 
moment  related  to  her  and  she  to  it.  She  was 
everywhere  a  welcome  guest.  The  houses  of 
her  friends  in  town  and  country  were  open 
to  her,  and  every  hospitable  attention  eagerly 
offered.  Her  arrival  was  a  holiday,  and  so 
was  her  abode.  She  stayed  a  few  days,  often 
a  week,  more  seldom  a  month ;  and  all  tasks 
that  could  be  suspended  were  put  aside  to 
catch  the  favorable  hour,  in  walking,  riding, 
or  boating,  to  talk  with  this  joyful  guest,  who 
brought  wit,  anecdotes,  love  stories,  tragedies, 
oracles  with  her."  In  1839  she  went  to  re- 
side at  Jamaica  Plain  in  the  vicinity  of  Bos- 
ton, and  in  1840  became  editor  of  the  "Dial," 
a  quarterly  journal,  which  she  conducted  for 
two  years,  aided  by  R.  W.  Emerson,  George 


OSSOEY 

Ripley,  and  others.  One  of  her  contributions 
to  this  work  was  afterward  expanded  into  a 
volume  entitled  "  Woman  in  the  Nineteenth 
Century"  (New  York,  1845).  In  1841  she 
translated  and  published  the  "  Letters  of  Giin- 
derode  and  Bettina,"  and  in  1843  made  a  jour- 
ney to  Michigan  and  Lake  Superior,  and  pub- 
lished "Summer  on  the  Lakes."  In  Decem- 
ber, 1844,  she  removed  to  New  York  and 
became  a  writer  for  the  "  Tribune,"  princi- 
pally of  reviews,  which  were  subsequently  pub- 
lished under  the  title  of  "  Papers  on  Art  and 
Literature"  (New  York,  1846).  She  went  to 
Europe  in  the  spring  of  1846,  and  arrived  at 
Kome  in  May,  1847,  where  in  December  she 
was  married  to  a  Roman  nobleman,  the  mar- 
quis Giovanni  Angelo  Ossoli.  She  was  in  Rome 
during  the  revolution  of  1848,  and  during  the 
siege  of  the  city  by  the  French  in  1849  was,  at 
the  request  of  Mazzini,  appointed  directress  of 
one  of  the  hospitals  for  the  wounded.  Subse- 
quently she  wrote  a  history  of  the  revolution 
and  siege,  the  manuscript  of  which  was  lost  at 
the  time  of  her  death.  In  May,  1850,  she  em- 
barked at  Leghorn  in  the  ship  Elizabeth  for 
New  York,  with  her  husband  and  infant  son, 
both  of  whom  perished  with  her  in  the  wreck 
of  the  vessel  in  the  vicinity  of  its  intended 
port.  A  new  edition  of  her  works,  in  six  vol- 
umes, was  published  in  Boston  in  1874. — See 
"  Memoirs  of  Margaret  Fuller  Ossoli,"  by  R. 
W.  Emerson,  W.  H.  Channing,  and  J.  F.  Clarke 
(Boston,  1852). 

OSSORY,  Thomas  Butler,  earl  of,  an  English 
soldier,  son  of  James,  duke  of  Ormond,  born 
in  the  castle  of  Kilkenny,  July  9,  1634,  died 
July  30,  1680.  He  fought  in  the  rebellion, 
was  committed  by  Cromwell  to  the  tower,  and 
after  eight  months  of  imprisonment  went  to 
Flanders,  returning  with  Charles  II.  on  the 
restoration.  He  was  made  lieutenant  general 
of  the  army  in  Ireland,  and  in  September, 
1666,  was  raised  to  the  peerage  as  Lord  Butler 
of  Moore  park.  In  the  same  year  he  distin- 
guished himself  in  the  naval  engagement  with 
the  Dutch  in  the  Downs,  and  in  1673  was  made 
admiral  of  the  fleet.  In  1677  he  commanded 
the  English  troops  in  the  service  of  the  prince 
of  Orange,  and  greatly  contributed  to  the  de- 
feat of  Marshal  Luxembourg  at  Mons  in  1678. 

OSSCNA,  or  Osnna.     See  OSTJNA. 

OSTADE.  I.  Adrian  yan,  a  Dutch  painter,  born 
in  Lubeck  in  1610,  died  in  Amsterdam  in  1685. 
He  studied  at  Haarlem,  and  is  said  to  have  been 
a  pupil  of  Rembrandt.  His  pictures  generally 
represent  Dutch  interiors  and  rural  fairs  or 
sports,  in  which  the  grotesqueness  of  the  subr 
ject  is  redeemed  by  the  manner  of  its  treat- 
ment. When  in  1672  a  French  army  ap- 
proached Haarlem,  he  became  alarmed  and 
sold  his  pictures  with  a  view  of  returning  to 
Germany.  Stopping  at  Amsterdam,  he  was 
persuaded  to  become  a  permanent  resident  of 
that  city.  His  pictures,  generally  of  cabinet 
size,  are  comparatively  scarce,  and  the  best 
have  increased  in  value  six  or  seven  fold,  those  I 


OSTEND 


723 


selling  for  £200  or  £300  at  the  commencement 
of  the  century  subsequently  commanding  up- 
ward of  £1,400.  Ostade  also  made  etchings 
from  his  own  designs.  II.  Isaac  van,  brother 
of  the  preceding,  born  in  Lubeck  about  1615, 
died  about  1670.  He  received  his  first  instruc- 
tions from  his  brother,  in  whose  style  his  ear- 
liest pictures  are  painted.  Subsequently  he 
adopted  a  manner  of  his  own,  in  which  he 
proved  himself  an  original  master,  and  the 
value  of  those  works  has  increased  in  a  re- 
markable degree.  His  subjects  comprise  trav- 
ellers halting  at  inns,  views  of  Dutch  villages, 
winter  pieces,  and  frozen  canals  with  skaters. 
Some  of  his  finest  works  are  in  England. 

OSTEND,  a  town  of  Belgium,  in  the  province 
of  West  Flanders,  on  the  North  sea,  66  m.  W. 
N.  W.  of  Brussels ;  pop.  in  1871, 15,963.  Next 
to  Antwerp  it  is  the  principal  port  Of  Belgium, 
and  it  is  one  of  the  most  frequented  bathing 
places  of  Europe,  the  annual  visitors  number- 
ing about  20,000.  The  town  is  well  built,  and 
contains  several  churches  besides  the  cathedral. 
Among  the  public  works  which  have  been  re- 
cently constructed  are  a  pier  extending  from 
the  steamboat  landing  to  the  railway  station, 
and  a  magnificent  hospital.  A  large  dock  for 
fishing  boats  has  been  built  by  the  government. 
Outside  of  the  Bruges  gate  are  the  oyster  parks 
or  salt-water  reservoirs,  filled  with  English 
oysters,  which  after  being  fattened  here  are 
exported  in  enormous  quantities  as  Ostend  oys- 
ters, and  are  celebrated  for  their  small  size  and 
delicate  taste.  The  passengers  from  and  for 
England  numbered  in  1873  about  45,000.  The 
number  of  vessels  of  all  kinds  entering  the  port 
in  the  same  year  was  698,  with  an  aggregate 
tonnage  of  171,652.  The  imports  were  valued 
at  16,000,000  francs,  besides  about  30,000,000 
francs  worth  of  goods  in  transit  between  Eng- 
land and  Prussia.  The  value  of  exports  was 
15,000,000  francs,  consisting  chiefly  of  butter, 
eggs,  meat,  chiccory,  and  oil.  Several  sugar 
mills  have  lately  been  constructed  in  the  vicin- 
ity, but  the  manufacturing  industry  is  limited. 
— Ostend  was  destroyed  by  the  sea  in  1333,  and 
for  some  time  afterward  the  present  place  was 
only  a  fishing  village.  It  was  enclosed  with 
walls  by  Philip  the  Good  of  Burgundy,  and 
fortified  in  1583  by  the  prince  of  Orange.  The 
memorable  siege  of  Ostend  by  the  Spaniards, 
ending  with  the  surrender  of  the  fortress  to 
Spinola,  lasted  from  July,  1601,  till  September, 
1604,  and  cost  upward  of  100,000  lives.  In 
the  war  of  the  Spanish  succession  the  allies 
captured  it  in  1706  ;  and  in  1715  it  was  ceded 
by  Holland  to  Charles  VI.  of  Austria.  It  was 
taken  in  1745  by  the  French,  and  restored  in 
1748 ;  and  again  taken  by  the  French  in  1794 
and  held  until  the  peace  of  1814,  the  English 
having  made  an  unsuccessful  attempt  to  cap- 
ture it  in  1798.  Three  American  envoys  to 
European  courts,  Buchanan,  Mason,  and  Soule", 
met  here  in  October,  1854,  to  deliberate  on  the 
acquisition  of  Cuba  by  the  United  States,  the 
result  of  which  was  the  so-called  "  Ostend 


724 


OSTEOLOGY 


OSTRICH 


manifesto."  (See  BUCHANAN.)  The  fortifica- 
tions of  Ostend  were  demolished  in  1867. 

OSTEOLOGY.     See  ANATOMY,  and  BONE. 

OSTEO-MYELITIS,  inflammation  of  the  lining 
membrane  of  the  bony  cavities,  or  the  endos- 
teum,  often  called  simply  endostitis,  the  mar- 
row being  more  or  less  affected.  Endostitis  is 
a  more  serious  affection  than  periostitis ;  it  is 
more  liable  to  be  accompanied  by  pyaemia,  and 
is  a  common  cause  of  death  in  cases  of  am- 
putation and  resection  of  the  bones.  When 
osteo-myelitis  causes  death  and  separation  of 
a  portion  of  bone,  it  constitutes  one  form  (in- 
ternal) of  necrosis.  The  symptoms  are  those 
of  inflammation  of  bone  in  general :  deep,  ach- 
ing, intense  pain,  high  fever  and  constitutional 
disturbance,  increased  temperature,  rigors,  and 
hectic.  The  treatment  is  of  the  same  nature 
as  that  for  necrosis,  and  is  either  expectant  or 
active,  or  both.  As  it  generally  follows  frac- 
ture or  amputation,  the  parts  may  be  reached, 
and  the  sequestrum  (separated  bone)  may  be 
removed,  when  detachment  has  fully  taken 
place.  (See  AMPUTATION,  and  NECROSIS.) 

OSTERWALD,  Jean  Frederic,  a  Swiss  clergyman, 
born  in  Neufchatel,  Nov.  25,  1663,  died  there, 
April  14,  1747.  He  was  pastor  of  the  Re- 
formed church  in  Neufchatel,  and  published 
Abrege  de  Vhistoire  de  la  Bible;  Traite  des 
sources  de  corruption  parmi  les  Chretiens; 
Traite  contre  Vimpurete  ;  Ethiea  Christiana, 
&c.  Osterwald,  Turretin,  and  Werenfels  were 
called  the  "triumvirate  of  Swiss  divines." 

OSTIA,  a  city  of  Latium,  at  the  mouth  of  the 
Tiber,  on  the  left  bank  of  its  southern  arm,  16 
m.  S.  W.  of  Rome  by  the  Via  Ostiensis.  It  was 
founded  by  Ancus  Marcius,  who  established  salt 
works  there ;  and  it  evidently  grew  with  the 
growth  of  Rome,  for,  though  not  mentioned 
again  until  the  second  Punic  war,  it  had  be- 
come then  a  port  and  naval  station  of  such  im- 
portance to  Rome  that  it  was  one  of  the  two 
colonies  allowed  in  207  B.  0.  an  exemption 
from  military  service.  During  the  civil  war 
between  Sulla  and  Marius,  it  was  taken  and 
plundered  by  the  latter  in  87  B.  0. ;  but  recov- 
ering from  this  attack,  it  subsequently  became 
the  residence  of  one  of  the  four  quaastors  of 
Italy,  with  the  title  of  qucestor  Ostiensis.  But 
the  deposition  constantly  made  by  the  Tiber 
gradually  filled  up  its  port,  and  the  difficulty  of 
furnishing  the  city  with  grain  induced  the  em- 
peror Claudius  to  construct  an  artificial  harbor 
on  the  right  bank  of  the  river  2  m.  W.  of  Ostia. 
This  new  basin  was  called  Portus  Augusti,  and 
Trajan  added  an  inner  basin  (Portus  Trajani). 
Despite  the  rivalry  of  the  town  of  Portus, 
which  sprang  up  around  the  new  harbor,  Ostia 
continued  to  prosper,  and  contained  in  its  zenith 
80,000  inhabitants.  But  about  A.  D.  830  it  was 
entirely  in  ruins.  The  modern  Ostia  is  a  small 
town,  from  which  the  population,  excepting 
some  200,  has  been  driven  away  by  the  pesti- 
lential malaria.  Although  originally  founded 
on  the  sea,  it  is  now  3  m.  distant. 

OSTEOLEPIS.    See  GANOIDS. 


OSTIAKS.    See  FINNS,  vol.  vii.,  p.  207. 

OSTRACION.     See  TEUNK  FISH. 

OSTRACISM  (Gr.  barpaitov,  a  fragment  of  tile, 
a  shell),  in  Athenian  history,  the  banishing 
from  the  state  for  a  limited  period  of  a  per- 
son deemed  dangerous  to  the  republic.  Grote 
defends  ostracism  as  a  wise  measure  devised 
by  Clisthenes  for  removing  quietly  from  the 
state  a  powerful  party  leader,  before  he  could 
carry  out  any  plot  against  the  government. 
At  first  the  banishment  was  for  ten  years, 
but  it  was  afterward  reduced  to  five.  It  in- 
volved no  dishonor,  nor  any  loss  of  property. 
The  senate  and  public  assembly  determined 
whether  ostracism  was  advisable;  a  day  was 
then  appointed,  and  a  space  in  the  agora  en- 
closed, having  ten  entrances  for  the  ten  tribes, 
through  which  the  citizens  passed,  each  deposit- 
ing in  a  prepared  receptacle  an  oyster  shell  or 
potsherd  inscribed  with  the  name  of  the  per- 
son whom  he  wished  banished.  The  archons 
counted  the  votes,  and  if  there  were  6,000  votes 
against  any  one  person,  that  person  had  to  with- 
draw from  the  city  within  ten  days.  Among 
distinguished  men  ostracized  were  Aristides, 
Themistocles,  and  Cimon. 

OSTRICH,  the  type  of  a  group  of  terrestrial 
rasorial  birds,  with  the  cassowary,  apteryx, 
dinornis  and  its  extinct  congeners,  constituting 
the  family  struthionidw.  The  genus  struthio 
(Linn.)  has  a  broad  and  depressed  bill,  with 
flattened  culmen  and  strong  rounded  tip,  the 
upper  mandible  overlapping  the  under;  the 
oval  nostrils  are  in  a  broad,  membranous 
groove,  near  the  middle  of  the  bill ;  the  wings 
are  short  and  imperfect,  with  long,  bending, 
and  soft  plumes ;  the  tail  moderate,  composed 
of  curled  pendent  feathers ;  tarsi  very  long  and 


African  Ostrich  (StrutMo  camelus). 

robust,  covered  with  hexagonal  scales,  trans- 
verse in  front  near  the  toes ;  toes  two,  short 
and  strong,  connected  at  the  base  by  mem- 
brane, the  outer  short  and  much  padded,  and 
the  other  larger,  with  a  stout,  broad,  flat  nail. 
The  only  species  is  the  African  ostrich  (S.  ca- 


OSTEICH 


725 


melus,  Linn.),  the  largest  of  present  birds,  and 
excelled  in  former  geological  epochs  only  by 
some  species  of  dinornis  and  palapteryx;  it 
stands  7  or  8  ft.  high,  and  weighs  from  80  to 
100  Ibs.  The  skeleton  is  much  as  in  other 
birds,  except  that  the  bones  of  the  wings  are 
rudimentary,  the  sternum  flat  and  without  keel, 
the  pubic  arch  united  in  front,  and  the  bones 
almost  entirely  destitute  of  air  cells.  The  males 
are  of  a  more  or  less  black  color,  except  the 
loose  feathers  of  the  wings  and  tail,  which  are 
white;  the  female  is  dark  brownish  gray,  as 
also  are  the  half-grown  males.  The  head  and 
neck  are  nearly  naked,  and  the  plumage  gener- 
ally is  very  loose,  admirably  suited  for  the  cli- 
mate, protecting  from  the  sun's  heat  and  at  the 
same  time  allowing  perfect  ventilation;  the 
quills  of  the  wings  and  tail  are  remarkable  for 
the  length  of  the  barbs,  which,  though  having 
barbules,  remain  separate  from  each  other ;  it 
is  for  these  long  white  feathers  of  the  wings 
and  tail  that  the  ostrich  is  hunted,  the  best  be- 
ing considered  those  taken  from  the  males  and 
from  the  living  bird ;  some  of  the  plumage  is 
so  coarse  as  to  resemble  hair,  and  the  wings 
have  two  plumeless  shafts  like  porcupines' 
quills.  The  best  ostrich  feathers  come  from 
the  Levant  and  the  N.  and  W.  coasts  of  Africa. 
Ostriches  inhabit  the  dry  sandy  plains  of  Africa 
from  the  Barbary  states  and  Egypt  to  the  Cape 
of  Good  Hope.  The  hearing  and  sight  are  very 
acute,  and  the  length  of  the  neck  and  high  po- 
sition of  the  eye  enable  them  to  perceive  any 
approaching  object;  they  are  very  shy,  and 
escape  either  by  a  quick  stately  walk  or  rapid 
run.  When  feeding  the  stride  is  from  20  to  22 
in.,  when  walking  but  not  feeding  26  in.,  and 
when  terrified  from  11£  to  14  ft. ;  taking  12  ft. 
as  the  average  stride,  they  would  accomplish 
about  25  m.  an  hour.  Bushmen  clothe  them- 
selves in  one  of  their  skins,  and  under  cover  of 
this  get  near  enough  the  stupid  creatures  to  kill 
them  with  a  poisoned  arrow.  When  hotly  pur- 
sued they  sometimes  turn  upon  their  enemies, 
giving  severe  wounds  with  their  feet.  Their 
food  consists  of  fruits,  grain,  leguminous  vege- 
tables, leaves  and  tender  shoots,  insects  and 
snails,  and  such  other  food  as  can  be  picked 
up,  in  securing  which  a  considerable  quantity 
of  stones  is  swallowed ;  the  crop  is  enormous, 
and  the  gizzard  very  powerful ;  in  confinement 
particularly,  they  are  fond  of  swallowing  all 
kinds  of  indigestible  substances,  some  of  which 
may  be  taken  to  aid  in  digestion,  but  most  from 
mere  stupid  voracity.  They  begin  to  lay  eggs 
before  a  spot  has  been  fixed  upon  for  a  nest, 
and  these  solitary  eggs  are  often  found  lying 
forsaken  all  over  a  district ;  the  nest  is  a  sim- 
ple hollow  in  the  sand,  from  3  to  6  ft.  in  diam- 
eter, with  a  shallow  border ;  in  this  are  laid  by 
a  single  bird  or  many  in  company  from  12  to 
50  or  60  eggs,  which  are  incubated  at  night 
and  left  to  the  heat  of  the  sun  during  the  day ; 
outside  the  nest  are  scattered  several  eggs, 
which  the  Hottentots  say  are  for  the  first  food 
of  the  young ;  the  males  assist  in  incubation, 


and  in  taking  care  of  the  young  till  they  can 
provide  for  themselves ;  when  the  young  attain 
the  size  of  a  common  fowl  they  run  with  great 
speed.  The  capacity  of  an  ostrich  egg  is  equal 
to  that  of  24  hens'  eggs,  and  a  single  one  will 
weigh  2  or  3  Ibs. ;  the  eggs  have  a  strong  dis- 
agreeable flavor,  relished  however  by  the  Bush- 
men, who  not  only  devour  the  contents  but  use 
the  shells  as  water  vessels ;  entire  eggs  are  often 
suspended  as  ornaments  in  Mussulman  and  even 
in  Christian  churches  in  the  East.  The  flesh 
of  the  young  bird  is  said  to  be  palatable,  resem- 
bling that  of  a  tough  turkey ;  old  birds  are  apt 
to  be  loaded  with  fat.  The  ostrich  is  timid 
and  inoffensive,  and  easily  tamed.  The  rear- 
ing of  ostriches  is  a  very  profitable  employment 
in  South  Africa,  and  efforts  are  being  made 
to  introduce  the  excellent  breed  of  this  region 
into  Algeria  and  South  America.  Every  pair 
of  ostriches  is  kept  in  its  own  enclosure,  and 
the  eggs  are  either  incubated  by  them  or  by  a 
hatching  machine,  which  latter  process  secures 
a  large  percentage  of  young  birds.  A  pair  will 
give  as  many  as  20  chickens,  which  are  stripped 
of  their  feathers  for  the  first  time  when  they 
are  about  18  months  old ;  before  that  time  the 
feathers  are  not  highly  esteemed.  The  whole- 
sale price  of  good  feathers  in  South  Africa  is 
$200  a  pound,  and  the  annual  produce  of  a 
young  bird  reaches  the  value  of  about  $40.  A 
full-grown  pair  of  ostriches  is  worth  $700  to 
$800,  and  a  young  bird,  six  months  old,  fetch- 
es from  $150  to  $200.  Ostriches  were  well 
known  in  ancient  times,  and  their  brains  served 
as  food  on  the  tables  of  the  Romans ;  a  poeti- 
cal description  of  them  is  given  in  Job  xxxix. 
13_18. — In  the  genus  rhea  (Mohr),  the  nandou 
or  American  ostrich,  the  bill  is  less  thick,  and 


American  Ostrich  (Ebea  Americana). 

more  curved  at  the  tip ;  the  wings  are  short 
and  imperfect,  with  long  soft  feathers ;  the  tail 
not  apparent ;  toes  three,  the  inner  the  short- 
est. The  best  known  species  (R.  Americana, 
Lath.)  is  about  half  the  size  of  the  African 
ostrich,  of  a  uniform  grayish  tint,  brownish  on 


726 


OSTRICH  FERN 


the  back ;  the  head  is  covered  with  feathers, 
and  the  long  plumage  of  the  wings  and  rump 
is  used  only  for  making  feather  brushes.  It  is 
a  shy,  solitary,  and  very  fleet  bird,  yet  easily 
captured  on  horseback  by  the  lasso,  or  by  trip- 
ping it  up ;  it  runs  generally  against  the  wind ; 
it  can  cross  rivers,  swimming  with  the  body 
very  deep.  The  food  consists  of  roots,  grasses, 
and  sometimes  mollusks  and  fish.  The  nest  is 
a  shallow  excavation,  in  which  several  females 
deposit  each  from  14  to  20  eggs;  many  eggs 
are  laid  scattered  over  the  plain,  which  the 
male  rolls  together  with  his  bill,  hatching  the 
young  and  bravely  defending  them ;  it  is  clear- 
ly polygamous. 

OSTRICH  FERN  (atrutJiiopteris\  a  genus  of 
ferns,  so  called  on  account  of  the  plume-like 
appearance  of  the  fertile  fronds.  There  is  but 
one  species  in  this  country,  S.  Germanica, 
which  is  also  a  native  of  continental  Europe, 
and  there  is  probably  one  other  in  Japan.  Ours 


Ostrich  Fern  (Struthiopteris  Germanics). 

is  most  frequent  in  northern  localities  and  in 
alluvial  soil.  The  sterile  fronds,  sometimes  5 
ft.  long,  are  pinnate  with  the  very  numerous 
pinnae  pinnatifid ;  they  grow  in  a  circular  tuft 
from  a  thick  rootstock,  and  form  a  vase-like 
cluster  of  great  beauty;  within  this  are  the 
fertile  fronds,  much  shorter  than  the  sterile, 
and  having  the  margin  of  their  pinns9  rolled 
back  to  cover  the  fructification,  they  present 
a  very  different  appearance  from  the  others. 
This  fern  is  readily  recognized  by  the  fertile 
fronds  growing  within  a  circle  of  sterile  ones, 
and  by  its  very  symmetrical  form ;  it  does  not 
grow  quite  so  high  as  some  of  the  flowering 
ferns  (Osmunda).  The  European  catalogues 
give  S.  Penmylvanica,  but  it  is  only  this  spe- 
cies under  another  name. 

OSTROGOTHS.    See  GOTHS. 

OSTROLMKA,  a  town  of  Russian  Poland,  in 
the  government  of  Lomza,  on  the  Narew,  here 
crossed  by  a  wooden  bridge,  60  m.  1ST.  N.  E.  of 


OSWEGO 

Warsaw;  pop.  in  1867,  3,466.  On  Feb.  16, 
1807,  the  French  general  Savary  defeated  here 
the  Russians  under  Essen;  and  on  May  26, 
1831,  the  Russians  under  Diebitsch,  in  a  pro- 
tracted and  bloody  combat,  were  victorious 
over  the  Poles  commanded  by  Skrzynecki. 

OSUNA,  or  Ossnna,  Pedro  Tellez  y  Giron,  duke 
of,  viceroy  of  Naples,  born  in  Valladolid  in 
1579,  died  in  1624.  He  spent  his  childhood 
with  his  grandfather,  who  was  viceroy  in 
Naples,  and  subsequently  attended  the  univer- 
sity of  Salamanca.  His  satirical  disposition 
drove  him  from  the  court  of  Philip  II.  After 
the  accession  of  Philip  III.  (1598)  he  married  a 
daughter  of  the  duke  of  Alcala  and  assumed 
the  title  of  duke  of  Osuna.  He  was  soon 
again  expelled  from  the  court,  and  was  allowed 
to  return  only  in  1607  through  the  influence 
of  the  duke  of  Lerma,  and  after  having  served 
with  distinction  in  the  army  in  Flanders.  He 
now  gained  considerable  influence,  and  became 
in  1611  viceroy  of  Sicily,  and  in  1616  of  Naples. 
He  opposed  the  claims  of  Venice  to  control 
the  trade  of  the  Mediterranean,  and  incurred 
the  hostility  of  the  clergy  by  various  measures, 
especially  by  resisting  the  establishment  of 
the  inquisition  in  Naples.  Being  suspected 
of  aiming  to  make  himself  absolute  ruler  in  S. 
Italy  with  the  aid  of  foreign  powers,  he  was 
recalled  in  1620,  and  immediately  after  the 
accession  of  Philip  IV.  put  on  his  trial. 
Though  not  convicted,  he  was  imprisoned  in 
the  castle  of  Almedas,  and  was  said  to  have 
died  by  poison  supplied  by  his  wife.  His  son 
became  viceroy  of  Sicily,  and  the  dukes  of 
Osuna  still  possess  great  wealth. 

OSWALD,  Saint,  king  of  Northumbria,  born 
about  605,  died  Aug.  5,  642.  He  was  a  son  of 
King  Ethelfrid,  lived  for  several  years  in  ex- 
ile, and  after  his  return  to  England  vanquished 
the  British  warrior  Ceadwalla  and  recovered 
the  kingdom,  in  634.  He  married  Cyneburg, 
daughter  of  the  West  Saxon  king  Cynegil,  on 
condition  of  his  embracing  Christianity.  He 
and  his  wife  were  the  .earliest  promoters  of  the 
Christian  religion  among  the  Anglo-Saxons. 
After  a  miraculous  recovery  from  a  dangerous 
illness,  they  took  sacred  vows  of  chastity.  He 
fell  in  battle  against  Penda,  the  heathen  king 
of  Mercia,  and  was  canonized  by  the  church 
of  Rome.  The  legends  relating  to  Oswald  be- 
came very  popular,  especially  in  Germany,  and 
gave  rise  to  several  works,  including  Die  Os- 
waldlegende  und  ihre  BezieJiung  zur  deutschen 
Myihologie^  by  Zingerle  (Stuttgart,  1856). 

OSWEGO,  a  N.  W.  county  of  New  York, 
bounded  N.  W.  by  Lake  Ontario,  intersected 
by  Oswego  river,  and  drained  by  a  number  of 
streams  falling  into  the  lake ;  area,  1,038  sq. 
m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  77,941.  It  has  a  level  or 
undulating  surface,  and  the  soil,  though  gen- 
erally fertile,  varies  greatly  in  different  parts. 
The  Oswego  and  Syracuse,  the  Watertown  and 
Rome,  the  New  York  and  Oswego  Midland, 
the  Rome,  Watertown,  and  Ogdensburg,  and 
the  Southern  Central  railroads  traverse  it. 


OSWEGO 


727 


The  chief  productions  in  1870  were  90,840 
bushels  of  wheat,  37,714  of  rye,  312,903  of  In- 
dian corn,  540,842  of  oats,  28,295  of  barley, 
55,752  of  buckwheat,  513,263  of  potatoes, 
2,720,914  Ibs.  of  butter,  1,089,228  of  cheese, 
81,200  of  wool,  285,169  of  hops,  150,405  of 
flax,  and  131,765  tons  of  hay.  There  were 
12,057  horses,  35,820  milch  cows,  16,888  oth- 
er cattle,  20,154  sheep,  and  12,415  swine;  8 
manufactories  of  agricultural  implements,  3 
of  packing  boxes,  38  of  carriages  and  wagons, 
39  of  cheese,  21  of  men's  clothing,  68  of  coop- 
erage, 3  of  hosiery,  10  of  iron  castings,  25  of 
tanned  and  11  of  curried  leather,  2  of  engines 
and  boilers,  1  of  starch,  3  of  woollen  goods,  33 
flour  mills,  78  saw  mills,  and  3  planing  mills. 
Capitals,  Oswego  and  Pulaski. 

OSWEGO,  a  city,  port  of  entry,  and  the  capi- 
tal of  Oswego  co.,  New  York,  on  the  S.  E.  shore 
of  Lake  Ontario,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Oswego 
river,  220  m.  N.  W.  of  New  York  and  145  m. 
W.  N.  W.  of  Albany ;  pop.  in  1850,  12,205  ;  in 
1860,  16,816;  in  1870,  20,910;  in  1875,  esti- 
mated by  local  authorities  at  25,000.  The  river 
divides  the  city  into  two  nearly  equal  parts, 
known  as  East  Oswego  and  West  Oswego, 
which  are  connected  by  two  iron  drawbridges. 
The  water  front  on  the  lake  measures  about 
2^  m.,  and  on  the  river  about  5  m.  From  the 
river  the  land  rises  in  easy  slopes  on  each  side 
to  summits  about  100  ft.  high,  which  are  about 
a  mile  apart,  and  descends  in  similar  slopes 
toward  the  country  on  either  side.  The  lake 
shore  consists  of  a  bluff  rising  to  the  height 
of  40  to  50  ft.  at  the  summits  of  the  ridges 
which  traverse  the  city  N.  and  S.  Oswego  is 
one  of  the  most  handsomely  located  of  all  the 
lake  cities,  and  its  climate,  especially  in  sum- 
mer, is  not  surpassed.  The  average  summer 
temperature  is  about  67° ;  winter,  24° ;  an- 
nual, 46°.  The  streets,  laid  out  at  right  angles, 
are  100  ft.  wide,  and  are  ornamented  with 
many  elegant  public  buildings  and  residences. 
There  are  two  public  parks,  one  on  each  side 
of  the  river,  which,  as  well  as  the  streets  in 
the  portions  occupied  for  residences,  are  beau- 
tifully shaded.  The  principal  public  buildings 
are  the  custom  house  and  post  office,  of  Cleve- 
land limestone,  costing  $120,000  ;  the  city  hall 
and  the  county  court  house,  of  Onondaga  lime- 
stone, the  former  costing  $130,000  and  the  lat- 
ter $80,000 ;  the  state  armory,  of  brick,  with 
stone  and  iron  facings ;  and  the  public  libra- 
ry, costing  $30,000  and  containing  12,000  vol- 
umes. There  are  also  several  elegant  school 
buildings,  two  halls,  four  principal  hotels,  and 
various  large  and  substantial  business  blocks. 
In  1865,  during  excavations  in  the  bed  of  the 
river,  a  mineral  spring  was  discovered,  which 
was  traced  back  into  the  bank  of  the  stream. 
A  well  100  ft.  deep  having  been  sunk,  a  con- 
stant flow  of  water  was  obtained  in  1870, 
which  is  sold  under  the  name  of  the  Deep 
Rock  Spring  water.  The  chief  mineral  ingre- 
dients are  the  chlorides  of  sodium  and  potas- 
sium, with  smaller  proportions  of  carbonate 


of  lime  and  chloride  of  magnesium.  A  large 
brick  hotel,  costing  $200,000,  was  opened  near 
the  spring  in  1874. — The  railroads  entering 
Oswego  are  the  Delaware,  Lackawanna,  and 
Western,  the  New  York  and  Oswego  Midland, 
the  Rome  and  Oswego,  and  the  Lake  Ontario 
(in  progress).  These  with  connecting  roads 
afford  communication  with  New  York,  the 
Pennsylvania  coal  region,  and  the  principal 
points  east  and  west.  The  Oswego  canal, ^38 
m.  long,  connects  with  the  Erie  canal  at  Syra- 
cuse. During  the  season  of  navigation  a  daily 
line  of  steamers  runs  to  Chicago,  stopping  at 
intermediate  points;  and  during  the  period 
of  pleasure  travel  daily  lines  run  to  Toronto, 
Niagara  Falls,  the  Thousand  islands,  and  Mon- 
treal. The  harbor  consists  of  an  area  at  the 
mouth  of  the  river  enclosed  by  jetties  and 
breakwaters,  with  an  entrance  300  ft.  wide, 
and  has  about  3  m.  of  wharfage  and  a  depth 
at  low  water  of  from  9  to  13  ft.  The  channel 
has  a  depth  of  20  ft.  at  lo^  water.  W.  of  the 
entrance  are  a  lighthouse  and  a  beacon.  Fort 
Ontario,  on  the  right  bank  of  the  river,  com- 
mands the  city,  the  harbor  and  its  approaches, 
and  the  lake.  The  construction  of  an  outer 
and  deeper  harbor,  to  afford  a  wharfage  of  4 
m.j  was  commenced  by  the  United  States  gov- 
ernment in  1871.  Of  the  breakwater  2,700  ft. 
have  been  built,  leaving  about  3,000  ft.  to  be 
constructed.  The  number  of  entrances  in  the 
foreign  trade  for  the  year  ending  June  30, 1874, 
was  2,127,  tonnage  351,059  ;  clearances,  2,128, 
tonnage  323,750 ;  value  of  imports,  $7,356,646 ; 
of  exports,  $260,876.  The  entrances  in  the 
coastwise  trade  were  728,  tonnage  127,423 ; 
clearances,  1,279,  tonnage  228,168.  The  ton- 
nage owned  and  registered  in  the  district,  Feb. 
18,  1875,  was  20,747.  There  are  11  grain  ele- 
vators and  storehouses,  with  an  aggregate  ca- 
pacity of  2,165,000  bushels,  at  which  a  large 
portion  of  the  western  grain  crops  and  almost 
the  entire  barley  crop  of  Canada  are  handled. 
The  receipts  of  lumber  from  Canada  are  exten- 
sive, and  the  coal  trade  is  of  growing  impor- 
tance, large  shipments  being  made  to  Canada 
and  the  west.  The  following  table  exhibits 
the  receipts  of  grain  and  lumber  by  lake,  and 
of  coal  by  canal  and  rail,  the  shipments  of  flour 
by  canal  and  rail,  and  the  value  of  receipts  and 
shipments  by  canal,  for  three  years : 


YEARS. 

Grain, 
bushels. 

Lumber, 
feet. 

Coal, 

tuns. 

Flour, 
bbh. 

Canal  traffic. 

1872.  .  . 

1873.  .  . 
1S74.  .  . 

9,134,119 

8,547,720 
13,001,969 

292.919,283 
236,505,946 
210,814,573 

265,853 
849,512 
819,194 

685,806 
586,845 
565,166 

$22.576.984 
18,711,327 
18,674,078 

In  1874  there  were  also  received  47,605,053 
shingles,  2,654,126  pieces  of  heading,  20,787,150 
laths,  3,639,900  hoops,  123,325  staves,  and 
411,705  pickets.  The  Oswego  river,  being  very 
constant  in  volume  and  having  in  the  space  of 
12  m.  a  fall  of  110  ft.,  34  of  which  are  within 
the  city  limits,  affords  extensive  water  power, 
which  is  made  available  by  means  of  dams  and 


728 


OTAHEITE 


OTHMAN  IBN  AFFAN 


hydraulic  canals.  The  principal  manufacturing 
establishments  are  14  flouring  mills,  producing 
600,000  barrels  annually;  the  Oswego  starch 
factory,  the  largest  of  its  kind  in  the  world ; 
the  Ames  iron  works,  manufacturing  portable 
steam  engines ;  the  Vulcan  f oundery  and  iron 
works,  producing  chiefly  steam  shovels  and 
dredges ;  2  ship  yards,  3  boat-building  yards, 
12  cooperage  establishments,  1  woollen  facto- 
ry, 3  car  works,  2  breweries,  3  furniture  facto- 
ries, 2  carriage  factories,  &c.  The  starch  fac- 
tory has  fire-proof  buildings  seven  stories  high 
and  covering  four  acres,  with  which  are  con- 
nected a  box  factory,  a  foundery  and  machine 
shop,  and  immense  storehouses.  There  are  four 
national  banks,  with  an  aggregate  capital  of 
$695,000  ;  two  state  banks,  $400,000 ;  and 
two  savings  institutions. — The  city  is  governed 
by  a  mayor  and  aldermen,  and  has  a  police 
force  and  fire  department.  It  is  lighted  with 
gas,  and  is  supplied  with  water  from  the  river, 
the  water  being  pumped  into  two  reservoirs, 
one  on  each  bank,  whence  it  is  distributed 
through  more  than  20  m.  of  mains.  The  city 
contains  the  county  prison,  an  orphan  asylum, 
and  a  home  for  aged  and  indigent  women.  The 
city  almshouse  is  on  a  farm  about  2  m.  to  the 
west.  The  public  schools  embrace  a  high  school 
and  inferior  grades,  and  the  Koman  Catholics 
have  parochial  schools,  besides  St.  Louis  acad- 
emy. The  number  of  pupils  enrolled  in  the 
public  schools  in  1874  was  4,249 ;  Catholic 
schools,  1,675 ;  private  schools,  137 ;  total, 
5,961.  The  state  normal  and  training  school 
occupies  a  fine  building,  and  has  a  model  school 
connected  with  it.  There  are  two  daily  and 
two  weekly  newspapers,  and  16  churches,  viz. : 
2  Baptist,  1  Congregational,  2  Episcopal,  1  Lu- 
theran, 3  Methodist,  2  Presbyterian,  and  5  Ro- 
man Catholic.— A  trading 'post  was  established 
by  the  English  on  the  site  of  Oswego  soon  after 
1720,  and  in  1727  a  rude  fort  was  built.  In 
1756  the  place  was  captured  by  the  French 
and  Indians,  and  about  150  prisoners  were 
massacred.  During  the  war  of  1812  it  was 
taken  by  the  British  in  May  of  that  year.  It 
was  incorporated  as  a  village  in  1828,  and  as  a 
city  in  1848. 

OTAHEITE.     See  SOCIETY  ISLANDS. 

OTFRIED,  a  German  poet  of  the  9th  cen- 
tury. He  was  a  pupil  of  Eabanus  Maurus,  and 
became  a  Benedictine  in  the  convent  of  Weis- 
senburg.  He  wrote  Der  Krist,  one  of  the  earli- 
est metrical  translations  of  the  Gospel.  The 
best  editions  are  by  Graff  (1831)  and  Kelle 
(1856).  It  has  been  translated  into  modern 
German  by  Rapp  (1858)  and  Kelle  (1870).  See 
also  OtfriecTs  EvangelienbucJi  und  die  ubrige 
althochdeutsche  Poesie  Karolingisclier  Zeit,  by 
Rechenberg  (1862). 

OTHMAN,  or  Osman,  surnamed  "the  Con- 
queror," the  founder  of  the  Ottoman  empire, 
and  of  the  present  reigning  dynasty  of  Turkey, 
born  in  Bithynia  in  1259,  died  in  1326.  He  is 
said  to  have  been  the  son  of  Orthogrul,  the 
leader  of  a  horde  of  Turkomans  who  had  en- 


tered the  service  of  the  sultan  of  Roum  or  of 
Iconium.  Othman  succeeded  his  father  in  the 
command,  and  on  the  fall  of  the  Seljuk  dynasty 
received  part  of  the  province  of  Bithynia  as 
his  share  in  the  division  of  the  sultanate.  Im- 
mediately afterward  he  attacked  the  Byzan- 
tine empire,  leading  his  forces  in  July,  1299, 
through  the  unguarded  passes  of  Mt.  Olympus, 
and  conquering  the  territory  of  Nicasa.  The 
27  years  of  Othman's  reign  were  taken  up  with 
wars.  He  reduced  the  province  of  Marmora 
in  1307,  and  subdued  the  whole  of  Bithynia 
and  neighboring  provinces.  Several  times  he 
had  been  repulsed  in  attacks  upon  Mcomedia 
(Ismid)  and  Prusa  (Brusa)  ;  but  the  capture  of 
the  latter  place  by  his  son  Orkhan,  the  news 
of  which  reached  him  on  his  deathbed,  laid 
the  foundation  of  the  Turkish  empire.  From 
him  it  is  called  the  Ottoman  Porte ;  yet  it  is 
doubtful  whether  he  ever  assumed  the  title  of 
sultan,  although  he  held  a  court  at  Kara-Hissar, 
and  coined  money. 

OTHMAN  IBN  AFFAN,  the  third  of  the  caliphs, 
killed  in  Medina  in  655.  He  was  one  of  the 
earliest  followers  of  Mohammed,  whom  he  ac- 
companied in  his  flight  from  Mecca  to  Medina, 
and  on  his  return  became  one  of  his  secreta- 
ries. He  was  designated  by  Omar  as  one  of 
the  six  individuals  to  choose  his  successor,  and 
was  himself  selected  at  the  close  of  644,  on  con- 
dition that  he  would  govern  the  country  ac- 
cording to  the  rules  of  the  Koran.  In  645  one 
of  his  armies  reduced  the  province  of  Hama- 
dan,  and  in  646  another  completed  the  con- 
quest of  Persia,  while  a  third  took  the  princi- 
pal cities  of  eastern  Africa,  after  defeating  near 
Tripoli  Gregorius,  who  commanded  in  the  name 
of  the  Greek  emperor.  Incursions  were  also 
made  into  Nubia,  and  in  648  the  islands  of 
Cyprus  and  Rhodes  were  plundered,  these  be- 
ing the  first  maritime  expeditions  undertaken 
by  the  Arabs.  But  although  fortunate  in  war, 
Othman's  domestic  administration  became  un- 
popular on  account  of  his  partiality  to  his  fam- 
ily and  favorites.  He  lost  the  silver  signet  ring 
used  by  the  prophet,  and  considered  by  the 
Moslems  the  palladium  of  their  empire,  and  also 
gave  offence  by  occupying  the  pulpit  when  in 
the  mosque  at  prayers,  instead  of  a  few  steps 
lower  down,  as  had  been  the  custom  of  the 
preceding  caliphs,  though  not  of  Mohammed. 
The  discontent  broke  out  into  an  open  insur- 
rection, which  was  quieted  with  some  difficulty 
by  concessions.  But  Ayesha,  the  widow  of  the 
prophet,  bribed  Othman's  secretary  to  manage 
that  an  order  to  the  governor  of  Egypt,  com- 
manding him  to  put  to  death  Mohammed,  son 
of  Abubekr.  should  fall  into  the  latter's  hands 
before  its  delivery  to  the  governor ;  where- 
upon Mohammed  marched  to  Medina,  entered  it 
unopposed,  and  invested  the  palace.  Deserted 
by  his  soldiers,  Othman,  putting  the  Koran  in 
his  bosom,  calmly  awaited  his  fate.  He  died 
at  the  age  of  82,  or  according  to  some  of  90 
or  95.  He  was  the  first  caliph  who  had  an 
authentic  copy  of  the  Koran  made. 


OTHO 


OTHO  II. 


729 


OTHO,  Marcus  Salvins,  a  Roman  emperor,  born 
A.  D.  32,  died  in  April,  69.  His  family  traced 
its  origin  to  the  kings  of  Etruria.  His  father, 
Lucius  Otho,  held  many  places  of  honor  and 
trust  under  Tiberius.  During  the  early  years 
of  Nero's  reign  Marcus  Otho  was  his  intimate 
associate  in  various  excesses  and  debaucheries ; 
but  Nero's  love  for  Poppoea,  whom  Otho  had 
seduced  from  her  husband,  caused  a  coolness 
between  them,  and  Otho  was  virtually  ban- 
ished by  an  appointment  as  governor  of  Lusi- 
tania,  where  he  remained  ten  years.  He  was 
afterward  active  in  opposition  to  Nero,  and 
aided  in  placing  Galba  on  the  throne,  A.  I).  68. 
As  a  reward  for  this  service,  he  expected  to  be 
named  Galba's  successor,  but  the  latter  adopt- 
ed Piso  Licinianus.  .This  disappointment  and 
his  heavy  debts  made  him  desperate ;  and  he 
said  publicly  that  if  he  were  not  emperor  soon 
he  would  be  ruined.  He  accordingly  conspired 
among  the  guards,  who  proclaimed  him  empe- 
ror, and  put  Galba  to  death,  after  a  reign  of 
seven  months.  But  a  few  days  before  this 
event  the  legions  in  Germany  had  proclaimed 
Vitellius  emperor,  and  Otho  was  scarcely  seat- 
ed upon  the  throne  when  he  was  called  upon 
to  oppose  this  new  claimant.  After  an  offer 
of  a  large  sum  to  Vitellius  to  relinquish  his 
claim,  which  was  refused,  he  marched  against 
him  with  an  army,  and  defeated  his  forces  in 
three  battles;  but  in  a  general  engagement 
near  Bedriacum,  between  Mantua  and  Cre- 
mona, the  army  of  Otho  was  completely  de- 
feated after  a  hard-fought  battle.  Otho  him- 
self was  not  upon  the  field,  and  when  the  news 
was  brought  to  him,  he  settled  all  his  affairs 
with  great  deliberation  and  then  committed 
suicide,  having  reigned  only  95  days. 

OTHO  I.,  the  Great,  a  German  emperor,  born 
in  912,  died  at  Memleben,  Thuringia,  May  7, 
973.  In  spite  of  strong  opposition  to  him  in 
his  own  family,  he  succeeded  his  father,  Henry 
the  Fowler,  and  was  crowned  at  Aix-la-Cha- 
pelle  in  936.  His  whole  reign  of  36  years  was 
a  constant  series  of  long  and  bloody  wars. 
After  quieting  the  opposition  to  himself,  he 
was  engaged  in  a  struggle  from  938  to  950 
with  Boleslas,  duke  of  Bohemia,  who  was 
finally  subdued  and  obliged  to  reinstate  the 
Christian  religion.  He  was  also  involved  in  a 
war  with  the  dukes  of  Bavaria  and  Franconia, 
in  which  he  was  triumphant ;  and  he  strength- 
ened his  authority  still  more  by  conferring 
the  duchy  of  Swabia  upon  his  son  Ludolph, 
that  of  Bavaria  upon  his  brother  Henry,  and 
that  of  Lorraine  upon  his  son-in-law  Conrad, 
count  of  Worms.  No  less  successful  against 
foreign  enemies,  he  made  the  Slavic  tribes  trib- 
utary as  far  as  the  Oder,  and  drove  back  the 
Danes,  who  had  invaded  Germany,  and  com- 
pelled their  king  to  acknowledge  his  authority. 
In  946  he  undertook  a  journey  to  France  to 
aid  his  brother-in-law  Louis  (Outremer)  against 
Hugh  the  Great,  count  of  Paris,  and,  compo- 
sing the  differences  between  the  king  and  his 
vassals,  received  as  a  reward  all  of  Lorraine 


that  was  still  in  French  hands.  Invited  by  Ade- 
laide of  Burgundy,  the  beautiful  widow  of  Lo- 
thaire  of  Italy,  whose  throne  had  been  usurped 
by  Berenger  II.,  he  crossed  the  Alps  in  951, 
defeated  Berenger,  took  Pavia,  was  crowned 
king  of  Lombardy,  married  Adelaide,  and  re- 
turned to  Germany.  But  on  account  of  Otho's 
affection  for  his  wife,  and  for  Henry,  duke  of 
Bavaria,  the  enemies  of  both,  headed  by  Lu- 
dolph, his  son  by  his  first  wife  (Eadgith,  sister 
of  the  English  king  Athelstan),  and  by  Conrad, 
duke  of  Lorraine,  raised  a  civil  war,  which 
was  not  quelled  till  954.  In  the  mean  time  the 
Hungarians  had  invaded  Germany,  and,  re- 
newing their  incursions  in  955,  besieged  Augs- 
burg, and  were  defeated  (Aug.  10)  on  the 
Lechfeld  near  that  city  with  terrible  slaugh- 
ter. Berenger  revolting,  Otho  again  passed 
over  into  Italy,  was  crowned  king  of  that 
country  by  the  archbishop  of  Mentz,  and  on 
Feb.  2,  962,  was  crowned  emperor  of  the  West 
by  Pope  John  XII.  The  pope  after  his  depar- 
ture breaking  his  allegiance,  Otho  hastened 
again  to  Italy,  and  called  a  council  which  de- 
posed John,  and  chose  in  his  place  Leo  VIII. 
The  Romans  having  soon  after  expelled  Leo 
and  recalled  John,  Otho  returned,  besieged  and 
took  Rome,  deprived  Benedict  V.,  the  succes- 
sor of  John,  of  his  popedom,  and  reinstated 
Leo.  His  plan  of  forming  an  alliance  with  the 
Greek  empire,  by  marrying  his  son  Otho  to 
Theophania,  daughter  of  Romanus  II.,  having 
been  defeated  by  the  obstinacy  of  the  Byzan- 
tine court,  Otho  invaded  lower  Italy,  defeated 
the  Greeks,  and  took  Apulia  and  Calabria. 
The  new  emperor  of  the  East,  John  Zimisces, 
hereupon  consented  to  an  alliance.  Soon  after- 
ward Otho  died  in  the  height  of  his  fame. — See 
Vehse'sZefow  Otto'sdes  Grossen (Dresden,  1872). 
OTHO  II.,  a  German  emperor,  son  of  the  pre- 
ceding, born  in  955,  died  in  Rome,  Dec.  7,  983. 
He  was  crowned  king  of  Rome  during  the  life- 
time of  his  father  (961).  He  ruled  Germany 
for  a  time  under  the  guardianship  of  his  moth- 
er, but  finally  retired  from  court,  and  a  civil 
war  sprang  up,  in  which  he  was  opposed  by 
his  cousin  Henry,  duke  of  Bavaria,  assisted  by 
Harald,  king  of  Denmark,  and  others.  Otho 
defeated  Henry  in  977,  and  gave  Bavaria  to  his 
nephew  Otho,  duke  of  Swabia.  The  French 
king  Lothaire  having  invaded  Lorraine  in  978 
and  taken  Aix-la-Chapelle,  Otho  collected  an 
army,  drove  back  the  invaders,  and  in  the 
pursuit  overran  Champagne  and  marched  to 
Paris,  a  suburb  of  which  he  burned.  Civil  war 
having  broken  out  in  Rome,  he  crossed  the 
Alps  in  980,  repressed  the  dissensions  there, 
and  then  marched  into  lower  Italy  with  the 
intention  of  wresting  from  the  Greeks  Apulia 
and  Calabria.  For  a  time  he  was  successful, 
and  took  Naples,  Salerno,  and  in  982  Taranto ; 
but  on  July  13  of  that  year  he  was  defeated  at 
Basantello  in  Calabria  by  the  Greeks,  who  had 
called  to  their  aid  the  Saracens  of  Italy.  Otho 
himself  narrowly  escaped.  While  meditating 
another  expedition  he  died. 


730 


OTHO  III. 


OTIS 


OTHO  HI.,  a  German  emperor,  son  of  the 
preceding,  born  in  980,  died  at  Paterno,  near 
Viterbo,  Jan.  23, 1002.  When  three  years  old 
he  was  crowned  king  of  Germany,  and  during 
his  minority  the  government  was  administered 
by  his  mother  Theophania,  his  grandmother 
Adelaide,  his  aunt,  and  the  archbishop  of  Mentz. 
During  his  reign  Germany  was  the  scene  of 
constant  tumults  and  wars.  Henry,  duke  of 
Bavaria,  gained  possession  of  his  person,  but 
was  forced  by  the  other  princes  of  the  empire 
to  restore  him  to  his  mother.  In  984  Lorraine 
was  invaded  by  Lothaire,  king  of  France,  who 
did  not  succeed  in  effecting  anything.  In  996 
Otho  went  to  Italy,  repressed  the  insurrection 
of  Orescentius,  placed  one  of  his  relatives, 
Bruno,  on  the  papal  throne  under  the  name  of 
Gregory  V.,  and  on  May  21  was  by  him  crown- 
ed emperor.  After  his  departure  Orescentius 
renewed  his  insurrection,  and  drove  out  Greg- 
ory. Otho  returned  in  998  and  put  Crescen- 
tius  to  death,  and  in  1000  made  a  pilgrimage  to 
the  grave  of  St.  Adalbert,  at  Gnesen  in  Poland, 
and  there  founded  an  archbishopric.  Visiting 
Italy  again  in  1001,  he  was  compelled  to  leave 
Borne  by  the  people,  and  shortly  afterward  died 
of  fever,  or  according  to  some  of  poison.  With 
him  the  male  branch  of  the  Saxon  line  became 
extinct.  He  was  succeeded  by  Henry  II. 

OTHO  IV.,  a  German  emperor,  born  in  1174, 
died  May  19,  1218.  He  was  the  son  of  Henry 
the  Lion,  duke  of  Saxony  and  Bavaria,  and  of 
Matilda,  sister  of  Richard  Coeur  de  Lion.  His 
youth  was  passed  at  the  court  of  England.  In 
1197  the  emperor  Henry  VI.  of  the  house  of 
Hohenstaufen  died,  and  left  his  crown  to  his 
son  Frederick  II.,  then  an  infant.  Otho  was 
at  that  time  duke  of  Saxony,  and,  supported  by 
the  Guelphs,  he  claimed  the  imperial  throne. 
His  claim  was  opposed  by  Philip  of  Swabia, 
who  had  the  support  of  the  Ghibellines.  A 
civil  war  ensued,  which  ended  after  eight  years 
by  the  flight  of  Otho  to  England,  and  Philip 
held  the  throne  till  1208,  when  he  was  assas- 
sinated. Otho  thereupon  returned,  was  recog- 
nized as  emperor,  and  was  crowned  at  Rome  by 
Pope  Innocent  III.  in  1209.  The  pope  made  it 
a  condition  of  this  coronation  that  Otho  should 
relinquish  in  favor  of  the  church  the  nomi- 
nation to  certain  benefices;  but  the  emperor 
violated  his  oath,  and  was  excommunicated  by 
the  pope  and  formally  deposed  by  the  German 
princes.  The  rightful  heir  Frederick,  then 
king  of  Naples  and  Sicily,  was  elected  in  his 
place.  A  second  civil  war  now  began,  and  the 
alliance  of  Otho»  with  John,  king  of  England, 
added  to  his  enemies  the  king  of  France,  Philip 
Augustus,  by  whom  he  was  beaten  at  the  bat- 
tle of  Bovines  in  1214.  In  1215  he  marched 
against  Waldemar,  king  of  Denmark,  who  had 
formed  a  league  with  Frederick.  He  captured 
Hamburg,  but  a  sentence  of  excommunication 
having  been  issued  against  him,  he  was  no 
longer  able  to  carry  on  the  war,  and  retired 
to  his  hereditary  estates  in  Brunswick.  His 
life  was  published  by  Langerfeldt  in  1872. 


OTHO  I.  (OTTO  FEIEDEIOH  LTJDWIG),  king  of 
Greece,  second  son  of  Louis  I.,  king  of  Bava- 
ria, born  in  Salzburg,  June  1,  1815,  died  in 
Bamberg,  July  26,  1867.  In  his  17th  year  he 
was  invited  by  the  Greeks,  who  had  then 
recently  achieved  their  independence,  to  fill 
their  throne;  and  the  proposition  being  ap- 
proved by  Great  Britain,  France,  and  Russia, 
in  a  treaty  concluded  in  London  in  May,  1832, 
and  ratified  soon  after  by  the  king  of  Bava- 
ria, the  young  prince  accepted  the  offer,  and 
on  Feb.  6,  1833,  entered  Nauplia,  accompanied 
by  several  officers  of  state  who  were  to  have 
the  control  of  public  affairs  until  he  attained 
the  age  of  20.  In  June,  1835,  he  assumed  the 
reins  of  government,  and  in  the  succeeding 
year  was  married  in  Germany  to  the  princess 
Amalie  of  Oldenburg.  The  Bavarian  minis- 
ters to  whom  he  committed  the  management 
of  the  kingdom  soon  became  unpopular,  and 
as  early  as  1836  the  people  began  to  manifest 
their  discontent  by  open  rebellion.  On  the 
day  of  his  arrival  with  his  consort  at  the  Pi- 
raeus, Feb.  14,  1837,  he  signed  a  decree  remov- 
ing some  of  the  most  obnoxious  foreigners 
from  office,  and  substituting  the  Greek  lan- 
guage for  the  German  in  official  documents. 
In  other  respects  the  government  continued 
to  be  despotic;  and  in  September,  1843,  the 
Greeks  surrounded  his  palace,  and  compelled 
him  to  form  a  cabinet  in  which  his  native 
subjects  should  be  properly  represented,  and 
to  call  a  national  assembly  to  frame  a  consti- 
tution. The  latter  instrument  was  promul- 
gated in  the  ensuing  March,  the  Bavarian  min- 
isters were  sent  home,  and  an  auspicious  era 
seemed  about  to  dawn  upon  Greece.  The  re- 
actionary tendencies  of  the  king  and  his  advi- 
sers soon  interfered  with  these  prospects ;  at- 
tempts were  made  to  abridge  the  concessions 
granted,  which  the  people  resisted;  ministry 
after  ministry  essayed  without  success  to  carry 
on  the  government.  On  the  breaking  out  of 
the  eastern  war  in  1853  the  Greeks  so  strong- 
ly manifested  their  hostility  to  the  Porte  that 
an  allied  army  of  English  and  French  was 
stationed  at  the  Pira3us,  and  a  new  ministry, 
distasteful  to  the  king  and  queen,  who  were 
also  warmly  attached  to  the  Russian  policy, 
was  forced  into  office.  The  people,  perceiving 
in  this  an  attempt  to  infringe  the  royal  pre- 
rogative and  insult  the  national  dignity,  were 
partially  reconciled  to  their  sovereign,  and  the 
unpopular  ministers  were  obliged  to  retire. 
On  the  conclusion  of  the  war  the  popular  en- 
mity toward  the  king  again  broke  out.  After 
several  unsuccessful  insurrections,  the  people 
finally  organized  a  provisional  government  in 
Athens,  which  declared  the  throne  vacant ;  and 
on  Oct.  27,  1862,  Otho  returned  to  Bavaria. 

OTIS,  Harrison  Gray,  an  American  statesman, 
nephew  of  James  Otis,  born  in  Boston,  Oct.  8, 
1765,  died  there,  Oct.  28,  1848.  He  graduated 
at  Harvard  college  in  1783,  studied  law,  and  was 
admitted  to  the  bar  in  1786.  In  1796  he  was 
elected  from  Boston  to  the  state  legislature, 


OTIS 

and  succeeded  Fisher  Ames  in  congress,  where 
he  soon  became  a  leader  of  the  federal  party. 
He  served  two  terms  in  congress,  and  in  1801 
was  appointed  United  States  district  attorney 
for  Massachusetts.  Subsequently  he  became 
a  member  of  the  state  legislature,  and  was 
speaker  of  the  house  from  1803  to  1805,  and 
president  of  the  senate  from  1805  to  1811. 
He  was  chairman  of  the  legislative  committee 
which  in  1814  reported  in  favor  of  calling  a 
convention  of  the  New  England  states  at  Hart- 
ford to  consider  the  best  mode  of  redressing 
the  grievances  inflicted  on  those  states  by  the 
war  with  Great  Britain.  He  was  a  leading 
member  of  that  convention,  and  was  one  of 
the  three  commissioners  appointed  by  Massa- 
chusetts to  go  to  Washington  and  make  a  rep- 
resentation to  the  federal  government.  In  his 
"Letters  in  Defence  of  the  Hartford  Conven- 
tion" (Boston,  1824)  he  defended  the  charac- 
ter and  intentions  of  that  body.  In  1814  he 
was  appointed  judge  of  the  court  of  common 
pleas  of  Massachusetts,  which  office  he  held 
till  1818,  when  he  took  his  seat  in  the  United 
States  senate,  to  which  the  legislature  had 
elected  him  in  the  preceding  year.  In  1820, 
in  the  debate  on  the  Missouri  question,  he 
advocated  with  great  force  the  restriction  of 
the  extension  of  slavery.  In  1829  he  was  elec- 
ted mayor  of  Boston,  and  in  1832  retired  from 
Cblic  life.  He  was  distinguished  as  a  popu- 
orator,  and  during  his  later  years  strong- 
ly opposed  the  anti-slavery  movement. 

OTIS,  James,  an  American  orator,  born  at 
Great  Marshes,  now  called  West  Barnstable, 
Mass.,  Feb.  5,  1725,  died  in  Andover,  May  23, 
1783.  He  graduated  at  Harvard  college  in 
1743,  studied  law  in  Boston,  was  admitted  to 
the  bar  in  1748  in  Plymouth,  where  he  began 
to  practise,  and  in  1750  removed  to  Boston. 
In  1760  he  published  a  treatise  entitled  "  The 
Eudiments  of  Latin  Prosody,  with  a  Disserta- 
tion on  Letters,  and  the  Principles  of  Harmo- 
ny in  Poetic  and  Prosaic  Composition."  His 
public  career  dates  from  his  argument,  in  1761, 
on  the  question  whether  the  persons  employed 
in  enforcing  the  acts  of  trade  should  have  the 
power  to  invoke  generally  the  assistance  of  all 
the  executive  officers  of  the  colony.  Otis  was 
at  that  time  advocate  general,  but,  deeming 
the  writs  of  assistance  illegal,  refused  to  argue 
in  behalf  of  them,  and  resigned.  He  was  then 
employed  upon  the  other  side,  and  produced  a 

Erofound  impression.  The  judges  evaded  giv- 
ig  a  decision ;  and  the  writs,  although  secret- 
ly granted  at  the  next  term,  were  never  exe- 
cuted. The  next  year  Otis  was  elected  to  the 
legislature,  where  his  eloquence  soon  placed 
him  at  the  head  of  the  popular  party,  and  jus- 
tified his  claim  to  the  title  of  the  "great  incen- 
diary of  New  England."  On  June  6,  1765,  he 
moved  that  a  congress  of  delegates  be  called 
from  the  several  colonies.  The  motion  was 
adopted,  and  a  circular  letter  was  sent  to  the 
other  colonies,  in  consequence  of  which  the 
stamp  act  congress  met  in  New  York  in  Octo- 


OTOE 


731 


her  of  that  year.  Otis  was  one  of  the  dele- 
gates to  this  body,  and  a  member  of  the  com- 
mittee to  prepare  an  address  to  the  house  of 
commons.  In  May,  1767,  he  was  elected 
speaker  of  the  provincial  house,  but  was  nega- 
tived by  the  governor.  When  Charles  Towns- 
hend's  plan  of  taxation  had  passed  parliament, 
the  Massachusetts  house  sent  in  1768  another 
circular  letter  requesting  the  colonies  to  unite 
in  some  suitable  measures  of  redress.  On  the 
message  of  Gov.  Bernard  requiring  the  letter 
to  be  rescinded  Otis  made  a  speech,  pronounced 
by  the  friends  of  the  government  to  be  "  the 
most  violent,  insolent,  abusive,  and  treason- 
able declaration  that  perhaps  ever  was  deliv- 
ered." The  house  refused  to  rescind  by  a  vote 
of  92  to  17.  In  the  summer  of  1769,  finding 
that  the  commissioners  of  customs  had  sent 
accusations  against  him  to  England,  charging 
him  with  treason,  he  inserted  an  advertisement 
in  the  "Boston  Gazette"  denouncing  them. 
The  next  evening  he  met  Eobinson,  one  of  the 
commissioners,  in  a  coffee  house.  An  alterca- 
tion ensued,  ending  in  an  affray,  in  which  Otis 
was  overpowered  by  numbers  and  severely 
injured.  To  a  cut  in  the  head  received  on 
this  occasion  his  subsequent  derangement  is 
attributed.  In  the  action  instituted  against 
Eobinson,  he  obtained  an  award  of  £2,000, 
which  he  gave  up  on  receiving  from  the  de- 
fendant a  humble  written  apology.  In  1770 
he  retired  to  the  country  for  his  health,  but 
in  1771  was  again  chosen  a  representative. 
Nearly  all  the  rest  of  his  life  he  was  deranged. 
He  spent  his  last  two  years  at  Andover.  At 
one  time  his  mind  was  thought  to  be  restored, 
and  he  returned  to  Boston  and  resumed  the 
practice  of  law ;  but  the  lucid  interval  proving 
temporary,  he  went  back  to  Andover,  and  was 
shortly  after  killed  by  a  stroke  of  lightning 
while  standing  at  the  door  of  the  house  in 
which  he  lodged.  During  his  derangement  he 
destroyed  all  his  papers.  He  had  previously 
published  pamphlets  entitled  "  A  Vindication 
of  the  Conduct  of  the  House  of  Eepresenta- 
tives"  (1762),  "The  Eights  of  the  British 
Colonies  asserted"  (1764),  and  "Considera- 
tions on  behalf  of  the  Colonists  "  (1765).— See 
"  Life  of  James  Otis,"  by  William  Tudor  (Bos- 
ton, 1823). 

OTOE,  a  S.  E.  county  of  Nebraska,  separated 
from  Iowa  and  Missouri  by  the  Missouri  river, 
and  watered  by  the  Little  Nemaha  and  other 
streams;  area,  about  700  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870, 
12,345.  The  Midland  Pacific  railroad  traverses 
it.  The  E.  part  is  mostly  prairie,  the  W.  part 
is  timbered,  and  the  soil  is  fertile.  There  are 
salt  springs  in  the  N.  W.  part.  The  chief  pro- 
ductions in  1870  were  175,058  bushels  of  wheat, 
632,160  of  Indian  corn,  109,063  of  oats,  129,832 
of  barley,  97,062  of  potatoes,  5,180  Ibs.  of  wool, 
60,180  of  butter,  and  14,248  tons  of  hay.  There 
were  2,935  horses,  2,608  milch  cows,  4,202 
other  cattle,  1,333  sheep,  and  5,956  swine ;  1 
manufactory  of  boots  and  shoes,  3  of  jewelry, 
2  of  saddlery  and  harness,  5  of  tin,  copper,  and 


732 


OTOES 


OTTAWA 


sheet-iron  ware,  2  breweries,  and  3  flour  mills. 
Capital,  Nebraska  City. 

OTOES,  or  Ottoes,  an  Indian  tribe  on  the  Mis- 
souri river,  known  to  the  French  from  about 
1673  under  the  name  of  Otontanta,  and  calling 
themselves  Watoohtahtah.  They  belong  to  the 
Dakota  family,  were  originally  part  of  the 
Missouris,  and  claim  to  have  come  into  those 
parts  with  the  Winnebagoes.  They  long  re- 
sided on  the  S.  bank  of  the  Platte  in  a  per- 
manent village  of  earth-covered  huts.  Trea- 
ties were  made  with  them  on  June  24,  1817, 
and  Sept.  26,  1825.  They  have  for  years  been 
united  with  the  Missouris,  forming  one  village. 
The  two  tribes  in  1873  numbered  fewer  than 
500  souls,  the  Otoes  still  retaining  their  Indian 
dress,  habits,  and  dwellings.  Missions  among 
them  have  not  been  successful. 

OTOMIS,  or  Othomis,  an  Indian  tribe  in  Mex- 
ico, inhabiting  the  state  of  Queretaro  and  most 
of  Guanajuato,  and  numerous  in  the  state  of 
Mexico,  with  bands  in  Vera  Cruz,  Puebla, 
Tlaxcala,  Michoacan,  and  San  Luis  Potosi,  be- 
ing the  most  widely  spread  tribe  after  the 
Aztecs.  They  are  regarded  as  one  of  the  old- 
est of  the  Mexican  tribes,  occupying  the  valley 
of  Mexico  before  the  invasion  of  the  Toltecs, 
who  drove  them  to  the  mountains.  After  the 
fall  of  the  Toltecs  they  recovered  ground,  but 
were  again  overcome  by  the  Aztecs,  who  drove 
them  out,  but  did  not  hold  all  their  conquests. 
Some  of  the  Otomi  bands  acquired  a  partial 
civilization  from  the  Toltecs  and  Aztecs.  The 
Otomis  generally  submitted  to  the  Spaniards. 
Conni,  an  Otomi  chief,  became  a  Christian,  and 
founded  Queretaro.  The  Otomis  in  the  Sierra 
Gorda,  who  had  been  converted,  in  1686  re- 
volted, and  defeated  and  killed  Gen.  Zaraza, 
who  was  sent  against  them;  but  they  were 
finally  reduced  by  Ardela  in  1715.  They  are 
a  rude  people,  furnishing  the  unskilled  labor 
in  many  parts  of  Mexico.  Their  language  is 
peculiar.  Otomi  means  "  nothing  stable  ;"  but 
they  style  their  language  hia  hiu,  which  means 
"language  which  remained."  It  is  harsh  and 
poor,  abounding  in  monosyllables,  with  five 
distinct  tones.  A  has  three  sounds,  e  five,  i 
three,  u  four,  and  z  three.  Nouns  have  no 
case,  number,  or  gender.  Na  before  a  verb 
makes  it  a  noun  ;  before  a  noun  it  shows  it  to 
be  singular,  and  ya  denotes  the  plural.  The 
verb  is  conjugated  in  its  inseparable  pronouns, 
the  root  remaining  unchanged.  There  is  a 
small  grammar  and  dictionary  of  the  Otomi 
by  Luis  de  Neve  y  Molinia  (Mexico,  1767),  of 
which  there  is  a  French  abridgment  (Paris, 
1863),  with  an  attempt  to  show  a  relation  be- 
tween it  and  Chinese,  but  on  slight  grounds. 

OTRANTO  (anc.  Hydruntum),  a  seaport  of 
Italy,  on  a  strait  of  the  same  name,  connect- 
ing the  Adriatic  with  the  Ionian  sea  opposite 
Cape  Linguetta  in  Albania,  in  the  province  and 
23  m.  S.  E.  of  the  city  of  Lecce ;  pop.  about 
2,000.  It  is  connected  with  the  East  by  two 
lines  of  telegraph,  one  to  Avlona,  the  other  to 
Corfu.  It  is  the  seat  of  an  archbishop,  and 


contains  a  cathedral  and  some  Roman  remains. 
It  was  taken  by  the  Turks  in  1480,  and  seems 
to  have  never  recovered  from  the  check  then 
given  to  its  prosperity.  (For  Terra  d'Otranto, 
see  LECCE.) 

OTRMTO,  Duke  of.     See  FOTJCHE. 

OTSEGO.  I.  A  central  county  of  New  York, 
bounded  W.  by  the  Unadilla  river,  and  watered 
by  the  Susquehanna  river  and  Wharton,  But- 
ternut, Otego,  Schenevas,  and  other  creeks; 
area,  about  1,050  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  48,967. 
Its  surface  is  traversed  from  N.  E.  to  8.  W.  by 
several  ridges,  between  which  are  broad  val- 
leys. Otsego  lake,  8  m.  long  and  1  m.  broad, 
is  in  the  northeast,  and  has  an  elevation  of 
1,193  ft.  above  tide  ;  and  Schuyler  lake,  about 
3£  m.  long,  is  in  the  northwest.  The  soil  is 
various  in  quality,  but  generally  fertile.  It  is 
intersected  by  the  Albany  and  Susquehanna 
railroad  and  its  Cherry  Valley  branch,  the 
Cooperstown  and  Susquehanna  Valley,  and  the 
Utica,  Chenango,  and  Susquehanna  Valley  rail- 
roads. The  chief  productions  in  1870  were 
40,292  bushels  of  wheat,  24,274  of  rye,  250,901 
of  Indian  corn,  990,727  of  oats,  41,003  of  bar- 
ley, 130,692  of  buckwheat,  626,836  of  pota- 
toes, 3,566,286  Ibs.  of  butter,  829,439  of  cheese, 
199,937  of  wool,  2,919,629  of  hops,  263,511  of 
maple  sugar,  and  188,274  tons  of  hay.  There 
were  13,462  horses,  45,603  milch  cows,  18,801 
other  cattle,  43,402  sheep,  and  11,864  swine; 
12  manufactories  of  agricultural  implements, 
5  of  brick,  61  of  carriages  and  wagons,  41  of 
cheese,  12  of  tanned  and  7  of  curried  leather, 
7  of  machinery,  3  of  musical  instruments,  28 
of  saddlery  and  harness,  8  of  sash,  doors,  and 
blinds,  4  of  woollen  goods,  19  flour  mills,  38 
saw  mills,  and  4  planing  mills.  Capital,  Coop- 
erstown. II.  A  N.  county  of  the  S.  peninsula 
of  Michigan,  drained  by  branches  of  the  An 
Sable,  the  Manistee,  the  Cheboygan,  and  other 
rivers ;  area,  576  sq.  m. ;  returned  as  having 
no  population  in  1870.  It  has  an  undulating 
surface,  mostly  covered  with  pine  forests. 

OTTAWA.  I.  A  N.  county  of  Ohio,  bounded 
N.  E.  by  Lake  Erie  and  S.  E.  by  Sandusky  bay, 
and  intersected  by  Portage  river ;  area,  about 
350  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  13,364.  It  includes 
several  islands  in  Lake  Erie,  and  has  a  nearly 
level  surface  and  fertile  soil.  The  Lake  Shore 
railroad  passes  through  it.  The  chief  produc- 
tions in  1870  were  85,860  bushels  of  wheat, 
115,850  of  Indian  corn,  58,511  of  oats,  43,368 
of  potatoes,  203,812  Ibs.  of  butter,  68,241  of 
wool,  41,674  gallons  of  wine,  and  12,200  tons 
of  hay.  There  were  2,816  horses,  2,695  milch 
cows,  3,535  other  cattle,  21, 484  sheep,  and  7,774 
swine ;  4  manufactories  of  carriages  and  har- 
ness, 2  of  hubs  and  wagon  materials,  2  flour 
mills,  and  22  saw  mills.  Capital,  Port  Clinton. 
II.  A  W.  county  of  Michigan,  bordering  on 
Lake  Michigan,  intersected  by  Grand  river,  and 
drained  by  Black  and  Pigeon  rivers ;  area, 
about  550  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  26,651.  It 
|  has  an  undulating  surface  and  fertile  soil.  It 
is  intersected  by  the  Detroit  and  Milwaukee, 


OTTAWA 


733 


the  Michigan  Lake  Shore,  and  the  Chicago  and 
Michigan  Lake  Shore  railroads.  The  chief  pro- 
ductions in  1870  were  218,010  bushels  of  wheat, 
215,043  of  Indian  corn,  164,643  of  oats,  253,- 
826  of  potatoes,  618,130  Ibs.  of  butter,  51,453 
of  wool,  80,819  of  maple  sugar,  and  23,148  tons 
of  hay.  There  were  4,324  horses,  6,514  milch 
cows,  6,983  other  cattle,  14,943  sheep,  and  7,795 
swine  ;  9  manufactories  of  carriages  and  wag- 
ons, 6  of  tanned  and  4  of  curried  leather,  5 
flour  mills,  and  31  saw  mills.  Capital,  Grand 
Haven.  III.  A  N.  central  county  of  Kansas,  in- 
tersected by  Solomon  and  Saline  rivers  ;  area, 
720  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  2,127.  The  surface 
is  undulating  and  the  soil  fertile.  The  chief 
productions  in  1870  were  31,246  bushels  of 
wheat,  100,680  of  Indian  corn,  5,100  of  oats, 
12,475  of  potatoes,  33,169  Ibs.  of  butter,  and 
5,851  tons  of  hay.  There  were  922  horses, 
1,151  milch  cows,  6,166  other  cattle,  827  sheep, 
and  1,055  swine.  Capital,  Minneapolis. 

OTTAWA,  a  W.  county  of  Quebec,  Canada, 
separated  from  Ontario  on  the  south  by  the 
Ottawa  river;  area,  5,706  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in 
1871,  37,892,  of  whom  21,439  were  of  French, 
10,873  of  Irish,  2,250  of  English,  and  2,216 
of  Scotch  origin  or  descent.  It  is  watered  by 
the  North  Petite  Nation,  Du  Lievre,  and  Gati- 
neau  rivers,  and  other  streams.  Capital,  Hull. 

OTTAWA,  a  city  and  the  capital  of  La  Salle 
co.,  Illinois,  on  the  Illinois  river,  just  below 
the  mouth  of  the  Fox,  and  on  the  Illinois  and 


Michigan  canal,  and  the  Chicago,  Eock  Island, 
and  Pacific,  and  the  Chicago,  Burlington,  and 
Quincy  railroads,  82  m.  S.  W.  of  Chicago ;  pop. 
in  1870,  7,736 ;  in  1875  estimated  by  local  au- 
thorities at  12,000.  The  city  is  lighted  with 
gas,  and  contains  many  handsome  residences. 
The  chief  public  buildings  are  the  court  house 
in  which  the  supreme  court  for  the  northern 
division  of  the  state  is  held,  and  the  county 
court  house  and  jail.  The  surrounding  coun- 
try is  fertile  and  abounds  in  coal.  The  Fox 
river  has  here  a  fall  of  29  ft.,  affording  great 
water  power.  The  principal  manufactories  are 
six  of  agricultural  implements,  four  of  car- 
riages, and  one  each  of  starch  and  glass,  the 
last  two  being  the  largest  of  the  kind  in  the 
state.  There  are  several  grain  elevators,  and 
large  quantities  of  wheat  are  shipped  from  this 
point.  The  entire  trade  of  the  city  is  estima- 
ted at  $14,000,000  a  year.  It  has  three  banks, 
several  hotels,  seven  public  school  buildings 
with  graded  schools,  three  weekly  newspapers 
(one  German),  the  Illinois  law  library,  and 
eleven  churches. 

OTTAWA,  a  city  and  port  of  entry  of  the 
province  of  Ontario,  capital  of  Carleton  co. 
and  of  the  Dominion  of  Canada,  on  the  south 
bank  of  Ottawa  river,  at  the  mouth  of  the 
Rideau,  97  m.  above  the  St.  Lawrence,  and 
220  m.  E.  K  E.  of  Toronto;  lat.  45°  20'  K, 
Ion.  75°  42'  W.;  pop.  in  1861,  14,669;  in  1871, 
21,545.  It  is  divided  into  the  upper  and  low- 


The  Parliament  House 


er  town  by  the  Rideau  canal,  which  connects 
it  with  Kingston  at  the  head  of  the  St.  Law- 
rence. The  canal  is  here  crossed  by  two 
bridges,  one  of  stone  and  one  of  stone  and 
iron,  and  has  eight  massive  locks.  The  ^  sce- 
nery in  the  vicinity  of  the  city  is  pictu- 


resque and  grand.  At  the  W.  extremity  are 
the  Chaudiere  falls,  40  ft.  high,  just  below 
which  the  Ottawa  is  spanned  by  a  suspension 
bridge ;  and  at  the  1ST.  E.  end  two  other  falls, 
40  ft.  high,  over  which  the  Rideau  flows  to 
join  the  Ottawa.  The  streets  are  wide  and 


OTTAWA 


OTTAWAS 


regular,  and  there  are  many  handsome  build- 
ings of  stone.  The  government  buildings  are 
the  chief  feature  of  the  city.  They  form  three 
sides  of  a  quadrangle  on  an  eminence  known 
as  Barrack  hill,  150  ft.  above  the  Ottawa,  and 
cost  nearly  $4,000,000.  The  S.  side  is  formed 
by  the  parliament  building,  which  is  472  ft. 
long  and  572  ft.  deep  from  the  front  of  the 
main  tower  to  the  rear  of  the  library,  the 
body  of  the  building  being  40  ft.  high  and  the 
central  tower  180  ft.  The  departmental  build- 
ings run  N.  from  this,  facing  inward  to  the 
square,  the  eastern  block  being  318  ft.  long 
by  253  deep,  and  the  western  211  ft.  long  by 
277  deep.  The  buildings  are  constructed  in 
the  Italian  Gothic  style,  of  cream-colored  sand- 
stone. The  arches  of  the  doors  and  windows 
are  of  red  Potsdam  sandstone,  the  external 
ornamental  work  of  Ohio  sandstone,  and  the 
columns  and  arches  of  the  legislative  chambers 
of  marble.  The  roofs  are  covered  with  green 
and  purple  slates,  and  the  pinnacles  are  orna- 
mented with  iron.  The  legislative  chambers 
are  capacious  and  richly  furnished,  and  have 
stained  glass  windows.  The  corner  stone  was 
laid  by  the  prince  of  Wales  in  1860.  Excel- 
lent water  works  have  lately  been  completed, 
and  a  thorough  system  of  drainage  is  in  pro- 
gress.— Ottawa  is  connected  by  horse  cars  with 
New  Edinburgh,  the  residence  of  the  governor 
general,  and  with  Hull  on  the  opposite  bank  of 
the  Ottawa  river.  It  has  railway  communica- 
tion with  the  principal  points  of  the  province 
by  means  of  the  St.  Lawrence  and  Ottawa  and 
the  Canada  Central  lines.  Eegular  lines  of 
steamers  ply  in  summer  to  Montreal,  to  various 
points  on  the  upper  Ottawa,  and  to  Kingston 
through  the  Rideau  canal.  The  city  is  the  en- 
trepot of  the  lumber  trade  of  the  Ottawa  and 
its  tributaries.  The  imports  for  the  year  end- 
ing June  30,  1874,  amounted  to  $1,495,169; 
exports,  $1,683,148.  The  entrances  and  clear- 
ances from  and  to  the  United  States  were  each 
1,174,  with  an  aggregate  tonnage  of  95,722. 
There  are  several  flouring  mills,  a  number  of 
large  saw  mills,  manufactories  of  iron  cast- 
ings, mill  machinery,  agricultural  implements, 
brooms,  bricks,  leather,  wooden  ware,  &c., 
and  seven  branch  banks.  The  city  is  governed 
by  a  mayor  and  board  of  aldermen,  has  a  po- 
lice force  and  fire  department,  and  is  light- 
ed with  gas.  It  contains  a  Roman  Catholic 
and  a  Protestant  hospital,  three  orphan  asy- 
lums, a  Magdalen  asylum,  a  provincial  normal 
school,  a  high  school,  good  public  schools  with 
an  average  attendance  of  more  than  2,000,  a 
Catholic  college  and  ecclesiastical  seminary, 
six  daily  (one  French)  and  five  weekly  (one 
French)  newspapers,  and  17  churches,  viz. : 
Baptist,  1 ;  Catholic  Apostolic  (Irvingite),  1 ; 
Congregational,  1;  Episcopal,  3;  Episcopal 
Methodist,  2 ;  Presbyterian,  3 ;  Roman  Catho- 
lic, 4;  Wesleyan  Methodist,  2. — Ottawa  was 
founded  in  1827  by  Col.  By,  a  British  officer, 
from  whom  it  received  the  name  of  Bytown. 
It  was  incorporated  as  a  city  under  its  present 


name  in  1854,  and  was  selected  as  the  seat  of 
the  Canadian  government  in  1858. 

OTTAWA,  or  Grand,  a  river  of  Canada,  rising 
in  the  N.  W.  portion  of  the  province  of  Que- 
bec, in  about  lat.  47°  1ST.  and  Ion.  76°  30'  W. 
It  flows  first  N.  W.,  then  W.,  in  a  tortuous 
course  through  extensive  lakes,  for  about  300 
m.,  to  Lake  Temiscamingue  (about  lat.  47°  30', 
Ion.  79°  30'),  whence  it  pursues  a  S.  E.  course 
of  about  400  m.,  separating  Quebec  from  On- 
tario, and  empties  into  the  St.  Lawrence  at  the 
upper  end  of  the  island  of  Montreal.  The 
Ottawa  has  an  irregular  width,  being  lost  in 
portions  of  its  course  in  lakes  through  which 
it  flows,  while  in  others  the  waters  contract 
to  40  or  50  yards,  and  are  precipitated  over 
rocks,  sometimes  forming  beautiful  cascades. 
Lake  Temiscamingue  has  a  length  of  67  m. 
and  a  width  varying  from  a  few  hundred  yards 
to  perhaps  10  m.  The  lower  24  m.  of  the 
river  has  a  width  of  from  1  to  6  m.,  and  is 
called  the  lake  of  the  Two  Mountains.  About 
75  and  95  m.  respectively  above  the  city  of 
Ottawa  are  Calumet  and  Allumette  islands,  be- 
longing to  Quebec;  and  6  m.  above  Ottawa 
commence  the  rapids  which  terminate  in  the 
celebrated  Chaudiere  falls,  where  the  waters 
plunge  40  ft.  and  partly  disappear  by  an  un- 
derground passage,  the  outlet  of  which  is  un- 
known. The  river  is  navigable  below  Ottawa 
and  for  more  than  160  m.  above  it,  the  rapids 
and  falls  being  avoided  by  means  of  canals. 
The  Rideau  canal,  from  Ottawa  to  Kingston, 
opens  a  navigable  connection  with  Lake  On- 
tario. The  chief  tributaries  of  the  Ottawa 
from  the  west  are  the  Montreal,  which  en- 
ters Lake  Temiscamingue,  the  Mattawan,  the 
sources  of  which  approach  within  a  few  miles 
of  Lake  Nipissing,  the  Petawawa,  the  Bonne 
Chere,  the  Madawaska,  the  Mississippi,  the 
Rideau,  which  enters  at  the  city  of  Ottawa, 
and  the  South  Petite  Nation.  From  the  east 
it  receives  the  Keepawa,  a  little  below  the 
mouth  of  the  Montreal,  the  Du  Moine,  the 
Gatineau,  nearly  opposite  Ottawa,  the  Du 
Lievre,  the  North  Petite  Nation,  the  Rouge, 
and  North  river,  or  Riviere  du  Nord.  The 
Gatineau  has  a  length  of  400  m.,  and  most  of 
the  other  tributaries  named  vary  from  100  to 
250  m.  The  Ottawa  and  its  tributaries  drain 
an  area  estimated  at  80,000  sq.  m.  The  valley 
of  the  Ottawa  abounds  in  timber,  particular- 
ly red  and  white  pine,  and  forms  one  of  the 
most  productive  lumber  regions  in  the  world. 

OTTAWAS,  a  tribe  of  American  Indians  be- 
longing to  the  Algonquin  family,  and  residing 
when  first  known  to  the  early  French  explo- 
rers on  the  Manitoulin  islands  and  the  N. 
W.  shore  of  the  Michigan  peninsula,  compri- 
sing the  Sinagos,  Kiskakons,  and  Keinouches. 
They  believed  in  Michabou,  the  "  great  hare," 
a  mythical  personage,  who  formed  the  earth, 
and  developed  men  from  animals ;  in  Mirabi- 
chi,  god  of  the  waters ;  and  in  Missabizi,  "  the 
great  tiger."  After  the  overthrow  of  the  Hu- 
rons  in  1649,  the  Ottawas  of  Manitoulin,  Sagi- 


OTTAWAS 


OTTER 


735 


naw,  and  Thunder  bay  fled  from  the  Iroquois 
to  the  islands  at  the  mouth  of  Green  bay,  and 
thence  beyond  the  Mississippi  to  the  country 
of  the  Sioux.     Provoking  these  to  war,  they  j 
fell  back  to  Ohegoimegon  before  1660  (where  j 
the  Jesuits  began  a  mission),  and  afterward  to  j 
Mackinaw.     Here  they  became  involved  with  ; 
the  Iroquois,  and  though  great  cowards  joined 
the  French  in  many  of  their  operations.     Af- 
ter the  settlement  of  Detroit  a  part  of  the 
Ottawas  settled  near  it.      The  band  remain- 
ing at  Mackinaw  soon  passed  over  to  Arbre 
Croche,  "where  the  mission  still  subsists.     The 
Ottawas  took  part  in  the  last  war   of  the 
French  for  Canada,  and  at  the  close  Pontiac, 
chief  of  the  Detroit  Ottawas,  did  not  yield, 
but  organized  a  vast  Indian  conspiracy  for  the  | 
destruction   of  the  English.     (See  PONTIAC.) 
The  Ottawas  of  Arbre  Croche  did  not  join  him. 
The  tribe  at  this  time  numbered  in  all  about 
1,500.     During  the  revolution  they  were  un- 
der English  influence.    They  joined  in  the  trea- 
ties made  by  several  tribes  at  Fort  Mclntosh 
in  1785,  and  Fort  Harmar  in  1789,  but  took 
up  arms  with  the  Miamis  soon  after,  making 
peace  finally  at  Greenville,  Aug.  3,  1795.    One 
band  about  this  time  settled  on  the  Miami.     A 
long  series  of  treaties  followed,  sometimes  by 
the  Ottawas  alone,  but  more  frequently  in  con- 
nection with  other  tribes,  ceding  lands  to  the 
United  States,  and  reserving  to  the  band  of 
Ottawas  who  had  long  been  associated  with 
the  Ojibways  and  Pottawattamies  a  tract  on 
the  Miami  34  m.  square.    By  the  treaty  of  1833 
these  confederated    tribes  ceded   their  lands 
around  Lake  Michigan  to  the  United  States, 
and  agreed  to  take  lands  south  of  the  Missouri 
river,  where  they  soon  ceased  to  be  a  distinct 
band.     A  band  of  Ottawas  at  Maumee,  Ohio, 
on  Aug.  81,  1836,  ceded  49,000  acres  in  that 
state,  and  200  removed  to  34,000  acres  on  the 
Osage,  south  of  the  Shawnees.     About  230  re- 
mained, some  of  whom  followed  the  firsthand,  ! 
and   others    scattered.      The    emigrant    band 
prospered,  had  a  Baptist  mission,  and  soon  ; 
possessed    good  farms    and  comfortable    log  • 
houses.     The  political  troubles  in  Kansas  led 
to  depredations  on  them,  but  steps  were  taken 
to  make  them  citizens.     By  treaty  of  July  3,  ! 
1862,  these  Ottawas,  numbering  207,  were  to  j 
be  located  on  individual  tracts,  160  acres  to  a 
family,  20,000  acres  to  be  reserved  for  schools, 
and  the  rest  to  be  sold.     Under  this  and  a  sub- 
sequent act  they  actually  became   citizens  in 
1867,  and  began  an  ill  advised  college  which 
absorbed  much  of  their  property.     Their  posi- 
tion was  so  uncomfortable  that  they  asked  and 
obtained  a  reservation  of  24,960  acres  in  the 
Indian  territory  north  of  the  Shawnees,  on 
Blanchard's  fork  and  Eoche  de  Bceuf,  to  which 
they  emigrated  in  1870,  and  where  they  are 
now  (1875)  reduced  to  142.     The  Ottawas  in  ! 
Michigan  on  March  28,  1836,  ceded  all  their  j 
lands  except  reservations,  and  the  treaty  of  j 
1855  gave  them  the  option  of  taking  up  lands  j 
in  severalty  on  these  reservations.     They  are  ! 
624  VOL.  xn. — 47 


at  Arbre  Croche,  Cross  village,  Grand  river, 
Gull  prairie,  &c.,  and  on  the  shore  of  Lake 
Superior,  alternating  with  the  Ojibways,  the 
two  nations  numbering  nearly  5,000.  In  Can- 
ada there  are  Ottawas  on  Walpole,  Christian, 
and  Manitoulin  islands,  mingled  with  other  In- 
dians, numbering  probably  1,000  more.  They 
are  all  self-supporting,  with  missions  of  Cath- 
olic and  various  Protestant  denominations. 

OTTENDORFER,  Oswald,  a  German- American 
journalist,  born  at  Zwittau,  Moravia,  Feb.  26, 
1826.  He  studied  jurisprudence  in  Prague  and 
Vienna,  and  settled  in  New  York  in  1850, 
when  he  became  connected  with  the  New 
Yorker  Staats-Zeitung.  After  the  death  in 
that  year  of  Mr.  Jakob  Uhl,  proprietor  of  the 
journal  (whose  widow  Mr.  Ottendorf  er  married 
in  1859),  he  became  its  manager  and  subse- 
quently its  editor,  and  conducted  it  in  the  in- 
terest of  the  democratic  party.  As  president 
of  the  German  reform  association,  he  opposed 
the  "  Tammany  democrats  "  in  1871,  and  the 
Staats-Zeitung  has  since  been  independent  in 
politics.  In  1872  he  was  elected  alderman,  and 
in  November,  1874,  he  was  defeated  as  an  in- 
dependent candidate  for  mayor. 

OTTER,  the  name  of  several  species  of  car- 
nivorous mammals,  of  the  subfamily  lutrince, 
and  family  mustelidce  or  weasels.  The  subfam- 
ily includes  the  four  genera  lutra  (Linn:),  pte- 
ronura  (Gray)  or  pterura  (Wiegm.),  enhydra 
(Fleming),  and  aonyx  (Lesson) ;  they  are  all 
eminently  aquatic  animals,  feeding  principally 
upon  fish.  In  the  genus  lutra  the  dentition  is : 
incisors  fif ,  canines  |z^,  premolars  |c|,  mo- 
lars  £l£  =  36  ;  the  upper  laniary  is  very  large, 
with  a  large  accessory  internal  tubercle,  and 
the  lower  posteriorly  tuberculated ;  the  ears 
are  small  and  far  apart ;  the  head  broad  and 
blunt,  and  flat  above ;  the  body  thick  and 
elongated ;  the  feet  short  and  webbed ;  tail 
long,  round,  depressed  toward  the  tip,  and  flat 


American  Otter  (Lutra  Canadensis). 

beneath.  The  species  are  found  in  all  parta 
of  the  globe,  and  are  distinguished  with  diffi- 
culty from  the  similarity  of  their  colors.  The 
American  otter  (L.  Canadensis,  Sab.)  is  about 
4^  ft.  long,  of  which  the  tail  is  1£,  and  the 
weight  from  20  to  25  Ibs. ;  a  considerable  part 


736 


OTTER 


OTTERBEIN 


of  the  muzzle  is  bare,  and  the  nostrils  are  large 
and  open;  the  eyes  very  small  and  very  far 
forward  ;  the  neck  long ;  legs  short  and  stout. 
The  color  above  is  dark  glossy  brown,  slightly 
lighter  beneath,  lower  surface  and  sides  of  the 
head  and  neck  dusky  white.  Rather  awkward 
on  land,  it  is  a  very  expert  diver  and  rapid 
swimmer,  and  very  voracious ;  it  often  remains 
more  than  a  minute  under  water,  retiring  with 
its  fishy  prey  to  a  half-sunken  log  or  the  shore 
to  devour  it ;  it  frequents  clear  and  rapid 
streams  or  large  ponds,  and  makes  a  burrow 
in  the  banks,  lined  with  leaves  and  grasses,  the 
entrance  being  under  water.  Otters  have  a 
singular  habit  of  sliding  down  wet  and  muddy 
banks  or  icy  slopes,  apparently  for  sport,  of 
which  the  hunters  take  advantage  by  setting 
traps  at  the  foot  of  the  slide;  they  are  also 
taken  in  sunken  traps  baited  with  fish  ;  when 
killed  in  the  water,  the  body  sinks  from  the 
solidity  of  the  bones.  When  taken  young, 
they  are  easily  domesticated.  They  bring  forth 
a  litter  of  two  or  three,  between  February  and 
April,  according  to  latitude.  They  are  found 
over  almost  the  whole  of  North  America,  and 
perhaps  a  portion  of  South  America ;  rare  in 
the  Atlantic  states,  they  are  not  abundant  any- 
where in  the  settled  regions,  but  most  so  in 
the  British  possessions,  whence  several  thou- 
sand skins  are  annually  carried  to  England ; 
the  fur  is  of  two  kinds,  like  that  of  the  beaver, 
one  being  short,  soft,  and  dense,  the  other 
longer,  coarser,  and  scattered  through  the  first, 
and  it  is  much  esteemed  for  caps  and  gloves. 
The  L.  Brasiliensis  (Ray),  the  loutra  or  river 
wolf  of  South  America,  has  the  muzzle  entirely 
hairy  except  around  the  nostrils ;  the  color  is 
yellowish  brown,  and  the  throat  whitish  ;  the 
length  is  about  3£  ft. ;  they  live  in  troops, 
rising  frequently  to  the  surface  of  the  streams, 
and  snapping  like  dogs.  The  European  otter 
(L.  vulgaris,  Erxl.)  is  about  3J  ft.  long,  of 
which  the  tail  is  15  in.,  resembling  in  colors 
and  in  habits  the  Canada  otter ;  its  fur  is  valu- 
able, and  its  flesh,  like  that  of  several  other 
aquatic  mammals,  may  be  eaten  by  Catholics 
during  Lent.  It  is  found  throughout  Europe 
and  northern  and  temperate  Asia,  and  its 
hunting  affords  great  sport.  The  Pondicherry 
otter,  a  variety  of  the  common  species,  is  fre- 
quently domesticated,  and  taught  to  drive  fish 
into  the  nets,  or  even  to  catch  them  in  the 
teeth  and  bring  them  to  its  master. — In  the 
genus  pteronura  (Gray)  the  muzzle  is  hairy : 
the  feet  large  and  widely  webbed ;  the  tail 
elongated,  subcylindrical,  with  a  fin-like  dila- 
tation on  each  side  of  the  hinder  half ;  it  seems 
intermediate  between  lutra  and  enhydra.  The 
P.  SambacJiii  (Gray),  from  Demerara,  is  of 
liver-brown  color,  with  chin  and  throat  yel- 
lowish ;  the  length  is  about  28  in.,  of  which 
the  tail  is  12  ;  the  genus  is  peculiar  to  South 
America,  and  may  be  distinguished  from  enhy- 
dra  by  the  greater  size  of  the  fore  and  the 
lesser  of  the  hind  feet.  Delalande  discovered 
at  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  an  otter  which  has 


no  claws  on  the  fore  feet,  and  mere  vestiges 
of  them  on  the  hind  in  the  adult  condition ; 
of  this  Lesson  formed  the  genus  aonyx.  The 
clawless  otter  (A.  inunguis,  Less.)  is  larger 
than  the  European  otter,  with  longer  legs  and 
less  palmated  feet ;  the  color  is  chestnut  brown 
above,  grayish  on  the  head  and  shoulders,  and 
whitish  below. — The  sea  otter  (enhydra  ma- 


otter  (Enhydra  marina). 


rina,  Flem.)  resembles  a  seal  more  than  an  ot- 
ter ;  the  head  is  short  and  very  broad,  the  ears 
very  small,  the  nose  with  a  naked  muffle ;  the 
toes  of  the  fore  feet  very  short,  bound  in  a 
thickened  membrane,  densely  haired  and  cov- 
ering the  claws  ;  in  the  hind  feet  the  outer  toe 
is  the  longest,  and  these  extremities  are  far 
backward  as  in  the  seals ;  there  is  one  premo- 
lar  less  on  each  side  of  the  upper  jaw,  and  the 
adults  are  said  to  have  only  four  lower  inci- 
sors ;  in  Audubon  and  Bachman's  "  Quadru- 
peds of  North  America,"  the  dental  formula  is 
given  as :  incisors  £ ,  canines  f i|-,  molars  fif^ 
=  38.  The  body  is  very  long,  covered  with 
a  thick  glossy  fur;  tail  less  than  a  quarter 
the  length  of  the  body,  strong  and  depressed. 
The  length  in  the  adult  is  more  than  5  ft.,  of 
which  the  tail  is  1 ;  there  are  two  ventral 
mammae.  The  color  is  chestnut  brown,  but 
black  in  the  adult  in  the  proper  season  ;  there 
is  a  grayish  tint  about  the  head  and  neck  ;  the 
fur  is  exceedingly  fine  and  long.  It  inhabits 
the  coasts  and  islands  of  the  north  Pacific  and 
about  Kamtchatka,  coming  down  on  the  Amer- 
ican coast  as  far  as  Monterey ;  it  is  essen- 
tially marine  in  its  habitat,  generally  keeping 
near  the  coast ;  it  is  shy  and  timid,  and  hunted 
from  boats.  The  skins  used  to  form  an  impor- 
tant article  of  commerce  between  the  Russians 
and  the  Chinese  and  Japanese.  It  is  found 
on  the  N.  W.  coast  of  America,  principally 
between  lat.  49°  and  60°  N. ;  but  the  animal 
is  now  comparatively  rare.  The  food  consists 
of  fish,  lobsters,  and  cephalopods.  It  is  stu- 
pid and  inoffensive,  and  trusts  for  escape  from 
its  pursuers  only  to  its  speed  in  swimming; 
it  produces  on  land  a  single  young  one  at  a 
birth.  The  habits  of  this  animal  are  little 
known,  and  perfect  skins  and  skulls  are  rare 
either  in  public  or  private  collections. 

OTTERBEm,  Philip  William,  founder  of  the 
church  of  the  United  Brethren  in  Christ,  born 
in  Dillenburg,  Germany,  June  4,  1Y26,  died  in 
Baltimore,  Md.,  Nov.  17,  1813.  He  was  or- 


OTTER  TAIL 


OTWAY 


737 


dained  to  the  ministry  in  the  Reformed  church 
at  Herborn  in  1749,  and  in  1752  he  was  sent 
to  America  as  a  missionary.  He  was  first  set- 
tled at  Lancaster,  Pa. ;  afterward  served  con- 
gregations at  Tulpehocken  and  York,  Pa.,  and 
Frederick,  Md. ;  and  in  1774  went  to  Balti- 
more, where  he  established  an  independent 
congregation,  over  which  he  presided  about  40 
years.  At  Lancaster,  shortly  after  his  arrival, 
he  experienced  what  he  regarded  as  a  change 
of  heart,  and  as  a  consequence  was  led  to  hold 
prayer  meetings,  class  meetings,  and  open-air 
meetings  in  groves.  He  soon  associated  with 
himself  other  preachers,  and  at  the  time  of  his 
death  there  were  united  with  him  about  100 
preachers  and  20,000  members.  When  the 
Methodist  preachers  came  to  Pennsylvania  and 
Maryland,  he  cooperated  with  them,  and  as- 
sisted Dr.  Coke  in  the  ordination  of  Francis 
Asbury.  (See  UNITED  BEETHEEN  IN  CHBIST.) 

OTTER  TAIL,  a  "W.  central  county  of  Minne- 
sota, drained  by  Leaf  river,  a  tributary  of  the 
Mississippi,  and  by  the  Red  river,  which  here 
forms  numerous  lakes,  the  largest  being  Otter 
Tail  lake  and  Rush  lake;  area,  2,016  sq.  m. ; 
pop.  in  1870,  1,968.  The  surface  consists 
chiefly  of  rolling  prairies.  The  Northern  Pa- 
cific railroad  crosses  the  S.  part.  The  pro- 
ductions in  1870  were  8,406  bushels  of  wheat, 
6,701  of  rye,  8,784  of  potatoes,  14,525  Ibs.  of 
wool,  and  4,262  tons  of  hay.  The  value  of  live 
stock  was  $54,853.  Capital,  Otter  Tail  City. 

OTTO,  Friedrich  Julius,  a  German  chemist, 
born  at  Grossenhain,  Saxony,  Jan.  8,  1809, 
died  in  Brunswick,  Jan.  13,  1870.  He  studied 
at  Jena,  and  wras  subsequently  employed  at 
Brunswick  and  under  Liebig  in  Giessen.  In 
1866  he  became  director  of  the  polytechnic  in- 
stitute of  Brunswick.  He  translated  into  Ger- 
man Graham's  "  Elements  of  Chemistry "  (3 
vols.,  Brunswick,  1840-'43),  and  in  later  edi- 
tions made  an  independent  work  of  it.  Among 
his  other  works  are :  Lehrbuch  der  rationellen 
Praxis  der  landwirthschaftlichen  Gewerbe  (6th 
ed.,  1865-'7);  Lehrbuch  der  Essigfdbrilcation 
(2d  ed.,  1857)  ;  Die  Bierbrauerei,  die  Brannt- 
weinlrennerei  und  die  Liqueurf'ibrilcation 
(1865)  ;  and  Anleitung  zur  Ausmittelung  der 
Qifte  (4th  ed.,  enlarged  by  Robert  Otto,  1870). 

OTTOCAR  II.,  king  of  Bohemia,  born  about 
1230,  killed  in  battle,  Aug.  26,  1278.  During 
his  youth  he  headed  an  insurrection  of  the  Bo- 
hemian nobles  against  his  father,  King  Wen- 
ceslas  I.,  which  resulted  finally  in  his  defeat 
and  imprisonment.  After  his  release  he  gained 
possession  of  Austria  and  Styria  by  marrying 
Margaret,  the  widow  of  the  duke  of  Austria, 
although  she  at  that  time  was  46  years  old, 
and  he  himself  but  23.  He  succeeded  his  fa- 
ther in  1253,  and  in  1254  undertook  a  crusade 
against  the  pagan  Prussians,  which  was  com- 
pletely successful.  In  July,  1260,  he  achieved 
a  signal  victory  over  the  Hungarians.  Having 
divorced  his  wife,  he  married  the  Hungarian 
princess  Cunigunda  in  1261,  and  in  1269  the 
duchies  of  Carinthia  and  Carniola  came  into 


his  power.  His  dominions  now  extended  from 
the  borders  of  Bavaria  to  Raab  in  Hungary, 
and  from  the  Adriatic  to  the  Baltic.  After 
the  death  of  the  German  emperor  Richard  of 
Cornwall,  he  and  Alfonso  of  Castile  were  can- 
didates for  the  succession  ;  but  the  choice  fell 
on  Rudolph,  count  of  Hapsburg  (1273).  Ot- 
tocar  refused  to  submit  to  his  authority;  but 
on  Rudolph's  marching  into  his  dominions  and 
laying  siege  to  Vienna,  he  consented  to  a  com- 
promise by  which  he  gave  up  his  claims  to 
Austria,  Styria,  Carinthia,  Carniola,  and  the 
Windish  territory  (1276).  Not  long  after  he 
broke  the  treaty,  but  was  defeated  and  slain 
in  a  battle  on  the  Marchfeld  with  the  impe- 
rial troops.  Ottocar  was  a  haughty  and  luxu- 
rious prince,  but  greatly  increased  the  prosper- 
ity of  his  subjects  by  promoting  equality  and 
justice  and  founding  cities  and  schools. — See 
Lorenz,  Die  Geschichte  Ottolcars  von  Bohmen 
(Vienna,  1866). 

OTTOMAN  EMPIRE.     See  TTJEKET. 

OTTO  OF  ROSES.     See  ATTAE  OF  ROSES. 

OTTUMWA,  a  city  and  the  capital  of  Wapel- 
lo  co.,  Iowa,  on  the  Des  Moines  river,  here 
spanned  by  a  bridge,  and  on  the  Keokuk  and 
Des  Moines,  the  Central  Iowa,  the  St.  Louis, 
Kansas  City,  and  Northern,  and  the  Burling- 
ton and  Missouri  River  railroads,  85  m.  S.  E. 
of  Des  Moines;  pop.  in  1860,  1,632;  in  1870, 
5,214.  It  is  surrounded  by  a  fertile  country, 
and  has  good  water  power.  The  trade  of  the 
city  amounts  to  about  $6,000,000  a  year.  The 
principal  articles  of  manufacture  are  carriages, 
agricultural  implements,  woollens,  rufflers,  sew- 
ing machine  attachments,  cooperage,  and  fur- 
niture. Two  firms  are  engaged  in  pork  pack- 
ing. There  are  two  national  banks,  graded 
public  schools,  including  a  high  school,  a  daily 
and  three  weekly  (one  German)  newspapers, 
and  nine  churches.  Ottumwa  was  incorpo- 
rated as  a  city  in  1856. 

OTWAY,  Thomas,  an  English  poet,  born-  at 
Trotton,  Sussex,  March  3,  1651,  died  in  Lon- 
don, April  14,  1685.  He  was  educated  at 
Winchester  and  at  Christchurch,  Oxford,  but 
left  the  university  without  taking  a  degree, 
and  went  to  London.  In  1672  he  attempted 
to  become  an  actor,  but  failed  in  his  first  ap- 
pearance, and  never  went  on  the  stage  again. 
The  next  three  years  he  led  a  dissolute  life. 
His  first  piece,  the  tragedy  of  "  Alcibiades," 
appeared  in  1675.  "Don  Carlos,"  which  ap- 
peared in  1676,  was  very  successful,  and  "got 
more  money  than  any  preceding  modern  tra- 
gedy." In  1677  his  tragedy  of  "Titus  and 
Berenice,"  translated  from  Racine,  and  his 
farce,  "The  Cheats  of  Scapin,"  from  Moliere, 
were  acted;  and  the  same  year  he  produced  a 
comedy  entitled  "  Friendship  in  Fashion,"  re- 
markable for  its  want  of  wit  and  decency,  and 
which,  though  considered  "very  diverting" 
at  the  time,  was  hissed  off  the  stage  in  1749 
for  its  immorality.  In  1677  Otway  received  a 
commission  as  cornet  in  a  regiment  of  horse 
designed  for  Flanders;  but  the  troops  being 


738 


OUACiHTA 


OUDE 


shortly  after  disbanded,  he  returned  to  London 
miserably  poor,  and  began  again  to  write.  In 
1680  he  produced  the  tragedy  of  "  Caius  Ma- 
rius,"  which  met  with  considerable  success. 
In  this  play  and  in  "  The  Poet's  Complaint  to 
the  Muse,"  published  the  same  year,  he  sati- 
rized the  whig  party.  His  tragedy  of  "  The 
Orphan"  appeared  in  1680.  In  1681  he  pro- 
duced "The  Soldier's  Fortune,"  and  in  1684 
its  second  part,  "  The  Atheists,"  both  of  which 
were  successful.  His  greatest  work,  "Ven- 
ice Preserved,"  was  first  performed  in  1682, 
and  is  still  frequently  acted.  Otway  wrote 
also  some  minor  poems,  and  translated  from 
the  French  the  "  History  of  the  Triumvirate." 
His  latter  days  were  passed  in  great  poverty, 
but  the  story  that  he  died  of  starvation  is  now 
discredited.  Pope  says  that  he  died  of  a  fever. 

OUACHITA.  I.  A  N.  parish  of  Louisiana,  in- 
tersected by  the  Washita  river ;  area,  about  650 
sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  11,582,  of  whom  7,823 
were  colored.  Pine,  oak,  and  hickory  are  very 
abundant.  The  North  Louisiana  and  Texas 
railroad  runs  to  the  county  seat.  The  chief 
productions  in  1870  were  211,505  bushels  of 
Indian  corn,  17,124  of  sweet  potatoes,  1,987 
Ibs.  of  wool,  and  14,239  bales  of  cotton.  There 
were  828  horses,  1,498  mules  and  asses,  1,606 
milch  cows,  3,805  other  cattle,  1,952  sheep,  and 
7,127  swine.  Capital,  Monroe.  II.  A  S.  W. 
county  of  Arkansas,  bounded  N.  partly  by  the 
Little  Missouri  river,  and  S.  E.  partly  by  the 
Washita,  which  also  intersects  it;  area,  750 
sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  12,975,  of  whom  5,458 
were  colored.  The  surface  is  moderately  hilly 
and  the  soil  generally  fertile.  The  chief  pro- 
ductions in  1870  were  279,589  bushels  of 
Indian  corn,  20,680  of  sweet  potatoes,  20,933 
Ibs.  of  butter,  and  6,467  bales  of  cotton.  There 
were  1,550  horses,  1,179  mules  and  asses,  3,574 
milch  cows,  6,554  other  cattle,  5,382  sheep,  and 
24,600  swine.  Capital,  Camden. 

OVDE,  or  Ondh  (Sanskrit,  Ayodhya,  invinci- 
ble). I*  A  province  of  British  India,  formerly 
a  native  kingdom  of  Hindostan,  lying  between 
lat.  25°  34'  and  29°  6'  N.,  and  Ion.  79°  30'  and 
83°  11'  E.,  bounded  by  the  Northwest  Provinces 
on  all  sides  but  the  north  and  northeast,  where 
it  adjoins  Nepaul;  area,  23,973  sq.  m.;  pop. 
in  1872,  11,220,747.  It  is  divided  into  four 
commissionerships,  as  follows:  Lucknow,  pop. 
2,583,019  ;  Seetapore,  2,603,426  ;  Fyzabad, 
3,384,130;  Rai  Bareilly,  2,650,172.  The  den- 
sity of  population  is  468  to  the  square  mile. — 
Oude  is  situated  mostly  within  the  great  plain 
of  Hindostan,  which  slopes  S.  W.  from  the 
sub-Himalaya  range,  and  along  the  Nepaulese 
border  is  fringed  by  the  malarious  forest  tract 
known  as  the  Terai.  Except  in  this  frontier 
region,  the  scenery,  of  the  whole  country  is 
exceedingly  flat  and  monotonous.  The  prin- 
cipal rivers  are  the  Ganges,  which  forms  the 
S.  W.  boundary;  the  Goomtee,  on  which  is 
situated  Lucknow,  the  capital  of  the  province ; 
the  Gogra,  the  Raptee,  and  the  Ramganga. 
All  of  them  flow  southeasterly,  and  are  tortu- 


ous streams  of  considerable  magnitude,  vary- 
ing greatly  in  volume  and  navigability  at  differ- 
ent seasons  of  the  year.  Small  nodules,  called 
Icanlcar,  formed  of  the  elements  of  chalk  and 
oolite,  are  found  in  great  quantities,  and  serve 
a  useful  purpose  in  giving  sufficient  consisten- 
cy to  some  of  the  river  banks  to  keep  them  in 
permanent  channels.  Ridges  of  them  two  or 
three  yards  wide  intersect  the  bed  of  the  Goom- 
tee every  five  or  six  miles;  and  they  have 
formed  in  different  parts  of  the  country  hil- 
locks from  70  to  80  ft.  high.  There  are  no  per- 
manent lakes,  but  large  ponds  called  jhils  are 
formed  by  the  rains  in  the  wet  season,  and 
generally  dry  up  or  are  drained  off  by  the  riv- 
ers in  hot  weather.  The  largest  of  these,  8  m. 
N.  W.  of  Manikpoor,  in  a  deserted  channel  of 
the  Ganges,  is  16  m.  long  and  8  m.  broad,  and 
in  the  dry  season  is  converted  into  a  pestilen- 
tial marsh  in  which  rice  is  sown.  The  climate 
is  generally  dry  and  subject  to  great  extremes 
of  heat  and  cold,  the  thermometer  sometimes 
rising  to  112°  and  falling  to  28°.  November, 
December,  January,  and  February  are  the  cold- 
est months,  and  the  next  four  the  hottest,  a 
sultry  west  wind,  loaded  with  fine  gray  dust, 
blowing  at  noon,  and  ceasing  toward  evening, 
or  a  damp  malarious  east  wind  from  the  swamps 
of  Bengal  and  Assam  occasionally  prevailing 
all  day.  The  power  of  the  hot  winds  annually 
increases  with  the  diminution  of  rain.  Violent 
hurricanes  and  thunder  storms  are  sometimes 
experienced.  The  rainy  season  begins  about 
the  middle  of  June  and  lasts  from  two  to  four 
months. — The  forests  are  mainly  confined  to 
the  high  region  adjoining  Nepaul,  and  are  im- 
portant sources  of  fuel.  The  saul  tree  affords 
the  most  valuable  timber.  The  forest  conser- 
vancy has  effected  a  demarcation  of  the  tracts 
reserved  to  the  state,  which  have  been  thor- 
oughly cleared  of  injurious  creepers.  Among 
the  wild  animals  are  the  elephant,  tiger,  rhi- 
noceros, wolf,  hyaena,  jackal,  fox,  hare,  deer, 
nilgau,  wild  hog,  porcupine,  otter,  mongoose, 
squirrel,  rat,  muskrat,  wild  cat,  bat,  and  flying 
fox.  The  tigers  and  wolves  cause  great  de- 
struction of  life.  Of  the  numerous  varieties 
of  birds,  the  parrots,  which  do  great  damage 
to  the  crops,  and  the  kingfishers,  which  exist 
in  many  splendid  species,  are  the  most  de- 
serving of  mention.  Reptiles  and  insects 
abound.  Crocodiles  haunt  the  larger  rivers. 
The  soil  is  probably  not  surpassed  in  fertility 
by  that  of  any  other  province  of  India;  but 
it  is  of  various  qualities,  and  in  some  places 
must  be  abundantly  irrigated.  An  irrigation 
canal  connects  the  Ganges  with  the  Goom- 
tee at  Lucknow.  In  1872  there  were  12,673 
sq.  m.  of  cultivated  lands  in  Oude,  and  5,588 
sq.  m.  additional  capable  of  cultivation.  The 
crops  consist  principally  of  rice  of  remarka- 
ble delicacy  and  whiteness,  various  kinds  of  na- 
tive grain,  oil  seeds,  pulses,  barley,  maize,  mil- 
let, wheat,  opium,  cotton,  indigo,  hemp,  and  to- 
bacco. Excellent  fruit  trees  are  found  in  dif- 
ferent parts  of  the  country,  among  which  are 


OUDE 


739 


the  mango,  the  tamarind,  and  a  species  of  bas- 
sia,  from  the  seeds  of  which  is  obtained  the  oil 
known  as  vegetable  butter,  used  for  food,  for 
illuminating  purposes,  and  in  the  manufacture 
of  soap.  The  date  palm  has  been  introduced 
recently,  and  successfully  cultivated.  The  do- 
mestic animals  of  Oude  include  sheep,  goats, 
cows,  bullocks,  and  buffaloes.  Since  March, 
1865,  there  has  been  an  agri-horticultural  so- 
ciety at  Lucknow,  in  connection  with  which 
there  is  an  experimental  stock  farm.  The 
principal  native  industry  is  the  manufacture 
of  coarse  cotton  cloth,  in  which  a  vigorous 
trade  is  carried  on.  Other  manufactured  goods 
have  to  be  imported.  The  exports  consist 
chiefly  of  agricultural  products.  In  1872  there 
were  in  Oude  1,678  m.  of  water  communica- 
tion, 4,225  m.  of  roads,  and  72  m.  of  rail- 
way, consisting  of  the  Oude  and  Rohilcund 
line,  which  connects  Lucknow  and  Cawnpore. 
The  administration  of  the  government  is  in 
the  hands  of  a  chief  commissioner.  There  is 
also  a  judicial  commissioner,  to  whose  review 
the  decisions  of  the  courts  are  subject,  and 
the  revenue  is  under  the  control  of  a  finan- 
cial commissioner. — The  great  bulk  of  the  peo- 
ple are  Hindoos,  though  the  dominant  race 
was  Mohammedan  for  many  ages  before  the 
British  annexation.  In  1869  Oude  contained 
7,767  Christians,  9,713,930  Hindoos,  1,011,110 
Mohammedans,  56  Buddhists,  and  487,884  per- 
sons of  all  other  creeds.  Hindostanee  is  the 
language  most  in  use,  with  a  greater  admix- 
ture of  Persian  and  Arabic  and  less  of  H  in- 
dee  than  in  the  more  easterly  provinces.  The 
houses  of  the  people  are  generally  mud  or  un- 
burnt  brick,  and  the  walls  are  carried  up  6  or  7 
ft.  above  the  roof  to  form  a  sort  of  enclosed 
court  for  the  use  of  the  women,  which  is  cov- 
ered during  the  rains  by  a  light  temporary  roof- 
ing of  bamboo  and  grass.  The  rooms  have  no 
ceilings,  and  the  floors  are  of  earth  well  packed 
and  smoothed.  The  most  characteristic  feature 
in  the  social  economy  of  Oude  is  that  of  the  vil- 
lage communities,  each  of  which  constitutes  a 
little  republic  in  itself.  The  payment  of  a  land 
tax  is  one  of  the  oldest  institutions  of  the  coun- 
try. At  the  time  of  the  British  annexation  it 
was  supposed  that  the  chiefs  known  as  taloolc- 
dars,  who  received  this  tax  from  the  immedi- 
ate cultivators  of  the  soil  and  paid  a  fixed  sum 
on  account  thereof  to  the  native  government, 
were  merely  middlemen,  who  exacted  from 
the  villagers  as  much  as  possible,  but  them- 
selves possessed  no  proprietary  rights  whatever. 
Acting  on  the  assumption  that  they  were  only 
collectors  of  revenue,  the  first  land  settlement 
made  under  British  rule,  in  1856-'7,  dispos- 
sessed the  talookdars  of  nearly  all  their  villages, 
and  provided  for  the  payment  of  the  land  tax 
by  the  actual  occupants  of  the  soil  directly  to 
the  government.  The  injustice  of  this  set- 
tlement led  to  great  dissatisfaction,  and  was 
ultimately  admitted  by  the  British  authorities. 
The  talookdars  were  in  fact  an  ancient  landed 
nobility,  with  well  established  rights  -of  prop- 


erty in  the  soil,  which  were  entitled  to  recog- 
nition, notwithstanding  the  frequent  extortion 
which  had  been  practised  upon  the  subordi- 
nate proprietors.  The  present  land  settlement, 
completed  in  1859,  recognizes  the  rights  of  both 
classes,  confirming  to  each  their  possessions  as 
they  existed  at  the  time  of  the  annexation  in 
1856.  According  to  the  parliamentary  accounts 
for  1871-'2,  it  is  so  framed  as  to  secure  village 
occupants  from  extortion  and  to  exact  certain 
duties  and  responsibilities  from  the  talookdars. 
Half  the  gross  rental  is  paid  to  the  government. 
The  net  land  revenue  in  1871-'2  amounted  to 
£1,207,902.  In  the  same  year  the  licenses  for 
the  sale  of  spirits  and  drugs  and  the  excise 
on  opium  yielded  £78,106.  The  total  revenue 
in  1872-'3  amounted  to  £1,656,602;  expendi- 
tures, £626,519.  The  total  number  of  educa- 
tional institutions  in  1871-'2  was  1,548,  with 
an  average  daily  attendance  of  37,720  pupils. 
They  comprise  the  Canning  college  at  Luck- 
now,  with  720  students,  of  whom  56  were  in 
the  college  department;  11  high  schools  and 
747  village  schools ;  and  81  schools  for  girls, 
with  1,908  pupils.  The  expenditure  for  the 
support  of  schools  amounted  to  £47,420.  In 
each  school  district  a  library  is  maintained  for 
the  use  of  the  schoolmaster ;  and  there  is  said 
to  be  a  school  within  4£  m.  of  every  child  in 
Oude.  There  is  a  museum  at  Lucknow.  The 
government  has  established  26  dispensaries  in 
the  province,  and  there  is  one  sustained  by  pri- 
vate means.  The  number  of  jails  is  13.  The 
provincial  police  force,  exclusive  of  municipal 
and  railway  police,  is  about  6,000  strong,  and 
its  services  are  especially  directed  toward  the 
repression  of  the  organized  bands  of  thieves 
and  robbers  which  infest  some  portions  of  the 
country.  In  January,  1873,  the  Oude  military 
division  consisted  of  7,096  troops,  of  whom 
2,663  were  natives.  Seven  newspapers,  four 
English  and  three  native,  are  published  in  the 
province.  There  are  1 7  municipalities  in  Oude. 
The  principal  cities  and  towns  are  Lucknow, 
Oude  or  Ayodhya,  the  ancient  capital,  Fyza- 
bad,  Rai  Bareilly,  and  Sultanpore. — Oude,  un- 
der the  name  of  Kosala,  is  supposed  by  many 
writers  to  have  been  one  of  the  earliest  seats 
of  Indian  civilization,  and  its  first  settlement  is 
assigned  to  the  year  1366  B.  C.  The  Vedic 
legends  make  the  ancient  Ayodhya  the  seat  of 
the  great  dynasty  of  solar  kings.  Our  accurate 
knowledge  of  the  country,  however,  dates  from 
about  A.  D.  1195,  when  it  was  conquered  and 
united  to  the  empire  of  Delhi  by  Mohammed 
Bakhtiyar  Ghilji,  a  lieutenant  of  Cuttub  ud- 
Deen,  the  founder  of  the  Patan  or  Afghan  dy- 
nasty. It  submitted  to  Baber  (1528)  after  an  ob- 
stinate struggle,  but  frequently  revolted  against 
the  Mogul  sovereigns ;  and  about  1753  Suffdur 
;  Jung,  nawaub  vizier  of  the  province,  wrest- 
i  ed  from  the  emperor  Ahmed  Shah  a  grant  in 
I  perpetuity  of  Oude  and  Allahabad,  and  thus 
founded  an  independent  dynasty  which  last- 
ed until  the  British  annexation.  His  son  and 
successor  Snjali  ud-I)owlah  .became  one  of  the 


740 


OUDE 


most  powerful  princes  of  India,  but,  having 
formed  an  alliance  with  Meer  Cossim  against 
the  English,  was  defeated  by  the  latter  at  Patna, 
May  3,  1764,  and  at  Buxar,  Oct.  23.  In  1765 
the  British  occupied  Lucknow  and  forced  Su- 
jah  as  a  condition  of  peace  to  transfer  the  prov- 
inces of  Corah  and  Allahabad  to  the  emperor 
Shah  Alum.  The  latter  having  in  1773  trans- 
ferred his  claim  upon  these  territories  to  the 
Mahrattas,  he  was  considered  to  have  forfeited 
them,  and  the  nawaub  was  permitted  to  resume 
them  on  payment  of  5,000,000  rupees  to  the 
English.  With  the  assistance  of  English  troops, 
whose  services  he  purchased  for  £400,000,  Su- 
jah  next  undertook  a  campaign  against  the 
Rohillas,  and,  having  routed  them  in  a  decisive 
battle,  April  23,  1774,  annexed  the  greater  part 
of  Rohilcund  to  his  dominions.  His  son  and 
successor  Azof  ud-Do  wlah,  a  weak  and  dissolute 
prince,  ceded  Benares,  Joonpoor,  and  some  con- 
tiguous districts  to  the  British,  in  return  for 
which  the  East  India  company  agreed  to  defend 
him  against  all  his  enemies,  and  to  keep  a  large 
body  of  troops  in  his  territory,  for  whose  ser- 
vices however  he  was  to  pay  heavily.  This  mili- 
tary force  was  several  times  augmented,  on  the 
ground  that  the  tranquillity  of  the  country  and 
the  safety  of  the  surrounding  British  posses- 
sions required  it.  Immense  sums  were  also  de- 
manded from  the  nawaub  for  the  support  of  an 
English  resident  and  other  English  officials,  so 
that  the  province  was  drained  of  its  resources 
and  parcelled  out  among  rapacious  farmers  of 
the  revenue,  many  of  whom  in  time  set  them- 
selves up  as  independent  princes.  The  nawaub 
begged  to  have  the  troops  withdrawn,  but 
the  British  refused.  At  length,  in  September, 
1781,  he  signed  a  treaty  at  Chunar  with  the 
governor  general  Warren  Hastings,  by  which 
he  obtained  a  release  from  some  of  his  most 
burdensome  engagements  on  condition  of  ap- 
plying the  wealth  of  the  two  begums  or  prin- 
cesses, his  mother  and  grandmother,  to  the 
liquidation  of  his  debt  to  the  East  India  com- 
pany, which  then  amounted  to  £1,400,000. 
He  was  to  retain  the  lands  taken  from  the 
begums,  and  their  money,  of  which  they  were 
said  to  have  immense  sums  concealed,  was  to 
be  paid  over  to  the  English.  The  most  violent 
and  unjustifiable  means  were  used  to  get  pos- 
session of  the  treasure,  and  the  spoliation  of  the 
begums  of  Oude  afterward  acquired  a  world- 
wide celebrity  through  the  denunciations  of 
Burke  and  Sheridan.  From  1777  to  1786  the 
nawaub  paid  the  company  £800,000  per  annum, 
besides  the  expenses  of  various  English  officers, 
one  of  whom,  an  agent  of  the  governor  gen- 
eral, received  an  annual  salary  of  £22,800.  In 
1787  the  subsidy  was  reduced  to  £500,000  per 
annum,  but  it  was  increased  in  1797  to  £550,- 
000,  and  in  1798  to  £760,000,  besides  which 
the  nawaub  ceded  the  fortress  of  Allahabad  and 
gave  £80,000  for  its  repair  and  £30,000  for 
the  repair  of  Futtehghur.  In  1801  the  pecu- 
niary subsidy  was  commuted  for  a  cession  of 
various  territories,  equal  to  one  half  of  the 


whole  province  and  yielding  an  annual  rev- 
enue of  £1,352,000.  A  loan  of  £1,000,000  was 
obtained  from  the  nawaub  Ghazee  ud-Deen 
Hyder  in  1814,  and  another  of  the  same  amount 
in  1815.  One  of  these  loans  was  liquidated  in 
1816  by  the  transfer  to  Oude  of  the  Terai  or 
marshy  tract,  formerly  belonging  to  Nepaul. 
In  1819  the  nawaub  with  the  consent  of  the 
East  India  company  formally  renounced  the 
nominal  allegiance  which  he  had  hitherto  re- 
tained to  the  Great  Mogul,  and  assumed  the 
title  of  king.  In  1825  he  made  a  loan  in  per- 
petuity to  the  British  of  £1,000,000,  at  the  un- 
varying interest  of  5  per  cent.  He  was  succeed- 
ed in  1827  by  his  son  Nusseer  ud-Deen  Hyder, 
who  in  1829  made  a  loan  of  £624,000,  the  in- 
terest of  which  was  to  be  appropriated  to  the 
support  of  certain  members  of  the  royal  fam- 
ily; and  in  1833  a  loan  of  £30,000,  the  inter- 
est of  which  was  to  be  given  to  the  poor  of 
Lucknow.  Nusseer  ud-Deen,  who  reigned  from 
1827  to  1837,  made  an  effort  at  first  to  reform 
the  administration,  but  soon  gave  himself  up 
to  sensual  pleasures.  His  uncle  Mohammed 
Ali  Shah  was  the  next  monarch,  who  was  suc- 
ceeded in  1842  by  his  son  Umjud  Ali  Shah, 
under  whom  the  state  of  the  kingdom  grew 
worse  and  worse  ;  but  he  succeeded  in  replen- 
ishing the  treasury,  and  on  his  death  in  1847 
left  about  £1,500,000  to  his  son  Wajid  Ali, 
the  last  king  of  Oude.  This  prince  was  more 
profligate  and  imbecile  than  almost  any  of  his 
predecessors.  In  a  communication  to  the  In- 
dian government  dated  March  15,  1855,  by 
Gen.  Outram,  British  resident  at  Lucknow, 
the  condition  of  the  country  was  described 
as  truly  deplorable.  The  people  were  heavily 
taxed,  though  but  little  of  the  revenue  reach- 
ed the  public  treasury.  There  were  no  courts 
of  law  except  at  the  capital,  and  the  judges 
and  other  officers  were  venal.  The  police  was 
corrupt  and  inefficient,  and  the  army  rapa- 
cious, licentious,  undisciplined,  and  cowardly. 
Crime,  oppression,  and  cruelty  of  every  de- 
scription prevailed.  The  royal  government 
was  virtually  at  an  end,  when  the  East  India 
company,  in  January,  1856,  caused  a  treaty  to 
be  drawn  up,  which  would  have  transferred 
to  them  the  entire  administration  of  the  king- 
dom, while  it  made  provision  for  the  digni- 
ty and  affluence  of  the  king  and  his  family. 
This  treaty  the  king  refused  to  sign,  where- 
upon a  proclamation  was  issued  by  the  gover- 
nor general  in  council,  Feb.  7,  declaring  the  de- 
position of  the  king  of  Oude  and  the  absolute 
annexation  of  the  country  to  the  possessions 
of  the  East  India  company.  This  measure 
was  disapproved  at  the  time  by  many  English 
people  and  some  East  Indian  officials.  The 
deposition  of  the  king  was  regarded  as  a  vio- 
lation of  treaty  engagements,  and  as  both  un- 
just and  impolitic.  He  was  allowed  to  retain 
his  titles  and  granted  a  liberal  pension.  He 
removed  to  Calcutta,  and  fixed  his  residence 
at  Garden  Reach  on  the  outskirts  of  the  city. 
In  1856  the  queen  mother,  accompanied  by  the 


OUDENARDE 


OUNCE 


king's  son  and  brother,  visited  England,  and 
was  received  with  great  kindness  by  Queen 
Victoria.  She  remained  in  the  country  for 
some  time  urging  her  claims  for  redress,  but 
without  avail,  and  finally  died  in  Paris  in  1858. 
The  talookdars  of  Oude  felt  much  aggrieved 
by  the  regulations  of  the  East  India  company 
respecting  the  tenure  of  property,  and  the 
population  in  fact  never  voluntarily  submit- 
ted to  the  change  of  rulers.  Hence,  when  the 
sepoy  mutiny  broke  out  in  1857,  the  rising  in 
Oude  was  not  confined  to  the  soldiers,  but  be- 
came a  popular  war  for  independence.  The 
rebel  sepoys  concentrated  about  Lucknow, 
while  the  talookdars  held  themselves  in  a  state 
of  insurrection  throughout  the  province,  armed 
their  retainers,  and  threw  themselves  into  their 
forts,  whence  the  British  frequently  could  not 
dislodge  them  without  heavy  loss.  The  com- 
plicity of  the  ex-king  was  strongly  suspected, 
and  he  was  kept  prisoner  in  Castle  William. 
One  of  his  wives,  known  as  the  begum,  who 
resided  at  Lucknow,  put  herself  at  the  head 
of  a  body  of  insurgents,  cooperated  vigorous- 
ly with  Nana  Sahib,  and  is  supposed  to  have 
escaped  to  Thibet.  The  province  was  substan- 
tially subdued  by  the  end  of  1858,  and  in  the 
spring  and  summer  of  1859  the  whole  popula- 
tion was  disarmed,  and  the  difficulties  of  the 
land  titles  were  settled  by  the  arrangement  with 
the  talookdars  before  mentioned.  Since  that 
time  the  province  has  steadily  prospered.  (See 
INDIA.)  II.  A  town  and  anciently  the  capital 
of  the  province,  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Go- 
gra,  75  m.  E.  of  Lucknow  ;  pop.  about  8,000. 
It  adjoins  the  modern  town  of  Fyzabad,  and 
is  now  almost  deserted.  Its  principal  build- 
ings are  the  "fort  of  Hanuman,"  built  in  honor 
of  the  fabulous  monkey  god,  the  auxiliary  of 
Rama,  and  having  an  annual  revenue  of  50,000 
rupees  settled  on  it  by  Sujah  ud-Dowlah  ;  and 
the  ruined  "fort  of  Rama,"  the  mythical  hero 
of  the  Ramayana.  Oude  is  thought  to  be  the 
most  ancient  city  of  India,  and  is  believed  to 
have  been  founded  in  1366  B.  C. 

OUDENARDE,  or  Andenarde,  a  fortified  town 
of  Belgium,  in  the  province  of  East  Flanders, 
on  the  Scheldt,  15  m.  S.  S.  W.  of  Ghent ;  pop. 
about  6,000.  It  has  manufactures  of  cotton 
and  linen,  breweries  and  tanneries,  and  an  ac- 
tive trade.  It  is  memorable  for  the  victory 
obtained  here,  July  11,  1708,  by  the  allies 
under  Marlborough  and  Prince  Eugene  over 
the  French  army  commanded  by  the  dukes  of 
Burgundy  and  Vendome. 

OCDINOT.  I.  Nicolas  Charles,  duke  of  Reggio, 
a  French  soldier,  born  in  Bar-sur-Ornain,  April 
26,  1767,  died  in  Paris,  Sept.  13,  1847.  He 
«arly  enlisted,  but  retired  from  the  army  in 
1787.  In  1792  he  was  elected  commander  of 
the  third  battalion  of  the  Meuse,  attained  the 
rank  of  colonel  by  his  defence  of  the  castle  of 
Bitsch,  was  made  brigadier  general  in  1794  for 
his  bravery  in  the  battle  of  Moorlautern,  suc- 
cessfully conducted  several  operations  under 
Moreau  in  the  campaign  of  1796  on  the  Dan- 


ube, and  became  general  of  division  in  1799. 
He  contributed  to  the  success  of  Massena  in 
the  battle  of  Zurich.  In  command  of  a  picked 
corps  he  shared  in  the  campaign  of  1805 
against  Austria,  and  contributed  to  the  victory 
of  Austerlitz.  For  his  services  in  the  campaigns 
in  Prussia  and  Poland  (1806-'7),  and  chiefly  at 
Ostrolenka  and  Friedland,  he  was  rewarded 
with  the  title  of  count  and  with  1,000,000 
francs.  In  command  of  the  vanguard  of  the 
French  army  in  1809,  he  distinguished  himself 
atEssling  and  Wagram,  and  was  created  marshal 
and  duke  of  Reggio,  with  an  income  of  100,000 
francs.  In  1812  he  led  the  second  corps  in  the 
invasion  of  Russia,  and  so  skilfully  protected 
the  crossing  of  the  Beresina  that  he  was  hailed 
as  the  "  preserver  of  the  army."  In  1813  he 
fought  at  Bautzen,  was  defeated  by  Bernadotte 
at  Grossbeeren,  and  severely  wounded  at  Leip- 
sic.  On  the  fall  of  the  emperor  he  joined  the 
Bourbons,  adhering  to  their  cause  during  the 
hundred  days.  Under  the  second  restoration 
he  commanded  the  national  guard  of  Paris,  and 
in  1823  led  the  first  corps  of  the  French  army 
in  Spain.  Louis  Philippe  made  him  chancellor 
of  the  legion  of  honor  in  1839,  and  governor  of 
the  Invalides  in  1842.  II.  Nicolas  Charles  Victor,  a 
French  soldier,  son  of  the  preceding,  born  Nov. 
3,  1791,  died  July  7,  1863.  He  served  under 
Napoleon  1.,  the  restoration,  and  Louis  Phi- 
lippe, participating  in  the  expedition  of  Mas- 
cara (1835);  was  made  general  of  division,  and 
twice  elected  to  the  chamber  of  deputies.  In 
1848  he  became  a  member  of  the  constituent, 
and  in  1 849  of  the  legislative  assembly.  He  com- 
manded the  expedition  sent  by  Louis  Napoleon 
against  the  Roman  republic,  landing  at  Civitd 
Vecchia  on  April  25, 1849,  and  entering  Rome, 
after  a  severe  struggle,  on  July  2.  Resuming 
his  seat  in  the  legislative  assembly  in  1851,  he 
protested  against  the  coup  d'etat,  was  impris- 
oned for  a  time,  and  retired  to  private  life. 

OIESS1NT.     See  USHANT. 

OUISTITI.     See  MAEMOSET. 

OUNCE  (felis  uncia,  Buffon ;  leopardus  un- 
cia, Gray),  a  medium-sized  cat  of  the  old  world, 


Ounce  (Leopardua  uncia). 

smaller  than  the  leopard,  inhabiting  the  moun- 
tainous regions  of  Asia.     Buffon  distinguishes 


742 


OURO  PRETO 


OUTLAWRY 


it  from  the  panther  by  its  smaller  size  (the 
length  of  the  body  being  only  3£  ft.),  its  longer 
and  shaggy  hair,  and  its  tail  nearly  as  long 
as  the  body.  The  ground  color  is  whitish 
gray  on  the  back  and  sides,  without  tint  of  ful- 
vous, and  whiter  below  ;  the  body  is  marked 
by  blackish  spots,  sometimes  forming  irregu- 
lar circles,  the  limbs  simply  spotted,  and  the 
tail  ringed.  It  is  a  very  active  animal  and  an 
expert  climber,  preying  upon  rodents  and  the 
smaller  ruminants.  Ouvier  and  others  regard 
it  as  a  variety  of  the  panther,  the  last  also 
being  considered  the  same  as  the  leopard. 
Hamilton  Smith  considers  it  distinct,  and  Gray 
describes  it  as  a  species.  The  term  ounce  is 
frequently,  but  improperly,  applied  to  the  ja- 
guar (felis  onca). 

OURO  PRETO,  or  Vfflarica,  an  inland  city  of 
Brazil,  capital  of  the  province  of  Minas  Geraes, 
and  of  a  district  of  the  same  name,  170  m.  N". 
by  W.  of  Rio  de  Janeiro ;  pop.  about  4,000.  It 
is  situated  on  several  hills  near  the  Itacolumi 
mountain,  at  an  elevation  of  4,000  ft.  above  the 
sea,  and  is  irregularly  built,  with  crooked  and 
for  the  most  part  ill-paved  streets ;  but  some  of 
the  more  modern  houses  are  well  constructed. 
Among  the  public  edifices,  which  are  more 
remarkable  for  their  number  and  dimensions 
than  for  beauty,  are  15  churches,  two  of  which 
are  profusely  decorated  internally,  the  gov- 
ernment house,  governor's  palace,  treasury, 
museum  (founded  in  1864),  mint,  theatre,  two 
prisons,  a  barrack,  and  a  civil  and  a  military 
hospital.  The  educational  establishments  in- 
clude a  college  of  pharmacy  and  surgery,  with 
chairs  of  Portuguese  and  Latin,  half  a  dozen 
primary  schools,  one  private  school,  a  public 
library,  and  a  model  botanic  garden  with  a 
school  of  agriculture.  Leguminous  plants  and 
fruits  are  the  chief  productions  of  the  sur- 
rounding country.  There  is  a  considerable 
trade  with  Rio  de  Janeiro.  Although  the 
mountains  in  the  vicinity  are  very  auriferous, 
and  the  mines  were  once  the  richest  in  the 
empire,  the  mining  is  now  reduced  to  com- 
paratively unprofitable  washings. — Onro  Preto 
was  founded  in  1699 ;  it  was  named  Villarica 
in  1711,  but  the  first  name  (meaning  "black 
gold  ")  was  restored  in  1822. 

OUSELEY,  Gideon,  an  Irish  clergyman,  born 
at  Dunmore,  Galway,  in  1762,  died  May  14, 
1839.  He  was  designed  for  the  government 
service,  but  in  1789  was  converted  by  the  Wes- 
leyan  itinerants,  and  became  a  preacher.  He 
travelled  through  Ireland  preaching  for  seven 
years,  when  he  was  received  into  the  Wes- 
leyan  conference,  and  in  1799  was  appointed 
missionary  to  Ireland.  It  was  just  at  the  close 
of  the  rebellion,  and  the  Catholic  Irish  often 
treated  him  rudely ;  but  being  a  master  of  the 
Irish  language,  and  thoroughly  acquainted  with 
the  Irish  character,  he  succeeded  in  converting 
thousands.  He  rode  on  horseback  from  town  to 
town,  generally  addressed  the  crowd  without 
dismounting,  and  preached  from  three  to  five 
times  a  day,  laboring  thus  for  50  years  with 


great  success.  The  best  known  of  his  writings 
is  "  Old  Christianity  and  Papal  Novelties." 

OUSELEY.  I.  Sir  WiDiam,  an  English  orien- 
talist, born  in  Monmouthshire  in  1771,  died  in 
1842.  In  1788  he  became  cornet  of  dragoons, 
but  left  the  army  in  1794,  and  went  to  the  uni- 
versity of  Ley  den,  where  he  studied  the  ori- 
ental languages.  In  1795  he  published  his 
"Persian  Miscellanies."  Afterward  he  went 
to  London,  and  accompanied  as  private  secre- 
tary his  brother,  Sir  Gore  Ouseley,  the  am- 
bassador to  the  Persian  court.  Among  his 
works  are  :  "  Oriental  Collections "  (3  vols. 
4to,  1797)  ;  "  Observations  on  some  Medals 
and  Gems,  bearing  Inscriptions  in  the  Pahlavi 
or  Ancient  Persian  Character"  (1801);  "An 
Abstract  of  the  Persian  Translation  of  the  Ge- 
ography written  in  Arabic  by  Ibn  Haukal " 
(1800) ;  and  "  Anecdotes  from  Oriental  Bibli- 
ography" (1827).  An  account  of  his  travels 
in  Persia  was  published  in  1819-'22  (3  vols. 
4to).  II.  Sir  William  Gore,  eldest  son  of  the 
preceding,  born  July  26,  1797,  died  March  6, 
1866.  He  was  connected  with  the  British  le- 
gation in  Stockholm  in  1817  and  in  Washing- 
tori  in  1825,  when  he  married  a  daughter  of 
Governor  C.  P.  Van  Ness  of  Vermont.  Sub- 
sequently he  represented  England  in  various 
capitals  of  South  America,  and  was  also  em- 
ployed on  a  special  mission  to  Central  America. 
He  published  "  Remarks  on  the  Statistics  and 
Political  Institutions  of  the  United  States" 
(1832),  and  "  Views  of  South  America"  (1852). 

OUTAGAMIE,  an  E.  county  of  Wisconsin,  in- 
tersected by  Fox,  Wolf,  and  Embarras  rivers ; 
area,  684  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  18,430.  Its 
surface  is  diversified  and  covered  with  forests, 
which  yield  large  quantities  of  lumber.  It  is 
intersected  by  the  Wisconsin  division  of  the 
Chicago  and  Northwestern,  the  Milwaukee, 
Lake  Shore,  and  Western,  and  the  Green  Bay 
and  Lake  Pepin  railroads.  The  chief  produc- 
tions in  1870  were  353,620  bushels  of  wheat, 
55,862  of  Indian  corn,  199,167  of  oats,  66,051 
of  potatoes,  282,342  Ibs.  of  butter,  35,445  of 
wool,  and  18,647  tons  of  hay.  There  were 
3,064  horses,  4,819  milch  cows,  1,488  working 
oxen,  4,525  other  cattle,  10,815  sheep,  and 
6,551  swine.  Capital,  Appleton. 

OUTAGAMIES.     See  FOXES. 

OUTLAWRY,  the  process  by  which  one  is  ex- 
cluded from  the  protection  of  the  law,  partly 
in  respect  to  his  property,  and  partly  in  re- 
spect to  his  person.  The  outlaw,  says  Brae- 
ton,  forfeits  home  and  country,  and  becomes 
an  exile.  Anciently  he  was  known  by  another 
name,  to  wit,  frendlesman,  as  it  seems,  because 
he  forfeited  his  friends ;  for  if  any  of  them 
rendered  him  any  assistance,  they  suffered  the 
same  punishment  as  the  outlaw  himself,  losing 
like  him  both  their  goods  and  their  life,  unless 
the  king  of  his  grace  spared  them.  From  the 
time  one  was  outlawed  he  was  said  anciently 
to  bear  a  wolf's  head  (caput  lupinum  gerere\ 
and  it  is  usually  stated,  as  if  on  the  authority 
of  Bracton,  that  an  outlaw  might  be  killed 


OUTRAM 


OUVRARD 


743 


with  the  same  impunity  as  a  wolf ;  but  that 
author  says  plainly  that  one  might  take  the 
outlaw's  life  only  when  he  resisted  being  taken, 
or  endeavored  to  escape.  After  his  capture, 
his  death  or  life  rested  in  the  hands  of  the  king 
alone.  All  males  above  the  age  of  12  years 
might  suffer  outlawry,  because  at  that  age  they 
were  all  sworn  and  enrolled  in  the  decennary, 
and  were  thus  within  the  law  of  the  realm. 
Women  were  "waived,"  not  outlawed,  because 
they  were  not  thus  sworn.  They  therefore 
could  not  be  excluded  from  the  benefit  of  the 
law,  but  were  abandoned  or  disregarded  by  it. 
— Outlawry  was  pronounced  originally  only  in 
cases  of  treason  or  felony,  when  the  defendant 
refused  to  obey  a  summons.  Next  it  was  ex- 
tended to  trespasses  of  a  flagrant  character. 
But  properly  it  was  limited  to  those  process- 
es in  which  a  capias  lay,  that  is,  a  writ  or 
warrant  to  take  the  person  of  the  defendant. 
In  all  actions  of  trespass  m  et  armis  this  ca- 
pias lay  at  common  law,  and  consequently 
also,  in  proper  cases,  outlawry.  In  actions  of 
debt,  detinue,  covenant,  and  such  others  as  are 
founded  upon  mere  negligence  or  laches,  ca- 
pias did  not  lie  at  common  law,  and  therefore 
outlawry  was  impossible  until  it  was  intro- 
duced by  act  of  parliament.  A  distinction  was 
made,  in  respect  to  the  consequences  of  out- 
lawry, between  criminal  and  civil  cases.  In 
the  former,  sentence  of  outlawry  operated  as  a 
conviction  of  the  offence  itself  with  which  the 
accused  was  charged.  In  treasons  and  felonies 
therefore  he  suffered  corruption  of  blood,  and 
forfeiture  of  all  his  estate,  real  as  well  as  per- 
sonal. In  civil  cases  the  ultimate  object  of  the 
outlawry  was  to  secure  access  to  the  defendant's 
property.  His  failure  to  appear  was,  accord- 
ingly, not  accounted  a  confession  of  the  matter 
charged;  but  as  a  contempt,  it  deserved  and 
drew  after  it  a  forfeiture  of  personal  property 
and  loss  of  the  profits  of  lands  so  long  as  the 
outlawry  lasted.  An  outlaw  will  not  be  heard 
in  the  courts  where  he  seeks  to  originate  a 
legal  right,  and  his  adversary  may  plead  the 
outlaw's  disability  in  bar  or  in  abatement  of 
his  suit.  Indeed,  he  cannot  appear  in  court 
for  any  other  purpose  than  to  reverse  his  out- 
lawry. He  cannot  be  a  juror,  for  he  is  not 
an  unimpeached  citizen,  liber  et  legalis  homo ; 
but  if  he  was  outlawed  in  a  civil  action,  he 
may  be  an  heir  or  a  witness.  The  judgment 
of  outlawry  may  be  reversed  by  writ  of  error 
or  set  aside  on  motion  in  the  court  where  it  is 
entered.  In  some  of  the  United  States  the 
process  of  outlawry  has  never  been  known; 
in  others  it  has  been  expressly  abolished ;  and 
it  now  has  no  actual  existence  in  any. 

OUTRAM,  Sir  James,  a  British  soldier,  born  at 
Butterley  Hall,  Derbyshire,  Jan.  29,  1803,  died 
in  Pau,  France,  March  11,  1863.  The  son  of 
an  eminent  civil  engineer,  he  was  educated  at 
Marischal  college,  Aberdeen,  went  to  Bombay 
in  1819,  entered  the  23d  regiment  of  native 
infantry,  of  which  he  soon  became  adjutant, 
and,  having  distinguished  himself  by  a  suc- 


cessful attack  upon  an  insurgent  stronghold 
in  Candeish,  was  sent  against  the  Bheels.  He 
overcame  them  in  battle,  and  organized  from 
them  an  irregular  military  corps.  Peace  was 
soon  restored  to  -the  Bheel  country,  and  he  was 
sent  into  Guzerat  to  subdue  some  rebel  chiefs. 
This  he  effected  by  defeating  them  and  concil- 
iating them  afterward.  He  was  aide-de-camp 
to  Sir  John  Keane  in  the  Afghan  war,  and  in 
1840  took  part  in  the  capture  of  the  Beloochee 
stronghold  of  Kelat,  and,  disguised  as  a  native 
devotee,  carried  the  news  of  its  fall  a  week's 
journey  through  the  enemy's  country  to  Kur- 
rachee.  For  this  he  received  the  brevet  rank 
of  major,  and  was  appointed  political  agent  in 
Lower  Sinde.  When  Sir  Charles  Napier  un- 
dertook the  conquest  of  Sinde,  Outram  was 
resident  at  Hydrabad,  and  endeavored  to  avert 
a  collision  between  the  ameers  and  the  Brit- 
ish. The  princes  treated  him  courteously,  but 
the  soldiers  growing  furious  and  attacking 
the  residency,  he  defended  himself  with  a 
small  escort,  and  finally  effected  an  orderly 
though  dangerous  retreat.  He  condemned  the 
war,  and  was  consequently  involved  in  an 
acrimonious  controversy  with  Napier.  After 
a  short  visit  to  England,  he  organized  an  irreg- 
ular but  effective  force  against  the  rebels  in 
the  South  Mahratta  country.  In  1845  he  was 
appointed  resident  at  Sattara,  and  in  1847  at 
Baroda,  where  he  fell  into  disfavor  with  the 
Bombay  government,  returned  to  England, 
and  finally  secured  the  approval  of  the  court 
of  directors.  In  1854  he  was  appointed  polit- 
ical resident  at  Lucknow,  and  in  1856  was  com- 
mander-in-chief  of  the  British  forces  in  Per- 
sia. He  defeated  the  Persians  repeatedly,  but 
his  career  was  stopped  by  the  treaty  of  April, 
1857.  Returning  to  India,  which  was  then  in 
the  midst  of  the  sepoy  rebellion,  he  took  the 
military  command  of  the  Cawnpore  and  Dina- 
poor  divisions.  He  relieved  Havelock  at  Cawn- 
pore, Sept.  15,  and  aided  him  in  the  relief  of 
Lucknow,  Sept.  25.  He  conducted  the  defence 
of  the  residency  until  the  rescue  by  Sir  Colin 
Campbell  in  November,  when  he  occupied  a 
fort  called  the  Alumbagh,  about  4  m.  from  the 
city,  and  during  the  next  few  months  several 
times  defeated  the  rebels  with  great  slaughter. 
He  cooperated  with  Campbell  in  the  final  siege 
and  capture  of  Lucknow  in  March,  1858,  and 
was  appointed  chief  civil  commissioner  there, 
and  afterward  member  of  the  supreme  council 
at  Calcutta.  In  the  summer  of  1860  he  re- 
turned home,  and  retired  to  private  life.  He 
was  created  a  baronet  in  1858. 

OUVRARD,  Gabriel  Jellcn,  a  French  financier, 
born  near  Clisson,  Oct.  11,  1770,  died  in  Lon- 
don in  October,  1846.  In  1797,  being  then  a 
merchant  at  Nantes,  he  entered  into^  a  con- 
tract for  supplying  the  French  navy  with  pro- 
visions, by  which  he  cleared  more  than  15,000,- 
000  francs ;  and  he  then  became  the  head  of  a 
great  banking  company  at  Paris,  called  the 
negotiants  reunis.  This  company,  while  hold- 
ing heavy  contracts  for  the  army  and  navy, 


744 


OUZEL 


undertook  also  to  discount  for  the  government 
the  obligations  of  the  receivers  general  and 
the  subsidy  due  from  the  Spanish  government, 
and  thus  obtained  almost  entire  control  of  the 
finances  of  the  country,  in  which  it  was  aided 
by  Barbe-Marbois,  the  minister  of  finance,  to 
whom  it  had  advanced  large  sums.  Afterward, 
there  having  been  a  failure  of  crops  in  Spain, 
Ouvrard  undertook  to  supply  the  deficiency, 
and  received  permission  to  export  several  car- 
goes of  grain  from  France.  He  also  contracted 
to  supply  the  Spanish  army  and  navy,  and  ad- 
vanced money  for  the  necessities  of  the  court. 
In  return  he  obtained  (1805)  the  grant  of  a 
monopoly  of  trade  with  the  Spanish  colonies, 
including  the  right  to  import  all  the  treasure 
brought  thence  to  Europe.  Seizure  by  Brit- 
ish cruisers  was  avoided  by  connections  which 
he  formed  with  the  house  of  Hope  and  other 
Dutch  bankers  established  in  England.  The 
company  had  undertaken  to  discount  the  obli- 
gations of  the  receivers  general  at  6  per  cent., 
while  it  was  obliged  to  borrow  at  from  9  to  12 
per  cent.  In  October,  1805,  the  Spanish  gov- 
ernment, being  heavily  in  its  debt,  suspended 
specie  payments,  thus  preventing  the  company 
from  meeting  its  obligations  at  home.  It  was 
saved  from  immediate  bankruptcy  by  accom- 
modations from  Marbois  and  the  bank  of  France. 
But  in  January,  1806,  Napoleon  compelled  the 
company  to  give  up  all  its  assets,  which  fully 
liquidated  its  debts,  amounting  to  about  140,- 
000,000  francs,  dismissed  Marbois,  and  placed 
Ouvrard  in  custody  at  Vincennes.  But  Ouvrard 
subsequently  gained  influence  with  Fouche, 
who  in  1810  permitted  him  to  leave  Vincennes 
to  settle  up  his  affairs,  and  upon  his  own  au- 
thority sent  him  to  Amsterdam,  charged  with 
the  offer  of  very  advantageous  terms  to  Eng- 
land. Napoleon,  discovering  this  scheme,  dis- 
missed Fouche,  and  Ouvrard  was  rearrested, 
and  imprisoned  at  Ste.  Pelagie,  where  he  re- 
mained till  1813.  In  1814,  on  the  occupation 
of  the  allies,  he  contracted  for  the  provision- 
ing of  their  armies;  and  in  1817  the  govern- 
ment adopted  a  financial  system  proposed  by 
him,  which  proved  successful.  Having  con- 
tracted for  supplying  the  French  army  sent  to 
Spain  in  1823,  proceedings  were  commenced 
against  him  by  the  government  for  fraudulent 
dealings,  and  he  was  again  confined  at  Ste. 
Pelagie ;  but  by  the  intercession  of  Ferdinand 
VII.  he  was  released  at  the  end  of  five  years 
without  trial,  and  afterward  lived  in  obscurity 
in  London.  He  published  several  works  on 
finance,  and  Memoires  (3  vols.,  1826). 

OUZEL,  a  genus  of  birds  of  the  thrush  family, 
Jiydrobata  (Vieill.)  or  cinclus  (Bechst.).     The 
bill  is  without  bristles  at  the  base,  moderate, 
slender,    slightly  bent   upward,   with  culmen  \ 
nearly  straight,  and  curved  and  notched  tip ;  j 
the  frontal  plumes  come  as  far  as  the  opening  \ 
of  the  nostrils ;  wings  moderate  and  rounded,  i 
the  first  quill  spurious  and  the  second  rather  I 
shorter  than  the  third  and  fourth,  which  are  | 
longest ;  tail  very  short  and  nearly  even ;  tarsi  I 


as  long  as  middle  toe,  covered  in  front  with  an 
entire  scale  ;  feet  robust,  with  toes  moderate, 
the  outer  the  longest,  and  united  at  base  ;  claws 
long,  curved,  and  sharp.  About  half  a  dozen 
species  are  described  in  America,  Europe,  and 
Asia.  The  American  water  ouzel  or  dipper 
(H.  Mexicana,  Baird  ;  C.  Americanus,  Swains.) 
is  about  7-J  in.  long,  with  an  extent  of  wings  of 
10^;  the  color  above  is  dark  plumbeous,  paler 
beneath ;  head  and  neck  with  a  sooty  brown 
tinge ;  a  concealed  white  spot  above  the  front 
of  the  eye,  and  sometimes  below  it ;  in  young 
birds  the  feathers  beneath,  the  wing  coverts, 
and  lesser  quills  are  edged  with  grayish  white ; 
it  inhabits  the  vicinity  of  clear  rapid  streams 
in  the  Rocky  mountains  from  British  America 
to  Mexico.  The  European  ouzel  or  dipper  (If. 
cinclus,  Vieill. ;  C.  aquaticus,  Bechst.)  is  of 
about  the  same  size,  with  the  head  and  hind 
neck  dark  brown,  the  upper  parts  dark  gray 
with  broad  black  edgings,  throat  and  fore  neck 
white,  and  breast  brownish  red;  the  female 
with  less  deep  tints  ;  the  young  grayish  above, 


European  Ouzel  (Hydrobata  cinclus). 

with  black  edgings.  The  form  of  the  ouzels  is 
compact,  and  the  motions  and  attitudes  are  like 
those  of  the  wrens.  Their  habits  are  very  pecu- 
liar ;  they  are  found  singly  or  in  pairs  in  moun- 
tainous districts  on  the  borders  of  streams; 
they  seek  their  food  under  water,  not  plunging 
superficially  like  the  kingfisher  or  the  fish 
hawk,  nor  going  under  from  the  surface  like 
the  ducks,  but  darting  boldly  into  the  water 
from  the  wing,  diving  to  the  bottom,  and  swim- 
ming and  running  about  there  with  great  ra- 
pidity, in  search  of  aquatic  insects,  larvae,  and 
mollusks,  on  which  they  feed.  The  ouzel  is 
said  also  to  devour  the  spawn  and  fry  of  fishes, 
and  on  this  account,  though  probably  without 
reason,  is  very  generally  persecuted  by  anglers 
and  gamekeepers ;  its  progression  under  water 
is  by  the  action  of  the  wings,  as  in  many  web- 
footed  birds ;  it  remains  submerged  for  a  min- 
ute or  two,  swimming  well,  rising  buoyantly 
to  the  surface,  and  able  to  dive  again  without 
rising  on  the  wing.  The  flight  is  direct  and 
rapid  ;  it  is  in  the  habit  of  perching  on  stones 
in  the  middle  of  streams,  constantly  moving 


OYEN  BIRD 

the  tail  up  and  down ;  it  is  a  very  poor  walk- 
er ;  when  wounded  it  plunges  under  water  and 
escapes  to  the  shore,  struggling  to  the  last 
when  taken.  The  note  is  a  gentle  warble, 
short  and  lively,  but  not  resembling  the  full 
song  of  the  proper  thrushes.  It  begins  to 
make  a  nest  about  the  middle  of  spring,  of  moss 
and  leaves,  on  the  bank  of  a  stream,  among  the 
roots  of  a  tree  overhanging  the  water,  in  the 
crevice  of  a  rock,  or  in  a  hole  in  a  bridge,  dam, 
or  wall ;  it  is  of  large  size,  arched  over,  and 
compactly  built ;  the  eggs  are  five  or  six,  pure 
white,  somewhat  smaller  than  those  of  the 
song  thrush.  This  genus  is  considered  inter- 
mediate between  the  ant  thrushes  and  thrush- 
es proper ;  its  short  and  dense  plumage,  short 
wings  and  tail,  and  bill,  are  admirably  adapted 
for  making  its  way  under  water,  and  seizing 
and  detaching  its  food  from  submerged  stones. 
According  to  Macgillivray,  the  genus  forms  a 
connecting  link  between  the  slender-billed  land 
birds  and  the  diving  water  birds,  as  the  king- 
fisher seems  to  unite  the  former  with  the  plun- 
ging birds  of  the  same  order. — The  name  of 
ring  ouzel  is  given  to  the  European  thrush 
(turdus  torquatus,  Linn.)  from  its  having  a 
broad  white  crescent  across  the  black  of  the 
breast;  and  the  blackbird  (T.  merula,  Linn.)  is 
often  also  called  ouzel  in  Great  Britain. 

OVEN  BIRD,  the  popular  name  of  a  group  of 
tenuirostral  birds  of  the  subfamily  furnarince 
and  the  family  of  creepers,  inhabiting  the 
warm  parts  of  South  America  and  the  West 
Indies.  In  the  typical  genus  furnarius  (Vieill.) 
the  bill  is  moderate,  slender,  and  slightly  curv- 
ed ;  wings  and  tail  moderate,  and  tarsi  long. 
The  red  oven  bird  (F.  rufus,  Vieill.),  called 
hornero  in  La  Plata,  is  about  6  in.  long,  reddish 
above  and  white  below  ;  it  is  seen  generally  in 
pairs,  both  in  bushy  and  open  places  and  near 
human  habitations,  running  rapidly  or  making 
short  flights  from  bush  to  bush  in  search  of 
insects,  especially  coleoptera  ;  it  will  also  eat 
seeds  ;  the  note  is  loud  and  shrill.  The  nest  is 


OVERBECK 


745 


Eed  Oven  Bird  (Furnarius  rufus). 

placed  in  an  exposed  situation  on  a  tree,  paling, 
window  sill,  or  even  in  the  interior  of  a  house ; 
both  sexes  work  at  it,  alternately  bringing  a 
lump  of  clay  or  piece  of  straw  and  twig,  which 


they  fashion  into  a  dome-shaped  structure  like 
a  baker's  oven,  6  or  8  in.  in  diameter  and  with 
walls  about  an  inch  thick ;  the  opening  is  on 
the  side,  and  near  it  is  a  partition  reaching 
nearly  to  the  roof,  behind  which  is  an  inner 
chamber  in  which  the  eggs,  four  or  five,  are 
deposited  on  feathers  and  soft  grass.  The 
genus  cinclodes  (Gray)  frequents  the  sea  beach, 
and  may  often  be  seen  walking  on  the  mass- 
es of  floating  seaweed  near  the  shore ;  some 
occasionally  wander  inland,  and  even  to  the 
height  of  8,000  ft.  on  the  Cordilleras;  their 
food  consists  of  insects,  small  crustaceans  and 
mollusks,  and  seeds.  The  golden-crowned 
thrush  of  North  America  (seiurus  aurocapil- 
lus,  Swains.)  is  also  called  oven  bird  from  the 
shape  of  its  nest. 

OVERBECK.  I.  Friedrich,  a  German  painter, 
born  in  Liibeck,  July  3,  1789,  died  in  Rome, 
Nov.  12,  1869.  He  commenced  his  artistic 
education  in  Vienna  in  1806,  and  in  1810  re- 
paired to  Rome,  where  he  became  convinced 
that  a  return  to  the  truth  and  simplicity  of 
the  early  Italian  masters  was  necessary.  A 
Madonna  painted  in  1811  first  brought  him 
into  notice  in  Rome,  and  was  followed  by  the 
frescoes  of  "Joseph  sold  into  Captivity  by  his 
Brethren"  and  the  "Seven  Years  of  Famine," 
in  the  villa  of  the  Prussian  consul  Bartholdy. 
He  gradually  restricted  himself  to  works  of 
an  exclusively  devotional  character,  which  he 
strove  to  imbue  with  religio-mystic  feeling. 
In  1814,  in  company  with  several  of  his  asso- 
ciates, he  abjured  Lutheranism  and  embraced 
the  Roman  Catholic  faith.  His  life  was  after- 
ward passed  almost  entirely  in  Rome.  At 
first  he  was  surrounded  by  a  band  of  enthusi- 
astic disciples,  but  by  degrees  his  followers  be- 
came fewer.  He  however  continued  to  labor 
in  his  chosen  style  with  unabated  zeal  until 
his  death.  Of  Overbeck's  works  in  fresco, 
the  most  remarkable  are  a  series  of  five  rep- 
resenting subjects  from  Tasso's  Gerusalemme 
liberata,  executed  in  1817  in  the  villa  Massimi 
in  Rome,  and  the  "  Vision  of  St.  Francis " 
painted  for  the  church  of  the  Madonna  degli 
Angioli  near  Assisi,  the  latter  of  which  is  con- 
sidered a  remarkable  exposition  of  the  prin- 
ciples of  Christian  art  as  understood  by  him. 
The  picture  which  first  gave  him  a  European 
reputation  was  the  "Entry  of  Christ  into 
Jerusalem,"  completed  in  1824  for  the  Marien- 
kirche  in  Ltibeck,  and  which  is  well  known  by 
engravings.  Other  works  by  him  of  a  Scriptu- 
ral character  are  "  Christ  bearing  the  Cross," 
"  The  Child  Christ  in  the  Temple,"  "  Christ 
blessing  Little  Children"  (also  well  known 
through  engravings),  "The  Raising  of  Laza- 
rus," "  Christ  raising  the  Daughter  of  Jairus," 
"  Christ  on  the  Mount  of  Olives,"  "  St.  John 
preaching  in  the  Wilderness,"  "Moses  and  the 
Daughter  of  Jethro  at  the  Well,"  "  Gathering 
the  Manna,"  "  Hagar  in  the  Desert,"  and  "The 
Ascent  of  Elijah."  His  numerous  "Holy 
Families "  and  Pietas,  "  Marriage  of  the  Vir- 
gin," "Virgin  with  the  Lily,"  "Three  Kings," 


746 


OVERBURY 


OVERWEG 


"  St.  Elizabeth,"  "  Assumption  of  the  Virgin," 
&c.,  are  examples  of  his  manner  of  illustrating 
the  traditions  of  the  church.  His  masterpiece 
perhaps  is  the  elaborate  composition  in  the 
Stadel'sche  institute  at  Frankfort,  representing 
the  triumph  of  Christianity  in  the  arts.  As  a 
designer  in  charcoal  and  chalk,  Overbeck  is  per- 
haps more  generally  known  than  by  his  paint- 
ings ;  and  engravings  have  been  made  from  his 
"  Passion  of  our  Lord,"  "  Forty  Illustrations 
from  the  Gospels,"  and  similar  series  of  draw- 
ings. He  also  designed  a  remarkable  series  of 
cartoons  to  be  executed  in  fresco  in  the  chapel 
of  the  banker  Torlonia's  villa  at  Oastel  Gan- 
dolfo.  Occasionally  he  attempted  allegorical 
figures,  such  as  his  "Germania"  and  "Italia." 
Among  his  latest  works  were  the  cartoons  for 
mural  paintings  for  a  large  Catholic  church  in 
Jakova,  Albania,  and  seven  pictures  represent- 
ing the  seven  sacraments.  II.  Johannes  Adolf,  a 
German  archa3ologist,  nephew  of  the  preceding, 
born  in  Antwerp,  March  27,  1826.  He  gradu- 
ated at  Bonn  in  1850,  and  became  professor  in 
the  university  of  Leipsic  in  1853,  and  founded 
its  archaeological  museum.  His  principal  works 
are :  Geschich  te  der  griechischen  Plastik  (2  vols. , 
1857-'8  ;  2d  ed.,  1869-'70)  ;  Pompeji  in  seinen 
Gebauden,  Alterthumern  und  Kunstwerlcen 
(1856;  2d  ed.,  2  vols.,  1866);  and  Griechische 
Kunstmythologie  (3  vols.  and  atlas,  1871-'3). 

OVERBURY,  Sir  Thomas,  an  English  author, 
born  at  Ilmington,  Warwickshire,  in  1581,  died 
in  London,  Sept.  15,  1613.  He  graduated  at 
Queen's  college,  Oxford,  in  1598.  After  trav-  j 
elling  on  the  continent,  he  went  in  1601  to  | 
Edinburgh,  where  he  became  intimate  with  j 
Robert  Carr,  afterward  Viscount  Rochester 
and  earl  of  Somerset.  In  1608  Overbury  was 
knighted.  In  1609  he  visited  France  and  the 
Netherlands,  and  wrote  "Observations  upon 
the  State  of  the  Seventeen  Provinces  in  1609  " 
(1626).  When  he  returned,  his  patron  Roches- 
ter was  engaged  in  an  intrigue  with  Frances 
Howard,  wife  of  the  earl  of  Essex ;  but  when 
it  was  proposed  that  she  should  procure  a 
divorce  in  order  to  marry  Rochester,  Over- 
bury  opposed  it,  and  wrote  his  poem  "  The 
Wife"  (published  in  1614  and  frequently  re- 
printed) to  dissuade  him.  Overbury's  opposi- 
tion excited  the  enmity  of  the  countess,  who 
attempted  to  procure  his  assassination;  but 
her  uncle,  the  earl  of  Northampton,  devised 
that  a  foreign  mission  should  be  offered  to 
him,  which  Rochester  prompted  him  to  re- 
fuse. His  refusal  was  declared  a  contempt  of 
the  king's  commands,  and  he  was  committed 
to  the  tower  in  April,  1613,  where  he  received 
the  harshest  treatment,  and  died  within  five 
months.  In  November  Rochester  was  created 
earl  of  Somerset,  and  in  December  married  the 
countess  of  Essex.  In  May,  1616,  the  two  were 
arrested  for  having  procured  the  death  of  Over- 
bury  by  poisoning ;  the  countess  pleaded  guilty 
and  her  husband  was  convicted,  and  both  were 
sentenced  to  death,  but  pardoned;  while  five 
minor  conspirators,  who  furnished  or  admin- 


istered the  poison,  were  convicted  and  exe- 
cuted. A  full  account  of  the  case  from  con- 
temporary manuscripts  was  published  in  1840 
by  Andrew  Amos,  entitled  u  The  Great  Oyer  of 
Poisoning,"  &c.  Overbury's  writings,  all  pub- 
lished posthumously,  besides  the  above  men- 
tioned, are:  "Characters"  and  "Newes  from 
any  whence,  or  Old  Truths  under  a  supposal 
of  Novelty"  (1614);  "The  First  and  Second 
Part  of  the  Remedy  of  Love,"  a  paraphrase 
from  Ovid  (1620);  "Miscellaneous  Works  in 
Prose  and  Verse  "  (1632) ;  and  "  Crumms  fall- 
en from  King  James's  Table,  or  his  Table 
Talk"  (1715).  A  complete  edition  of  his 
works,  with  a  life  by  E.  F.  Rimbault,  was  pub- 
lished in  1856. 

OVERSKOU,  Thomas,  a  Danish  dramatist,  born 
in  Copenhagen,  Oct.  11,  1798.  He  was  ap- 
prenticed to  a  smith  in  his  14th  year,  but  went 
upon  the  stage  in  1818.  In  1842  he  retired 
with  a  pension.  In  1849  he  became  manager 
under  the  direction  of  Heiberg,  whom  he  suc- 
ceeded in  1856,  retiring  in  1858.  His  original 
comedies  appeared  in  1851 -'2,  in  5  vols.  He 
adapted  many  plays  from  foreign  dramatists, 
and  published,  besides  other  writings,  an  elab- 
orate work  on  the  Danish  stage,  Den  danslce 
Skueplads  (5  vols.,  Copenhagen,  1854-'64; 
supplement,  1865). 

OVERTON,  a  N.  county  of  Tennessee,  border- 
ing on  Kentucky,  drained  by  Obie's  or  Obed's 
river,  a  branch  of  the  Cumberland,  navigable 
by  steamboats  for  60  m.  in  the  county ;  area, 
530  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  11,297,  of  whom  550 
were  colored.  The  surface  in  some  parts  is 
mountainous,  and  the  soil  is  generally  fertile. 
The  chief  productions  in  1870  were  43,419 
bushels  of  wheat,  394,026  of  Indian  corn,  69,- 
957  of  oats,  18,522  of  Irish  and  14,514  of  sweet 
potatoes,  121,582  Ibs.  of  butter,  25,585  of  wool, 
and  187,331  of  tobacco.  There  were  3,450 
horses,  3,360  milch  cows,  1,643  working  oxen, 
4,977  other  cattle,  17,293  sheep,  and  29,126 
swine.  Capital,  Livingston. 

OVERTURE  (Fr.  ouverture,  an  opening),  a 
species  of  introductory  symphony  prefixed  to 
an  opera  or  oratorio.  Its  invention  is  ascribed 
to  the  French  composer  Lully,  and  in  the  old- 
est overtures  the  fugue,  preceded  by  a  slow 
movement  in  *  time  and  closing  in  the  domi- 
nant, was  the  prominent  feature.  In  this  style 
were  written  the  overtures  of  Handel  and  many 
of  his  contemporaries.  The  overtures  of  mod- 
ern composers  frequently  contain  snatches  of 
the  leading  airs  of  the  opera. 

OVERWEG,  Adolf,  a  German  traveller,  born  in 
Hamburg,  July  24, 1822,  died  near  Lake  Tchad, 
central  Africa,  Sept.  27,  1852.  He  studied  at 
the  universities  of  Bonn  and  Berlin,  and  be- 
came an  accomplished  geologist.  In  the  win- 
ter of  1849-'50  he  joined  Barth  and  Richard- 
son in  the  English  exploring  expedition  into 
central  Africa,  and  made  many  important  dis- 
coveries, among  which  was  the  fact  that  the 
desert  of  Sahara  is  an  elevated  plateau,  and 
not,  as  had  been  supposed,  a  depressed  plain 


OVERYSSEL 

For  his  share  in  the  labors  of  the  expedition, 
see  BARTH,  HEINRICH.  His  reports,  from  time 
to  time,  appeared  in  the  German  geographical 
journals. 

OVERYSSEL,  or  Overijssel,  an  E.  province  of  the 
Netherlands,  bordering  on  Friesland,  Drenthe, 
Prussia,  Gelderland,  and  the  Zuyder  Zee  ;  area, 
1,282  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1873,  260,543.  The  sur- 
face is  generally  low,  but  diversified  by  a  few 
small  hills  locally  called  mountains,  and  in  the 
E.  part  the  soil  is  principally  marshy.  Large 
peat  moors  are  found  here,  and  in  other  places 
there  are  sandy  heaths.  The  best  land  is  near 
the  Yssel,  which  enters  the  province  from  Gel- 
derland, forming  part  of  the  boundary  between 
the  two  provinces.  The  other  chief  rivers  are 
the  Vechte,  Schipbeek,  Zwarte  Water,  and 
Linde.  The  Zwarte  Water  and  Yssel  are  uni- 
ted by  a  canal.  The  province  contains  several 
small  lakes.  The  principal  productions  are  rye, 
buckwheat,  hemp,  fruits,  cattle,  and  peat ;  and 
the  most  important  manufactures  are  linen  and 
cotton  goods,  wicker  ware,  mats,  and  iron.  The 
pasture  lands  are  particularly  rich,  and  cattle 
breeding  and  peat  digging  are  the  most  impor- 
tant branches  of  industry.  Considerable  at- 
tention is  also  given  to  the  fisheries  and  to  bee 
keeping.  The  climate  is  moist  and  unhealthy. 
The  chief  towns  are  Zwolle,  the  capital,  De- 
venter,  and  Kampen. 

OVID  (PUBLIUS  OVIDIUS  NASO),  a  Roman 
poet,  born  at  Sulmo  in  the  country  of  the  Pe- 
ligni,  March  20,  43  B.  C.,  died  at  Tomi  on  the 
Euxine,  S.  of  the  mouth  of  the  Danube,  A.  D. 
18.  He  was  of  an  ancient  equestrian  family, 
and  was  educated  for  the  forum  ;  but  his  taste 
for  poetry  interfered  so  seriously  with  his  pro- 
fessional studies,  that  the  elder  Seneca,  who 
had  seen  one  of  his  rhetorical  exercises,  de- 
scribes it  as  solutum  carmen  rather  than  an 
argumentative  discourse.  His  father  endeav- 
ored in  vain  to  wean  him  from  these  tastes,  but 
subsequently  allowed  him  to  follow  his  inclina- 
tions. He  accordingly  finished  his  education 
in  Athens,  travelled  in  Asia  and  Sicily,  and 
returned  to  Rome,  where,  though  it  is  doubtful 
if  he  ever  practised  the  law,  he  discharged  the 
functions  of  judge  in  several  of  the  minor 
courts,  and  was  finally  promoted  to  be  one  of 
the  decemviri  who  presided  over  the  court  of 
the  centummri.  The  poets  Macer,  Propertius, 
Ponticus,  and  Bassus  were  among  his  intimate 
friends,  and  he  had  frequent  opportunities  of 
hearing  Horace  recite  his  compositions.  He 
was  thrice  married,  his  first  wife  being  quick- 
ly put  aside  for  unfaithfulness,  and  his  second 
because  she  was  irksome  to  the  poet,  who  was 
then  enamored  of  a  mistress  celebrated  by  him 
under  the  name  of  Corinna.  According  to 
Sidonius  Apollinaris,  this  was  Julia,  the  profit 
gate  daughter  of  the  emperor  Augustus.  She 
was  undoubtedly  a  married  woman  of  high 
rank,  and  may  be  said  to  have  incited  Ovid  to 
his  first  successful  attempts  at  writing  in  ele- 
giac verse — the  series  called  the  Amores,  pub- 
lished by  him  in  a  second  edition  under  the 


OVID 


747 


title  of  Amorum  Libri  III.  At  about  the  age 
of  30  he  married  his  third  wife,  with  whom 
he  appears  to  have  lived  happily,  and  by  whom 
he  had  one  child,  a  daughter.  His  poetical 
reputation  was  enhanced  by  his  Epistola  He- 
rodium,  his  Ars  Amatoria  or  I)e  Arte  Amandi 
and  Eemedia  Amoris,  and  his  tragedy  of  Me- 
dea, now  lost.  In  A.  D.  8  an  imperial  edict 
banished  him  for  life  to  Tomi,  in  the  country 
of  the  Getse.  No  reason  for  this  banishment 
was  assigned,  beyond  his  having  published  his 
poem  on  the  art  of  love ;  but  it  has  been  justly 
supposed  that  so  severe  a  punishment  would 
not  have  been  inflicted  for  an  offence  of  this 
nature,  committed  ten  years  before,  unless  it 
had  been  accompanied  by  another  of  greater 
heinousness.  The  poet  himself  hints  at  some 
"  error,"  which  however  he  never  mentions, 
as  the  real  cause  of  his  punishment.  His  al- 
leged intrigue  with  the  emperor's  daughter 
Julia  has  been  presumed  to  be  the  "  error  "  in 
question;  but  she  was  exiled  more  than  ten 
years  before  Ovid.  Others  have  maintained 
that  it  was  the  younger  Julia  with  whom  he 
had  an  amour ;  and  notwithstanding  the  dis- 
parity in  their  years,  the  coincidence  of  his 
banishment  with  hers  gives  ground  for  the 
idea.  In  the  latter  part  of  December  Ovid  left 
Rome,  and  after  a  journey  of  nearly  a  year 
reached  the  inhospitable  spot  to  which  he  was 
banished.  The  people  among  whom  his  lot 
was  cast  were  scarcely  less  rude  than  their  cli- 
mate ;  and  he  never  ceased  to  offer  affecting 
but  unavailing  supplications  for  the  imperial 
clemency.  Besides  applying  the  finishing  touch- 
es to  his  Fasti,  he  wrote  during  his  exile  the 
Tristia,  a  record  of  his  sufferings  and  appeals 
for  pardon ;  the  letters  to  his  wife  and  friends 
Ex  Ponto,  very  similar  in  style  and  substance 
to  the  Tristia;  and  the  His,  a  satire.  His 
modest  bearing  and  affable  manners  won  upon 
the  simple  inhabitants  of  Tomi,  among  whom 
he  rendered  himself  exceedingly  popular  by 
publicly  reciting  some  poems  composed  in  the 
Getic  language,  which  he  had  succeeded  in 
mastering.  He  died  in  the  10th  year  of  his 
exile.  His  chief  work,  both  in  bulk  and  pre- 
tensions, was  his  Metamorphoses,  in  15  books, 
composed  previous  to  his  exile,  and  burned  by 
him  during  the  hurry  of  his  departure  from 
Rome,  but  of  which  copies  had  been  previous- 
ly taken  by  his  friends.  It  is  written  in  heroic 
verse,  and,  as  the  title  denotes,  includes  such 
legends  of  mythology  as  involved  a  transfor- 
mation.— Of  the  numerous  complete  editions 
of  Ovid,  the  more  remarkable  are  the  editio 
princeps  by  Azoguidi  (2  vols.  fol.,  Bologna, 
1471),  the  Aldine  edition  (3  vols.  8vo,  Venice. 
1502),  the  Elzevir  edition  by  Heinsius  (3  vols 
12mo,  Leyden,  1629),  the  Delphin  edition  (4 
vols.  4to,  Lyons,  1689),  Bnrmann's,  esteemed 
the  best  (4  vols.  4to,  Amsterdam,  1727),  and 
Burmann's  text  with  Bentley's  MS.  emenda- 
tions (5  vols.  8vo,  Oxford,  1825).  Among  edi- 
tions of  his  separate  works  is  P.  Omdii  Na- 
sonis  Heroides  XIV,  edited  with  a  commen- 


748 


OVIEDO 


OWEN 


tary  by  Arthur  Palmer  (London,  1873).  Of 
translations  of  his  works  nearly  every  Euro- 
pean language  possesses  an  abundance.  The 
most  esteemed  metrical  version  of  the  Meta- 
morphoses in  English  is  that  "  translated  by 
the  most  eminent  hands,"  including  Dryden, 
Addison,  Congreve,  Eowe,  Gay,  Ambrose  Phil- 
lips, and  others  (fol.,  London,  1717),  of  which 
many  editions  have  appeared.  The  version  of 
George  Sandys  (fol.,  London,  1626),  translated 
on  the  banks  of  James  river  in  Virginia,  de- 
serves mention  as  the  first  work  of  any  note 
composed  in  America.  The  Ars  Amatoria  and 
Heroides  have  in  like  manner  been  versified 
by  several  translators.  Sir  Thomas  Overbury 
paraphrased  the  jRemedia  Amoris,  and  a  trans- 
lation of  the  Fasti  by  J.  Gower  was  published  j 
at  Cambridge  in  1640.  A  literal  prose  trans- 
lation of  all  the  poems,  by  H.  T.  Riley,  forms 
3  vols.  of  Bohn's  "  Classical  Library." 

OVIEDO,  a  city  of  Spain,  capital  of  a  prov- 
ince of  the  same  name  (see  ASTURIAS),  15  m. 
S.  W.  of  the  seaport  Gijon  on  the  coast  of  the 
bay  of  Biscay,  and  230  m.  N.  W.  of  Madrid, 
near  the  Nalon  river  and  on  the  Leon  rail- 
way; pop.  about  13,000.  It  has  a  cathedral 
and  a  large  number  of  monasteries  and  church 
establishments,  a  considerable  university  with 
a  library  of  12,000  volumes,  many  charitable 
institutions,  and  an  especially  fine  hospital. 
The  town  is  well  though  irregularly  built, 
contains  ten  public  squares,  and  has  several 
of  the  most  ancient  churches  in  Spain.  A  fine 
aqueduct  of  freestone,  supported  on  41  arches, 
supplies  the  city  with  water.  The  manufac- 
tures are  few  (linens  and  woollens,  hats,  arms, 
&c.),  and  the  trade  is  insignificant. — According 
to  some  authorities,  Oviedo  was  founded  by 
Froila  I.,  grandson  of  Pelayo,  about  760 ;  ac- 
cording to  others,  it  is  of  more  ancient  origin. 
It  was  the  capital  of  the  kingdom  of  Oviedo  till 
914,  when  Ordofio  II.  transferred  his  residence  j 
to  Leon.  It  was  the  scene  of  repeated  con-  j 
flicts  during  the  middle  ages;  and  the  church 
establishments  attracted  so  many  prelates  to  j 
it  for  refuge,  that  it  became  known  as  the  city  \ 
of  the  bishops.  Later  it  was  for  a  short  time  | 
the  seat  of  an  archbishopric.  It  was  pillaged 
by  Ney's  troops  in  1809,  and  afterward  by 
those  of  Bonnet  and  others. 

OVIEDO  Y  VALDES,  Gonzalo  Fernandez  de,  a 
Spanish  chronicler,  born  in  Madrid  in  1478, 
died  in  Valladolid  in  1557.  He  was  educated 
at  the  court  of  Ferdinand  and  Isabella,  as  one 
of  the  pages  of  Prince  Juan.  In  1513  he  was 
sent  to  Santo  Domingo  as  supervisor  of  gold 
smeltings,  and  passed  there  almost  the  whole 
of  his  subsequent  life,  holding  various  offices 
and  occasionally  revisiting  Spain.  Having  been 
appointed  historiographer  of  the  Indies,  with 
authority  to  demand  from  the  Spanish  Amer- 
ican governors  whatever  documents  he  needed, 
he  composed  his  Historia  general  y  natural 
de  las  Indias  Occidentales,  in  50  books,  21  of 
which  were  published  in  Seville  in  1535  (trans- 
lated into  Latin,  Basel,  1555;  German,  1579). 


A  summary  of  the  work  had  been  published 
ten  years  earlier  (new  ed.,  Madrid,  1850). 
This  work  was  denounced  by  Las  Casas  as 
little  better  than  fabulous ;  but  Las  Casas  was 
a  bitter  enemy  of  the  author,  whom  he  ac- 
cused of  rapacity  and  cruelty  in  his  govern- 
ment. In  his  79th  year  Oviedo  finished  his 
valuable  work  entitled  Las  quinquagenas,  in 
which  he  gives  under  the  form  of  dialogues  a 
full,  gossipping,  and  anecdotical  account  of  all 
the  principal  persons  of  Spain  of  his  time.  It 
is  still  in  manuscript  in  the  royal  library  at 
Madrid.  He  also  wrote  chronicles  of  Ferdi- 
nand and  Isabella  and  Charles  V. ;  and  a  life 
of  Cardinal  Ximenes  is  attributed  to  him.  His 
description  of  Nicaragua  forms  vol.  xv.  (His- 
toire  de  Nicaragua)  of  H.  Ternaux-Compans's 
Voyages,  relations  et  memoires  originaux  pour 
sermr  a  Vhistoire  de  la  decouverte  de  VAmerique 
(Paris,  1840-'41);  and  the  chief  part  of  his 
Historia  general  forms  vol.  iii.  of  Ramusio's 
Delle  navigazioni  e  maggi  (Venice,  1583,  fre- 
quently republished). 

OWEGO,  a  town  and  village,  capital  of  Tioga 
co.,  New  York,  on  the  Susquehanna  river,  here 
crossed  by  a  bridge  240  ft.  long,  at  the  mouth 
of  Owego  creek,  on  the  Erie  and  Southern 
Central  railroads,  and  at  the  terminus  of  the 
Ithaca  branch  of  the  Delaware,  Lackawanna, 
and  Western  railroad,  140  m.  S.  W.  of  Albany  ; 
pop.  of  the  town  in  1870,  9,442 ;  of  the  village, 
4,756.  It  is  surrounded  by  a  fine  farming 
country,  with  which  it  has  an  important  trade. 
The  village  is  pleasantly  situated  on  a  level  at 
the  base  of  a  high  hill,  and  is  handsomely  built. 
The  principal  streets  are  bordered  by  wide 
sidewalks,  and  shaded  with  rows  of  maples. 
It  contains  two  grist  mills,  two  founderies, 
two  shoe  factories,  two  soap  factories,  a  piano 
manufactory,  four  tanneries,  four  planing  mills, 
two  carriage  factories,  two  marble  factories, 
the  Erie  railway  bridge  shops,  three  banks,  six 
hotels,  an  academy,  six  schools,  three  weekly 
newspapers,  and  seven  churches.  Steamers 
convey  excursion  parties  to  points  on  the  river. 
Glenmary,  on  Owego  creek  near  the  village, 
was  formerly  the  residence  of  N.  P.  Willis. 

OWEN.  I.  A  N.  county  of  Kentucky, 
bounded  W.  by  the  Kentucky  river  and  N.  by 
Eagle  creek ;  area,  about  300  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in 
1870,  14,309,  of  whom  1,176  were  colored.  It 
has  an  undulating  surface  and  a  fertile  soil. 
The  Louisville,  Cincinnati,  and  Lexington  rail- 
road passes  along  the  N.  border.  The  chief 
productions  in  1870  were  57,248  bushels  of 
wheat,  21,439  of  rye,  695,680  of  Indian  corn, 
53,085  of  oats,  28,584  of  potatoes,  187,200  Ibs. 
of  butter,  32,491  of  wool,  2,890,670  of  tobac- 
co, and  3,857  tons  of  hay.  There  were  5,589 
horses,  3,074  milch  cows,  4,690  other  cattle, 
11,104  sheep,  and  26,399  swine ;  1  manufactory 
of  woollen  goods,  2  distilleries,  and  5  saw 
mills.  Capital,  Owenton.  II.  A  S.  WT.  county 
of  Indiana,  drained  by  the  W.  fork  of  White 
river  and  several  smaller  streams ;  area,  about 
400  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  16,137.  Its  soil  is 


OWEN 


749 


fertile,  especially  near  the  borders  of  the  j 
streams.  It  contains  extensive  and  very  rich 
mines  of  coal  and  iron  ore.  The  Indianapolis 
and  Vincennes  railroad  passes  through  it.  The 
chief  productions  in  1870  were  202,512  bush- 
els of  wheat,  602,098  of  Indian  corn,  100,- 
216  of  oats,  48,064  of  potatoes,  168,660  Ibs.  of 
butter,  86,612  of  wool,  and  9,253  tons  of  hay. 
There  were  5,815  horses,  4,532  milch  cows, 
8,531  other  cattle,  30,285  sheep,  and  24,685 
swine ;  15  manufactories  of  carriages  and  wag- 
ons, 7  of  saddlery  and  harness,  7  flour  mills, 
and  19  saw  mills.  Capital,  Spencer. 

OWEN,  John,  an  English  divine,  born  at  Stad- 
ham,  Oxfordshire,  in  1616,  died  at  Baling, 
near  London,  Aug.  24,  1683.  'At  the  age  of 
12  he  was  entered  at  Queen's  college,  Oxford, 
receiving  his  bachelor's  degree  at  16,  and  his 
master's  degree  at  19.  The  lead  which  he 
took  in  resisting  Archbishop  Laud's  new  aca- 
demical regulations  brought  upon  him  the  ill 
will  of  the  high  church  party ;  and  the  support 
of  an  uncle  being  withdrawn,  he  was  com- 
pelled to  leave  his  place  at  Oxford,  to  accept 
orders  in  the  church,  and  to  support  himself 
by  private  teaching  and  by  officiating  as  chap- 
lain. His  mind  was  greatly  exercised  by  doubts 
concerning  his  religious  state  and  his  duty  in 
national  affairs,  which  resulted  finally  in  his 
open  adhesion  to  the  side  of  the  parliament 
against  the  king.  The  type  of  faith  which  he 
chose  was  strict  Calvinism,  and  his  first  work 
was  the  "Display  of  Arminianism  "  (1642). 
In  reward  for  it  he  received  from  the  commit- 
tee of  parliament  the  living  of  Fordham  in 
Essex,  where  he  gained  fame  as  a  pulpit  ora- 
tor. This  was  increased  when  he  removed  to 
Coggeshall;  and  his  change  while  here  from 
the  Presbyterian  to  the  Independent  form  of 
church  government  only  made  him  more  pop- 
ular. In  April,  1646,  he  was  first  called  to 
preach  before  the  parliament,  and  he  had  the 
dangerous  honor  of  addressing  them  on  the 
day  after  the  execution  of  Charles  I.  Crom- 
well favored  him,  took  him  as  private  chaplain 
on  his  expeditions  to  Ireland  and  Scotland, 
and,  when  he  had  received  the  office  of  dean 
in  Christchurch  college,  made  him  in  addition 
vice  chancellor  of  the  university.  The  five 
years  in  which  he  held  this  office  were  years 
of  great  activity ;  he  preached  constantly  and 
published  several  of  his  most  important  works, 
receiving  in  1653  the  degree  of  D.  D.  After 
the  death  of  Cromwell  Presbyterian  opposi- 
tion deprived  him  of  his  offices,  and  at  the  res- 
toration he  retired  to  his  native  town;  but 
he  persevered  in  addressing  assemblies  and  in 
expounding  the  principles  of  that  Savoy  con- 
fession which  he  had  assisted  in  preparing. 
While  in  Newtown  he  published  a  work  ecti- 
tled  Fiat  Lux,  which  attracted  the  notice  of 
Lord  Clarendon,  who  offered  him  immediate 
preferment  if  he  would  conform;  but  he  re- 
fused. From  1667  to  1670  he  took  charge  of 
a  congregation  in  Leadenhall  street,  London, 
where  his  eloquence  secured  the  favor  of  many 


of  the  nobility,  and  even  for  a  time  of  the 
king  and  his  Catholic  brother ;  and  he  had  re- 
peated interviews  with  Charles  II.  The  last  12 
years  of  his  life  were  a  period  of  weakness  and 
pain.  His  work  on  "  The  Glory  of  Christ " 
was  hardly  prepared  for  the  press  when  he 
died.  Owen's  works  are  voluminous  and  on 
many  subjects.  There  were  7  volumes  in  folio, 
20  in  quarto,  and  30  in  octavo.  A  complete 
edition  was  edited  by  Thomas  Russell,  with  a 
life  by  William  Orme  (21  vols.,  London,  1826). 
There  is  also  an  edition  published  in  Edinburgh 
(24  vols.  8vo,  1859). 

OWEN,  Richard,  a  British  anatomist,  born  in 
Lancaster  in  1804.  He  was  for  some  years 
a  pupil  of  a  surgeon  in  Lancaster,  and  in  1824 
he  attended  medical  lectures  at  Edinburgh,  ac- 
quiring a  predilection  for  the  study  of  com- 
parative anatomy.  In  1825  he  went  to  London, 
became  a  student  at  St.  Bartholomew's  hos- 
pital, and  was  employed  by  Abernethy  as  pro- 
sector. In  1826  he  became  a  member  of  the 
royal  college  of  surgeons,  and  shortly  after  by 
the  assistance  of  Abernethy  was  appointed  as- 
sistant curator  of  the  Hunterian  museun.  No 
catalogue  of  this  collection  existed,  and  Owen 
prepared  in  conjunction  with  Mr.  Clift  the 
catalogue  of  the  pathological  specimens  (2 
vols.  4to,  1830),  and  that  of  the  monsters  and 
malformations  (4to,  1831),  both  comprising  de- 
scriptions of  the  specimens.  Between  1833 
and  1840  Owen  produced  the  elaborate  "De- 
scriptive and  Illustrated  Catalogue  of  the  Phy- 
siological Series  of  Comparative  Anatomy" 
(5  vols.  4to).  In  order  to  identify  the  Hun- 
terian preparations,  it  was  necessary  to  make 
new  dissections  for  comparison ;  and  while 
engaged  in  this  occupation  he  was  constantly 
opening  new  paths  of  inquiry  and  making  dis- 
coveries. The  materials  and  suggestions  thus 
acquired  have  been  employed  to  illustrate  four 
great  departments  of  natural  science,  viz. :  com- 
parative anatomy  and  physiology,  zoology, 
paleontology,  and  transcendental  anatomy  and 
physiology.  As  an  anatomist  he  has  extend- 
ed his  labors  over  the  four  divisions  of  the 
animal  kingdom,  giving  more  attention  to  the 
vertebrates,  and  particularly  to  its  chief  divi- 
sion, the  mammalia,  than  to  either  of  the  others. 
Among  his  papers  on  the  mammalia,  those  de- 
voted to  the  quadrumana,  the  carnivora,  and 
the  marsupialia  are  the  fullest  and  most  impor- 
tant. His  researches  among  the  birds,  reptiles, 
and  fishes,  both  with  respect  to  their  classifi- 
cation and  their  connection  with  extinct  spe- 
cies, have  been  not  less  remarkable;  and  in 
connection  with  this  branch  of  his  labors  he 
has  opened  a  rich  field  of  inquiry  among  the 
extinct  birds  of  New  Zealand,  resulting  in  the 
discovery  of  the  gigantic  genus  dinornis,  with 
many  of  its  species,  and  several  kindred  genera. 
His  "Memoir  on  the  Pearly  Nautilus,"  pub- 
lished in  1832,  containing  a  description  of  its 
anatomy,  and  a  proposal  for  a  new  classifica- 
tion of  the  family  of  cephalopodous  mollusks, 
was  followed  by  an  important  series  of  papers 


750 


OWEN 


on  the  same  subject.  In  these  investigations 
he  made  frequent  use  of  the  microscope,  and 
was  one  of  the  founders  and  the  first  president 
of  the  microscopical  society.  His  microscopi- 
cal investigations  of  the  structure  of  the  teeth 
of  animals  led  him  in  1849  to  divide  the  mam- 
malia into  two  classes,  the  monophyodonts,  or 
those  generating  a  single  set  of  teeth,  and  the 
diphyodonts,  which  generate  two  sets.  The 
most  important  results  of  these  researches  were 
embodied  in  his  "  Odontography  "  (2  vols.  8vo, 
London,  1840-'45).  In  the  department  of  palae- 
ontology he  reconstructed  numerous  extinct 
families  of  vertebrata,  the  existence  of  which 
had  not  previously  been  even  surmised.  His 
publications  in  this  department  comprise,  be- 
sides shorter  papers,  a  "  History  of  British  Fos- 
sil Mammals  and  Birds"  (8vo,  1846);  a  "De- 
scription of  the  Skeleton  of  an  extinct  gigantic 
Sloth  (Mylodon  robustus),  with  Observations 
on  the  Osteology,  Natural  Affinities,  and  Prob- 
able Habits  of  the  Megatheroid  Animals  in 
General"  (4to,  1842);  and  a  "History  of  the 
British  Fossil  Reptiles"  (4to,  1848-'55).  In 
the  department  of  transcendental  anatomy,  Mr. 
Owen  was  the  first  to  develop  the  idea  of 
Oken,  that  the  typical  form  of  the  skeleton  in 
the  higher  animals  is  the  vertebra,  publishing 
works  "On  the  Archetype  and  Homologies  of 
the  Vertebrate  Skeleton,  with  Tables  of  the 
Synonymes  of  the  Vertebral  Elements  and 
Bones  of  the  Head  of  Fishes,  Reptiles,  Birds, 
Mammals,  and  Man"  (1848),  and  "On  the 
Nature  of  Limbs "  (1849).  Among  his  oth- 
er writings  is  a  work  "  On  Parthenogenesis  " 
(1849).  In  1836  Mr.  Owen  was  appointed 
Hunterian  professor  at  the  royal  college  of 
surgeons,  in  place  of  Sir  Charles  Bell.  His 
lectures  here  were  published  under  the  title  of 
"  Lectures  on  Comparative  Anatomy  "  (2d  ed., 
1853).  In  1856  he  was  appointed  chief  of  the 
natural  history  department  of  the  British  mu- 
seum, which  post  he  still  holds  (1875),  giving 
in  connection  with  it  annual  courses  of  lectures 
on  natural  history.  He  is  also  distinguished 
for  his  successful  efforts  toward  improving 
the  sanitary  condition  of  large  towns.  He  has 
received  the  royal  and  Copley  medals,  and  va- 
rious honors  from  seats  of  learning,  and  is  a 
member  of  the  chief  scientific  bodies  of  the 
world.  His  latest  important  work  is  "  On  the 
Anatomy  of  the  Vertebrates"  (3  vols,,  1866-'8). 
OWE1Y.  I.  Robert,  an  English  social  reform- 
er, born  in  Newtown,  North  Wales,  March  14, 
1771,  died  there,  Nov.  19,  1858.  The  son  of 
poor  parents,  when  14  years  old  he  procured 
a  situation  in  London,  and  at  the  age  of  18  be- 
came partner  in  a  cotton  mill.  He  married  in 
1799  the  daughter  of  David  Dale,  a  Glasgow 
manufacturer,  having  previously,  with  other 
partners,  bought  from  Mr.  Dale  the  village  and 
cotton  mills  of  New  Lanark,  Scotland.  Here 
he  introduced  a  system  of  reform  which  proved 
for  a  time  highly  successful.  In  1812  he  pub- 
lished "  New  Views  of  Society,  or  Essays  upon 
the  Formation  of  Human  Character,"  and  sub- 


sequently a  "Book  of  the  New  Moral  World," 
and  various  other  works,  in  which  he  main- 
tained a  theory  of  modified  communism,  insist- 
ing on  an  absolute  equality  in  all  rights  and 
duties,  and  the  abolition  of  all  superiority,  in- 
cluding alike  that  of  capital  and  that  of  birth. 
By  the  aid  of  his  immense  fortune  he  was 
enabled  to  distribute  a  large  number  of  tracts 
developing  his  peculiar  views,  and  soon  had 
everywhere  numerous  and  enthusiastic  follow- 
ers, but  was  attacked  on  all  sides,  and  particu- 
larly by  the  religious  press.  He  set  out  in  1823, 
after  the  death  of  his  patron,  the  duke  of  Kent, 
for  the  United  States,  where  he  determined  to 
found  at  his  own  cost  a  communist  society; 
and  with  this  view  he  bought  from  Rapp  the 
settlement  of  New  Harmony  in  Indiana,  on  the 
banks  of  the  Wabash,  embracing  20,000  acres 
of  land  and  dwellings  for  1,000  persons.  The 
scheme,  however,  proved  an  utter  failure,  and  in 
1827  he  returned  to  Great  Britain,  where  experi- 
ments of  a  similar  nature  attended  by  a  similar 
result  were  made  at  Orbiston  in  Lanarkshire, 
and  at  Tytherley  in  Hampshire.  He  succeeded 
no  better  in  establishing  a  "labor  exchange" 
in  London,  in  connection  with  a  bazaar  and 
bank.  In  1828  he  went  to  Mexico  on  the  in- 
vitation of  the  government  to  carry  out  his 
experiment  there,  but  effected  nothing.  He 
however  continued  for  the  rest  of  his  life  to 
advocate  his  views  both  as  a  writer  and  public 
speaker,  revisiting  America  several  times.  His 
ideas  are  clearly  developed  in  his  "  Lectures  on 
a  New  State  of  Society,"  "Essays  on  the  For- 
mation of  Human  Character,"  and  "Outline 
of  the  Rational  System,"  and  especially  in  his 
principal  work,  "  The  Book  of  the  New  Moral 
World,"  in  which  he  came  forward  as  the 
founder  of  a  system  of  religion  and  society  ac- 
cording to  reason.  During  his  last  years  he 
was  a  believer  in  spiritualism,  through  which 
he  became  convinced  of  the  immortality  of  the 
soul.  II.  Robert  Dale,  an  American  author,  eld- 
est son  of  the  preceding,  born  in  Glasgow, 
Scotland,  Nov.  7,  1801.  His  early  years  were 
spent  at  New  Lanark,  under  the  care  of  a  pri- 
vate tutor.  In  1818  he  was  sent  to  Fellenberg's 
school  at  Hofwyl,  Switzerland,  where  he  re- 
mained upward  of  three  years.  He  accom- 
panied his  father  to  the  United  States  in  No- 
vember, 1823,  lived  for  some  time  at  New  Har- 
mony, and  in  the  autumn  of  1828  commenced 
at  New  York,  in  partnership  with  Miss  Frances 
Wright,  a  weekly  paper  called  "The  Free  En- 
quirer," which  was  continued  for  three  years. 
He  then  removed  to  New  Harmony,  where  he 
was  three  times  (1835-'8)  elected  a  member  of 
the  Indiana  legislature.  In  1843  and  1845  he 
|  was  elected  to  congress  as  a  democrat,  serving 
I  till  1847.  He  took  a  leading  part  in  settling 
the  N.  W.  boundary  dispute.  In  1845  he  intro- 
I  duced  the  bill  organizing  the  Smithsonian  insti- 
|  tution,  and  in  1846  became  one  of  its  regents 
j  and  chairman  of  its  building  committee.  In 
1850  he  was  elected  a  member  of  the  conven- 
tion which  amended  the  constitution  of  Indiana, 


OWEN 

and  became  chairman  of  its  revision  committee. 
In  that  convention,  and  afterward  in  the  legis- 
lature, he  introduced  measures  securing  to  the 
women  of  Indiana  independent  rights  of  prop- 
erty. In  1853  he  was  appointed  charge  d'af- 
faires at  Naples,  and  in  1855  minister,  remain- 
ing there  till  1858.  In  the  spring  of  1860  he 
had  a  discussion  on  divorce  with  Horace  Gree- 
ley,  which  appeared  originally  in  the  "  Tribune," 
and  afterward  in  a  pamphlet,  which  obtained 
a  circulation  of  60,000  copies.  During  the 
civil  war  he  published  various  letters  to  mem- 
bers of  the  cabinet  and  to  the  president,  advo- 
cating the  policy  of  emancipating  the  slaves. 
In  1863  he  published  an  address  to  the  citizens 
of  Indiana,  showing  the  disastrous  consequen- 
ces that  would  follow  from  the  success  of  the 
effort  then  making  by  certain  politicians  to 
reconstruct  the  Union  with  New  England  left 
out.  Of  this  address  the  Union  league  of  New 
York  published  50,000  copies,  and  the  Phila- 
delphia Union  league  25,000  copies.  He  has 
been  for  many  years  a  prominent  believer  in 
the  phenomena  called  spiritualism.  His  prin- 
cipal works  are :  "  An  Outline  of  the  System  of 
Education  at  New  Lanark"  (Glasgow,  1824); 
"  Moral  Physiology  "  (New  York,  1831)  ;  "  Dis- 
cussion with  Origen  Bachelor  on  the  Person- 
ality of  God  and  the  Authenticity  of  the  Bi- 
ble "  (1832) ;  "  Pocahontas,"  a  historical  drama 
(1837)  ;  "  Hints  on  Public  Architecture,"  with 
113  illustrations  (1849);  "Footfalls  on  the 
Boundary  of  Another  World"  (Philadelphia, 
1860)  ;  "  The  Wrong  of  Slavery  and  the  Eight 
of  Emancipation  "  (1864) ;  "  Beyond  the  Break- 
ers," a  novel  (1870) ;  "  The  Debatable  Land 
between  this  World  and  the  Next "  (New  York, 
1872) ;  and  "  Threading  My  Way,"  being  27 
years  of  autobiography  (1874).  His  "Foot- 
falls "  treats  of  the  spontaneous  phenomena  of 
spiritualism,  and  "The  Debatable  Land"  opens 
with  an  address  to  the  Protestant  clergy  on 
the  present  attitude  of  the  religious  world, 
while  the  body  of  the  work  sets  forth  the  evi- 
dences of  spiritual  phenomena  in  general.  III. 
David  Dale,  an  American  geologist,  brother  of 
the  preceding,  born  in  Lanarkshire,  Scotland, 
June  24,  1807,  died  in  New  Harmony,  Ind., 
Nov.  13,  1860.  He  was  educated  with  his 
brother  at  Hofwyl,  and  in  1825  accompanied 
his  father  to  New  Harmony.  He  afterward 
passed  two  years  in  studying  geology  and 
other  branches  of  natural  science  in  Europe, 
and  in  1833  took  up  his  permanent  residence 
in  the  United  States.  In  1837  he  was  em- 
ployed by  the  legislature  of  Indiana  to  make 
a  geological  reconnoissance  of  the  state,  the 
results  of  which  were  published  in  a  small 
work  (new  ed.,  1859).  He  subsequently,  under 
instructions  from  the  general  land  office,  made 
a  minute  examination  of  the  mineral  lands  of 
Iowa ;  and  in  1848  he  was  employed  by  the 
government  to  conduct  the  geological  survey 
of  Wisconsin,  Iowa,  and  Minnesota.  The  re- 
sult of  three  years'  labor  in  this  extensive  field 
was  in  1852  published  by  congress  in  a  4to 
625  VOL.  xii.— 48 


OWL 


751 


volume,  accompanied  by  numerous  maps  and 
illustrations.  From  1852  to  1857  he  conducted 
the  survey  of  Kentucky,  the  report  of  which 
appeared  in  four  volumes  and  an  atlas  (Frank- 
fort, 1856-'61).  In  1857  he  was  appointed 
state  geologist  of  Arkansas,  and  the  report  of 
his  survey  was  published  in  1858-'60.  He  also 
conducted  various  important  examinations  for 
individuals  and  corporations. 

OWEN,  William,  an  English  painter,  born  in 
Ludlow,  Shropshire,  in  1769,  died  in  London, 
Feb.  11,  1825.  He  was  instructed  in  painting 
by  Oatton  and  Sir  Joshua  Reynolds,  and  in 
1792  exhibited  at  Somerset  house  a  portrait 
and  a  landscape.  He  painted  the  portraits  of 
some  of  the  most  celebrated  men  of  his  day, 
including  William  Pitt  and  Lord  Grenville.  In 
1806  he  became  a  royal  academician.  He  de- 
clined the  honor  of  knighthood  as  an  expen- 
sive distinction.  Among  his  works  were  some 
fancy  pieces,  including  "  The  Daughter  of  the 
Beggar  of  Bethnal  Green,"  "The  Sleeping 
Girl,"  "  The  Children  in  the  Wood,"  &c. 

OWM  SOUND,  a  town,  port  of  entry,  and 
the  capital  of  Grey  co.,  Ontario,  Canada,  at 
the  outlet  of  the  river  Sydenhani  into  Owen 
sound,  and  at  the  terminus  of  a  branch  of  the 
Toronto,  Grey,  and  Bruce  railway,  123  m.  by 
rail  N.  W.  of  Toronto;  pop.  in  1871,  3,369. 
It  is  pleasantly  situated  on  a  small  plain  sur- 
rounded on  three  sides  by  wooded  heights,  and 
contains  a  commodious  town  hall,  court  house, 
a  number  of  stores,  hotels,  and  churches.  The 
sound,  which  is  the  best  harbor  on  Lake  Hu- 
ron, admits  the  largest  class  of  lake  vessels. 
It  is  12m.  from  the  town  to  its  mouth  in  Geor- 
gian bay,  where  it  is  5  m.  wide.  A  large  num- 
ber of  vessels  are  engaged  in  the  grain  and 
lumber  trade.  There  are  manufactories  of  mill 
machinery,  turbine  water  wheels,  agricultural 
implements,  engines,  sewing  machines,  leather, 
wooden  ware,  and  woollens,  two  breweries, 
flour  and  saw  mills,  five  large  grain  warehouses 
and  elevators,  and  three  weekly  newspapers. 

OWL,  the  general  name  of  the  nocturnal  birds 
of  prey  constituting  the  family  of  strigidce,  of 
which  there  are  5  subfamilies,  13  genera,  and 
about  150  species,  more  than  40  of  which  in- 
habit America.  Owls  may  be  recognized  by 
their  short  and  bulky  form,  with  head  dispro- 
portionately large,  fully  feathered,  and  often 
furnished  with  erectile  tufts  like  the  ears  of 
quadrupeds ;  the  eyes  are  very  large,  directed 
forward,  more  or  less  surrounded  by  a  disk  of 
radiating  bristly  feathers,  and  in  most  formed 
for  seeing  in  twilight  or  at  night,  presenting  a 
vacant  stare  when  exposed  to  daylight ;  lores 
densely  covered  with  bristly  feathers  directed 
forward,  nearly  concealing  the  short,  strong, 
and  hooked  bill ;  ears  large,  with  a  kind  of 
operculum  or  cover,  enabling  them  to  hear 
slight  noises  in  the  stillness  of  night;  the 
wings  are  generally  moderate,  broad,  and 
rounded,  the  outer  edge  of  the  primaries  with 
separated  barbs,  adapted  for  vigorous  and 
noiseless  but  not  rapid  flight  in  pursuit  of  liv- 


752 


OWL 


ing  prey  in  morning  and  evening  twilight;  the 
tail  broad,  and  of  various  lengths ;  tarsi  usual- 
ly short,  strong,  feathered  to  the  toes  except 
in  the  Asiatic  genus  Icetupa;  the  inner  toe  the 
longest,  and  the  outer  capable  of  being  turned 
back  as  in  scansorial  birds;  the  claws  long, 
curved,  and  very  acute.  The  plumage  is  soft 
and  downy;  the  female  is  the  larger,  resem- 
bling the  male  in  colors ;  the  expression  of  the 
face  and  eyes  is  cat-like  ;  the  eggs  are  two  to 
five,  and  white,  and  the  young  are  covered 
with  a  fine  down.  The  mouth  is  very  wide, 
and  the  oesophagus  capacious,  leading  directly 
to  the  stomach,  without  any  dilatation  or  crop ; 
the  intestines  are  short,  and  with  two  large 
C80ca.  Owls  are  solitary  birds,  retiring  during 
the  day  to  holes  in  trees,  caves,  or  old  build- 
ings, where  they  roost  and  breed;  most  are 
nocturnal,  but  a  few  fly  by  day,  in  habits  re- 
sembling the  falconidce,  especially  the  kites ; 
the  larger  species  feed  on  small  quadrupeds 
(particularly  mice)  and  birds,  and  the  smaller 
on  insects,  such  as  moths  and  large  beetles ;  if 
the  prey  be  small,  it  is  swallowed  whole,  or  is 
torn  to  pieces  if  necessary,  and  the  indigestible 
portions,  such  as  feathers,  hair,  and  bones,  are 
disgorged  from  the  stomach  in  small  pellets. 
They  are  great  benefactors  to  man  by  destroy- 
ing mice  and  other  noxious  animals;  but  from 
their  nocturnal  habits  and  dismal  screeching 
cry  they  are  generally  regarded  with  supersti- 
tious fear.  In  the  Scriptures  the  owl  is  almost 
always  associated  with  desolation;  painters, 
poets,  and  story  tellers  introduce  it  as  a  bird 
of  ill  omen,  and  as  the  companion  of  ghosts, 
witches,  demons,  and  magicians  ;  almost  all  un- 
cultivated nations  look  upon  it  as  an  unwel- 
come visitor ;  the  ancient  Greeks  and  Eomans, 
however,  made  it  the  emblem  of  wisdom,  and 
sacred  to  Minerva,  and  indeed  its  large  head 
and  solemn  eyes  give  it  an  air  of  wisdom, 
which  its  brain  does  not  sanction. — In  the  first 
subfamily,  the  strigince,  the  size  is  never  very 
large ;  the  head  is  smooth  and  bulky,  and  the 
facial  disk  perfect ;  the  bill  rather  long,  eyes 
rather  small,  legs  long  and  feathered  to  the 
toes.  In  the  genus  strix  (Linn.)  belong  the 
barn  owls;  in  this  the  win^|.are  long,  and  the 
head  without  tufts ;  of  the  dozen  species  scat- 
tered over  the  world  will  be  mentioned  only 
two.  The  American  barn  owl  (S.  pratincola, 
Bonap.)  is  18  in.  long,  with  an  extent  of  wings 
of  3f  ft.  in  the  female ;  the  male  is  an  inch 
shorter  and  2  in.  less  in  extent.  The  general 
color  above  is  yellowish  or  grayish  brown, 
finely  mottled  with  light  yellowish  red,  each 
feather  having  toward  the  end  a  central  deep 
brown  streak  ending  in  a  grayish  white  spot ; 
quills  and  tail  transversely  banded  with  black- 
ish brown ;  under  coverts  of  wings  and  tail 
white ;  under  parts  pale  brownish  red,  fading 
anteriorly  into  white,  each  feather  tipped  with 
a  ^dark  brown  spot ;  the  face  white,  tinged 
with  red,  with  a  ruff  of  light  brownish  red ; 
the  bill,  toes,  and  claws  light  yellowish.  It 
occurs  throughout  temperate  North  America, 


breeding  at  all  seasons  in  the  southern  states ; 
it  is  not  found  far  from  the  sea,  and  frequents 
the  borders  of  woods  and  open  abandoned 
fields ;  it  feeds  almost  entirely  on  quadrupeds, 


American  Barn  Owl  (Strix  pratincola). 

and  sometimes  digs  up  moles  and  mice  like  the 
burrowing  owl ;  its  flight  is  light,  regular,  and 
protracted,  and  it  runs  rapidly;  according  to 
Audubon  it  makes  no  cry,  but  utters  a  hollow 
hissing  sound.  The  European  barn  owl  (S. 
flammea,  Linn.)  is  considerably  smaller  than 
the  American,  being  only  14  in.  in  length  and 
3  ft.  in  extent  of  wings ;  it  is  lighter  colored, 
more  yellowish,  with  gray  and  brown  zigzag 
lines  and  whitish  dots  above  ;  it  is  whitish  be- 
low, and  the  ruff  is  white.  It  is  found  abun- 
dantly in  Great  Britain  and  other  temperate 
parts  of  Europe,  in  Asia,  and  in  Africa,  espe- 
cially in  cultivated  districts  in  the  neighbor- 
hood of  fields  and  farm  yards  where  it  can 
find  a  plentiful  supply  of  mice ;  though  a  sin- 
gle bird  will  destroy  annually  several  hundred 
mice  and  moles,  besides  noxious  insects,  it  is 
constantly  persecuted  for  its  alleged  injury  to 
game  birds  and  the  dove  cote ;  it  sometimes 
captures  fish  by  dropping  upon  them  in  the 
water ;  its  general  note  is  a  screech,  hence  it 
is  commonly  called  screech  owl  in  Great  Brit- 
ain ;  it  rears  several  broods  in  a  season  between 
July  and  December. — In  the  second  subfamily, 
the  bubonincB,  the  facial  disk  is  incomplete 
above  the  eyes  and  bill,  and  the  large,  broad, 
and  flat  head  is  furnished  with  a  pair  of  long 
erectile  ear  tufts,  which  have  given  them  the 
name  of  horned  owls ;  legs  and  claws  usually 
very  strong.  This  subfamily  is  spread  all  over 
the  world,  except  in  Australia,  and  contains 
some  of  the  largest  as  well  as  some  of  the 
smallest  of  the  family.  The  genus  lubo  (Cuv.) 
is  of  large  size  and  robust  form;  the  large 
eyes  and  ear  tufts  have  given  them  the  name 
of  cat  owls ;  the  wings  are  long,  the  tail  short, 
the  legs  densely  feathered,  the  bill  short,  and 
the  claws  very  strong.  The  American  great 
horned  owl  (B.  Virginianus^  Bonap.)  is  from  20 


OWL 


753 


to  25  in.  long,  with  an  extent  of  wings  of  4£ 
to  5  ft.,  the  bill  along  the  ridge  2  in.,  and  the 
ear  tufts  3 ;  the  color  is  variable  from  dark 
brown  to  nearly  white;  the  general  color 
above  is  dark  brown,  every  feather  mottled 
with  irregular  lines  of  pale  ash  and  reddish 
fulvous,  the  base  of  each  being  of  the  latter 
color ;  throat  and  neck  white,  breast  with  lon- 
gitudinal black  stripes,  rest  of  under  parts 
mixed  white  and  fulvous  with  narrow  trans- 
verse dark  brown  lines ;  iris  yellow,  bill  and 
claws  bluish  black.  It  is  found  throughout 
North  America,  and  probably  also  in  South 
America,  several  varieties  being  described  in 
different  latitudes,  in  mountain  and  plain,  on 
the  seashore  and  in  the  interior ;  the  flight  is 
elevated,  rapid,  and  graceful ;  it  makes  a  great 
variety  of  sounds,  barking  like  a  dog,  hallooing 
and  leading  astray  the  benighted  traveller,  sa- 
luting him  by  notes  like  the  half  suppressed 
screams  and  gurglings  of  a  suffocating  person, 
or  deceiving  him  by  a  low  "  hoo-hoo-hoo-e " 
which  seems  a  great  distance  off.  It  commits 
great  havoc  in  the  farm  yard,  seizing  all  kinds 
of  domestic  poultry,  to  which  may  be  added 
grouse,  ducks,  hares,  squirrels,  and  opossums, 
and  even  dead  fish.  They  begin  to  pair  in 
February,  making  a  bulky  nest  usually  on  a 
large  horizontal  branch,  and  rear  only  one 


American  Great  Horned  Owl  (Bubo  Virginianus). 

brood  of  three  to  six  in  a  season.  It  is  a  bold 
and  powerful  bird,  bravely  resisting  when  at- 
tacked. The  European  horned  or  eagle  owl 
(B.  maximus,  Sibb.),  le  grand  due  of  the 
French,  is  about  26  in.  long,  with  an  extent  of 
wings  of  5  ft. ;  it  is  common  in  the  forests  of 
Europe  from  the  Mediterranean  to  Norway 
and  Lapland,  but  is  rare  in  Great  Britain ;  it 
occurs  also  in  Asia ;  its  habits  are  the  same  as 
those  of  the  American  bird  ;  the  general  color 
is  ferruginous,  varied  with  spots  and  markings 
of  brown,  black,  and  gray ;  in  captivity  it  is 
fierce,  hissing,  snapping,  and  barking  when 
irritated,  but  making  no  other  noises.  The 
genus  scops  (Sav.),  or  ephialtes  (Keys,  and 


Bias.),  is  characterized  by  small  size,  conspicu- 
ous ear  tufts  and  large  head,  and  long  tarsi 
more  or  less  covered  with  short  feathers. 
The  mottled  or  American  screech  owl  (8.  asio, 


American  Screech  Owl  (Scopa  asio). 

Bonap.)  is  about  10  in.  long  and  22  in  extent  of 
wings ;  in  the  adults  the  plumage  above  is  pale 
ashy  brown  with  longitudinal  brownish  black 
lines,  mottled  with  the  same  and  cinereous, 
and  below  ashy  white  with  similar  stripes  and 
lines ;  bill  and  claws  horn  color ;  in  young 
birds  the  upper  parts  are  pale  brownish  red, 
in  some  parts  rufous,  and  below  yellowish 
gray,  hence  called  the  red  owl.  This  is  the 
most  abundant  owl  in  the  Atlantic  states,  and 
is  found  over  the  whole  of  temperate  North 
America,  and  even  as  far  as  Greenland;  its 
food  consists  principally  of  beetles  and  field 
mice,  which  it  seeks  in  the  neighborhood  of 
farm  houses,  orchards,  and  gardens,  where  it 
is  rarely  molested ;  its  notes  are  mournful  and 
tremulous,  like  the  chattering  of  teeth,  but 
loud  enough  to  be  heard  for  several  hundred 
yards.  The  little  horned  owl  of  Europe  (S. 
Aldrovandi,  Kay)  is  about  8  in.  long,  of  a  light 
gray  color  variegated  with  brown,  with  longi- 
tudinal brownish  black  lines  and  transverse 
undulations;  it  is  most  abundant  in  southern 
Europe  in  wooded  districts,  where  it  feeds  on 
insects  and  mice ;  it  is  also  found  in  N.  Africa 
and  Asia,  and  rarely  in  Great  Britain ;  it  nes- 
tles in  cavities  in  rocks  and  holes  in  trees,  lay- 
ing two  to  four  eggs ;  it  is  gentle,  and  readily 
tamed;  its  notes  are  plaintive  and  monoto- 
nous, resembling  "keu,  keu,"  and  are  kept  up 
regularly  the  night  long.  In  the  genus  otus 
(Ouv.)  the  form  is  larger  and  more  slender, 
the  head  moderate  with  more  perfect  facial 
disk,  and  the  eyes  rather  small.  The  Ameri- 
can long-eared  owl  (0.  Wilsonianus,  Less.)  is 
about  15  in.  long,  with  an  extent  of  wings  of 
3£  ft. ;  it  is  rather  a  handsome  bird,  very  in- 
tricately marked,  and  may  be  generally  de- 
scribed as  of  a  buff  color,  mottled  and  spotted 
with  brown  and  grayish  white  ;  it  inhabits  the 
whole  of  temperate  North  America,  and  even 
the  shores  of  Hudson  bay ;  it  is  strictly  noc- 


754: 


OWL 


turnal,  preying  upon  insects  and  small  mam- 
mals and  birds;  it  deposits  its  eggs  in  the 
abandoned  nest  of  other  birds,  in  a  fissure  of 
a  rock,  a  hole  in  a  tree,  or  a  hollow  in  the 


American  Long-eared  Owl  (Otns  Wilsonianus). 

ground ;  its  cry  is  plaintive,  consisting  of  two 
or  three  prolonged  notes  repeated  at  intervals. 
The  European  long-eared  owl  (0.  vulgaris, 
Flem.)  bears  a  strong  resemblance  to  the  Amer- 
ican species,  and  is  one  of  the  most  abundant 
of  the  family  in  England,  where  it  remains  all 
the  year  round ;  it  is  intricately  dappled  with 
dark  brown  and  black  upon  pale  brown,  and 
is  a  very  handsome  bird ;  it  frequents  old  ivy- 
covered  towers  and  trees,  where  it  remains 
during  the  day ;  it  rarely  makes  a  nest  of  its 
own,  using  those  of  the  crow  or  squirrel.  The 
American  short-eared  owl  has  been  made,  with 
others,  into  the  genus  brachyotus  (Gould), 
characterized  by  inconspicuous  ear  tufts ;  this 
species  (B.  Cassini,  Brewer)  is  about  15  in. 
long,  with  an  extent  of  wings  of  3£  ft. ;  the 
plumage  is  reddish  buff,  streaked  longitudinally 
with  dark  brown,  the  tail  being  of  the  latter 
color  barred  and  tipped  with  reddish  buff ;  it 
is  found  in  North  America  from  Greenland  to 
Cuba  and  from  the  Atlantic  to  the  Pacific,  in 
the  eastern  states  in  the  winter  preferring  the 
vicinity  of  marshes  and  meadows ;  it  is  very 
fond  of  remaining  on  the  ground,  on  which 
it  advances  by  long  leaps.  The  European 
short-eared  owl  (B.  palustris,  Gould),  16  in. 
long  and  40  in  alar  extent,  much  resembles 
the  preceding  species ;  it  seeks  its  food  by  day, 
even  in  full  sunlight,  pursuing  pigeons  and 
domestic  fowls  into  the  farm  yard,  though 
feeding  chiefly  upon  mice.  In  the  Asiatic 
genus  ketupa  (Lesson)  the  long  tarsi  are  cov- 
ered with  scales  instead  of  feathers;  the  K. 
flavipes  (Hodgs.)  is  somewhat  diurnal,  .and 
plunges  into  streams  in  pursuit  of  fish  and 
crabs. — In  the  third  subfamily,  the  sy mince  or 
gray  owls,  the  head  is  large,  with  very  small 
and  concealed  or  no  ear  tufts ;  the  facial  disk 
nearly  perfect,  eyes  small,  wings  rather  short, 
and  tarsi  and  toes  generally  fully  feathered. 


Though  this  subfamily  contains  some  of  the 
largest  owls,  the  size  is  usually  moderate  and 
sometimes  even  small.  In  the  genus  syrnium 
(Sav.),  characterized  by  large  size,  and  long, 
wide,  and  rounded  tail,  belongs  the  great  gray 
owl  (8.  cinereum,  Aud.),  the  largest  in  North 
America,  and  one  of  the  largest  of  the  family, 
about  30  in.  long,  with  an  alar  extent  of  4  ft. ; 
the  prevailing  color  is  ashy  brown  above  mot- 
tled and  barred  with  ashy  white,  the  under 
parts  of  the  latter  color,  with  longitudinal 
brown  stripes  on  the  breast,  and  transverse 
ones  of  the  same  on  the  abdomen ;  quills  and 
tail  brown,  with  five  wide  bands  of  ashy  white ; 
bill  yellow.  It  is  found  in  North  America 
from  New  Jersey  to  Hudson  bay;  is  rather 
diurnal  in  habit,  frequenting  wooded  districts, 
and  preying  on  hares  and  other  rodents;  its 
cry  resembles  that  of  the  mottled  owl.  The 
barred  owl  (S.  nebulosum,  Gray)  is  about  20 
in.  long  and  40  in  alar  extent ;  the  bill  is  yel- 
low ;  the  general  color  above  is  light  reddish 
brown,  largely  spotted  with  white  on  the  back 
and  wing  coverts ;  wings  and  tail  tipped  with 


Barred  Owl  (Syrnium  nebulosum). 

grayish  white ;  below  pale  brownish  red,  mark- 
ed on  the  neck  and  upper  breast  with  trans- 
verse and  below  this  with  longitudinal  brown 
streaks;  abdomen  yellowish  white;  plumage, 
as  in  the  preceding  species,  remarkably  soft 
and  downy.  It  is  found  in  North  America 
east  of  the  Mississippi,  especially  in  the  south- 
ern states,  in  retired  woods,  even  in  the  day- 
time; its  loud  discordant  cry  of  "whah,  whah, 
whah-aa,"  frequently  repeated  at  evening  twi- 
light, has  a  ludicrous  sound,  compared  by  Au- 
dubon  to  the  affected  laugh  of  some  fashionable 
people ;  its  odd  and  lively  movements  entitle 
it  to  the  name  of  the  "buffoon  of  the  woods." 
It  preys  on  half -grown  chickens,  young  hares 
and  rabbits,  squirrels,  mice,  small  birds,  and 
frogs ;  it  begins  to  lay  in  the  middle  of  March 
in  a  hollow  tree,  and  raises  a  single  brood  in 
a  season ;  in  captivity  it  makes  an  excellent 
mouser ;  as  it  often  appears  in  the  daytime,  it 


OWL 


755 


is  specially  liable  to  the  attacks  of  diurnal  birds, 
which  have  a  natural  antipathy  to  the  whole 
family ;  its  flesh  is  sometimes  exposed  for  sale 
in  the  markets  of  New  Orleans,  and  is  consid- 
ered palatable  by  the  negroes.  The  hooting 
or  tawny  owl  of  Europe  (S.  aluco.  Linn.)  is 
about  15  in.  long  and  34  in  alar  extent ;  the 
upper  parts  are  brownish  red,  tinged  with  gray, 
with  longitudinal  dark  brown  streaks  and  trans- 
verse lighter  lines,  and  lower  parts  reddish  or 
yellowish  white  with  similar  markings ;  large 
white  spots  on  wing  coverts ;  its  cry  is  very 
doleful,  like  "  hoo,  hoo,  hoo,"  or  the  howling 
of  a  wolf ;  it  is  strictly  nocturnal,  inhabiting 
thick  woods,  preying  on  the  usual  animals  and 
birds,  and  sometimes  seizing  fish  in  the  water. 
In  the  genus  nyctale  (Brehm)  the  size  is  small, 
with  very  small  ear  tufts,  facial  disk  nearly 
perfect,  wings  long,  tail  short,  and  legs  and 
toes  densely  feathered.  Here  belongs  the  little 
Acadian  owl  or  saw-whet  (N.  Acadica,  Bonap.), 
about  8  in.  long  and  18  in  alar  extent;  the 
upper  parts  are  olivaceous  brown,  the  back  of 
neck,  rump,  and  scapulars  spotted  with  white ; 
face  and  under  parts  ashy  white,  the  latter  with 
pale  brown  streaks ;  quills  and  tail  brown,  spot- 
ted with  white ;  bill  and  claws  dark.  This  is 
the  smallest  owl  found  in  the  eastern  and  mid- 
dle states,  and  probably  occurs  over  the  whole 
of  temperate  North  America.  This  lively  and 
handsome  owl  is  called  "  saw- whet,"  as  its  love 
notes  much  resemble  the  noise  made  by  filing 
the  teeth  of  a  saw,  often  leading  the  inexpe- 
rienced traveller  to  expect  to  find  a  sheltering 
saw  mill  in  the  depths  of  the  forest ;  it  is  some- 
times also  called  screech  owl  in  the  middle 
states ;  it  is  not  unf requently  caught  in  large 
cities,  and  is  nocturnal  in  its  habits ;  its  usual 
cry  resembles  that  of  the  little  horned  owl  of 
Europe. — The  fourth  subfamily,  Athenince  or 


American  Burrowing  Owl  (Athene  cunicularia). 

bird  owls,  are  small,  with  very  imperfect  facial 
disk,  head  without  ear  tufts,  and  tarsi  thinly 
covered  with  feathers ;  rather  diurnal  in  habit. 
The  genus  Athene  (Boie)  or  speotyto  (Glog.) 


has  rather  long  wings,  short  bill  and  tail,  long 
tarsi,  and  naked  toes,  and  contains  the  burrow- 
ing owls.  The  American  burrowing  owls,  A. 
(S.)  cunicularia  and  A.  (S.)  hypogcea  (Bonap.), 
occupy  respectively  the  country  west  of  the 
Rocky  mountains  and  that  portion  between 
these  and  the  Mississippi  river;  the  former 
may  be  distinguished  from  the  latter  by  its 
rather  larger  size  and  the  feathering  of  the  tar- 
sus uninterrupted  to  the  toes ;  the  plumage  is 
light  ashy  brown  above,  with  numerous  large 
white  spots;  breast  light  brown,  white-spot- 
ted; abdomen  yellowish  white  with  brown 
spots ;  the  length  is  from  9£  to  10£  in.  They 
are  found  in  considerable  numbers  on  the 
plains  in  the  Rocky  mountains,  inhabiting  the 
burrows  of  the  prairie  squirrels  and  other 
rodents,  to  which  they  flee  when  alarmed,  and 
in  which  they  live  and  bring  up  their  young ; 
they  are  strictly  diurnal,  and  feed  on  grass- 
hoppers, crickets,  and  field  mice ;  in  other 
parts  of  the  world  they  dig  their  own  bur- 
rows. There  are  several  species  in  India,  where 
they  sometimes  make  loud  and  continual  noises. 


Snowy  Owl  (Nyctea  nivea). 

— The  fifth  subfamily  is  the  nycteinina  or  day 
owls,  characterized  by  compact  form,  moder- 
ate head  without  tufts,  rather  long  wings  and 
tail,  and  strong  and  densely  plumed  tarsi ;  it 
embraces  only  two  genera,  each  with  a  single 
species,  inhabiting  the  arctic  regions  of  ^  both 
hemispheres,  migrating  southward  in  winter. 
In  the  genus  nyctea  (Steph.)  the  size  is  large, 
the  head  has  no  facial  disk,  and  the  legs  and 
bill  are  rather  short.  The  snowy  owl  (N.  nwea) 
is  from  21  to  27  in.  long,  with  an  alar  ex- 
tent of  4^  to  5^  ft.,  and  a  weight  of  4  to  5 
Ibs.,  according  to  sex;  the  general  color  is 
white,  with  the  upper  part  of  head  and  back 
with  lunated  dark  brown  spots,  and  the  breast, 
sides,  and  thigh  coverts  with  curved  lines,  of 
the  same;  wings  and  their  coverts  and  tail 
barred  with  oblong  brown  spots ;  some  speci- 
mens, probably  old  birds,  are  almost  entirely 
white.  It  is  found  in  the  northern  regions  of 


756 


OWL  PARROT 


OWOSSO 


America,  Europe,  and  Asia,  coming  within  the 
United  States  as  far  as  Georgia  in  the  winter ; 
it  hunts  in  the  daytime  and  at  morning  and 
evening  twilight ;  of  rapid  and  powerful  flight, 
it  strikes  ducks,  grouse,  pigeons,  &c.,  on  the 
wing  like  a  falcon,  and  seizes  hares,  squirrels, 
and  rats  from  the  ground,  and  fish  from  the 
shallows ;  from  its  color  it  is  seen  with  diffi- 
culty amid  the  rocks  and  snow  in  its  favorite 
haunts.  In  the  genus  surnia  (Dum.)  the  form 
is  stout,  hut  larger  and  more  hawk-like;  the 
wings  and  tail  are  long,  and  the  legs  rather 
short.  The  hawk  or  day  owl  (S.  ulula,  Bonap.) 
is  16  to  17  in.  long,  with  an  alar  extent  of  33  ; 
the  upper  parts  are  sooty  brown,  with  white 
spots  on  the  shoulders;  throat  white,  with 
dark  hrown  stripes ;  hrown  spot  on  each  side 
of  breast;  beneath  with  transverse  lines  of 
pale  ashy  brown ;  quills  and  tail  brown,  with 
numerous  white  bands;  bill  pale  yellow.  It 
is  found  in  the  northern  regions  of  both  hemi- 
spheres, in  this  country  rarely  going  as  far  south 


Hawk  Owl  (Surnia  ulula). 

as  Pennsylvania ;  it  is  common  in  the  fur  coun- 
tries, where  it  is  often  seen  hunting  by  day, 
approaching  the  camps  with  great  boldness. 
In  summer  it  feeds  on  squirrels,  mice,  and 
insects,  and  in  winter  principally  on  the  ptar- 
migan and  grouse.  This  bird  approximates 
to  the  falcons  in  its  bold  and  diurnal  habits, 
and  in  the  absence  of  facial  disk  and  ear  tufts, 
smaller  size  of  the  head,  smaller  eyes,  and  less 
developed  ears ;  its  eyes  are  adapted  for  the 
dim  light  of  snow-clad  and  arctic  regions. 

OWL  PARROT,  a  singular  bird  of  the  cocka- 
too family,  of  the  genus  strigops  (Gray),  found 
in  New  Zealand.  In  the  only  species  described 
(S.  habroptilus,  Gray),  the  bill  is  high  and  short, 
grooved  on  the  sides,  with  much  curved  culmen, 
acute  tip,  dentated  lateral  margins,  and  base 
covered  by  hair-like  feathers;  the  wings  are 
short  and  rounded,  the  fifth  and  sixth  quills 
equal  and  longest ;  tail  moderate,  weak,  much 
rounded,  and  each  feather  pointed  with  the 


shaft  projecting ;  tarsi  short  and  robust,  cov- 
ered with  rounded  scales ;  claws  long,  strong, 
and  slightly  curved.  This  is  the  Icalcapo  or 
night  parrot  of  the  natives ;  it  is  about  2£  ft. 


Owl  Parrot  (Strigops  habroptilus). 

in  length,  of  a  dirty  green  color,  with  black 
transverse  bands  and  brownish  and  yellowish 
spots ;  bill  yellowish  white.  It  has  the  general 
form  of  a  parrot,  with  the  facial  expression, 
nocturnal  habits,  and  noiseless  flight  of  the 
owls;  it  lives  in  holes  which  it  digs  in  the 
ground  at  the  roots  of  trees ;  it  is  solitary, 
rarely  seen,  preferring  moist  and  dark  woods, 
and  keeps  chiefly  on  the  ground,  where  its 
tracks  are  said  to  resemble  those  made  by  the 
human  foot ;  its  food  consists  of  the  roots  of 
ferns  and  the  outer  covering  of  the  New  Zea- 
land flax  (phormium  tenax)  ;  it  breeds  in  Feb- 
ruary, laying  two  or  three  eggs ;  the  voice  is  a 
hoarse  croak.  According  to  the  natives,  these 
birds  assemble  in  the  winter  in  caves  in  large 
numbers,  dispersing  again  in  the  spring  with 
a  great  noise ;  their  flesh  is  white  and  is  con- 
sidered good  eating.  For  an  account  of  its 
habits  see  "  Proceedings  of  the  Zoological  So- 
ciety of  London"  (1852). 

O^OSSO,  a  city  of  Shiawassee  co.,  Michigan, 
on  the  Shiawassee  river,  at  the  junction  of  the 
Detroit  and  Milwaukee  and  the  Jackson,  Lan- 
sing, and  Saginaw  railroads,  75  m.  N.  W.  of 
Detroit,  and  25  m.  N.  E.  of  Lansing;  pop.  in 
1870,  2,065;  in  1874,  2,448.  It  is  handsomely 
laid  out,  with  streets  crossing  each  other  at 
right  angles,  and  contains  some  fine  residences. 
There  are  a  saw  mill,  two  grist  mills,  a  plaster 
mill,  two  founderies  and  machine  shops,  two 
planing  mills,  an  axe-helve  factory,  a  chair  fac- 
tory, two  cabinet  factories,  a  brewery,  a  pump 
factory,  a  boot  and  shoe  factory,  a  tile  factory, 
four  carriage  and  wagon  factories,  two  brick 
yards,  a  marble  yard,  two  wheat  elevators,  and 
a  national  bank.  The  city  contains  a  mineral 
spring  and  bathing  house,  six  hotels,  a  union 
school  house  costing  $46,000,  two  weekly  news- 


OWSLEY 

papers,  and  eight  churches.  Owosso  was  set- 
tled in  1835  and  incorporated  in  1859. 

OWSLEY,  an  E.  county  of  Kentucky,  inter- 
sected by  the  S.  fork  of  the  Kentucky  river ; 
area,  about  460  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  3,889,  of 
whom  75  were  colored.  It  has  a  hilly  and  very 
broken  surface,  and  a  not  very  fertile  soil. 
There  are  extensive  forests  and  rich  iron  and 
coal  mines.  The  chief  productions  in  1870 
were  8,398  bushels  of  wheat,  103,055  of  Indian 
corn,  20,072  of  oats,  and  42,073  Ibs.  of  butter. 
There  were  796  horses,  1,119  milch  cows,  1,926 
other  cattle,  4,139  sheep,  and  6,289  swine. 
Capital,  Booneville. 

OWYHEE,  the  S.  W.  county  of  Idaho,  bound- 
ed N.  by  Snake  river,  S.  by  Utah  and  Nevada, 
and  W.  by  Oregon;  area,  13,600  sq.  m. ;  pop. 
in  1670, 1,713,  of  whom  368  were  Chinese.  It 
is  watered  by  the  Bruneau  and  numerous  other 
affluents  of  the  Snake.  The  surface  is  uneven 
and  mountainous,  the  county  containing  the 
Owyhee  range.  It  is  in  parts  heavily  timbered, 
is  well  adapted  to  grazing,  and  contains  some 
valuable  farming  land.  The  Bruneau  valley  is 
well  sheltered,  has  excellent  pasturage,  and  is  a 
common  wintering  place  of  cattle.  This  coun- 
ty is  one  of  the  richest  mining  regions  in  the 
territory,  and  in  1870,  according  to  the  United 
States  census,  5  gold  (placer)  and  9  gold  and 
silver  (quartz)  mines  were  in  operation.  The 
agricultural  productions  were  small.  The  value 
of  live  stock  was  $55,075.  Capital,  Silver  City. 

OX,  a  general  name  for  bovine  animals  of  all 
kinds,  though  primarily  signifying  only  the 
male.  The  family  bovince  contains  the  genera 
bos,  ovibos  (musk  ox),  biibalus  (buffalo),  bibos, 
bison,  and  poephagus  (yak).  The  general  char- 
acters of  the  family  are  given  under  CATTLE 


OXALIC  ACID 


757 


Skull  of  the  Ox. 


and  EUMINANTIA,  and  many  of  the  species  are 
treated  in  the  articles  AUKOCHS,  BISON,  BUF- 
FALO, YAK,  and  ZEBTJ.  The  old  genus  bos  has 
been  variously  subdivided  by  authors,  accord- 


ing to  the  structure  of  the  hoofs,  muzzle, 
direction  and  structure  of  the  horns,  the  posi- 
tion of  the  knee,  and  the  beard  in  the  males. 
The  domestic  ox  has  been  so  modified  by  man, 
that  it  is  impossible  to  draw  any  distinction 
between  the  permanent  varieties  and  species. 
There  is  no  animal  more  useful  to  mankind 
than  the  ox,  its  flesh  and  milk  serving  for  food, 
its  living  strength  being  utilized  in  agriculture 
and  transportation,  and  almost  every  part  of  the 
dead  body  employed  for  some  important  pur- 
pose in  the  arts.  The  principal  characters  are : 
horns  curving  outward  and  upward,  broad  and 
naked  muzzle,  wide  space  between  the  nostrils, 
large  ears,  long  tufted  tail,  and  broad  hoofs. 
They  are  found  all  the  world  over,  except  in 
Australia,  in  a  wild  state.  Fossil  oxen  have 
been  found  as  early  as  the  middle  tertiary 
epoch  both  in  America  and  the  old  world.  It 
is  probable  that  the  aurochs,  a  contemporary  of 
the  extinct  elephas  primigenius,  would  long  ago 
have  been  exterminated  but  for  the  protection 
of  man ;  the  bos  primigenius  of  the  post-tertia- 
ry, according  to  Dana,  is  supposed  to  be  the 
same  as  the  ure  ox  B.  urus  described  by  Caesar, 
and  said  to  abound  in  the  forests  of  Gaul — a 
distinct  species  from  the  aurochs,  now  extinct, 
but  living  in  Switzerland  into  the  16th  century. 
Extinct  members  of  the  genus  bos  and  other 
allied  genera  have  been  described  by  Profs. 
Leidy,  Cope,  Marsh,  and  others  in  the  "Smith- 
sonian Contributions,"  the  "  Proceedings  and 
Journal  of  the  Academy  of  Natural  Sciences," 
and  the  "American  Journal  of  Science." 

OXALIC  ACID,  an  important  and  powerful 
acid  discovered  by  Scheele  in  1776,  or  as  claimed 
by  some  by  Bergman ;  symbol,  H2C204,  2H2O ; 
chemical  equivalent,  126.  It  occurs  in  vegeta- 
bles, animals,  and  rarely  in  minerals,  as  in  the 
form  of  sesquioxalate  of  iron  in  humboldtite. 
Of  the  juices  of  plants  it  is  a  frequent  constit- 
uent. Its  name  is  derived  from  its  giving  to 
the  leaves  of  the  wood  sorrel  (oxalis  acetosella) 
their  very  acid  taste.  In  this  and  in  the  com- 
mon sorrel  (rumex  acetosa)  it  occurs  combined 
with  potash  as  binoxalate  of  potash.  Combined 
with  lime,  it  gives  solidity  to  many  lichens,  and 
is  found  in  the  roots  of  rhubarb,  valerian,  and 
other  plants.  It  is  found  in  a  free  state  in 
the  bristles  of  the  chick  pea  (deer  arietinum). 
It  is  artificially  produced  by  the  oxidation  of 
sugar  or  of  starch  by  nitric  acid.  ^  Schlesinger's 
method,  recommended  by  Berzelius,  is  to  dis- 
solve one  part  of  dry  loaf  sugar  in  8£  parts  of 
nitric  acid  of  specific  gravity  1*38,  and  heat 
in  a  flask  till  effervescence,  caused  by  the  es- 
cape of  carbonic  acid  and  nitric  oxide,  ceases. 
The  solution  is  then  evaporated  by  a  water 
bath  to  one  sixth  of  its  bulk,  and  the  acid 
crystallizes  on  cooling.  The  product  varies 
greatly  in  quantity  according  to  the  manner  in 
which  the  nitric  acid  is  applied.  The  crystals 
are  colorless  transparent  prisms  of  four  or  six 
sides.  They  have  a  very  sour  taste,  and  dis- 
solve in  nine  parts  of  cold  or  about  one  part  of 
boiling  water.  In  a  very  dry  atmosphere  they 


T58 


OXALIC  ACID 


OXALIS 


effloresce  slightly,  and  gently  heated  they  be- 
come opaque,  and  lose  two  atoms  (28*5  per 
cent.)  of  water,  their  composition  then  being 
H2C2O4.  The  crystals  may  crumble  to  powder, 
and  even  be  almost  wholly  sublimed,  without 
decomposition;  but  the  other  atom  of  water 
is  expelled  only  at  a  decomposing  heat,  when 
the  compound  is  converted  into  carbonic  and 
formic  acids  and  carbonic  oxide.  If  the  whole 
of  the  water  be  abstracted  by  treatment  with 
strong  sulphuric  acid,  the  elements  of  dry  oxalic 
acid  are  instantly  resolved  into  equal  volumes 
of  carbonic  acid  and  carbonic  oxide.  Two  salts 
of  oxalic  acid  are  of  especial  importance,  the 
binoxalate  of  potash  and  oxalate  of  lime.  The 
former,  known  as  salt  of  sorrel,  sometimes  im- 
properly called  salt  of  lemons,  is  used  to  remove 
ink  stains  from  linen,  which  it  does  by  form- 
ing a  soluble  double  salt  of  potassium  and  the 
metal  whose  oxide  or  compound  produces  the 
stain.  For  lime  oxalic  acid  has  a  very  strong 
affinity,  separating  it  from  its  solution  in  much 
stronger  acids,  and  converting  it  into  an  insolu- 
ble oxalate.  The  acid  is  consequently  an  excel- 
lent test  of  the  presence  of  lime  in  solutions. 
— Oxalic  acid  is  a  corrosive  poison,  extremely 
virulent  and  rapid  in  its  effects  when  taken 
into  the  stomach  in  large  doses ;  and  from  the 
resemblance  of  its  crystals  to  those  of  Epsom 
salts,  it  has  often  been  sold  and  administered 
instead  of  this  purgative  with  fatal  effects. 
Emetics  and  the  stomach  pump  may  be  im- 
mediately applied,  but  the  true  antidote  is 
copious  draughts  of  water  containing  pulver- 
ized chalk  or  magnesia.  These  neutralize  the 
acid,  forming  with  it  an  insoluble  oxalate  of 
lime  or  magnesia,  either  of  which  is  harmless. 
The  salts  formed  by  oxalic  acid  with  potassa  or 
ammonia  are  also  poisonous,  and  consequently 
these  alkalies  are  not  to  be  used  as  antidotes. 
Some  of  the  plants  mentioned  above,  which 
contain  oxalate  of  potassa,  are  efficient  anti- 
scorbutics, and  the  acid  itself  has  been  used 
for  this  purpose.— Oxalic  acid  is  largely  em- 
ployed in  calico  printing  for  discharging  col- 
ors ;  it  is  also  used  for  cleaning  the  straw  of 
bonnet  makers  and  the  leather  of  boot  tops, 
and  for  removing  stains  of  ink  and  iron  rust 
from  fabrics.  Many  tons  of  oxalic  acid  are 
now  made  weekly  in  England  for  the  calico 
printers,  by  heating  saw  dust  with  a  mixture  of 
hydrate  of  potash.  A  concentrated  solution  of 
mixed  caustic  soda  and  potash,  of  specific  grav- 
ity 1'35,  is  prepared,  containing  two  atoms  of 
hydrate  of  soda  to  one  of  hydrate  of  potash. 
Saw  dust  is  introduced  in  order  to  form  a 
thick  paste,  and  this  is  placed  in  layers  on 
heated  iron  plates,  and  stirred  constantly  while 
the  temperature  is  gradually  raised.  The  heat 
is  continued  for  three  or  four  hours,  taking 
care  to  avoid  charring.  The  mass  becomes 
thoroughly  dry,  and  finally  contains  28  to  30  per 
cent,  of  oxalic  acid  in  combination  with  soda. 
Hydrate  of  lime  converts  the  oxalate  of  soda 
into  oxalate  of  lime,  from  which  oxalic  acid  is 
obtained  by  treatment  with  sulphuric  acid. 


OXALIS  (Grr.  b£v$,  sour,  the  foliage  containing 
an  acid,  watery  juice),  a  genus  of  plants  of 
which  the  common  wood  sorrel  is  a  familiar 
representative.  This  and  a  few  other  genera  for- 
merly composed  the  family  oxalidacece,  which 
modern  botanists  have  reduced  to  a  tribe  of 
the  geranium  family  (geraniacece).  The  genus 
contains  about  230  species,  mostly  herbs,  or  a 
few  having  somewhat  woody  stems ;  many  have 
bulb-like  rootstocks;  some  have  no  stem  above 
ground,  and  all  have  leaves  of  three  or  more 
leaflets.  The  flowers  are  regular,  with  five  se- 
pals and  as  many  petals ;  stamens  ten,  often  uni- 
ted at  the  base,  with  the  alternate  ones  short- 
er ;  ovary  five-lobed,  five-celled,  with  five  dis- 
tinct styles;  the  membranaceous,  oblong  cap- 


Common  Wood  Sorrel  (Oxalis  aceto:ella). 

sule  five-celled,  each  cell  opening  on  the  back 
and  liberating  two  or  more  seeds ;  flowers  soli- 
tary or  in  many-flowered  clusters.  Some  species 
produce  inconspicuous  and  particularly  fruit- 
ful flowers,  which  are  fertilized  in  the  bud. 
The  genus  is  widely  distributed,  but  the  great- 
er number  of  species  are  natives  of  tropical 
America  and  southern  Africa.  Three  species  are 
found  in  the  Atlantic  states,  one  of  which,  the 
yellow  wood  sorrel  (0.  stricta),  is  very  abun- 
dant, and  makes  its  appearance  in  cultivated 
grounds  as  a  weed ;  it  has  running  subterrane- 
an shoots,  leafy  branching  stems,  which  are  at 
first  erect,  and  then  spreading  upon  the  ground, 
and  small  yellow  flowers  in  clusters  of  five  or 
six  on  axillary  peduncles.  Our  other  two  spe- 
cies are  stemless,  their  leaves  and  scapes  arising 
from  a  rootstock  or  scaly  bulb.  The  common 
wood  sorrel,  0.  acetosella,  also  a  native  of 
Europe  and  Asia,  is  common  in  woods  from 
Pennsylvania  northward  to  Canada,  and  it  ex- 
tends to  the  Pacific.  The  long  petioles  bear 
three  obovate,  delicate  green  leaflets,  and  the 
flower  stalks,  2  to  5  in.  high,  bear  each  a 
solitary  flower,  with  white  petals  beautifully 
veined  with  red.  The  foliage  is  pleasantly 
sour,  owing  to  the  presence  of  binoxalate  of 
potash.  Before  the  discovery  of  the  method 


OXALIS 


OXENSTTEBN 


T59 


of  preparing  oxalic  acid  artificially,  it  was  ob- 
tained from  this  plant,  500  Ibs.  of  the  herbage 
yielding  4  Ibs.  of  the  crystals  of  the  binoxalate 
of  potash,  known  as  the  salt  of  sorrel.  This 
oxalis  shares  with  white  clover  (trifolium  re- 
pens)  the  credit  of  being  the  true  shamrock ; 
Bentham  regards  this  as  the  real  shamrock  for 
the  reason  that  it  is  a  native  of  Ireland,  while 
the  clover  is  of  comparatively  recent  introduc- 
tion. The  violet  wood  sorrel,  0.  molacea,  more 
abundant  southward,  has  a  similar  habit  to  the 
preceding,  but  its  flower  stalks  each  bear  seve- 
ral flowers  in  an  umbel,  and  they  are  of  a  violet 
color.  A  large  number  of  the  exotic  species  of 
oxalis  are  in  cultivation,  and  are  favorite  plants 
in  greenhouse  and  window  culture,  producing 
an  abundance  of  bright  cheerful  flowers  with 
the  simplest  treatment.  There  are  both  stem- 
less  species  and  those  with  long  trailing  stems 
among  the  cultivated  ones,  and  their  flowers 
are  white  or  nearly  so,  yellow,  rose-colored, 
and  crimson,  often  with  two  colors  in  the  same 
flower,  as  in  0.  versicolor  ;  this  is  one  of  the 
finest,  and  has  its  white  petals  edged  on  the 
outside  with  crimson,  so  that  the  flowers  when 
quite  closed  appear  red,  when  fully  open  white, 
and  when  only  partially  open  white  striped 
with  red  lines  on  the  under  side.  0.  Bowiei,  0. 
Jlava,  0.  speciosa,  0.  rosacea,  and  others  are 
common  in  cultivation,  and  several  are  treated 
as  border  or  bedding  plants.  Nearly  all  the 
species  are  sensitive  to  the  action  of  light, 
drooping  their  leaflets  and  taking  a  position 
of  sleep  at  nightfall,  and  many  of  them  only 
open  their  flowers  in  the  sunshine ;  one  spe- 
cies, 0.  sensitiva,  from  India,  contracts  its 
leaves  when  touched,  and  is  nearly  as  irrita- 
ble as  the  true  sensitive  plant.  The  leaves  of 
several  species,  especially  the  common  wood 
sorrel  (0.  acetosella),  are  mixed  with  salad  to 
impart  a  pleasant  acidity,  and  the  tubers  of 
others  are  used  as  food.  The  oca  of  the  Pe- 
ruvians consists  of  the  tubers  of  0.  crenata, 
which  has  spreading  stems  about  2  ft.  high, 
yellow  flowers,  and  tubers  much  like  a  small  po- 
tato in  appearance,  tapering  at  the  end  toward 
the  plant ;  there  are  a  white  and  a  red  variety, 
the  difference  being  solely  in  the  color  of  the 
tubers.  These  are  cultivated  in  Peru  for  their 
acid  leaf  stalks,  and  especially  their  tubers, 
which  when  boiled  are  farinaceous  and  nutri- 
tious, but  have  an  acid  taste  that  is  disliked  by 
most  persons ;  it  is  said  that  this  may  be  re- 
moved by  exposing  the  tubers  to  the  sun  for 
several  days.  When  the  potato  disease  appear- 
ed in  Europe  this  oxalis  was  one  of  the  various 
substitutes  tested,  but  on  account  of  the  small 
size  of  the  tubers  and  the  light  yield  they  are 
not  likely  to  come  into  general  use.  The  Mex- 
ican 0.  Deppei  is  a  stemless  species,  with  four 
leaflets  to  the  leaves,  and  flowers  which  are  red 
and  sufficiently  showy  for  it  to  be  cultivated  as 
a  garden  plant ;  the  roots  are  parsnip-shaped, 
about  4  in.  long,  and  have  at  the  top  numerous 
small  bulblets  by  which  it  can  be  propagated. 
The  root  is  boiled  and  dressed  with  white 


sauce  like  salsify,  and  is  regarded  as  very  easy 
of  digestion;  it  is  very  slow  in  forming  its 
tubers,  and  likely  to  succeed  better  in  southern 
than  in  northern  gardens. 

OXENDM,  ishton,  an  English  bishop,  born  at 
Broome  Park,  near  Canterbury,  in  1808.  He 
was  educated  at  University  college,  London, 
and  for  many  years  was  rector  of  Pluckly- 
with-Pevington  in  Kent.  In  1864  he  became 
honorary  canon  of  Canterbury  cathedral,  and 
in  1869  was  chosen  bishop  of  Montreal,  and  as 
such  primate  and  metropolitan  of  Canada ;  his 
jurisdiction  covers  eight  bishoprics,  Quebec, 
Toronto,  Ontario,  Huron,  Nova  Scotia,  Frede- 
ricton,  Newfoundland,  and  Rupert's  Land.  His 
publications  are  very  numerous,  being  mostly 
of  a  practical  character ;  among  them  are :  "  A 
Plain  History  of  the  Christian  Church  "  (1847) ; 
"Barham  Tracts"  (1859);  "The  Pastoral  Of- 
fice "(1859);  "Baptism  and  the  Lord's  Supper 
simply  explained  "  (1861) ;  "  Decision  "  (1868) ; 
and  "  Lectures  on  the  Gospels  "  (2  vols.,  1869). 

OXENFORD,  John,  an  English  author,  born  at 
Camberwell,  near  London,  in  1812.  He  was 
admitted  to  the  bar  in  1833,  and  has  produced 
several  pieces  for  the  stage,  among  which  are 
"My  Fellow  Clerk"  (1835),  "Twice  Killed" 
(1835),  "A  Day  Well  Spent"  (1836),  "Porter's 
Knot"  (1869),  and  "£456  11s.  3d."  (1874). 
He  has  published  translations  of  the  "Autobi- 
ography of  Goethe,"  the  "  Conversations  of 
Eckermann  with  Goethe  "  (1850),  the  "  Hellas" 
of  Jacobs  (1855),  a  collection  of  songs  from 
the  French  entitled  "Illustrated  Book  of 
French  Songs"  (1855),  and  Kuno  Fischer's  "Es- 
say on  Lord  Bacon  and  his  Philosophy"  (1857). 
He  has  long  been  engaged  as  a  theatrical  critic 
for  the  press,  has  written  songs  for  music,  and 
translated  various  German  poems. 

OXENSTIERN  (Swed.  OXENSTJEKNA),  Axel, 
count,  a  Swedish  statesman,  born  at  Fano,  in 
Upland,  June  16, 1583,  died  in  Stockholm,  Aug. 
28,  1654.  He  studied  at  the  universities  of 
Rostock,  Wittenberg,  and  Jena,  and  visited 
most  of  the  German  courts.  In  1606  he  was 
sent  on  a  mission  to  Mecklenburg;  in  1608  he 
was  made  a  member  of  the  senate ;  and  when 
Charles  IX.  became  incapacitated,  he  was  cho- 
sen president  of  the  council  of  regency.  On 
the  accession  of  Gustavus  Adolphus  in  1611  he 
was  appointed  chancellor,  concluded  a  peace 
between  Denmark  and  Sweden  in  1613,  ac- 
companied the  king  to  Livonia  in  his  cam- 
paigns against  the  Russians,  and  in  1617  nego- 
tiated the  treaty  of  Stolbova,  by  which  Swe- 
den gained  a  large  territory  along  the  Baltic. 
During  the  following  years  he  was  engaged  in 
warlike  operations  or  negotiations  connected 
with  the  thirty  years'  war,  and  in  1629,  through 
the  mediation  of  France  and  England,  conclu- 
ded an  armistice  for  six  years  between  Swe- 
den and  Poland.  He  accompanied  Gustavus 
Adolphus  in  his  German  campaign,  and  on  the 
death  of  the  king  at  Ltitzen  in  1632  assumed 
the  task  of  continuing  the  war.  He  was  in- 
vested with  full  powers  by  the  Swedish  Riles- 


760 


OXEYE 


OXFORD  UNIVERSITY 


dag,  and  elected  by  the  German  Protestant  as- 
sembly of  Heilbronn  chief  of  the  league  against 
Austria.  It  was  not  until  everything  had  been 
placed  on  a  safe  footing  in  Germany  that  he 
returned  to  Sweden,  to  resume  his  duties  as 
chancellor,  and  act  as  one  of  the  guardians  of 
the  young  queen  Christina,  he  being  the  actual 
ruler  of  Sweden  during  her  minority.  He  im- 
proved the  finances,  encouraged  trade,  and 
patronized  learning ;  and  when  the  sovereign 
became  of  age  in  1644  the  kingdom  was  in 
a  most  prosperous  condition.  After  that  the 
intrigues  of  the  courtiers  gradually  undermined 
his  influence.  Oxenstiern  was  an  accom- 
plished scholar,  and  some  of  his  writings,  in- 
cluding his  correspondence  with  his  son  during 
the  negotiation  which  preceded  the  peace  of 
Westphalia,  have  been  printed.  The  second 
volume  of  the  Historia  Belli  Suevo-  Germanici, 
t,he  first  of  which  is  from  the  pen  of  Chemnitz, 
is  ascribed  to  him. 

OXEYE,  the  common  name  of  heliopsis  Icevis, 
a  native  plant  of  the  composite  family,  which 
resembles  the  sunflower.  It  is  a  perennial,  2 
to  4  ft.  high,  and  not  rare  upon  banks  and  in 
copses ;  though  called  Icevis  (smooth),  its  leaves 
are  often  rough.  The  sea  oxeye  (Borrichia 
frutescens)  has  close  botanical  relationship 
with  the  preceding ;  it  is  a  somewhat  shrub- 
by plant,  6  to  12  ft.  high,  with  yellow  flowers, 
and  is  found  along  the  coast  of  Virginia  and 
southward.  —  Oxeye  daisy  is  chrysanthemum 
leucanthemum  (leucanthemum  vulgare  of  some 
authors),  a  well  known  weed,  which  is  de- 
scribed and  figured  under  DAISY. 

OXFORD,  a  S.  W.  county  of  Maine,  bordering 
on  New  Hampshire,  watered  by  the  Andros- 
coggin,  Saco,  and  other  rivers ;  area,  about 
1,700  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  33,488.  Its  surface 
is  in  some  parts  broken  and  mountainous,  but 
the  soil  is  generally  fertile.  There  are  several 
large  lakes,  of  which  Molechunkemunk,  Par- 
machena,  and  many  smaller  ones  are  wholly 
within  the  county,  and  Umbagog  and  Moose- 
lucmaguntic  partly.  It  is  traversed  by  the 
Grand  Trunk  and  the  Portland  and  Oxford 
Central  railroads.  The  chief  productions  in 
1870  were  32,083  bushels  of  wheat,  181,319  of 
Indian  corn,  201,746  of  oats,  15,583  of  buck- 
wheat, 701,615  of  potatoes,  923,640  Ibs.  of  but- 
ter, 207,048  of  cheese,  142,444  of  wool,  241,032 
of  hops,  66,134  of  maple  sugar,  and  90,679 
tons  of  hay.  There  were  6,001  horses,  13,105 
milch  cows,  7,263  working  oxen,  17,531  other 
cattle,  35,220  sheep,  and  3,333  swine;  17 man- 
ufactories of  carriages  and  wagons,  1  of  emery 
wheels,  1  of  gunpowder,  14  of  tanned  and  10 
of  curried  leather,  4  of  machinery,  6  of  starch, 
1  of  wood  pulp,  6  of  woollen  goods,  6  flour 
mills,  and  23  saw  mills.  Capital,  Paris. 

OXFORD,  a  S.  W.  county  of  Ontario,  Canada, 
watered  by  the  Thames  and  other  streams; 
area,  759  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1871,  48,237,  of 
whom  18,796  were  of  English,  12,874  of  Scotch, 
8,391  of  Irish,  and  6,182  of  German  origin  or 
descent.  It  is  traversed  by  the  Great  West- 


ern and  Canada  Southern  railroads.  Capital, 
Woodstock. 

OXFORD  (Lat.  Oxonium),  a  city  of  England, 
capital  of  Oxfordshire,  situated  on  a  gentle 
hill  between  the  Cherwell  and  Isis  or  upper 
Thames,  which  here  unite,  52  m.  W.  N.  W. 
of  London;  pop.  in  1871,  31,554.  Though 
irregularly  built,  with  narrow,  crooked  streets 
and  lanes  and  few  good  thoroughfares,  its  ap- 
pearance from  a  distance  is  picturesque  and 
imposing.  The  High  street  is  less  than  two 
thirds  of  a  mile  long  and  of  varying  width, 
nowhere  exceeding  85  ft. ;  but  it  is  interest- 
ing for  its  architectural  contrasts,  the  noble 
collegiate  edifices  alternating  with  quaint  old 
dwelling  houses  and  modern  shops.  Nearly 
all  the  avenues  are  clean  and  well  paved  and 
lighted,  and  improvements  are  constantly  go- 
ing on.  The  city  has  an  abundant  supply  of 
good  water.  The  rivers  are  crossed  by  several 
bridges.  The  principal  churches  are  the  cathe- 
dral, which  is  the  chapel  of  Christ  Church  col- 
lege ;  St.  Mary's,  which  serves  as  the  univer- 
sity church,  and  has  a  fine  spire;  St.  Mar- 
tin's, the  "city  church,"  with  a  clock  tower 
and  illuminated  dial  fronting  the  High  street ; 
St.  Peter's  in  the  East,  a  venerable  Norman 
edifice  lately  restored ;  St.  Mary  Magdalene's, 
St.  Giles's,  St.  Michael's,  St.  Aldate's,  and  All 
Saints'.  In  1872  there  were  42  places  of  wor- 
ship, of  which  22  belonged  to  the  church  of 
England,  5  to  the  Baptists,  3  to  the  Wesleyan 
Methodists,  and  2  to  the  Congregationalists. 
The  city  has  a  free  reading  room  and  library, 
public  baths,  workhouses,  a  savings  bank,  a 
dispensary,  the  Radcliffe  infirmary,  a  pauper 
lunatic  asylum,  a  music  hall,  a  town  hall,  a 
council  chamber  with  an  interesting  collection 
of  portraits,  and  a  county  hall  and  law  courts. 
There  are  no  manufactures,  and,  with  the  ex- 
ception of  a  trade  in  the  grain  produced  in  the 
neighborhood,  the  city  depends  for  support 
almost  entirely  upon  the  university.  It  has 
communication  with  other  parts  of  the  king- 
dom by  river,  canal,  and  railway.  It  is  gov- 
erned by  10  aldermen  and  30  councillors,  one 
of  whom  is  mayor ;  but  in  certain  matters  re- 
specting the  night  police,  markets,  &c.,  the  uni- 
versity authorities  have  coordinate  jurisdiction. 
The  date  of  its  foundation  is  unknown.  It  is 
mentioned  as  a  seat  of  learning  by  Pope  Martin 
II.  (about  882).  Tradition  says  it  was  a  favorite 
residence  of  Alfred  the  Great,  and  in  modern 
history  it  is  noted  for  the  execution  of  Ridley, 
Latimer,  and  Cranmer,  and  for  the  severity 
with  which  it  was  treated  by  the  parliamenta- 
rians in  the  civil  war,  during  which  it  was  the 
headquarters  of  Charles  I.,  was  repeatedly  be- 
sieged, and  finally  captured  by  Fairfax  (June, 
1646).  In  1873  it  was  selected  as  a  military 
centre,  the  government  having  purchased  20 
acres  of  land  at  Ballingdon,  near  Oxford,  as 
the  site  for  a  depot. 

OXFORD,  Earl  of.    See  HAELEY,  ROBERT. 

.OXFORD,  University  of,  one  of  the  two  great- 
est seats  of  learning  in  Great  Britain.  The 


OXFORD  UNIVERSITY 


761 


city  of  Oxford,  as  the  scene  of  important  mili- 
tary and  political  events,  is  mentioned  from 
the  time  of  Alfred  down,  but,  the  first  indispu- 
table witness  to  its  being  a  seat  of  learning  is 
Giraldus  Oambrensis,  about  1180.  It  is  certain, 
however,  that  Vacarius,  a  Lombard  from  the 
university  of  Bologna,  lectured  on  the  civil 
law  at  Oxford  about  1149,  and  a  foreigner 
would  hardly  have  selected  that  city  for  such 
a  purpose  unless  it  was  already  frequented  by 
students.  The  history  of  the  university  prior 
to  the  time  of  King  John  (1199)  is  almost  whol- 
ly conjectural;  but  the  following  facts  have 
been  established.  Monasteries  and  other  reli- 
gious houses  existed  at  Oxford  long  anterior  to 
any  special  mention  of  it  as  a  seat  of  learning. 
Attached  to  many  of  these  were  schools  which 
gave  gratuitous  instruction,  and  usually  sup- 
port, to  those  who  were  preparing  for  the  ser- 
vice of  the  church  ;  and  secular  schools  sprang 
up  in  imitation  of  the  cloistral  institutions. 
Common  interests  induced  the  teachers  to  form 
a  voluntary  association  for  the  discussion  and 
decision  of  questions  of  general  concern.  They 
chose  one  of  their  number  to  preside  over 
them,  and  as  the  powers  and  duties  of  the  as- 
sociation increased,  subordinate  offices  were 
created.  This  association,  distinct  from  and 
of  higher  authority  than  any  particular  school, 
was  the  origin  of  the  university  of  Oxford. 
The  date  of  its  formation  and  the  phases  of  its 
development  are  unknown;  it  had  become  a 
great  and  nourishing  institution  long  before  it 
was  mentioned  in  any  known  royal  decree  or 
legislative  enactment.  The  first  known  appli- 
cation to  it  of  the  word  university  (universitas) 
occurs  in  a  statute  of  the  third  year  of  King 
John  (1201) ;  while  the  earliest  known  docu- 
ment in  which  that  word  is  applied  to  the 
schools  at  Paris  is  an  ordinance  of  Pope  Inno- 
cent III.  dated  1215.  At  that  time,  it  is  said, 
about  3,000  students  were  connected  with  its 
schools.  In  1209  a  student  accidentally  killed 
a  woman  belonging  to  the  town,  and  fearing 
the  consequences  fled  the  place,  and  three  inno- 
cent students  were  seized  and  hanged.  All  the 
scholars  of  the  university  quitted  Oxford  in  a 
body,  and  they  also  obtained  from  the  pope  an 
interdict  against  the  town  and  all  persons  who 
should  resort  to  it  for  the  purpose  of  study. 
The  dispute  was  finally  adjusted,  the  citizens 
obtained  absolution,  and  King  John  conferred 
upon  the  university  certain  privileges,  the 
principal  of  which  was  the  right  to  take  cogni- 
zance of  all  causes  in  which  a  student  or  the 
servant  of  a  student  was  a  party.  Henry  III. 
favored  the  university,  and  the  number  of  stu- 
dents was  greater  than  during  any  previous 
or  subsequent  reign.  Anthony  a  Wood,  the 
principal  authority  for  its  history,  says  that  at 
one  time  there  were  in  Oxford  30,000  persons 
claiming  to  be  scholars,  though  many  of  these 
did  not  really  belong  to  the  university;  but 
this  is  undoubtedly  an  enormous  exaggeration. 
The  first  charter  recognizing  the  university 
as  a  corporate  body,  and  conferring  additional 


privileges  upon  it,  was  granted  by  Henry  III. 
in  1244.  This  was  followed  by  others  from 
him  and  his  successors  confirming  the  old  or 
granting  new  privileges.  Although  the  pros- 
perity of  the  town  depended  almost  entirely 
upon  the  university,  intense  hostility  existed  be- 
tween the  citizens  and  the  scholars.  As  the  lat- 
ter were  all  required  to  wear  a  gown,  the  feuds 
which  often  broke  out  in  riots  between  them 
and  the  citizens  were  called  quarrels  between 
"  town  and  gown."  On  St.  Scholastica's  day, 
Feb.  10,  1355,  a  disturbance  occurred  in  which 
several  lives  were  lost,  and  the  town  was  laid 
under  an  interdict  by  the  bishop  of  Lincoln, 
whose  diocese  then  included  Oxford.  It  was 
released  two  years  afterward  on  condition  that 
the  commonalty  should  thereafter  annually  cel- 
ebrate in  St.  Mary's  church  a  service  for  the 
souls  of  those  killed,  and  that  the  mayor,  two 
bailiffs,  and  60  of  the  principal  citizens  should 
personally  appear  in  the  church  at  mass  and 
offer  a  penny  each  at  the  great  altar ;  in  de- 
fault of  which  they  bound  themselves  to  pay 
100  marks  yearly  to  the  university.  Subse- 
quently the  penance  was  repeatedly  mitigated, 
but  it  was  not  wholly  remitted  till  1825.  The 
religious  troubles  of  the  reign  of  Henry  VIII. 
diminished  the  inducements  to  the  study  of 
theology,  and  from  this  and  other  causes  the 
number  of  students  at  Oxford  greatly  de- 
clined. In  1546  only  13  degrees  were  con- 
ferred, and  in  1552  the  number  of  students  on 
the  books  was  only  1,015,  and  of  these  the 
larger  majority  had  quitted  the  university. 
An  elaborate  act  of  parliament  "concerning 
the  incorporations  of  the  universities  of  Ox- 
ford and  Cambridge,"  sanctioned  by  Elizabeth 
in  1570,  resumed  and  defined  previous  char- 
ters ;  and  from  that  time  until  the  passage  of 
the  act  of  1854  this  was  regarded  by  both  uni- 
versities as  the  chief  source  of  their  powers 
and  privileges.  In  1603  James  I.  granted  the 
privilege,  which  still  continues,  of  electing  two 
representatives  to  parliament ;  they  are  styled 
burgesses.  By  an  act  of  parliament  passed  in 
the  third  year  of  his  reign,  Catholics  were  dis- 
abled from  "presenting  to  any  ecclesiastical 
benefice  or  nominating  to  any  free  school,  hos- 
pital, or  donative;"  and  their  rights  of  pre- 
sentation and  nomination  were  made  over  in 
about  equal  portions  to  the  two  universities. 
The  university  of  Oxford  was  distinguished  for 
its  loyalty  to  the  Stuarts,  and  it  melted  down 
its  plate  to  assist  Charles  I.  in  his  struggle  with 
the  parliament.  This  provoked  the  hostility  of 
the  nonconformists,  and  during  their  suprem- 
acy the  university  was  plundered,  and  many 
of  its  professors  and  masters  were  expelled 
and  its  scholars  forced  to  leave.  The  statutes 
of  the  university  were  codified  in  1629  by 
Archbishop  Laud,  who  was  elected  chancellor 
in  1630.  His  code  was  adopted  by  the  univer- 
sity and  ratified  by  the  king  in  1635,  and  was 
not  essentially  changed  until  the  act  of  1854. 
By  the  latter  and  subsequent  acts  considerable 
changes  were  made  in  the  organization  of  the 


762 


OXFORD  UNIVERSITY 


university  and  the  colleges.  The  greater  num- 
ber of  the  fellowships  and  scholarships  had 
been  subjected  by  their  founders  to  conditions 
which  in  time  had  become  impracticable  or 
absurd,  and  they  were  altered  or  abolished  by 
the  act  of  1854.  One  of  the  most  important 
of  these  changes  was  the  throwing  open  to 
general  competition  of  a  large  number  of  fel- 
lowships and  scholarships  which  had  before 
been  restricted  to  particular  classes  of  persons ; 
and  in  many  cases,  where  the  original  restric- 
tions were  retained,  it  was  provided  that  they 
should  be  open  to  general  competition  in  case 
no  duly  qualified  candidates  presented  them- 
selves.— The  following  account  of  the  constitu- 
tion of  the  university,  the  colleges,  and  other 
institutions  connected  with  it,  represents  it  as 
it  exists  at  the  present  time.  The  official  title 
of  the  university  as  a  corporate  body,  "  The 
Chancellor,  Masters,  and  Scholars  of  the  Uni- 
versity of  Oxford,"  has  existed  for  centuries, 
and  was  confirmed  by  act  of  parliament  in  the 
reign  of  Elizabeth.  The  powers  of  the  uni- 
versity are  vested  in  four  bodies.  The  "  House 
of  Congregation"  consists  of  regents.  For- 
merly every  graduate  acquired  the  right  to 
teach,  and  incurred  the  obligatio'n  of  doing  so, 
if  necessary,  for  a  certain  limited  time.  Those 
who  voluntarily  entered  upon  the  office  of 
teacher  were  called  regentes  ad  placitum  or 
voluntary  regents ;  those  who  were  under  ob- 
ligation to  teach,  if  the  number  of  voluntary 
regents  was  not  sufficient,  were  said  to  be 
necessario  regentes.  The  original  meaning  of 
these  terms  has  become  obsolete,'  but  they  are 
now  used  as  follows :  all  doctors  and  masters 
of  arts  for  two  years  from  the  end  of  the  term 
in  which  they  were  admitted  to  their  degrees 
are  necessario  regentes  ;  all  professors,  doctors 
resident  in  the  university,  heads  of  colleges  and 
halls,  masters  of  the  schools,  censors  and  deans 
of  colleges,  are  regentes  ad  placitum.  The 
business  of  the  house  of  congregation  is  con- 
fined to  the  ratification  of  the  nomination  of 
examiners  and  to  the  granting  of  ordinary  de- 
grees. The  "House  of  Convocation"  consists 
of  all  who  are  or  have  been  regents,  provided 
their  names  have  constantly  been  kept  on  the 
books  of  some  college  or  hall  or  of  the  dele- 
gates of  unattached  students,  and  they  have 
paid  all  statutable  fees.  All  the  formal  busi- 
ness of  the  university  as  a  corporate  body, 
except  what  belongs  to  the  house  of  congre- 
gation, is  transacted  in  the  house  of  convoca- 
tion. It  confers  honorary  degrees  and  others 
granted  out  of  the  usual  course;  and  near- 
ly all  offices  in  the  gift  of  the  university  are 
filled  by  it.  All  questions  are  decided  by  the 
majority  of  votes,  except  that  the  chancellor 
or  vice  chancellor  or  his  deputy  singly,  and 
the  two  proctors  jointly,  have  a  right  of  veto 
in  all  matters  except  elections ;  but  practically 
the  right  is  never  exercised.  No  statute  is 
binding  until  it  has  received  the  assent  of 
convocation.  The  "  Congregation  of  the  Uni- 
versity of  Oxford  "  consists  of  the  chancellor, 


the  heads  of  colleges  and  halls,  the  canons  of 
Christ  Church  college,  the  proctors,  members 
of  the  hebdomadal  council,  professors,  exami- 
ners, and  several  other  officials,  and  of  all  those 
members  of  convocation  who  resided  within 
one  mile  and  a  half  of  Carfax  during  the  year 
which  ended  on  the  first  day  of  the  preceding 
September.     Carfax  is  the  name  given  to  a 
place  where  four  streets  meet,  about  the  centre 
of  the  town.     The  passing  of  140  nights  with- 
in the  prescribed  limits  is  considered  a  suffi- 
cient compliance  with  the  requirement.     The 
chief  business  of  the  congregation  is  legislative. 
In  it  new  statutes  proposed  by  the  hebdomadal 
council  are  promulgated,  discussed,  and  amend- 
ed.    Every  question  is  decided  by  a  major- 
ity, and  no  right  of  veto  exists.    A  statute  ap- 
proved by  congregation  goes,  after  an  interval 
of  seven  days,  to  convocation  for  final  adop- 
tion or  rejection.     The  "  Hebdomadal  Coun- 
cil "  consists  of  official  and  elected  members. 
The  official  members  are  the  chancellor,  vice 
chancellor,  late  vice  chancellor  (for  one  year 
after  he  has  ceased  to  hold  office,  or  until  the 
next  triennial  election),  and  the  two  proctors. 
The  elected  members  are  six  heads  of  colleges 
or  halls,  six  professors  (who  may  also  be  heads 
of  houses),  and  six  members  of  convocation 
of  not  less  than  five  years'  standing  (who  may 
be  heads  of  houses  or  professors).     They  are 
elected  by  the  congregation  of  the  university  in 
such  a  way  that  one  half  of  each  of  the  three 
classes  vacate  their  seats  every  three  years,  be- 
ing however  reeligible.     This  council  has  the 
initiative  of  all  the  legislation  of  the  univer- 
sity.    The  highest  officer  of  the  university  is 
the  chancellor,  who  is  elected  for  life  by  the 
house  of  convocation,  and  receives  no  pay. 
Formerly  a  resident  ecclesiastic  was  always 
chosen,  but  for  more  than  200  years  the  office 
has  been  conferred  upon  noblemen  who  have 
been  members  of  the  university.     The  present 
chancellor  (1875)  is  the  marquis  of  Salisbury, 
formerly  fellow  of  All  Souls  college.     Except 
on  rare  occasions  the  duties  of  the  office  are 
discharged  by  the  vice  chancellor,  who  is  an- 
nually nominated  by  the  chancellor  from  the 
heads  of  colleges,  and  must  be  approved  by 
convocation.     The  office  is  generally  held  by 
nomination  for  four  years.     The  vice  chancel- 
lor appoints  from  the  heads  of  colleges  four 
pro-vice-chancellors  to   serve  in  case  of  his 
absence.     The  office  of  seneschattus,  or  high 
steward,  is  now  merely  honorary,  and  the  pay 
nominal.     It  is  at  present  held  by  the  earl  of 
Carnarvon.     There  are  two  proctors,  elected 
annually  from  the  colleges  and  halls,  and  they 
each  appoint  two  deputies.    They  are  the  chief 
police  officers  of  the  university,  and  have  a 
large  police  jurisdiction  in  the  town.     There 
are  numerous  other  officers.     There  are  eight 
regius  professorships  (so  called  because  found- 
ed by  sovereigns  of  England),  as  follows :  of 
divinity,   civil    law,   medicine,    Hebrew,   and 
Greek,  founded  by  Henry  VIII. ;  of  modern 
history,  by  George  I. ;  and  of  pastoral  theol- 


OXFORD  UNIVERSITY 


763 


ogy  and  of  ecclesiastical  history,  by  Victoria. 
Those  founded  by  individuals  after  whom  they 
are  named,  and  otherwise,  with  their  dates, 
are  as  follows :  Margaret  professorship  of  di- 
vinity, 1503- ;  Savilian  of  geometry  and  of  as- 
tronomy, 1619  ;  Sedleian  of  natural  philoso- 
phy, and  Whyte's  of  moral  philosophy,  1621 ; 
Oamden  of  ancient  history,  1622;  Tomlins  of 
anatomy,  1624,  annexed  in  1858  to  the  Linacre 
of  physiology;  of  music,  1626;  of  botany,  1633; 
Laudian  of  Arabic,  1636  ;  of  poetry,  1708 ;  the 
lord  almoner's  of  Arabic,  date  unknown;  of 
experimental  philosophy,  1749 ;  Vinerian  of 
English  law,  1758 ;  clinical,  1780 ;  Rawlinso- 
nian  of  Anglo-Saxon,  1795  ;  Aldrichian  of  an- 
atomy, of  the  practice  of  medicine,  and  of 
chemistry,  1803,  of  which  the  first  was  an- 
nexed in  1858  to  the  Linacre  of  physiology, 
the  second  to  the  regius  of  medicine,  and  the 
third  was  suppressed  in  1866,  when  the  Wayn- 
flete  of  chemistry  was  established  at  Magda- 
len college  ;  of  mineralogy,  1813 ;  of  geology, 
1818  ;  of  political  economy,  1825 ;  Boden  of 
Sanskrit,  1830;  of  logic;  of  the  exegesis  of 
Holy  Scripture,  1847;  Corpus  of  Latin  litera- 
ture, Chichele's  of  international  law  and  di- 
plomacy and  of  modern  history,  Waynflete  of 
moral  and  metaphysical  philosophy  and  of 
chemistry,  and  Linacre  of  physiology,  all  in 
1854 ;  Hope  of  zoology,  1861 ;  of  comparative 
philology,  1868  ;  Corpus  of  jurisprudence,  and 
Slade  of  fine  art,  1869 ;  and  Ford  of  English 
history,  1870.  The  pay  of  the  professors  is 
from  £50  to  £900  a  year,  averaging  about  £380. 
The  majority  of  the  professors  have  heretofore 
taken  little  part  in  practical  teaching.  Except 
in  a  few  merely  formal  cases,  attendance  upon 
their  lectures  is  not  compulsory ;  and  they  have 
employed  their  time  in  such  literary  or  artis- 
tic pursuits  as  their  tastes  dictated.  Besides 
these  professors,  there  are  a  choragus,  or  mas- 
ter of  musical  praxis ;  demonstrators  of  experi- 
mental philosophy,  chemistry,  and  anatomy; 
readers  of  English  law  and  ancient  history; 
lecturers  on  the  Septuagint;  teacherships  of 
modern  languages ;  and  teachers  of  Hindostani 
and  of  Indian  law  and  history.  There  are  37 
scholarships,  most  of  which  are  bestowed  for 
proficiency  in  some  particular  branch  of  study ; 
some  are  only  open  to  those  who  have  passed 
all  examinations  for  the  degree  of  B.  A.,  and 
other  conditions  differ  ill  each  case.  Most  of 
them  are  tenable  for  three  years,  have  an  aver- 
age annual  income  of  about  £60,  and  are  open 
to  general  competition.  There  is  one  exhibi- 
tion tenable  for  one  year,  with  an  income  of. 
£25.  There  are  18  prizes,  but  not  all  of  them 
offered  for  competition  every  year.  Many  of 
them  can  be  competed  for  only  by  those  who 
have  received  the  degree  of  B.  A.  Their  aver- 
age value  is  about  £30. — The  following  named 
buildings  and  institutions  belong  to  the  univer- 
sity. The  Bodleian  library,  founded  by  Sir 
Thomas  Bodley,  opened  in  1602,  is  one  of  the 
great  libraries  of  the  world.  (See  BODLEIAN 
LIBEABY.)  Connected  with  it  is  a  reading  room 


called  the  Camera  Bodleiana,  which  contains 
all  the  newest  works  and  the  great  Hope  col- 
lection of  engraved  portraits.  The  Clarendon 
press  building  was  completed  in  1830.  All  the 
printing  of  the  university,  and  of  the  works 
of  private  authors  the  publication  of  which  the 
university  sees  fit  to  undertake,  is  done  here. 
Books  printed  for  the  university  have  the  words 
E  TypograpJieo  Clarendoniano,  or  "At  the 
Clarendon  Press,"  in  the  imprint.  The  thea- 
tre, founded  by  Gilbert  Sheldon,  archbishop  of 
Canterbury  and  chancellor  of  the  university, 
was  opened  in  1669.  The  Ashmolean  museum 
was  erected  by  the  university  (1679-'83)  for  the 
reception  of  the  collection  of  natural  and  ar- 
tificial curiosities  presented  by  Elias  Ashmole  ; 
it  also  contains  a  museum  of  antiquities  and 
the  Arundel  marbles.  The  Clarendon  build- 
ing (formerly  the  Clarendon  press  building),  so 
called  because  its  cost  was  partly  defrayed  from 
the  copyright  on  Lord  Clarendon's  "  History 
of  the  Rebellion,"  which  was  presented  to  the 
university,  is  the  seat  of  its  general  business. 
It  contains  the  delegates'  room,  police  room, 
and  various  other  offices.  The  Radcliffe  ob- 
servatory, erected  with  funds  bequeathed  by 
Dr.  Radcliffe,  is  well  furnished,  and  observa- 
tions are  regularly  made.  The  Taylor  institu- 
tion, for  the  encouragement  of  the  study  of 
modern  European  languages,  was  erected  in 
1848  from  a  bequest  of  Sir  Robert  Taylor,  and 
forms  one  building  with  that  next  mentioned. 
It  contains  a  library  and  a  reading  room,  in 
which  may  "be  found  most  of  the  leading  pe- 
riodicals of  the  continent.  Its  curators  also 
have  charge  of  a  bequest  of  W.  T.  Horner,  earl 
of  Ilchester,  for  the  encouragement  of  the 
study  of  the  languages,  literature,  and  history 
of  the  Slavic  nations.  The  university  galleries, 
containing  works  of  art,  were  opened  in  1845. 
The  university  museum,  begun  in  1855,  is  in- 
tended to  promote  the  study  of  natural  science. 
It  contains  lecture  rooms,  a  spacious  library 
and  reading  room,  work  rooms,  laboratories, 
experimental  apparatus,  and  all  other  facili- 
ties for  investigating  the  phenomena  of  nature. 
This  building  also  now  contains  the  Radcliffe 
library.  The  botanic  garden  of  about  five  acres 
was  founded  in  1632.  The  convocation  house 
is  used  for  the  general  business  of  convocation 
and  for  conferring  degrees.  The  "divinity 
school  "  and  "  the  schools  "  are  no  longer  used 
for  the  purposes  of  instruction,  but  for  con- 
ferring degrees  in  divinity,  for  public  examina- 
tions, and  other  purposes. — Besides  these  in- 
stitutions directly  under  the  control  of  the 
university  as  a  corporate  body,  there  is  a  much 
larger  number  called  colleges  and  halls,  each 
with  a  separate  government,  but  organically 
connected  with  the  university.  Previous  to 
the  middle  of  the  13th  century  the  students 
at  Oxford  resided  in  the  town  in  such  places 
as  their  circumstances  dictated.  Sometimes 
several  students  would  associate  themselves, 
hire  a  building,  choose  some  graduate  of  the 
higher  degrees  as  their  principal  or  guardian, 


764 


OXFORD  UNIVERSITY 


and  live  in  common.  Their  houses  were  vari- 
ously called  inns,  hostels,  or  halls.  The  num- 
ber of  these  halls  is  said  to  have  at  one  time 
exceeded  300.  Individuals  at  different  times 
purchased  or  constructed  buildings  for  the  ex- 
clusive use  of  students,  and  appropriated  funds 
for  the  maintenance  of 
a  limited  number,  who 
were  called  socii  or  fel- 
lows. They  were  stu- 
dents who  had  already 
received  a  degree  from 
the  university,  and  had 
a  head,  variously  called 
warden,  master,  rector, 
&c.,  usually  elected  by 
themselves.  To  them 
were  attached  in  most 
cases  a  limited  number  of 
students,  generally  those 
who  had  not  yet  taken 
a  degree,  called  scholars, 
for  whose  maintenance 
funds  were  also  appro- 
priated. These  bodies, 
consisting  of  a  head,  fel- 
lows, and  scholars,  were 
called  colleges.  They 
were  legally  incorpora- 
ted, their  powers  being 
vested  in  the  head  and  fellows.  At  first  the 
privileges  of  the  college  were  restricted  to  the 
persons  constituting  the  corporation  and  main- 
tained by  its  funds.  Gradually  other  students 
were  admitted,  who  paid  for  board  and  lodg- 
ings in  the  college  building.  These  paying  stu- 
dents were  called  "  commoners,"  because  they 
took  their  "  commons  "  or  meals  in  the  col- 
lege; and  two  classes  were  recognized,  called 
"gentleman  commoners"  and  "commoners" 
simply,  the  former  dining  at  a  separate  table 
and  enjoying  some  special  privileges  in  consid- 
eration of  higher  pay.  The  distinction  has  now 
become  nearly  obsolete.  In  discipline  and  in- 
struction there  is  no  distinction  between  schol- 
ars and  commoners.  Thus  the  colleges  became 
endowed  institutions  for  the  academical  instruc- 
tion of  all  persons  able  to  pay  for  it.  As  their 
number  increased  that  of  the  halls,  which  were 
mostly  dependent  on  the  students  for  support, 
declined.  About  1570  the  earl  of  Leicester, 
then  chancellor  of  the  university,  obtained  for 
himself  and  successors  in  office  the  right  of 
appointing  the  heads  of  all  halls  which  should 
thereafter  be  established ;  and  by  refusing  to 
appoint  a  head,  the  chancellors  preVented  the 
opening  of  any  new  hall  from  that  time  till 
1855.  Gradually  the  whole  business  of  instruc- 
tion fell  into  the  hands  of  the  colleges  and  re- 
maining halls.  The  only  way  of  entering  the 
university  was  to  be  admitted  to  one  of  these, 
and  such  admission  and  the  payment  of  the 
required  fees  constituted  a  person  a  member 
of  the  university.  But  the  university  only,  in 
its  independent  corporate  capacity,  could  con- 
fer degrees.  All  members  of  colleges  who  re- 


ceive stipends  from  the  corporate  revenues  are 
said  to  be  "  on  the  foundation."  At  All  Souls 
there  are  no  scholars ;  at  Keble  there  are  no 
fellows  or  scholars ;  at  Merton  the  scholars  are 
called  post  masters;  at  Magdalen,  demies  (in 
Latin  semi-socii) ;  at  Christ  Church  the  fellows 


Christ  Church  College,  West  Front. 

are  called  senior  students,  the  scholars  junior 
students.  The  head  and  fellows  are  in  most 
cases  the  governing  body.  Discipline  is  exer- 
cised by  the  head  and  certain  officers  appointed 
by  the  fellows.  The  dean  of  Christ  Church  is 
appointed  by  the  crown,  the  provost  of  Wor- 
cester by  the  chancellor  of  the  university,  the 
warden  of  Keble  by  the  council  of  that  college, 
and  all  other  heads  by  the  fellows.  The  head 
generally  holds  his  office  for  life.  Fellows  and 
scholars  are  mostly  elected  by  heads,  and  fel- 
lows after  a  competitive  examination.  Fellow- 
ships are  tenable  for  life,  but  are  vacated  by 
marriage,  ecclesiastical  preferment,  or  acces- 
sion to  a  certain  amount  of  property.  Scholar- 
ships are  generally  tenable  for  five  years,  and 
the  stipends  average  about  £80.  There  is  also 
a  large  class  of  beneficiary  students  who  are 
called  exhibitioners,  and  the  places  they  hold 
exhibitions,  the  right  of  nomination  to  which 
is  vested  in  some  institution  of  learning.  The 
difference  between  them  and  scholarships  is 
merely  technical.  The  exhibitioners  all  receive 
stipends  varying  in  amount  from  £25  to  over 
£100.  The  university  comprises  20  colleges, 
as  follows :  University  college,  founded  bj 
William  of  Durham  in  1249  ;  Balliol,  by  John 
Balliol  and  Devorgilla  his  wife,  between  1263 
and  1268;  Merton,  by  Walter  de  Merton, 
bishop  of  Rochester,  at  Maiden  in  1264,  re- 
moved to  Oxford  before  1274 ;  Exeter,  by  Wal- 
ter de  Stapleton,  bishop  of  Exeter,  in  1314; 
Oriel,  by  Edward  II.  in  1326;  Queen's,  by 
Robert  Eglesfield,  chaplain  to  Philippa,  queen 
of  Edward  III.,  in  1340 ;  New,  by  William  of 
Wykeham,  bishop  of  Winchester,  in  1386 ; 


OXFOKD  UNIVEKSITY 


765 


Lincoln,  by  Kichard  Fleming,  bishop  of  Lin- 
coln, in  1427 ;  All  Souls,  by  Henry  Chichele, 
archbishop  of  Canterbury,  in  1437" ;  Magdalen, 


Oriel  College. 


by  William  of  Waynflete,  lord  chancellor,  in 
1456 ;  Brasenose,  by  William  Smith,  bishop  of 
Lincoln,  in  1509 ;  Corpus  Christi,  by  Kichard 


Corpus  Christ!  College. 

Fox,  bishop  of  Winchester,  in  1516;  Christ 
Church,  by  Henry  VIII.,  in  1546-"T;  Trinity,' 
by  Sir  Thomas  Pope,  in  1554;  St.  John's,  by 
Sir  Thomas  White,  in  1555 ;  Jesus,  by  Queen 
Elizabeth,  in  1571  ;  Wadham,  by  Nicholas 
Wadham,  in  1613  ;  Pembroke,  by  James  I.,  at 
the  expense  of  Thomas  Tesdale  and  Richard 
Wight  wick,  in  1620  ;  Worcester,  by  Sir  Thom- 
as Cookes,  in  1714 ;  Keble,  by  subscription  as 
a  memorial  to  the  Rev.  John  Keble,  in  18V  0. 
According  to  tradition,  University  college  rep- 
resents a  school  founded  by  King  Alfred  in 
872,  and  in  1872  it  celebrated  its  millennial 
anniversary.  Balliol  admits  no  one  who  claims 
any  privilege  on  account  of  rank  or  wealth ; 
its  standard  of  scholarship  is  perhaps  the  high- 


est at  Oxford.  New  is  intimately  connected 
with  the  preparatory  school  and  college  at 
Winchester.  Lincoln  has  no  undergraduates, 
admitting  only  those  who  have  received  the 
degree  of  B.  A.  Christ  Church  is  a  cathedral 
establishment  as  well  as  a  college.  In  the  ex- 
tent and  magnificence  of  its  buildings,  the  mu- 
nificence of  its  endowments,  and  the  number  of 
its  members,  it  surpasses  all  others  at  Oxford. 
In  the  tower  over  its  principal  gateway  is 
the  famous  bell  called  Great  Tom  of  Oxford, 
weighing  17,000  Ibs.  There  are  five  academical 
halls  remaining,  the  heads  of  which  are  called 
principals.  They  are  unincorporated,  and  con- 
sequently property  designed  for  their  benefit 
must  be  held  in  trust  by  the  university  or  some 
other  trustee.  In  this  way  a  few  scholarships 
and  exhibitions  have  been  founded,  and  provi- 
sion made  for  the  principals  in  some  of  them. 
With  these  exceptions  they  have  no  endow- 
ments. In  discipline,  instruction,  attainment 
of  degrees,  and  university  privileges,  there  is  no 
distinction  between  students  in  halls  and  col- 
leges. The  halls  are  as  follows :  1.  St.  Mary, 
given  to  .Oriel  college  by  Edward  II. ,  and  made 
a  separate  school  by  that  society  in  1333  ;  it  sub- 
sequently became  independent.  2.  Magdalen, 
which  became  independent  in  1602.  In  1816 
parliament  authorized  Magdalen  college  to  pre- 
pare Hertford  college,  which  had  lapsed  to 
the  crown,  for  the  reception  of  the  principal 
and  members  of  Magdalen  hall,  and  to  resume 
possession  of  the  old  hall  and  site ;  this  was 
accomplished  in  1822.  A  bill  is  now  (1875) 
before  parliament  to  make  it  a  college  under 
the  name  of  Hertford.  3.  New  Inn,  conveyed 
to  New  college  in  1392,  rebuilt  in  1460.  4. 
St.  Alban,  founded  as  an  ecclesiastical  estab- 
lishment in  1230;  it  came  into  the  posses- 
sion of  Merton  college  in  the  16th  century,  and 
was  subsequently  made  independent.  5.  St. 
Edmund,  which  came  into  the  possession,  of 
Queen's  college  in  1557,  with  which  it  still  has 
some  connection,  its  students  being  admitted 
to  the  lectures  of  Queen's.  A  statute  passed 
in  1855  enacts  that  any  member  of  convocation 
above  the  age  of  28  may  on  certain  conditions 
obtain  from  the  vice  chancellor  a  license,  with 
the  title  of  "licensed  master,"  to  open  a  suita- 
ble building  .as  a  private  hall  for  university 
students.  There  is  no  distinction  between  them 
and  other  students  as  to  discipline  and  privi- 
leges. Only  one  such,  called  Charsley's  hall, 
exists.  In  1868  persons  were  first  permitted 
under  certain  conditions  to  become  students 
and  members  of  tjie  university  without  being 
attached  to  any  college  or  hall.  Such  students 
(called  non  ascripti)  reside  in  the  town  and 
have  all  the  rights  and  privileges  of  other  stu- 
dents. They  are  under  the  general  superin- 
tendence of  a  board  styled  "  delegates  of  stu- 
dents not  attached  to  any  college  or  hall," 
consisting  of  the  vice  chancellor  and  four 
members  of  convocation  nominated  by  him 
and  the  proctors.  Two  of  these,  styled  cen- 
sors, have  the  immediate  charge  of  the  conduct 


T66 


OXFOED  UNIVERSITY 


and  studies  of  the  unattached  students.  The 
colleges  and  halls  examine  applicants  for  ad- 
mission previous  to  matriculation,  but  the 
examination  is  generally  not  at  all  difficult. 
A  student  whose  name  has  been  inscribed  on 
the  books  of  a  college  or  hall,  or  of  the  dele- 
gates of  the  unattached  students,  and  has  paid 
the  necessary  fees,  is  a  member  of  the  univer- 
sity. No  university  examination  is  required. 
The  academic  year  is  divided  into  four  terms. 
Michaelmas  term  extends  from  Oct.  10  to  Dec. 
17;  Hilary  or  Lent  term,  from  Jan.  14  to  the 
day  before  Palm  Sunday;  Easter  term,  from 
the  Wednesday  after  Easter  day  to  the  Friday 
before  Whitsunday ;  Trinity  or  Act  term,  from 
the  day  before  Whitsunday  to  the  Saturday 
after  the  first  Tuesday  in  July,  but  may  be 
continued  by  congregation.  There  is  no  vaca- 
tion between  the  last  two  terms. — To  obtain 
the  degree  of  B.  A.  it  is  necessary  to  pass  three 
distinct  examinations.  The  examiners  are  ap- 
pointed by  the  university.  The  examinations 
are  partly  in  writing  and  partly  viva  voce.  The 
first  examination,  called  responsions,  or  in  the 
language  of  the  students  the  little  go,  is  con- 
ducted by  the  "  masters  of  the  schools,"  six  in 
number,  who  are  nominated  yearly  in  convo- 
cation. Eesponsions  are  held  three  times  a 
year.  Every  candidate  is  examined  in  Latin 
and  Greek  grammar,  Latin  prose  composition, 
one  Latin  and  one  Greek  author,  arithmetic, 
and  either  Euclid  or  algebra.  A  considerable 
range  of  choice  is  allowed  to  the  candidate  in 
regard  to  the  authors  in  which  he  wishes  to 
be  examined.  Every  candidate  who  passes  re- 
sponsions  satisfactorily  receives  a  certificate 
called  a  testamur.  A  candidate  who  fails  to 
pass  the  examination  is  said  to  be  "  plucked." 
Having  passed  responsions,  the  student  chooses 
whether  he  will  try  for  a  "  pass  "  or  a  "  class ;" 
that  is,  whether  he  will  simply  try  to  get  his 
degree  of  B.  A.,  or  will  also  try  for  honors. 
If  he  "  reads  for  honors,"  he  will  find  it  neces- 
sary to  employ  a  private  tutor.  The  second 
examination,  called  the  first  public  examina- 
tion, is  held  twice  a  year.  It  is  conducted 
by  ten  moderators,  and  is  called  moderations. 
Candidates  for  a  pass  must  offer  portions  of  at 
least  three  Greek  and  Latin  authors  of  the  best 
age  (two  Greek  and  one  Latin  or  two  Latin 
and  one  Greek),  one  at  least  being  a  portion 
of  a  historical  or  philosophical  work,  and  either 
logic  or  the  elements  of  geometry  and  algebra. 
Candidates  for  honors  in  mathematics  are  ex- 
amined in  every  branch  from  algebra  up  to  the 
integration  of  differential  expressions  and  the 
elements  of  the  calculus  of  finite  differences. 
Conic  sections  and  geometry  of  three  dimen- 
sions must  be  treated  both  geometrically  and 
analytically.  The  second  public  examination, 
if  passed  successfully,  entitles  the  candidate  to 
his  degree.  It  is  held  twice  a  year,  and  is  con- 
ducted by  22  public  examiners,  divided  into  six 
schools.  No  student  can  offer  himself  for  ex- 
amination in  classics  before  his  12th  term,  un- 
less his  llth  happens  to  be  Easter,  in  which 


case  he  may  offer  himself  in  that  term.  Ex- 
cept in  certain  cases,  he  cannot  be  a  candidate 
for  honors  after  his  16th  term.  For  candidates 
for  a  pass  merely,  this  examination  is  compara- 
tively easy,  but  for  honors  it  takes  a  very  wide 
range.  Candidates  for  honors  are  examined 
in  chronology,  geography,  and  antiquities,  and 
they  may  be  called  upon  to  compose  in  Latin, 
Greek,  and  English.  Logic  is  indispensable 
with  candidates  for  the  highest  honors.  In 
mathematics  it  may  be  said  that  it  is  as  severe 
as  the  examiners  know  how  to  make  it.  It 
embraces  every  branch  of  pure  mathematics 
from  algebra  to  the  calculus  of  variations,  and 
in  mixed  mathematics  mechanics,  optics,  and 
astronomy.  After  the  examinations  for  hon- 
ors the  successful  candidates  in  each  school  are 
arranged  in  four  classes,  and  the  names  in  each 
class  are  arranged  alphabetically  and  published. 
To  be  named  in  the  first  class  is  the  highest 
honor.  Peers,  sons  of  peers,  and  certain  others 
of  the  nobility,  are  by  statute  entitled  to  cer- 
tain advantages  over  other  students ;  but  these 
are  always  waived,  and  in  some  colleges  a  re- 
fusal to  waive  them  would  be  considered  suffi- 
cient ground  for  denying  admission.  To  obtain 
the  degree  of  B.  A.  at  Oxford  is  perhaps  quite 
as  easy  as  at  most  of  our  American  colleges ;  to 
obtain  the  honor  of  a  "first  class"  is  extremely 
difficult. — The  total  amount  of  college  and  uni- 
versity fees  payable  by  each  student  from  ma- 
triculation to  graduation  is  about  £65.  The 
expense  of  living  for  an  economical  student  is 
about  £250  a  year,  or  £300  if  he  employs  a 
private  tutor.  The  number  of  "  members  on 
the  books"  in  1873-'4  was  8,532,  and  of  un- 
dergraduates 2,392.  The  number  of  the  latter 
in  actual  attendance  cannot  be  exactly  ascer- 
tained, but  was  probably  about  2,000.  The 
number  of  matriculations  in  1872,  the  last  year 
reported,  was  632,  and  of  degrees  of  B.  A.  con- 
ferred, 396.  Previous  to  the  year  1874  no  au- 
thentic information  in  regard  to  the  aggregate 
revenue  and  expenditure  of  the  university  col- 
leges and  halls  was  accessible  to  the  public. 
In  1872  a  royal  commission  was.  appointed 
"  to  inquire  into  the  property  and  income  of 
the  universities  of  Oxford  and  Cambridge,  and 
of  the  colleges  and  halls  therein,"  &c.  The 
report  of  the  commission,  published  in  1874, 
exhibits  the  condition  of  affairs  as  it  existed 
in  1871,  and  it  has  not  since  been  essentially 
changed.  Besides  its  copyholds  of  inheritance, 
the  university  of  Oxford  owns  7,683  acres  of 
land,  and  the  colleges  and  halls  184,764  acres, 
situated  in  different  parts  of  England  and 
Wales.  The  total  income  of  the  university 
proper  in  1871  was  £47,589,  and  of  the  col- 
leges and  halls  £366,254 ;  total,  £413,843.  The 
sources  of  this  income  were  as  follows :  from 
lands,  £183,074 ;  from  houses,  £29,996  ;  from 
tithe  and  other  rent  charges,  £39,609;  from 
stocks,  shares,  &c.,  £37,201 ;  from  other  prop- 
erty, £15,070  ;  and  from  members  of  the  uni- 
versity, £110,893.  This  income  was  expended 
as  follows:  payments  to  heads  of  colleges, 


OXFORDSHIRE 

£30,544;  to  professors,  £13,500;  to  fellows, 
£101,171 ;  to  scholars  and  exhibitioners,  £26,- 
226;  all  other  expenditures,  £242,402.  Be- 
sides the  revenues  above  mentioned,  the  uni- 
versity, colleges,  and  halls  have  in  their  gift 
444  benefices,  with  an  income  of  £188,695. 

OXFORDSHIRE,  a  S.  county  of  England,  bor- 
dered S.  and  S.  "W.  for  70  m.  by  the  river 
Thames  or  Isis,  and  enclosed  by  the  coun- 
ties of  Warwick,  Northampton,  Buckingham, 
Berks,  and  Gloucester ;  area,  735  sq.  m. ;  pop. 
in  1871,  177,956.  It  is  very  irregular  in  out- 
line, and  the  surface  is  greatly  varied.  In 
the  southeast  are  the  Chiltern  hills,  abound- 
ing in  forests  and  tracts  of  fertile  land;  the 
central  and  northern  portions,  with  the  ex- 
ception of  a  not  very  elevated  ridge,  are  most- 
ly flat,  but  well  cultivated.  The  principal  riv- 
ers are  the  Thames,  or  Isis  (by  which  latter 
name  it  is  known  until  it  is  joined  by  the 
Thame),  the  Evenlode,  Windrush,  and  Cher- 
well.  The  soil  is  generally  very  fertile,  and 
the  population  is  principally  engaged  in  agri- 
culture, especially  in  dairy  husbandry.  The 
county  has  long  enjoyed  a  reputation  for  its 
beautiful  woods,  and  the  abundance  of  its  mea- 
dows and  pastures.  There  are  many  interest- 
ing antiquities.  The  principal  towns  are  Ox- 
ford, the  capital,  Woodstock,  and  Banbury. 

OX  GILL,  the  bile  of  the  ox,  a  viscid  green 
or  greenish  yellow  fluid,  of  bitter  and  slightly 
sweetish  taste,  found  chiefly  in  a  membranous 
bag  in  the  ox.  It  varies  in  consistency,  some- 
times being  very  limpid,  and  at  others  like  a 
sirup.  (See  BILE.)  It  possesses  properties  which 
render  it  of  value  in  the  arts.  It  dissolves 
greasy  matters,  and  for  cleansing  woollen  stuffs 
upon  a  large  scale  it  is  sometimes  preferred  to 
soap.  To  preserve  it  from  putrefying  it  need 
only  be  evaporated  at  a  gentle  heat  to  the  con- 
sistency of  an  extract ;  and  when  wanted  for 
use  it  may  be  dissolved  in  water  slightly  alka- 
line. The  purified  ox  gall  is  much  used  by 
artists  on  account  of  its  property  of  combining 
with  colors,  giving  them  more  tenacity  and  fix- 
ing them  strongly,  while  it  also  makes  them 
flow  more  freely  and  often  increases  their  lus- 
tre. It  may  either  be  mixed  with  the  colors 
or  applied  to  the  paper  after  the  colors.  It 
is  advantageously  applied  combined  with  gum 
Arabic  as  a  light  varnish,  which  however  ad- 
mits of  other  shades  being  added  without  mix- 
ing with  the  first.  With  lampblack  and  gum 
water  it  makes  a  beautiful  black  paint  or  ink 
that  may  be  used  instead  of  India  ink.  The 
lampblack  is  first  mixed  with  the  gum  water, 
and  the  purified  ox  gall  is  then  added.  It  fixes 
sketches  in  lead  pencil,  and  does  not  prevent 
them  from  being  afterward  tinted  with  colors 
in  which  a  small  proportion  of  ox  gall  is  mixed. 
It  is  highly  recommended  for  use  in  painting 
on  ivory,  as  it  removes  from  this  all  greasy 
matter,  and  causes  the  colors  to  spread  freely, 
and  penetrate  into  the  ivory.  It  is  equally 
useful  in  the  application  of  paints  to  trans- 
parent paper.  For  these  effects  it  is  essential 
626  VOL.  xii. — 49 


OXIDES 


767 


that  the  purified  article  should  be  prepared 
from  very  fresh  ox  gall.  The  method  of  puri- 
fying in  best  repute  is  as  follows :  To  a  pint  of 
the  gall  boiled  and  skimmed  add  an  ounce  of 
pulverized  alum,  and  leave  the  liquor  on  the 
fire  till  the  combination  is  complete.  Another 
pint  is  treated  in  the  same  way  with  an  ounce 
of  common  salt  instead  of  alum.  When  cold 
the  liquids  are  separately  bottled  and  loosely 
corked.  They  should  then  be  kept  for  three 
months,  when  a  sediment  subsides,  and  the 
liquor  becomes  clearer.  There  is  still  present 
a  yellow  coloring  matter  which  would  affect 
green  and  some  other  colors,  and  which  is  sepa- 
rated as  a  coagulum  by  turning  off  and  mixing 
the  clear  portions  of  the  two  mixtures  in  equal 
quantities.  The  liquid  is  then  obtained  by  fil- 
tering perfectly  purified  and  colorless.  It  im- 
proves by  age,  and  never  disengages  a  bad 
odor,  nor  loses  its  useful  properties. 

OXIDES,  a  general  term  applied  to  the  com- 

Eounds  of  oxygen  with  other  bodies,  particu- 
irly  the  binary  compounds  with  the  other 
elements.  Their  number  and  variety  are  very 
great,  for  oxygen  is  the  most  widely  diffused 
and  abundant  of  all  the  elementary  substances. 
Water  is  an  oxide  of  hydrogen,  and  the  geo- 
logical formations  are  principally  composed  of 
various  oxides  of  the  metallic  and  non-metallic 
elements,  as  oxide  of  silicon  or  silica  in  quartz 
rock,  oxide  of  iron  in  various  iron  ores,  and 
oxides  of  aluminum  and  silicon  in  clay  and 
feldspathic  rocks.  The  oxides  exist  in  all 
three  of  the  physical  forms  of  matter,  the  solid, 
liquid,  and  gaseous.  The  metallic  oxides  are 
solid  at  ordinary  temperatures,  and  most  of 
them  retain  this  state  at  high  temperatures. 
Oxide  of  hydrogen,  water,  is  a  liquid  at  the 
common  pressure  of  the  atmosphere  between 
212°  and  32°  F. ;  above  212°  it  has  a  gaseous, 
and  below  32°  a  solid  form.  The  oxides  of 
carbon,  carbon  monoxide  and  carbon  dioxide, 
commonly  called  carbonic  oxide  and  carbonic 
acid,  are  gases,  the  former  never  having  been 
liquefied.  Carbonic  acid  has,  however,  been 
liquefied  and  frozen.  (See  CAEBONIO  ACID, 
and  HEAT.)  According  to  the  proportion  of 
the  number  of  equivalents  with  which  oxygen 
enters  into  union  with  other  bodies,  the  oxides 
receive  the  names  of  monoxide  or  protoxide, 
dioxide  (deutoxide  or  binoxide),  teroxide  or 
tritoxide,  tetroxide,  pentoxide,  and  also  subox- 
ide  and  peroxide,  for  lowest  and  highest  ox- 
ides. The  series  of  oxides  of  some  of  the  ele- 
ments are  remarkable  for  regularity  of  compo- 
sition, as  the  oxides  of  nitrogen  and  manganese. 
(See  NITEOGEN,  and  MANGANESE.)  The^oxides 
are  conveniently  divided  into  three  principal 
groups,  the  first  containing  all  those  which  re- 
semble the  oxides  of  potassium,  sodium,  silver, 
and  the  lower  oxides  of  lead,  and  which  are 
called  basic  oxides  or  bases.  In  the  second 
group  the  oxides  of  sulphur  and  phosphorus 
may  be  taken  as  types.  They  are  called  acid 
oxides,  and  are  capable  of  uniting  with  the 
basic  oxides  and  forming  compounds  called 


768 


OXLEE 


salts.  Thus  when  sulphuric  oxide  (anhydrous 
sulphuric  acid,  S03)  is  passed  in  a  state _  of 
vapor  over  oxide  of  barium,  BaO,  combination 
takes  place  with  evolution  of  heat  and  light, 
and  sulphate  of  barium  is  formed  containing 
all  the  elements  of  the  original  bodies  (BaO 
+  S03=BaSO4  or  BaO, S03).  There  is  an  inter- 
mediate group  of  oxides,  called  neutral  oxides, 
because  of  their  indifference  to  entering  into 
combinations.  The  black  oxide,  binoxide  or 
dioxide  of  manganese,  MnOa,  is  an  example  of 
this  group,  the  monoxide  of  the  same  inetal 
being  basic  and  the  higher  oxides  acid.  The 
dioxide  of  lead  (peroxide)  may  also  be  classed 
with  these ;  for  although  it  possesses  feeble  acid 
properties,  and  plumbates  of  the  alkalies  may 
be  formed,  they  are  decomposed  by  solution  in 
water.  Moreover,  the  dioxide  of  lead  in  the 
presence  of  acids  is  generally  decomposed, 
with  the  formation  of  a  salt  of  the  monoxide. 
The  three  groups  are  not  separated  by  very 
decided  lines,  although  the  well  marked  types 
are  characteristic.  They  blend  together  upon 
their  borders  by  imperceptible  degrees,  so  that 
the  same  oxide  will  exhibit  basic  reactions 
toward  one  body,  while  it  behaves  like  an  acid 
toward  another.  In  general  it  may  be  said 
that  when  oxygen  combines  in  several  propor- 
tions with  a  metallic  element,  the  lower  oxides 
are  basic,  while  the  higher  ones  have  an  acid 
character. 

OXLEE,  John,  an  English  clergyman,  born 
Sept.  25,  1779,  died  Jan.  30,  1854.  He  was 
rector  of  Scawton,  Yorkshire,  from  1816  to 
1826,  and  of  Molesworth,  Hants,  from  1836. 
He  devoted  much  time  to  the  study  of  orien- 
tal languages,  and  published  several  theologi- 
cal works,  the  most  important  of  which  are : 
"Christian  Doctrine  of  the  Trinity  and  In- 
carnation "  (3  vols.  8vo,  1815-'50) ;  "  Sermons 
on  the  Christian  Hierarchy;"  and  "Letters  on 
the  Conversion  of  the  Jews  "  (1843). 

OXLIP.     See  PKIMKOSE. 

OXPECKER,  a  bird  of  the  starling  family, 
and  the  genus  lupJiaga  (Linn.),  inhabiting  the 


Oxpecker  (Buphaga  Africana). 

warm  parts  of  Africa;  it  is  also  called  "beef- 
eater. '  The  bill  is  pincer-like,  stout  and  broad 
at  the  base,  with  depressed  culmen  and  curved 


oxus 

tip ;  the  wings  long  and  pointed,  the  first  quill 
very  short  and  the  third  the  longest ;  the  tail 
long,  broad,  and  wedge-shaped,  with  the  end 
of  each  feather  pointed ;  tarsi  and  toes  robust, 
and  the  claws  compressed,  curved,  and  sharp. 
The  best  known  species,  B.  Africana  (Linn.), 
is  between  8  and  9  in.  long,  reddish  brown 
above  and  yellowish  white  below ;  the  bill  is 
yellowish,  with  a  red  tip.  It  is  shy,  generally 
seen  in  flocks  of  seven  or  eight,  about  herds  of 
cattle,  alighting  on  their  backs  and  extracting 
the  larvae  of  the  hot  flies  (cestridce)  which  in- 
fest them ;  the  bulging  of  the  bill  at  the  end 
is  admirably  adapted  for  gently  squeezing  out 
these  and  other  parasites  from  under  the  skin, 
which  form  their  chief  food.  Another  spe- 
cies, B.  erythrorJiyncha  (Stanl.),  has  a  red  bill. 
OXUS,  the  classical  and  still  common  name 
of  the  Amoo  Darya  or  Jihoon,  an  important 
river  of  western  Asia.  It  has  its  source  about 
15,600  ft.  above  the  sea,  in  the  Sir-i-Kol  (Lake 
Sir),  or  Lake  Victoria,  in  the  district  of  Pamir, 
and  on  the  recently  defined  boundary  between 
Afghanistan  and  eastern  Turkistan ;  flows  in  a 
generally  W.  direction,  forming  the  northern 
Afghan  boundary,  as  far  as  the  post  of  Khodja 
Salah;  then  takes  a  N".  W.  course  through 
Bokhara  and  Khiva,  and  falls  through  several 
mouths  into  the  sea  of  Aral.  Its  length  is  be- 
tween 1,200  and  1,300  m.  For  about  300  m. 
of  the  first  part  of  its  course  it  is  called  the 
Panja ;  and  in  this  distance  it  receives  five  im- 
portant and  a  great  number  of  smaller  afflu- 
ents, draining  E.  Bokhara  and  N.  E.  Afghan- 
istan. Below  the  most  westerly  of  these  five 
affluents,  the  Koksha  river,  the  main  stream 
receives  the  name  of  Amoo  Darya ;  and  from 
this  point  to  its  mouth  it  is  navigable,  but 
flows  through  the  almost  completely  desert 
waste  of  Khiva.  Its  delta  is  low  and  marshy, 
and  several  of  its  mouths  are  so  shallow  as  to 
be  impassable  even  for  small  craft.  The  great- 
est breadth  of  the  main  channel  of  the  stream 
is  about  3,200  ft. ;  its  greatest  depth  a  little 
more  than  5  fathoms.  The  valley  of  the  river, 
and  especially  that  of  the  upper  Oxus,  has 
long  been  one  of  the  most  interesting  regions 
for  geographers  and  ethnologists ;  for  the  lat- 
ter, because  of  the  common  hypothesis  which 
regards  the  region  about  its  source  as  the  cradle 
of  the  human  race;  and  for  the  former,  on 
account  of  the  interesting  explorations  made 
during  recent  years,  and  the  theories  and  dis- 
coveries with  regard  to  the  ancient  and  mod- 
ern beds  of  the  river.  It  seems  conclusively 
established  that  the  Oxus  at  one  time,  through 
a  course  still  clearly  traceable,  flowed  into  the 
Caspian  sea.  The  peculiar  features  of  the 
whole  Khivan  region,  supposed  to  have  once 
formed  the  bed  of  an  inland  sea,  add  to  the 
interest  of  the  Oxus  valley.— The  Oxus  has  been 
important  in  political  history.  Alexander's 
eastern  campaigns  brought  him  several  times 
to  its  banks ;  and  its  valley  was  the  scene  of 
important  events  in  later  times.  Recently  it 
has  been  brought  prominently  into  discussion 


OXYDENDRUM 

in  connection  with  questions  of  Russian  pos- 
sessions in  central  Asia.  (See  AFGHANISTAN, 
BOKHARA,  and  KHIVA.)  Of  the  numerous  books 
and  papers  written  upon  the  Oxus,  see  espe- 
cially Sir  H.  0.  Rawlinson's  "Monograph  on 
the  Oxus  "  ("  Journal  of  the  Royal  Geographi- 
cal Society,"  1872),  and  for  description  Mac- 
Gahan's  "  Campaigning  on  the  Oxus,  and  the 
Fall  of  Khiva"  (London and  New  York,  1874). 

OXYDENDROI.     See  TREE  SORREL. 

OXTGEN  (Gr.  6?6f,  acid,  and  yewae/v,  to  gen- 
erate), the  most  abundant  of  all  elementary 
substances,  having  when  free  a  gaseous  form, 
which  has  never  been  reduced  to  a  liquid.  Its 
symbol  is  O,  its  atomic  weight  16.  It  com- 
poses eight  ninths  of  the  water  on  the  globe, 
nearly  one  fourth  of  the  atmosphere,  and  a 
large  part  of  the  earth's  crust,  principally  in 
the  form  of  oxides  of  the  various  metallic  ele- 
ments. It  was  discovered  by  Priestley  in  Eng- 
land in  1774,  and  almost  simultaneously  by 
Scheele  in  Sweden.  It  was  called  by  Priest- 
ley dephlogisticated  air,  and  by  Scheele  em- 
pyreal air.  Condorcet  proposed  the  name  vital 
air,  in  reference  to  its  agency  in  supporting 
life.  Lavoisier,  whose  claim  to  its  subsequent 
discovery  is  disputed,  made  a  series  of  careful 
experiments  in  which  he  proved  that  the  com- 
bustion of  bodies  in  the  air  consisted  in  their 
union  with  this  gas,  to  which  he  gave  the 
name  of  oxygen,  because  he  thought  it  essen- 
tial to  the  constitution  of  an  acid ;  it  has  since 
been  shown  that  this  view  was  erroneous. — 
Preparation.  Oxygen  may  be  obtained  by 
several  different  methods,  which  depend  upon 
different  physical  as  well  as  chemical  princi- 
ples. It  may  be  mechanically  separated  from 
the  nitrogen  of  the  atmosphere  by  employing 
the  principle  of  osmose  in  dialysis  (see  DIAL- 
YSIS), a  process  due  to  Graham.  It  may  be 
obtained  from  water  by  electrolysis  (see  GAL- 
VANISM, vol.  vii.,  p.  596) ;  from  several  of  its 
compounds  by  the  dissociating  action  of  heat,  as 
from  peroxide  of  mercury  in  the  original  exper- 
iment of  Priestley ;  from  other  higher  oxides 
of  metals  by  heat  alone,  or  by  the  joint  action 
of  heat  and  some  substance  which  will  unite 
with  a  lower  oxide,  thus  leaving  a  part  of  the 
oxygen  free.  Until  recently,  the  usual  mode 
of  preparing  it  in  large  quantities  was  to  sub- 
ject binoxide  of  manganese  to  a  red  heat  in  a 
furnace,  as  shown  in  fig.  1.  The  cylindrical 
cast-iron  retort  a  contains  the  binoxide,  which 
is  placed  in  the  furnace  &.  One  pound  of  good 
oxide  will  yield  six  or  seven  gallons  of  oxy- 
gen, with  some  carbonic  acid,  which  may  be 
removed  by  means  of  the  Woulff's  wash  bottle 
c,  containing  a  solution  of  potash  or  soda ; 
MnO2  becomes  by  the  action  of  heat  MnO  +  O. 
It  may  be  obtained  from  binoxide  of  manganese 
by  employing  strong  sulphuric  acid  and  a  mod- 
erate degree  of  heat,  a  glass  flask  or  retort 
being  used  in  place  of  iron.  The  reaction  in 
this  case  may  be  represented  by  the  following 
equation  :  HaSO4  +  Mn02=MnSO4  +  HaO  +  O. 
It  may  be  procured  by  the  dissociating  action 


OXYGEX 


769 


of  heat  on  sulphate  of  zinc,  which  at  a  red 
heat  gives  off  a  mixture  of  sulphurous  acid  and 
oxygen,  from  which  the  sulphurous  acid  may 


FIG.  1. 

be  removed  by  washing,  either  with  an  alka- 
line solution  or  with  water.  Oxygen  may  also 
be  obtained  in  decomposing  sulphuric  acid  by 
passing  its  vapor  over  red-hot  platinum  foil 
or  sponge,  the  products  being,  as  in  the  last 
case,  sulphurous  acid  and  oxygen,  H2S04= 
H2O  +  SO2  +  O.  This  process  is  recommended 
by  Deville  and  Debray  as  the  cheapest  meth- 
od for  procuring  it  in  large  quantities.  For 
class-room  experiments  and  lectures  oxygen 
is  usually  obtained  by  decomposing  with  heat 
chlorate  of  potash,  KC103,  which  becomes 
K01+3O.  This  may  be  effected  with  the  salt 
alone,  but  the  high  temperature  required  to 
produce  perfect  decomposition,  and  the  vio- 
lence with  which  it  takes  place,  make  it  prefer- 
able to  mix  the  salt  with  about  its  own  bulk 
of  some  oxide,  as  binoxide  of  manganese.  The 
operation  may  be  conducted  in  apparatus  shown 
in  fig.  2.  Boussingault  proposed  a' method  of 
obtaining  oxygen  by  alternately  oxidizing  and 
deoxidizing  a  metal  or  metallic  base.  The  sub- 
stance used  by  him  was  the  oxide  of  barium 
or  barytes,  and  it  is  raised  to  the  peroxide  by 
passing  a  current  of  slightly  moistened  air, 
deprived  of  carbonic  acid,  over  the  protoxide 
heated  to  redness  in  a  porcelain  tube.  When 
peroxidation  has  taken  place,  the  current  of 
air  is  cut  off,  and  the  tube  is  heated  to  full 
redness,  which  drives  off  the  surplus  oxygen, 


FIG.  2. 


and  reduces  the  barytes  again  to  a  protoxide. 
Mar6chal  and  Tessie  du  Motay  prepare  oxy- 
gen in  large  quantities  by  heating  manganatea, 


7TO 


OXYGEN 


permanganates,  or  chromates  of  the  alkalies 
or  alkaline  earths,  in  a  current  of  superheated 
steam.  The  operation  is  conducted  as  follows : 
Binoxide  of  manganese  is  stirred  to  a  paste 
with  a  solution  of  caustic  soda.  This  paste, 
subjected  to  the  action  of  hot  air  deprived  of 
carbonic  acid,  is  converted  into  manganate  of 
soda.  If  now  the  manganate  is  subjected  to 
the  action  of  a  stream  of  superheated  steam, 
the  salt  is  decomposed,  the  soda  becoming  a 
hydrate,  and  the  manganic  acid  being  reduced 
to  a  lower  degree  of  oxidation,  while  a  portion 
of  its  oxygen  is  liberated.  Cylindrical  iron 
retorts  are  used,  through  which  hot  air  and 
superheated  steam  are  alternately  passed,  each 
operation  producing  alternate  oxidation  and 
deoxidation  of  the  mass,  so  that  it  may  be 
continuous.  It  is  said  that  a  charge  of  10  Ibs. 
of  the  mass  will  yield  80  gallons  of  oxygen 
gas,  even  after  it  has  undergone  80  operations. 
Apparatus  of  the  kind  is  used  in  New  York 
for  street  illumination. — Properties.  Oxygen 
is  colorless,  tasteless,  and  inodorous,  and  the 
least  refractive  of  all  the  gases.  Compared 
with  atmospheric  air,  it  is  as  0'83  to  1.  No 
degree  of  cold  or  pressure  yet  applied  has  re- 
sulted in  its  liquefaction.  Its  specific  grav- 
ity is  1-1056,  16  times  heavier  than  hydrogen. 
Its  specific  heat  compared  with  that  of  an 
equal  volume  of  air,  according  to  De  la  Roche 
and  Berard,  is  0-9765.  According  to  Tyndall, 
it  has  less  power  to  absorb  and  to  radiate  heat 
than  other  gases.  Faraday  showed  that  it  is 
the  most  magnetic  of  all  gases ;  compared  with 
air  its  magnetic  power  is  as  5  to  1  ;•  with  nitro- 
gen, about  40  to  1.  In  this  respect  its  position 
among  gases  is  like  that  of  iron  among  metals, 
and  like  this  metal  its  magnetism  is  destroyed 
by  heat,  but  on  account  of  its  gaseous  condi- 
tion returns  on  cooling,  while  iron  remains  de- 
magnetized from  its  molecules  having  received 
a  set.  Faraday  suggested  that  the  diurnal  va- 
riation of  the  magnetic  needle  may  be  caused 
by  the  increase  and  decrease  of  the  magnetic 
force  in  the  atmospheric  oxygen  from  the  va- 
riation of  solar  heat.  Water  dissolves  oxygen 
sparingly,  100  volumes  of  water  at  60°  F.  dis- 
solving 3  volumes  of  the  gas,  and  at  32°  about 
4  volumes.  The-  air  which  is  held  in  solution 
by  terrestrial  waters  contains  a  much  larger 
proportion  of  oxygen  than  atmospheric  air, 
and  this  condition  adapts  it  to  the  respiration 
of  aquatic  animals. — Oxygen  is  what  is  usually 
termed  an  active  supporter  of  combustion ; 
most  bodies  which  are  called  combustibles,  as 
hydrogen  and  carbohydrogen  gases,  coal,  wood, 
and  the  various  oils,  burn  with  vividness  in  it 
when  raised  to  a  red  heat.  But  it  is  strictly 
more  correct  to  say  that  all  the  elements  which 
unite  in  combustion  are  supporters  of  combus- 
tion. A  jet  of  oxygen  may  be  burned  in  an 
atmosphere  of  hydrogen,  as  well  as  a  jet  of 
hydrogen  in  an  atmosphere  of  oxygen.  Char- 
coal bark,  heated  to  redness  and  introduced 
into  a  vessel  of  oxygen,  is  consumed  with  bril- 
liant scintillations,  unaccompanied  with  flame, 


in  consequence  of  the  instantaneous  conver- 
sion of  the  carbon  into  carbonic  acid,  without 
the  intermediate  production  of  carbonic  ox- 
ide, which  in  ordinary  charcoal  combustion  is 
produced  and  causes  a  faint  blue  flame.  (See 
FLAME,  and  COMBUSTION.)  Phosphorus,  when 
ignited  in  a  small  cup  attached  to  a  bent  wire, 
and  lowered  into  a  vessel  of  oxygen  (cautious- 
ly, to  avoid  burning  the  hand),  burns  with 
exceeding  brilliancy.  If  the  piece  is  large 
enough  not  to  be  consumed  before  it  boils,  the 
vapor,  becoming  somewhat  diffused,  will  give 
the  bell  glass  the  appearance  of  an  incandes- 
cent body.  The  product  of  the  combustion 
is  phosphoric  acid  (P206),  the  highest  oxide  of 
phosphorus.  The  products  of  the  union  of 
oxygen  with  the  other  elements,  particularly 
the  binary  compounds,  are  called  oxides,  as  the 
oxides  of  the  metals,  like  lime  or  oxide  of  cal- 
cium, potash  or  oxide  of  potassium,  and  lith- 
arge or  oxide  of  lead;  and  the  oxides  of  the 
non-metallic  elements,  as  the  oxides  of  nitro- 
gen, like  nitric  oxide  and  nitric  acid.  (See 
NITROGEN.)  The  various  oxides  will  be  found 
under  the  heads  of  the  elements  of  which  they 
are  formed.  (See  also  OXIDES.) — Although,  as 
has  been  remarked,  oxygen  is  not  necessary, 
as  Lavoisier  supposed,  to  the  production  of  an 
acid,  yet  there  is  no  non-metallic  body  which 
is  so  widely  associated  with  the  production 
of  acid  properties  in  compounds.  In  the  va- 
rious proportions  in  which  a  metal  combines 
with  oxygen,  those  compounds  containing  the 
smallest  proportions  are  not  acid,  but  act  the 
part  of  bases,  while  the  more  highly  oxidized 
compounds  are  acid.  This  is  illustrated  in  the 
various  oxides  of  manganese  and  iron.  (See 
MANGANESE.)  In  the  different  proportions  in 
which  it  combines  with  nitrogen  similar  re- 
sults are  seen.  (See  NITROGEN.) — One  of  the 
important  applications  of  oxygen  gas  is  its 
employment  as  one  of  the  elements  in  the 
oxyhydrogen  blowpipe,  which,  with  the  ex- 
ception of  the  galvanic  battery,  yields  the 
highest  known  degree  of  artificial  heat.  The 
ordinary  mouth  blowpipe  test,  by  which  a 
small  button  of  metal  may  be  oxidized  or  de- 
oxidized, according  as  it  is  placed  in  the  outer 
or  the  inner  flame,  or  placed  upon  charcoal,  or 
mingled  with  an  oxidizing  flux,  depends  upon 
the  agency  of  oxygen  (see  BLOWPIPE)  ;  and  the 
process  of  cupellation  depends  upon  the  same 
principle.  In  these  operations  nitrate  of  potash 
(K2N03)  is  often  used  with  advantage  for  this 
purpose. — The  wide  range  of  affinity  possessed 
by  oxygen  is  evidenced  by  the  important  part 
it  plays  in  the  processes  of  chemical  analysis 
and  synthesis,  and  in  the  changes  which  take 
place  during  decay  and  fermentation,  as  well 
as  in  the  phenomena  of  life  in  plants  and  ani- 
mals. (See  EEEMAOAUSIS,  and  FERMENTATION.) 
Eremacausis  is  a  process  of  slow  oxidation. 
Oxygen  is  one  of  the  most  important  support- 
ers of  animal  life,  and  was  therefore  called 
by  the  older  chemists  vital  air.  In  fermenta- 
tion oxygen  plays  an  active  part  in  the  de- 


OYER 


OYSTER 


771 


velopment  of  yeast  and  the  oxidation  of  glu- 
ten ;  the  transformation  of  starch  into  glucose, 
and  of  glucose  into  alcohol ;  also  the  further 
change  of  alcohol  into  acetic  acid.  The  func- 
tion of  animal  respiration  is  a  process  by  which 
the  absorption  of  atmospheric  oxygen  by  the 
blood  is  brought  about  in  the  capillaries  of  the 
lungs,  in  consequence  of  its  affinity  for  a  con- 
stituent of  the  blood  globules,  possessing  the 
property,  according  to  recent  experiments  of 
Hoppe-Seyler  and  Stokes,  of  absorbing  an  ad- 
ditional quantity  of  oxygen  in  a  state  of  loose 
combination,  by  which  the  blood  changes  from 
a  purple  to  a  scarlet  hue,  and  of  again  yield- 
ing it  up  to  the  tissues  in  the  performance  of 
their  function  of  assimilation  and  elimination. 
This  constituent  of  the  blood  globules  is  called 
by  Hoppe-Seyler  haemoglobine,  and  when  in 
combination  with  oxygen  oxy-heemoglobine. 
Prof.  Stokes  calls  it,  in  its  two  conditions,  pur- 
ple cruorine  and  scarlet  cruorine.  The  per- 
formance of  the  functions  of  the  nervous  sys- 
tem is  dependent  upon  the  presence  of  oxygen 
in  the  blood,  its  deficiency  causing  an  accu- 
mulation of  carbonic  acid  and  a  state  of  coma. 
Respiration  also  includes  the  elimination  of 
carbonic  acid  in  the  animal ;  but  in  the  plant, 
under  the  influence  of  sunlight,  the  absorption 
of  carbonic  acid,  the  fixation  of  carbon,  and 
the  elimination  of  oxygen.  The  action  of  gun- 
powder depends  upon  the  weak  combination 
of  the  oxygen  element  of  nitre  with  nitro- 
gen, and  its  strong  affinity  for  other  ingredi- 
ents of  the  compound,  as  charcoal  and  sulphur, 
a  union  with  which,  at  least  with  the  charcoal, 
and  a  separation  from  the  nitrogen,  causes  the 
evolution  of  an  abundance  of  elastic  gases. 
The  drying  of  linseed  oil  and  the  hardening 
of  paint  is  a  process  of  oxidation,  and  could 
not  take  place  without  oxygen.  The  pro- 
cess of  bronzing  the  surfaces  of  metals  usu- 
ally consists  either  in  oxidizing  them,  or  in 
spreading  on  them  another  metallic  compound 
which  will  undergo  oxidation  by  exposure  to 
the  air.  The  action  of  sunlight  on  salts  of 
silver  causes  them  to  decompose  and  the  silver 
to  become  converted  into  black  oxide;  and 
photography,  in  one  of  its  modes,  depends 
upon  the  fixation  of  oxide  of  silver  upon  paper 
or  other  material.  (See  OZONE.) 

OYER  (law  Fr.,  a  hearing,  from  Lat.  audire, 
to  hear).  When  one  party  declares  on  or  oth- 
erwise pleads  a  deed,  and  founds  his  claim  or 
rests  his  defence  upon  it,  he  must  generally 
make  profert  of  it,  or  in  other  words  must 
aver  in  his  pleadings  that  he  produces  the  said 
deed  in  court.  In  practice,  under  a  system  of 
written  pleadings,  the  production  does  not 
take  place  unless  demanded  by  the  adversary 
party,  which  is  done  by  serving  a  written  no- 
tice that  he  craves  oyer.  The  party  who  has 
made  profert  then  regularly  grants  oyer  by  giv- 
ing a  copy  of  the  instrument,  and  this  enables 
the  opposite  party  to  set  it  forth  in  his  subse- 
quent pleadings,  and  raise  upon  it  any  question 
which  he  may  think  of  service  to  him  in  the 


case.  It  is  only  in  this  way  that  the  deed  is 
spread  upon  the  record.  If  a  party  who  regu- 
larly should  make  profert  is  unable  for  any 
reason  to  produce  the  instrument,  he  should 
not  make  profert,  but  should  set  forth  in  his 
pleading  the  facts  which  excuse  it ;  for  if  pro- 
fert is  made,  oyer  must  be  granted  when  de- 
manded, or  judgment  may  be  entered  up  for 
the  want  of  it.  Oyer  is  not  requisite  in  the 
case  of  unsealed  instruments,  or  records ;  but 
an  executor  or  administrator  who  brings  suit 
in  his  representative  capacity  must  make  pro- 
fert of  the  letters  which  are  the  foundation  of 
his  right  to  sue. 

OYER  AND  TERMINER,  the  technical  name  of 
the  commission  by  virtue  of  which  the  judges 
in  England  take  cognizance  of  and  try  criminal 
offences.  The  words  were  used  in  the  commis- 
sion when  it  was  written  in  Norman  French ; 
and  in  English  the  authority  is  to  "  inquire, 
hear,  and  determine."  In  the  United  States 
courts  for  the  trial  of  criminal  causes  have 
sometimes  been  designated  courts  of  oyer  and 
terminer,  but  the  authority  is  conferred  by 
statute  and  not  by  special  commission. 

OYSTER,  a  marine  acephalous  mollusk,  of 
the  lamellibranchiate  order  and  genus  ostrea 
(Linn.).  The  shells  are  very  irregular,  inequi- 
valve,  and  lamellated,  the  right  or  upper  shell 
being  the  smaller  and  flatter  and  moving  for- 
ward with  age,  leaving  a  lengthening  groove 
for  the  ligament  exposed  along  the  beak  of  the 
adhering  valve,  which  is  the  left  and  lower, 
the  deeper,  and  more  capacious,  and  attached 
to  foreign  bodies  by  a  calcareous  growth  from 
the  shell  itself.  The  shells  are  so  variable  in 
surface  and  shape  that  it  would  be  difficult  to 
describe  them,  and  for  the  same  reason  it  is 
almost  impossible  strictly  to  define  the  limits 
of  the  species;  there  is  only  one  adductor 
muscle  to  hold  the  valves  together,  and  the 
small  ligament  at  the  hinge  is  inserted  into  a 
little  depression  on  each  side,  without  teeth  or 
projecting  plates.  The  animal  is  very  simple ; 
the  mantle  has  a  double  fringe,  and  its  lobes 
are  widely  separated,  united  only  near  the 
hinge  ;  there  is  no  vestige  of  foot;  respiration 
is  effected  by  means  of  vascular  gills  or  mem- 
branous plates  attached  to  the  inner  surface  of 
the  mantle,  to  which  water  is  brought  by  the 
ceaseless  action  of  vibratile  cilia;  the  mouth 
is  jawless  and  toothless,  but  is  provided  with 
short  labial  processes  separate  from  the  gills 
for  selecting  food,  consisting  of  minute  parti- 
cles brought  to  it  by  the  respiratory  currents ; 
the  intestine  is  comparatively  short,  with  a 
few  convolutions;  the  ventricle  of  the  heart 
lies  upon  the  rectum..  By  most  writers  oysters 
have  been  considered  hermaphrodite,  but  ac- 
cording to  Siebold  and  others  they  are  of  sepa- 
rate sexes,  though  the  females  vastly  prepon- 
derate, and  are  ovoviviparous  ;  they  are  sensi- 
ble of  light,  as  is  known  by  their  closing  the 
valves  when  reached  by  the  shadow  of  an  ap- 
proaching boat,  and  have  numerous  short,  pe- 
dunculated,  yellowish  brown  eyes  between  the 


772 

fringes  for  more  than  a  third  of  the  length  of 
the  mantle.  The  adult  oyster  has  no  power  of 
locomotion,  and  the  only  signs  of  vigorous 
movements  are  in  the  expulsion  of  the  respira- 
tory currents,  the  excrements,  and  the  sperm 
or  ova  by  the  sudden  closing  of  the  valves  and 


OYSTER 


Oysters  at  different  Stages  of  Growth. 

the  contraction  of  the  mantle ;  but  it  is  said 
they  can  turn  themselves  if  placed  upside  down, 
and  the  sensibility  of  the  fringes  and  labial  pro- 
cesses is  acute.  The  eggs  are  expelled  in  a 
white,  greasy,  viscid  fluid,  called  "  spats "  by 
the  fishermen,  which  adhere  to  submarine 
bodies,  and  to  each  other,  by  their  develop- 
ment forming  the  immense  banks  found  upon 
some  coasts,  the  old  ones  being  destroyed  by 
the  pressure  of  the  new ;  fecundation  is  effect- 
ed through  the  medium  of  the  water,  which 
conveys  the  sperm  to  the  ova ;  the  eggs  are  to 
a  certain  extent  developed  within  the  cavity 
of  the  mantle  about  the  gills ;  to  this  cavity 
also  the  floating  ova  of  some  of  the  smaller 
Crustacea  gain  access,  and  here  the  little,  soft, 
yellowish  white  crab  (pinnotheres)  is  often  de- 
veloped to  a  considerable  size;  this  last  is  a 
parasitic  inhabitant  of  the  oyster  shell,  and  is 
not  a  portion  of  its  food,  as  the  softness  of  the 
mouth  of  the  latter  does  not  admit  of  its  at- 
tacking any  resisting  substance.  Oysters  are 
found  in  almost  all  seas,  usually  in  from  two 
to  six  fathoms  of  water,  and  never  at  a  great 
distance  from  the  shore;  they  are  especially 
fond  of  tranquil  waters  or  the  gulfs  formed  by 


the  mouths  of  great  rivers ;  they  cannot  live 
in  fresh  water,  but  some  species  remain  dry 
during  the  greater  part  of  every  tide ;  the  tree 
oysters  (  0.  parasitica  and  polymorpha),  which 
attach  themselves  to  mangrove  and  other 
bushes  in  the  tropics,  enclose  within  the  shells 
a  sufficient  quantity  of  water  to  keep  up  the 
respiratory  currents  ;  this  faculty,  possessed 
more  or  less  by  all  the  family,  renders  practi- 
cable their  transportation  to  great  distances. 
They  have  been  highly  esteemed  as  food  from 
the  times  of  the  Greeks  and  Romans  to  the 
present  day ;  they  are  of  easy  digestion,  but  not 
very  nutritious,  and  act  rather  as  a  provocative 
to  appetite  than  as  satisfying  food ;  they  are 
eaten  all  the  year  round,  except  in  the  months 
of  May,  June,  July,  and  August,  which  is  the 
spawning  season  ;  and  they  are  good  even 
then.  The  common  oyster  of  Europe  (0.  edu- 
lis,  Linn.),  abundant  on  the  coasts  of  Great 
Britain  and  France,  occurs  in  large  banks  or 
beds,  sometimes  extending  for  miles,  usually 
on  rocky  bottoms ;  from  about  the  middle  of 
August  to  the  middle  of  May  they  are  dredged 
from  the  bottom  by  a  kind  of  iron  rake  drawn 
by  a  boat  under  full  sail,  several  hundreds 
being  taken  at  a  single  haul ;  these  are  trans- 
ferred to  artificial  beds  or  parks,  where  they 
are  preserved  for  sale,  continually  growing  in 
size  and  improving  in  flavor.  The  growth  of 
the  oyster  is  slow,  it  being  only  as  large  as  a 
half  dollar  at  the  end  of  four  to  six  months, 
and  twice  that  size  at  the  end  of  a  year ;  in 
artificial  beds  the  growth  is  usually  slower,  the 
full  size  not  being  attained  till  the  fifth  to 
the  seventh  year.  The  west  coast  of  Scotland 
and  the  Hebrides  have  the  best  oysters  of  the 
British  coasts,  and  here  in  sheltered  bays  they 
acquire  the  green  color  so  esteemed  by  the 
epicure,  and  supposed  to  be  due  to  confervas 
and  similar  colored  growths  in  the  breeding 
places ;  other  English  beds  extend  from  Graves- 
end  on  the  Thames  along  the  Kent  coast,  and 
in  the  estuaries  of  the  Colne  and  other  rivers 
along  the  Essex  coast.  The  British  beds  are 
kept  up  by  careful  culture  and  by  the  introduc- 
tion of  broods  from  all  quarters;  since  1872 
several  varieties  of  American  oysters  have  been 
introduced,  but  the  planting  is  still  an  experi- 
ment, and  it  is  said  that  the  change  of  sea  de- 
teriorates their  quality.  Not  many  years  ago 
the  beds  of  France  were  nearly  exhausted ;  in 
1858  M.  Coste  recommended  plans  for  their 
restoration,  and  since  then  the  parks  in  the 
bays  of  St.  Brieuc  and  Arcachon,  and  the  isle 
of  Re,  restocked  by  broods  from  Cancale  and 
other  sources,  have  become  enormous;  and 
the  successful  culture  is  yearly  extending  along 
the  entire  Atlantic  and  Mediterranean  coasts 
of  France.  The  Danish  coast  is  Avell  supplied 
with  beds.  The  Neapolitan  lake  Fusaro  is  the 
great  oyster  park  of  Italy. — The  species  most 
esteemed  in  America  are  the  Virginian  oyster 
(  0.  Virginiana,  Lister)  and  the  northern  oyster 
(0.  lorealis,  Lam.).  In  the  0.  Virginiana  the 
shell  is  elongated  and  narrow,  and  the  beaks 


OYSTER 


OYSTER  CATCHER 


773 


pointed  and  not  much  curved ;  the  surface  of 
the  smaller  and  upper  valve  when  not  worn 
presents  everywhere  leaf -like  scales  of  a  leaden 
color,  and  a  lengthened  pyramidal  hinge  ridge 
along  the  beak  ;  the  muscular  impression  is 
nearly  central,  and  of  a  dark  chestnut  or  violet 
color  ;  it  often  measures  12  to  15  in.  in  length, 
but  is  rarely  more  than  3  in.  wide.  This  is  the 
common  oyster  from  Chesapeake  bay  south- 
ward ;  it  is  sometimes  found  in  the  vicinity  of 
Boston,  and  also  at  the  mouth  of  the  river  St. 
Lawrence ;  it  multiplies  so  rapidly  on  some  of 
the  low  shores  of  the  southern  states  as  to 
offer  impediments  to  navigation,  and  to  change 
the  course  of  tidal  currents.  In  the  0.  borealis 
the  shell  is  more  rounded  and  curved,  with  the 
beaks  short  and  considerably  curved  ;  the  sur- 
face is  very  irregular,  presenting  loosely  ar- 
ranged layers  of  a  greenish  color,  with  the 
margins  more  or  less  scalloped ;  the  muscular 
impression  is  dark  violet,  and  the  interior 
chalky  or  greenish  white  ;  a  common  size  is  5 
or  6  in.  long,  but  it  grows  to  the  length  of  a 
foot  and  to  a  width  of  6  in.  This  is  the 
common  New  York  oyster,  said  also  formerly 
to  have  been  abundant  in  Massachusetts  bay. 
Boston  market  is  supplied  principally  from 
artificial  beds  derived  from  the  Virginia  and 
New  York  oysters ;  the  flats  in  the  vicinity  of 
our  large  maritime  cities  are  generally  thick- 
ly beset  with  poles,  indicating  the  localities 
of  oyster  beds.  The  principal  sources  of  sup- 
ply are  the  Chesapeake  bay,  the  coast  of  New 
Jersey,  and  Long  Island  sound.  Formerly  the 
northern  beds  were  almost  wholly  kept  up  by 
restocking  them  with  seed  oysters  from  Chesa- 
peake bay  and  from  the  Hudson  river ;  but  of 
late  years  the  spat  is  secured  at  spawning  time, 
and  new  ground  in  the  vicinity  is  brought 
under  cultivation,  till  the  area  of  oyster  beds 
in  Long  Island  sound  is  now  computed  by  miles 
rather  than  by  acres,  and  it  is  yearly  extend- 
ing. With  constantly  improving  methods  of 
culture,  means  are  also  devised  for  protecting 
the  oyster  to  some  extent  from  its'  natural  ene- 
mies, and  for  transporting  oysters  to  the  re- 
motest parts  of  the  country.  No  trustworthy 
statistics  can  be  given  of  the  oyster  area  or  an- 
nual product,  or  the  amount  of  money  invest- 
ed, or  number  of  men  and  vessels  engaged  in 
the  business ;  the  wholesale  trade  of  New  York 
alone  is  estimated  at  $25,000,000  a  year,  and 
that  of  Chesapeake  bay  is  probably  nearly  as 
great. — More  than  60  species  of  oysters  are  de- 
scribed in  various  parts  of  the  world  ;  those  of 
tropical  climates  have  generally  a  less  delicious 
flavor  than  the  natives  of  temperate  zones. 
About  200  species  of  fossil  oysters,  from  the 
time  of  the  ammonites  to  the  present  epoch, 
are  known.  The  family  ostreadw,  of  which 
the  oyster  is  the  type,  contains  also  the  ge- 
nus anomia,  translucent,  pearly  white  within, 
attached  to  rocks  and  weeds  by  a  calcareous 
plug  passing  through  a  hole  or  notch  in  the 
right  valve,  the  same  species  presenting  a  great 
variety  of  shapes  from  acquiring  the  form  of 


the  surface  to  which  they  are  attached.  Allied 
genera  are  placuna,  like  the  P.  Bella  or  Hun- 
garian saddle,  and  P.  placenta  of  the  Chinese 
seas,  so  transparent  as  to  be  used  for  glass  in 
windows ;  the  pecten  or  scallop  shell ;  and  the 
spondylus  or  thorny  oyster.  The  pearl  oyster 
is  amcula  margaritifera,  belonging  to  another 
family.  (See  PEARL.) 

OYSTER  CATCHER,  a  wading  bird  of  the 
genus  hcematopus  (Linn.).  The  bill  is  twice 
as  long  as  the  head,  and  is  strong,  straight, 
much  compressed,  sharp-edged,  and  truncated 
at  the  end ;  wings  long  and  pointed,  with  the 
first  quill  the  longest ;  tail  moderate  and  even ; 
tarsi  strong,  covered  with  reticulated  plates 
anteriorly ;  toes  strong,  enlarged  on  the  sides 
by  a  thickened  membrane,  and  the  middle  uni- 
ted to  the  outer  by  a  basal  membrane ;  hind 
toe  wanting ;  claws  strong,  broad,  and  slightly 
curved.  There  are  about  a  dozen  species,  dis- 
tributed in  most  parts  of  the  world ;  they  are 
either  solitary,  or  occur  in  small  flocks  on  the 
seashore  or  salt  marshes,  feeding  on  various 
bivalve  mollusks,  crustaceans,  marine  worms, 
and  small  fish;  they  also  suck  sea  urchins 
(echini).  They  migrate  in  large  flocks,  and 
the  flight  is  swift,  strong,  and  long  sustained ; 
they  are  also  good  runners,  swimmers,  and 
divers.  The  American  oyster  catcher  (If.  pal- 
liatus,  Temm.)  is  17i  in.  long  and  3  ft.  in  alar 
extent ;  in  the  winter  plumage  the  body  above 
is  light  ashy  brown,  darker  on  the  rump  ;  the 
upper  tail  coverts  and  wide  diagonal  band  on 
the  wing  white ;  under  parts  white ;  bill  and 
lids  bright  orange  red ;  legs  pale  reddish  ;  the 
sexes  are  alike ;  the  summer  plumage  is  much 
darker.  This  species  is  found  on  the  Atlantic 
coast  from  Labrador  to  Florida,  never  far  in- 
land or  away  from  the  salt  water ;  it  is  very 
shy  and  vigilant ;  it  goes  north  in  the  spring 
to  breed,  returning  in  October;  the  nest  is 


American  Oyster  Catcher  (Hsematopus  palliatus). 

made  without  care  on  the  shingly  beach  in  the 
scanty  herbage  above  high-water  mark,  in  the 
sand  or  in  the  marshes ;  the  eggs  are  four,  2£ 
by  H  in.,  pale  cream-colored,  with  spots  of 
brownish  black  and  paler  tints ;  the  cry  is  loud, 
like  the  syllables  "  wheep,  wheep,  wheep;" 


774 


OYSTER  GREEN 


the  flesh  is  dark  and  tough,  and  not  fit  for  food. 
The  pied  oyster  catcher  or  sea  pie  (H.  ostra- 
legus,  Linn.)  of  Europe  much  resembles  the 
American  bird,  but  is  smaller,  and  has  the  bill 
less  deep  at  the  bulging  part,  less  sharp-point- 
ed, and  proportionally  shorter  ;  it  has  similar 
habits,  and  may  be  readily  domesticated. 

OYSTER  GREEN,  a  name  given  to  marine  algse 
of  the  genus  ulva,  which  are  also  called  green 
laver  and  sea  lettuce.  The  ulvas  belong  to  the 
chlorospermous  class  of  seaweeds,  distinguished 
by  their  green  spores,  and  the  generally  green 
color  of  their  fronds.  There  are  several  species 
of  ulva  common  to  both  shores  of  the  Atlan- 
tic, the  most  abundant  on  our  coast  being  U. 
latissima  and  U.  lactuca ;  they  are  from  3  in. 
to  2  ft.  long,  and  3  to  12  in.  broad,  often  sinu- 
ous on  the  margin,  and  wavy  or  plaited ;  they 
are  very  thin,  smooth,  and  glassy,  and  appear 
like  very  fine  bright  green  silk.  The  plants 
are  very  common  on  oyster  beds,  and  are  fre- 
quently used  by  dealers  to  decorate  their  heaps 
of  oysters.  The  plant  is  the  most  valuable  sea- 
weed for  a  salt-water  aquarium,  it  being  one 
of  the  few  that  will  thrive  and  give  off  oxygen 
in  the  quiet  waters  of  a  marine  tank.  Among 
the  seaweeds  eaten  in  Europe,  under  the  im- 
pression that  they  have  some  antiscorbutic 
properties,  is  the  true  laver,  the  related  porphy- 
ra ;  and  the  ulvas  are  eaten  raw,  with  lemon 
juice,  as  green  laver.  In  Scotland  they  are 
sometimes  used  as  a  remedy  for  headache, 
being  bound  over  the  forehead. 

OYSTER  PLANT,  one  of  the  names  for  trago- 
pogon  porrifolius,  which  is  also  called  salsify 
(Fr.  salsifis).  The  genus  tragopogon  (Gr.  T  pa- 
yog,  a  goat,  and  TTW/WV,  beard)  belongs  to  that 
division  of  the  composite  family  (liguliflora} 
which  includes  the  dandelion  and  the  lettuce ; 
the  species  porrifolius  (leek-leaved)  grows 
spontaneously  in  England  and  on  the  conti- 
nent, but  is  supposed  to  have  been  introduced 
from  the  Mediterranean  region.  With  us  it  is 
known  only  as  a  garden  vegetable,  and  its  use 
has  increased  remarkably  within  a  few  years. 
It  is  a  biennial,  with  a  tapering  root  10  to  14 
in.  long  and  rarely  more  than  an  inch  in  diam- 
eter at  the  top  ;  the  leaves,  a  foot  or  more  long, 
are  narrow  and  tapering  upward,  of  a  dull 
green;  the  second  year  flower  stalks  3  to  5  ft. 
high  are  thrown  up,  which  branch  above,  each 
division  being  terminated  by  a  large  head  of 
purplish  flowers  ;  the  akenes  (popularly  seeds) 
are  about  an  inch  long,  marked  with  furrows, 
and  terminated  by  a  slender  beak  about  their 
own  length,  bearing  at  the  top  a  pappus  of 
plumose  hairs.  The  cultivation  of  salsify  is 
precisely  that  of  carrots  and  similar  roots,  but 
being  smaller  it  is  thinned  to  stand  4  or  5  in. 
apart ;  it  requires  a  deep,  rich  soil,  which  should 
have  been  manured  the  year  before.  It  is  per- 
fectly hardy,  and,  like  parsnips,  only  the  por- 
tion required  for  use  during  the  winter  need 
be  dug  in  the  autumn.  To  obtain  seeds,  the 
finest  roots  are  set  out  in  spring  and  treated 
like  those  of  similar  plants.  Oyster  plant  is 


OZAKA 

cooked  in  various  ways :  it  is  made  into  soup 
in  imitation  of  oyster  soup,  which  it  resembles 
in  flavor ;  it  is  cut  into  inch  pieces  and  stewed 
and  served  with  white  sauce ;  or  it  is  boiled 
and  then  dipped  into  butter  and  fried  whole, 
or  mashed  and  made  into  balls,  which  are 
treated  in  the  same  manner.  The  root  abounds 


Oyster  Plant  (Tragopogon  porrifolius).    1.  Flower.    2.  Boot. 

in  a  milky  juice,  which  becomes  dark-colored 
on  exposure  to  the  air;  in  preparing  it  for 
cooking,  each  root  as  it  is  scraped  is  thrown 
into  water  to  prevent  discoloration.  —  Black  oys- 
ter plant  or  black  salsify  is  scorzonera  Hispani- 
ca,  a  closely  related  plant,  which  has  broader 
leaves  and  yellow  flowers  ; 
the  root,  shaped  like  that 
of  the  preceding,  is  covered 
with  a  blackish  skin,  but 
internally  is  quite  as  white. 
It  is  cultivated  in  the  same 
manner  as  the  other,  and  is 
put  to  the  same  uses  ;  its 
flavor  is  preferred  by  many. 
—  Spanish  oyster  plant  is 
scolymus  Hispanicus,  close- 
ly related  to  the  thistles. 
It  has  large  prickly  leaves, 
a  foot  or  more  long,  with 
white  blotches  ;  its  flowers, 
which  are  in  thistle-like 
heads,  are  orange  yellow. 
The  roots  are  very  white, 
12  or  15  in.  long,  an  inch 
or  more  in  diameter  at  the 
crown,  very  brittle,  and 


,, 
they  are  used  the  same  as 

the  preceding,  but  usually  have  a  hard  centre, 
which  must  be  removed  after  the  root  is  boiled. 
OZAKA,  a  city  of  Japan,  in  the  S.  W.  part  of 
the  main  island,  on  and  near  the  mouth  of  the 
Yodogawa,  25  m.  S.  W.  of  Kioto  ;  pop.  in  1872, 
530,885.  It  is  one  of  the  three  fu  or  imperial 
cities,  and  is  in  a  vast  and  highly  productive 


OZANAM 


OZAUKEE 


775 


plain  intersected  by  several  streams.  Its  front 
is  protected  by  a  castle  and  two  forts  garrisoned 
by  about  7,000  men.  The  streets  are  narrow 
and  clean,  and  cross  at  right  angles,  dividing 
the  city  into  blocks  of  uniform  size.  The  nu- 
merous canals  are  crossed  by  more  than  1,000 
bridges  of  wood  and  iron.  The  houses,  mainly 
two  stories  high,  are  built  of  wood,  lime,  and 
clay.  Among  the  public  buildings  are  the  mu- 
nicipal hall,  an  imposing  structure  crowned 
with  a  dome,  and  the  imperial  mint,  erected 
in  1870  and  equipped  with  the  finest  machinery 
and  presses.  There  are  1,880  Buddhist  tem- 
ples, 538  Shinto  shrines,  and  two  native  Chris- 
tian churches,  a  government  college,  72  public 
schools,  an  academy,  and  a  girls'  school  with 
foreign  teachers.  Theatres  and  other  places 
of  amusement  abound  and  are  well  patronized. 
In  the  government  arsenal  guns  of  the  largest 
calibre  are  cast,  and  all  kinds  of  military  accou- 
trements are  made.  Since  the  opening  of  the 


Castle  of  Ozaka. 

port  and  the  establishment  of  foreign  ware- 
houses in  1868,  Ozaka  has  rapidly  become  of 
great  commercial  importance.  In  1872  the  to- 
tal number  of  vessels  entered  at  the  ports  of 
Ozaka  and  Hiogo  was  258  (including  119  from 
the  United  States),  of  277,127  tons;  cleared, 
240,  of  256,026  tons;  estimated  value  of  im- 
ports, $10,432,591  ;  of  exports,  $13,590,846. 
The  introduction  of  foreign  machinery,  largely 
from  the  United  States,  has  been  very  general, 
and  the  manufactures  of  all  kinds  are  extensive. 
Large  breweries,  using  American  hops,  have 
been  established,  and  produce  beer  rivalling 
the  sake  for  which  the  place  has  long  been 
famous.  Telegraphs  connect  with  the  leading 
cities  of  the  empire.  A  railway,  completed  in 
1874,  unites  Ozaka  with  Hiogo,  20  m.  W.,  and 
is  to  be  extended  to  Kioto  and  around  Lake 
Biwa  to  the  "W.  coast. 

OZANAM,  Antoine  Frederic,  a  French  author, 
born  in  Milan,  April  23,  1813,  died  in  Mar- 


seilles, Sept.  8,  1853.  He  was  the  son  of  a 
physician  who  practised  for  some  time  in  Italy. 
He  studied  philosophy  at  the  college  of  Lyons, 
went  to  Paris  in  1831  to  study  law,  and  in  1833 
was  one  of  eight  students  who  formed  a  char- 
itable association  which  laid  the  foundation  of 
the  society  of  St.  Vincent  de  Paul.  He  took 
.his  degree  in  1836,  and  in  1839-'40  was  pro- 
fessor of  mercantile  jurisprudence  at  Lyons. 
Subsequently  he  assisted  Fauriel  in  teaching 
foreign  literature  at  the  Sorbonne,  and  in  1844 
succeeded  him  as  professor.  His  Dante  et  la 
philosophic  catholique  au  treizieme  siecle  (Paris, 
1839 ;  enlarged  ed.,  1845)  has  been  translated 
into  English  and  Italian ;  and  his  Jfitudes  ger- 
maniques  pour  servir  a  Vhistoire  des  Francs 
(2  vols.,  1847-19)  obtained  the  great  Gobert 
prize.  He  was  prominent  as  an  ultramontane 
writer.  A  complete  edition  of  his  works  ap- 
peared in  1855,  in  8  vols. 

OZARK,  a  S.  county  of  Missouri,  bordering 
on  Arkansas,  intersect- 
ed by  the  North  fork  of 
White  river,  and  wa- 
tered by  other  branches 
of  the  same  stream ; 
area,  about  700  sq.  m. ; 
pop.  in  1870,  3,363,  of 
whom  12  were  colored. 
Its  surface  is  hilly  and 
covered  with  large  for- 
ests of  pine,  and  the 
soil  in  the  valleys  and 
bordering  streams  is 
fertile.  The  chief  pro- 
ductions in  1870  were 
121,724  bushels  of  In- 
dian corn,  9,537  of 
wheat,  7,143  of  oats,  and 
18,613  Ibs.  of  tobacco. 
There  were  949  horses, 
806  milch  cows,  1,734 
other  cattle,  2,122  sheep, 
and  6,236  swine.  Cap- 
ital, Gainesville. 

OZARK  MOUNTAINS,  a  range  commencing  on 
the  Missouri  river,  in  Missouri,  between  the 
Gasconade  and  Osage  rivers,  and  extending  S. 
W.  across  the  N".  W.  corner  of  Arkansas  into 
the  Indian  territory,  terminating  near  the  Red 
river  They  are  a  series  of  hills  occasionally 
rising  to  a  height  of  1,500  or  2,000  ft.  In  Ar- 
kansas the  range  throws  off  two  spurs  toward 
the  east,  the  Boston  mountains  or  Black  hills 
N".  of  the  Arkansas  river,  and  the  Washita  or 
Masserne  range  S.  of  it. 

OZAIKEE,  a  S.  E.  county  of  Wisconsin,  bor- 
dering on  Lake  Michigan,  and  drained  by  Mil- 
waukee river  and  Cedar  creek ;  area,  288  sq. 
m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  15,564.  It  has  a  rolling  and 
heavily  timbered  surface  and  fertile  soil.  The 
Milwaukee,  Lake  Shore,  and  Western  railroad 
passes  through  it.  The  chief  productions  in 
1870  were  314,273  bushels  of  wheat,  72,017 
of  rye,  28,305  of  Indian  corn,  258,442  of  oats, 
36  520  of  barley,  84,349  of  potatoes,  395,003 


776 


OZOLIAN  LOCRIANS 


OZONE 


Ibs.  of  butter,  15,897  of  wool,  and  14,726  tons 
of  hay.  There  were  3,690  horses,  5,641  milch 
cows,  4,630  other  cattle,  5,482  sheep,  and  5,820 
swine  ;  1  manufactory  of  machinery,  1  of  wool- 
len goods,  3  tanneries,  7  flour  mills,  5  saw 
mills,  and  6  breweries.  Capital,  Ozaukee. 

OZOLIAN  LOCRIANS.     See  LOCEIS. 

OZONE  (Gr.  «f«v,  to  smell),  an  allotropic  and 
particularly  active  condition  of  oxygen.  Van 
Marum,  toward  the  end  of  the  last  century, 
while  experimenting  with  a  powerful  electrical 
machine,  made  the  first  observations  on  ozone, 
noticing  its  peculiar  smell  and  its  power  of 
attacking  mercury.  His  discovery  attracted 
no  attention  for  more  than  half  a  century, 
when  Schonbein,  who  first  satisfactorily  inves- 
tigated the  subject,  presented  in  1840  a  paper 
to  the  academy  of  Munich.  He  found  that  in 
the  electrolysis  of  acidulated  water  the  gas 
collected  at  the  positive  pole  had  a  peculiar 
odor,  like  that  observed  during  the  passage  of 
a  spark  from  the  common  electrical  machine, 
or  which  accompanies  a  flash  of  lightning. 
The  gas  was  found  to  be  oxygen,  but  with  new 
properties  added  to  it,  in  consequence  of  its 
assuming  an  allotropic  condition.  (See  AL- 
LOTROPISM.)  He  found  soon  after  that  the  slow 
oxidation  of  phosphorus  in  moist  air  or  oxygen 
was  followed  by  the  appearance  of  the  same 
body,  which  was  named  ozone.  Marignac  and 
De  la  Rive  obtained  it  by  passing  electric 
sparks  through  perfectly  dry  oxygen.  They 
found,  however,  that  dry  air  or  oxygen  did 
not  become  converted  into  ozone  by  the  action 
of  dry  phosphorus.  According  to  De  Luca, 
the  oxygen  which  is  evolved  by  the  action 
of  light  upon  growing  plants  contains  ozone. 
Schonbein  and  Phipson  have  observed  that 
air  in  contact  with  juice  of  fungi  becomes 
changed  to  ozone ;  and  the  latter  is  of  opinion 
that  the  processes  of  fermentation,  putrefac- 
tion, and  decay  are  always  accompanied  by  the 
formation  of  ozone. — Ozone  may  be  conve- 
niently prepared  by  any  of  the  following  pro- 
cesses: 1.  By  placing  two  or  three  sticks  of 
moist  phosphorus  in  a  bottle  of  air  or  oxygen. 
In  an  hour  or  two  the  presence  of  ozone  will 
be  manifest  by  its  smell.  The  sticks  of  phos- 
phorus may  then  be  taken  out,  and  the  ozone 
washed  with  water  to  remove  the  phosphor- 
ous acid  with  which  it  is  contaminated.  This 
method  may  be  varied  by  passing  a  current  of 
moist  air  through  a  series  of  Woulfe's  bottles 
containing  sticks  of  phosphorus,  the  last  bot- 
tle containing  no  phosphorus,  but  water  or  a 
dilute  alkaline  solution.  2.  By  subjecting  to 
electrolysis  a  mixture,  according  to  Andrews, 
of  one  volume  of  sulphuric  acid  with  three  of 
water.  According  to  Baumert,  the  mixture  is 
more  productive  when  strongly  acidulated  with 
both  chromic  and  sulphuric  acids.  The  appa- 
ratus used  by  Dr.  Andrews  is  shown  in  fig.  1. 
"  It  consists  of  a  bell  jar,  a,  or  glass  cylindrical 
vessel,  open  below  and  contracted  to  a  neck 
above,  which  is  suspended  in  a  round  cell, 
5  £',  of  porous  earthenware,  leaving  a  space  of 


two  inches  between  its  lower  edge  and  the  bot- 
tom of  the  porous  cell.  The  whole  is  placed  in 
a  glass  jar,  c  c',  of  somewhat  larger  dimensions 
than  the  cell ;  a  bundle  of  platinum  wires,  p, 
suspended  below  the  bell  jar  serves  as  the  posi- 
tive pole,  and  a  broad  ribbon  of  platinum,  n  n\ 


placed  between  the  outer  glass  jar  and  the  po- 
rous cell  as  the  negative  pole  of  a  voltaic  ar- 
rangement of  three  or  four  couples.  A  delivery 
tube  hermetically  united  to  the  neck  of  the  bell 
jar  conveys  the  mixture  of  oxygen  and  ozone 
disengaged  at  the  positive  pole  to  a  sulphuric 
acid  drying  tube,  d.  From  this  the  gas  passes 
through  the  connecting  tube  e,  and  thence  to 
the  other  tubes  for  the  purpose  of  illustrating 
the  properties  of  ozone.  Thus,  in  the  figure 
it  is  represented  as  traversing  a  tube  of  hard 
glass,  //',  covered  with  fine  wire  gauze,  and 
terminating  near  the  surface  of  mercury  con- 
tained in  the  flask  h.  So  long  as  the  gas  is 
heated  strongly  as  it  passes  through  the  tube 
//'  by  the  spirit  lamps  g  g',  not  the  slightest 
change  is  produced  upon  the  mercury  (in  con- 
sequence of  ozone  being  decomposed  by  heat) ; 
but  when  the  lamps  are  removed  and  the  tubes 
allowed  to  cool,  the  mercury  is  rapidly  at- 
tacked." The  oxygen  collected  at  the  positive 
pole  contains  about  ^fg-  of  its  weight  of  ozone. 
3.  By  the  slow  oxidation  of  ether,  oil  of  tur- 
pentine, and  other  essential  oils.  In  1850 
Schonbein  found  that  if  a  small  quantity  of 
ether  is  poured  into  a  jar,  and  a  clean  glass  rod 
heated  to  about  500°  F.  is  introduced,  the 
presence  of  ozone  is  manifested  by  the  usual 
tests.  4.  By  transmitting  a  current  of  oxygen 
through  a  tube  into  which  a  pair  of  platinum 
wires  is  sealed,  having  their  points  a  small  dis- 
tance apart,  and  connecting  one  of  the  wires 


FIG.  2. 

with  the  prime  conductor  of  an  electrical  ma- 
chine and  the  other  with  the  ground.  5.  A 
method  devised  by  Siemens  employs  induction. 
A  long  glass  tube,  fig.  2,  has  its  interior  coat- 
ed with  tin  f  oil ;  a  larger  tube  coated  on  the 
exterior  with  tin  foil  is  passed  over  the  smaller 


OZONE 


777 


one,  leaving  a  space  between  the  two,  through 
which  a  current  of  pure  dry  oxygen  is  passed. 
This  becomes  electrified  by  induction  by  con- 
necting the  two  coatings  with  the  terminal 
wires  of  an  induction  coil.  It  is  said  that  by 
this  means  from  10  to  15  per  cent,  of  the 
oxygen  may  be  converted  into  ozone.  Schon- 
bein  regarded  ozone  as  permanently  negative 
oxygen,  and  he  also  entertained  the  opinion 
that  there  was  a  permanently  positive  oxygen, 
which  he  termed  antozone.  The  idea  of  the 
existence  of  these  two  distinct  varieties  was 
founded  on  certain  differences  of  behavior  of 
oxygen,  according  as  it  was  obtained  from 
alkaline  peroxides  or  from  the  peroxide  of 
manganese  or  of  lead ;  that  obtained  from  the 
alkalies  having  a  reducing,  that  from  the  man- 
ganese and  lead  oxides  an  oxidizing  action. 
But  according  to  the  experiments  of  Von 
Babo,  Sir  Benjamin  Brodie,  and  others,  it  is 
probable  that  Schonbein's  so-called  antozone  is 
the  peroxide  of  hydrogen  of  Thenard. — Prop- 
erties. Ozone  is  insoluble  in  water,  alcohol, 
and  ether,  although  M.  Oarius  asserts  that  100 
volumes  of  water  will  absorb  about  0*5  volume 
of  the  gas.  Its  specific  gravity  is  greater  than 
that  of  oxygen  in  the  proportion  of  3  to  2. 
Air  containing  ozone  has  an  irritating  action 
upon  the  lungs  when  breathed,  and  when  large 
quantities  are  present  death  may  be  produced. 
Experiments  made  by  Dr.  Kedfern  of  Queen's 
college,  Belfast,  show  that  the  inhalation  of 
oxygen  containing  only  -%\^  of  its  volume  of 
ozone  is  rapidly  fatal  to  all  animals,  while  the 
gas  freed  from  ozone  is  comparatively  harm- 
less. Ozone  causes  death  by  producing  intense 
congestion  of  the  lungs,  with  emphysema  and 
distention  of  the  right  side  of  the  heart 
with  blood.  From  experiments  of  Mr.  Dewar 
and  Dr.  McKendrick  it  appears  that  atmos- 
phere highly  charged  with  ozone  diminishes 
the  number  of  respirations  per  minute,  less- 
ens the  strength  of  the  cardiac  pulsations,  and 
lowers  the  temperature  from  5°  to  8°  F.  The 
blood  is  found  after  death  in  a  venous  con- 
dition. Ozone  is  an  exceedingly  powerful 
oxidizing  agent,  corroding  cork,  paper,  ani- 
mal membrane,  caoutchouc,  and  other  organic 
substances,  and  rapidly  oxidizing  iron,  cop- 
per, mercury,  and  moist  silver.  M.  Houzeau 
\Comptes  rendus,  1872)  states  that  a  consider- 
able quantity  of  it  agitated  with  alcohol  causes 
rapid  oxidation,  oxygenated  water  being  at  the 
same  time  produced;  and  he  recommends  its 
employment  in  a  concentrated  form  as  an  oxi- 
dizing agent  in  organic  chemistry.  An  ex- 
tended series  of  experiments  have  since  been 
made  by  Prof.  A.  W.  Wright  of  Yale  college, 
to  ascertain  whether  ozone  could  be  advan- 
tageously used  in  the  production  of  acetic  acid 
from  alcohol.  It  was  obtained  in  a  variety  of 
ways  from  alcohol  and  ether,  but  not  so  rap- 
idly as  might  be  expected  from  M.  Houzeau's 
statement.  ("  American  Journal  of  Arts  and 
Sciences,"  March,  1874.)  Ozone  acts  upon  or- 
ganic substances  in  various  ways.  Vegetable 


colors  are  bleached  or  altered.  Blue  litmus  is 
bleached  without  being  first  reddened,  and  the 
color  of  sulphate  of  indigo  is  discharged  when 
the  liquid  is  agitated  with  ozone.  The  processes 
of  bleaching,  either  the  old  one  of  exposing  the 
goods  to  moisture  and  sunlight,  or  the  modern 
one  of  acting  on  them  with  chlorine,  depends 
upon  the  production  of  ozonized  air,  or  at  least 
upon  the  production  of  nascent,  active  oxygen. 
Indeed,  it  is  not  improbable  that  when  oxygen 
combines  with  a  substance  it  passes  into  the 
molecular  condition  of  ozone,  either  during  the 
act  of  union  or  immediately  preceding  it.  When 
the  affinities  are  strong,  as  in  the  case  of  phos- 
phorus, an  atmosphere  of  ozone  may  be  pro- 
duced, surrounding  the  oxidizing  body;  but  in 
the  case  of  weaker  attractions,  no  sensible  evo- 
lution of  ozone  takes  place.  The  most  delicate 
test  for  ozone  is  to  expose  to  its  action  a  strip 
of  paper  moistened  with  a  mixture  of  starch 
and  iodide  of  potassium,  by  which  the  salt  be- 
comes decomposed,  and  the  liberated  iodine 
unites  with  the  starch,  forming  the  charac- 
teristic blue  compound,  iodide  of  starch.  It 
has  been  supposed  that  the  fact  that  a  paper 
prepared  in  this  way  and  exposed  to  the  at- 
mosphere often  becomes  blued,  indicates  the 
presence  of  ozone ;  but  this  conclusion  is  not 
justified,  because  other  agents,  especially  oxide 
of  nitrogen,  will  also  produce  the  same  effect. 
Schonbein,  having  found  that  the  air  of  the 
country  frequently  colored  delicate  ozone  test 
paper,  inferred  that  this  body  is  a  normal  con- 
stituent of  the  atmosphere,  varying  in  quantity 
in  different  localities  and  under  different  cir- 
cumstances ;  and  with  its  presence  or  absence 
he  attempted  to  connect  certain  catarrhal  dis- 
eases. Dr.  Andrews  has  prosecuted  an  ex- 
tended series  of  experiments,  which,  among 
other  conclusions,  sustain  Schonbein's  opinions 
in  regard  to  the  frequent  presence  of  ozone  in 
the  air,  but  not  those  in  regard  to  its  connec- 
tion with  diseases.  Ozone  is  easily  decomposed, 
or  reconverted  into  common  oxygen.  It  is  de- 
stroyed by  the  dust  and  exhalations  of  cities, 
and  in  general  by  all  matter  in  a  condition  to 
become  easily  oxidized.  It  is  found  in  the 
greatest  proportion  in  the  air  of  mountains, 
and  at  the  seaside.  An  elaborate  report  made 
by  Ebermeyer  in  1873  on  the  physical  influ- 
ence of  forests,  says  that  in  open  fields  the  air 
is  richest  in  ozone,  and  in  general  in  places  of 
great  atmospheric  moisture.  In  a  forest  there 
is  more  ozone  in  the  upper  stratum  of  air  in  the 
branches  of  the  trees  than  near  the  ground, 
owing  to  the  fact  that  ozone  is  absorbed  by  the 
decaying  matter  on  the  ground.  During  a  fog 
the  quantity  of  ozone  is  small,  and  also  during 
bright  weather  and  northerly  winds ;  a  change 
to  southerly  winds  and  rains  increases  the 
quantity,  and  the  air  is  rich  in  ozone  during 
thunder  and  snow  storms.  The  assertion  that 
an  outbreak  of  cholera  is  accompanied  with 
an  absence  of  ozone  seems  not  to  be  sustained, 
although  such  absence  is  regarded  by  Dr.  An- 
drews as  indicating  that  the  air  is  adulterated. 


778 


PACA 


PTHE  16th  letter  and  the  12th  consonant 
of  the  English  alphabet.  It  is  the  lead- 
ing or  most  prominent  of  the  labial  mutes,  and 
is  pronounced  by  closely  compressing  the  lips 
until  the  breath  is  collected  and  then  letting  it 
issue.  P  is  frequently  interchanged  with  B, 
and  in  English  words  of  Teutonic  origin  cor- 
responds as  a  rule  to  B  in  the  root.  The  ex- 
ceptions to  this  rule  are  very  numerous,  how- 
ever, as  Eng.  sleep,  Anglo-Saxon  slapan,  Moaso- 
Gothic  slepan ;  and  on  the  other  hand,  when 
P  occurs  in  words  of  Greek  or  Latin  deriva- 
tion, it  is  found  to  be  the  same  in  the  original 
language ;  thus,  Eng.  paternal,  Lat.  pater,  Gr. 
Trarf/p.  The  dialects  of  upper  Germany  fre- 
quently pronounce  B  as  P,  and  those  of  lower 
Germany  make  the  contrary  change.  In  Runic 
writings  the  character  representing  the  sound 
of  P  is  almost  identical  with  our  B.  The  un- 
doubtedly pure  sound  of  P  is  found  in  none 
of  the  Semitic  languages  except  the  Ethiop- 
ic,  its  representative  in  Arabic,  Hebrew,  and 
Syriac  partaking  more  of  the  ph  or  f.  It  is 
common  in  Chinese.  Besides  5  and  f,  this 
letter  is  also  interchangeable  with  m,  «,  pf, 
c,  lc,  q,  t,  and  pt.  Followed  by  h,  it  is  equiva- 
lent to  the  Greek  0,  and  pronounced  f,  as  in 
physic.  In  some  words  borrowed  from  the 
Greek,  as  psalm,  it  is  silent  in  English,  though 
sounded  in  Greek  (where  it  forms  with  *  a 
single  character,  tfj)  and  other  languages. — As 
an  abbreviation  in  Latin  inscriptions,  P.  stands 
for  Pjuiblius,  proconsul,  pontifex,  pius,  perpe- 
tuus,  patronus,  pedes,  pondo,  posuit,  ponendum, 
post,  &c.  P.P.  signifies  pater  patrice,  pro 
prwtore,  prcepositus,  primipilus ;  P.O.,  patres 
conscripti.  In  numismatics,  it  is  the  mark  of 
ancient  coins  struck  at  Dijon.  The  numerical 
value  of  P  among  the  ancients  has  been  vari- 
ously explained.  As  the  initial  letter  of  Ktvre 
it  seems  at  first  among  the  Greeks  to  have  in- 
dicated 5  ;  afterward  it  denoted  80.  Among 
the  Romans,  according  to  Baronius,  it  stood 
for  7 ;  but  according  to  Uguccio  it  was  equiva- 
lent to  0,  100,  and  according  to  others  to  G, 
400,  or  with  a  horizontal  mark  over  it  to  4,000, 
40,000,  or  400,000. 

PAAIZOW,  Henrietta  von,  a  German  novelist, 
born  in  Berlin  in  1788,  died  there,  Oct.  30, 
1847.  Her  family  name  was  Wach,  and  she 
married  a  Prussian  officer,  from  whom  she  was 
separated.  She  acquired  fame  by  her  anony- 
mous Godwie  Castle  (Breslau,  1836;  5th  ed 
1849)  and-/&.  JRocTie  (1839 ;  3d  ed.,  1843).  A 
complete  edition  of  her  novels  has  been  pub- 
lished, together  with  Brief e  an  ihren  Verleger 
and  her  biography  (36  vols.,  Berlin,  1855  :  new 
ed.,  Stuttgart,  1874  et  seq.\ 

PICA,  a  rodent  of  the  agouti  family,  the 
only  well  determined  species  of  the  genus  coslo- 
genys  (111.).  In  this  genus  the  zygomatic  arch 
is  enormously  developed,  the  superior  maxilla- 


ry portion  presenting  a  large  hollow  beneath, 
giving  the  skull  somewhat  the  appearance  of 
a  snapping  turtle's;  the  outside  of  the  arch 
in  the  male  is  wrinkled  and  roughened  with 
small  wart-like  confluent  excrescences,  growing 
rougher  with  age ;  the  malar  bone  is  deeper 
than  long ;  the  molars  are  longer  than  broad, 
the  crowns  having  four  or  five  deeply  indent- 
ing folds  of  enamel,  and  the  incisors  are  slen- 
der. The  0.  paca  (Rengg.)  is  about  2  ft.  long, 
stout-bodied,  with  short  limbs ;  the  head  is 
large  and  broad,  with  an  obtuse  hairy  muzzle ; 
the  eyes  large  ;  the  ears  moderate  and  sparing- 
ly clothed  with  hair ;  feet  naked  below,  five- 
toed,  the  inner  toe  very  small,  and  with  broad 
nails  except  on  the  inner;  the  tail  a  naked 
fleshy  tubercle.  The  hair  is  coarse,  closely  ap- 


Paca  (Coelogenys  paca). 

plied  to  the  skin,  of  a  brown  color  on  the  up- 
per parts  and  limbs,  and  white  below ;  three, 
four,  or  five  longitudinal  white  bands  on  the 
sides,  broken  into  spots;  in  some  specimens 
the  color  is  blackish  brown  above  and  yellow- 
ish white  below,  and  in  others  more  rufous. 
The  mamnifB  are  two  pairs,  one  pectoral,  the 
other  inguinal.  The  zygomatic  cavity  is  lined 
by  a  continuation  of  the  skin  of  the  face,  and 
opens  externally  on  the  cheek ;  its  use  is  not 
well  ascertained ;  beneath  this  is  a  cheek  pouch, 
opening  into  the  mouth  in  front  of  the  molars. 
They  inhabit  South  America  from  Cayenne  to 
Paraguay,  and  are  sometimes  found  in  Peru 
east  of  the  Andes,  and  in  some  of  the  West 
Indian  islands.  They  are  generally  seen  singly 
or  in  pairs  on  the  borders  of  the  forests  and 
rivers  after  sunset,  remaining  concealed  during 
the  day  in  burrows  which  they  dig  like  rabbits ; 
the  food  consists  of  leaves,  fruits,  and  tender 
plants,  and  sometimes  sugar  cane  and  melons ; 
they  are  good  runners,  swimmers,  and  divers  ; 


PACA 


PACHOMIUS 


779 


cleanly  in  habit,  the  flesh  is  fat  and  well  fla- 
vored. A  fossil  species  is  found  in  the  caves 
of  Brazil. 

PACA,  William,  a  signer  of  the  Declaration  of 
Independence,  born  in  Harford  co.,  Md.,  Oct. 
31,  1740,  died  in  1799.  He  graduated  at  tne 
college  of  Philadelphia  in  1759,  was  admitted 
to  the  bar  in  1764,  settled  in  Annapolis,  and  in 
1771  was  chosen  to  the  provincial  legislature. 
He  was  a  conspicuous  opponent  of  the  govern- 
ment, was  appointed  by  the  legislature  to  at- 
tend the  first  congress  in  1774,  and  was  elected 
to  congress  in  1775,  1776,  and  1777.  On  the 
adoption  of  the  constitution  of  his  native  state 
he  was  made  state  senator  for  two  years.  He 
was  chief  judge  of  the  superior  court  of  Mary- 
land from  1778  to  1780,  when  he  became  chief 
judge  of  the  court  of  appeals  in  prize  and  ad- 
miralty cases.  In  1782  he  was  elected  gover- 
nor of  Maryland.  In  1786  he  sat  in  congress, 
and  was  reflected  governor.  He  served  in  the 
state  convention  that  ratified  the  federal  con- 
stitution, and  in  1789  was  appointed  judge 
of  the  district  court  of  the  United  States  for 
Maryland,  which  post  he  held  till  his  death. 

PACCARD,  Alexis,  a  French  architect,  born  in 
Paris,  Jan.  19,  1813,  died  there  in  October, 
1867.  He  was  a  son  of  the  actor  and  writer 
Edme  Jean  Paccard,  and  studied  in  the  school 
of  fine  arts  and  under  Huyot  and  H.  Le  Bas. 
The  great  prize  which  he  obtained  in  1841  for 
his  "  Palace  of  an  Ambassador  in  a  Foreign 
Country  "  enabled  him  to  spend  several  years 
in  Kome  and  Athens.  After  his  return  to 
Paris  in  1847  he  became  inspector  and  archi- 
tect of  public  buildings,  and  in  1853  architect 
to  the  museum  of  Fontainebleau.  In  Decem- 
ber, 1863,  he  was  appointed  professor  of  ar- 
chitecture in  the  school  of  fine  arts.  He  pub- 
lished the  "  Parthenon  of  Athens  "  (1855),  the 
first  attempt  in  polychromic  restorations. 

PACCHIOM,  Antonio,  an  Italian  anatomist,  born 
in  Reggio  about  1665,  died  in  Rome  in  1726.  He 
was  associated  at  an  early  period  with  Malpighi 
in  the  practice  of  medicine,  but  soon  devoted 
himself  to  anatomy,  in  which  he  made  many 
original  researches,  particularly  upon  the  brain 
and  its  membranes.  Some  of  his  conclusions 
with  regard  to  the  structure  of  these  parts, 
especially  as  to  the  muscular  nature  and  sensi- 
bility of  the  dura  mater,  proved  erroneous,  but 
he  still  justly  deserves  great  credit  as  an  ori- 
ginal investigator.  His  name  is  perpetuated 
in  the  anatomical  designation  of  the  glandules 
Pacchioni,  small  rounded  bodies,  composed  of 
fibrous  and  elastic  tissue,  found  adhering  to. 
the  membranes  of  the  brain  along  the  course 
of  the  great  longitudinal  fissure.  These  bodies 
were  described  by  him,  from  their  external 
appearance  and  connections,  as  conglobate 
lymphatic  glands,  the  science  of  microscopic 
anatomy  not  being  at  that  time  sufficiently 
advanced  to  enable  him  to  recognize  their 
intimate  structure.  His  principal  works  are  : 
De  Dura  Matre  Disquisitio  anatomica  (Rome, 
1701) ;  Dissertatio  epistolaris  de  Glandulis 


conglobatis  Duree  Meningis  Humance,  indeque 
ortis  LympJiaticis  ad  Piam  Meningen  produc- 
tis  (1705) ;  Disputationes  l)inm  illustrandis 
Durce  Meningis  et  ejus  Olandularum  Struc- 
tures atque  Usibus  concinnatce  (1713);  and 
Dissertationes  physico-anatomicce  de  Dura  Me- 
ninge  Humana,  noms  Experimentis  et  Lucu- 
Irationibus  auctce  et  illustrates  (1721).  His 
collected  works  were  published  at  Rome  in 
1741  (1  vol.  4to). 

PACHA,    See  PASHA. 

PACHACAMAC,  Ruins  of,  the  remains  of  an 
ancient  Peruvian  city,  covering  a  large  area, 
seven  leagues  from  the  city  of  Lima,  near  the 
modern  town  of  Lurin.  It  was  the  sacred  city 
of  the  supreme  divinity  of  Peru,  Pachacamac, 
and  was  distinguished  for  a  magnificent  temple 
dedicated  to  him.  Its  door  was  richly  incrusted 
with  corals  and  precious  stones.  The  golden 
keys  of  this  temple,  given  by  Pizarro  to  the 
pilot  Quintero,  were  valued  at  4,000  marks. 

PACHECO,  Francisco,  a  Spanish  painter,  born 
in  Seville  in  1571,  died  there  in  1654.  From 
an  early  age  he  wrote  verses  in  Spanish  and  in 
Latin.  Until  the  age  of  40  his  reputation  as 
a  painter  was  confined  to  Seville,  where  he 
resided.  He  visited  Madrid  and  the  Escurial 
in  1611,  and  on  his  return  opened  an  acade- 
my of  painting  on  a  more  comprehensive  scale 
than  had  previously  been  attempted  in  Spain ; 
among  its  students  was  Velazquez,  who  mar- 
ried Pacheco's  daughter.  In  1618  he  was  ap- 
pointed by  the  inquisition  censor  of  the  pic- 
tures exposed  for  sale  in  Seville,  his  chief  duty 
being  to  see  that  none  representing  the  nude 
human  figure  were  sold.  One  of  his  regular 
occupations  was  the  painting  and  gilding  of 
statues.  He  passed  his  latter  years  in  Seville, 
where  his  residence  became  the  resort  of  men 
eminent  in  literature  and  art,  and  particular- 
ly of  the  Jesuits,  to  whom  he  was  indebted 
for  copious  materials  and  hints  for  his  Arte.  de 
pintura  (4to,  1649).  His  paintings  are  rarely 
met  with  out  of  Spain.  His  masterpiece  is 
the  "  Archangel  Michael  expelling  Satan  from 
Paradise,"  at  Seville.  Among  his  most  famous 
works  are  "Ignatius  Loyola  "  and  "  The  Last 
Judgment,"  at  Seville,  and  "  The  Baptism  of 
Christ,"  at  Granada.  He  executed  several 
hundred  portraits  in  crayon. 

PACHOMIFS,  Saint,  the  founder  of  the  first  or- 
ganized monastic  community,  born  in  Upper 
Egypt  in  292,  died  about  348.  He  was  born  a 
pagan,  but  about  the  age  of  20,  while  serving 
in  the  army,  became  a  convert  to  Christian- 
ity. As  soon  as  his  term  of  military  service 
expired  he  placed  himself  under  the  direc- 
tion of  a  hermit  of  the  Thebaid  named  Palse- 
mon,  and  afterward  (340)  retired  to  the  island 
of  Tabennse  in  the  Nile,  between  the  nomes 
of  Tentyra  and  Thebes.  His  disciples  soon 
became  numerous.  They  occupied  different 
houses,  each  of  which  had  its  superior,  and 
several  houses  combined  formed  a  monastery, 
which  was  ruled  by  an  abbot.  The  whole 
body  of  monks,  amounting  at  times  to  7,000, 


780 


PACHYDEEMATA 


recognized  a  common  superior.  On  the  oppo- 
site bank  of  the  Nile  there  was  a  convent  for 
women  founded  by  the  sister  of  Pachomius, 
and  governed  by  the  same  rules  as  those  for 
the  men.  The  rules  of  Pachomius  were  trans- 
lated into  Latin  by  St.  Jerome,  and  are  still 
extant  in  Lucas  Holstenius's  Codex  Regularum 
Monasticarum  et  Canoniearum  (fol.,  Geneva, 
1769).  Several  of  his  letters  have  also  been 
preserved,  and  both  may  be  found  in  Galland's 
Bibliotheca  Patrum  (1768). 

P1CHYDERMATA  (Gr.  naxbs,  thick,  and  dep/m, 
skin),  the  name  given  by  Cuvier  to  a  group  of 
herbivorous  mammals,  generally  large  and  un- 
wieldy, with  a  thick  skin,  naked  or  sparingly 
covered  with  hair.  Among  its  living  members 
are  the  elephant,  hippopotamus,  rhinoceros, 
manatee,  tapir,  hog,  and  peccary,  and  among 
the  extinct  genera  the  mastodon,  dinotherium, 
palseotherium,  lophiodon,  macrauchenia,  and 
toxodon.  They  are  allied  to  ruminants  by  the 
fossil  anoplotherium,  and  to  rodents  by  the 
hyrax,  while  the  hiatus  bet  ween  the  rhinoceros, 
tapir,  and  elephant  was  filled  by  the  extinct 
lophiodon,  macrauchenia,  palaeotherium,  and 
their  allied  genera.  In  the  present  epoch  the 
genera  and  species  are  few,  but  during  the  ter- 
tiary period  they  existed  under  a  far  greater 
variety  of  form  and  in  more  northern  habitats. 
In  the  system  of  Cuvier  the  pachyderms  in- 
cluded all  non-ruminating  hoofed  quadrupeds, 
divided  into  proboscidia  (elephants),  solidun- 
gula  (horse,  &c.),  and  ordinary  pachyderms 
subdivided  according  to  the  odd  or  even  num- 
ber of  the  hoofs.  Wagner  makes  sections: 
I.,  anisodactyla,  with  hoofs  in  a  single  series 
around  the  bottom  of  the  foot,  and  with  skin 
usually  naked,  including  the  four  families  of 
elephant,  tapir,  hippopotamus,  and  rhinoceros ; 
II.,  zygodactyla,  with  two  hoofed  toes  for 
walking  and  two  others  placed  higher  up, 
including  the  hog  family;  and  III.,  lamnun- 
gia,  with  flattened  nails  instead  of  hoofs, 
including  the  hyrax  family.  According  to 
Owen's  cerebral  system  (see  MAMMALIA),  the 
pachyderms  would  comprise  all  the  hoofed 
quadrupeds  except  the  ruminants  and  solidun- 
gulates,  with  the  addition  of  the  sirenoid  muti- 
,  lata.  Van  der  Hoeven  combines  the  systems 
of  Cuvier  and  Owen,  as  follows:  order pachy- 
dermata,  with  phalanx  I.,  proboscidia,  with  the 
elephant  family;  II.,  perissodactyla,  with  an 
odd  number  of  toes,  with  the  families  nasicor- 
nia  (rhinoceros),  lamnungia  (hyrax),  tapirina, 
and  solidungula  ;  and  III.,  artiodactyla,  with 
even  toes,  including  the  hog  and  hippopotamus 
families.  Huxley  divides  the  old  pachyderms 
into  proboscidea,  hyracoidea,  and  the  peris- 
sodactyl  and  artiodactyl  ungulata,  the  latter 
including  the  ruminantia.  Most  modern  sys- 
tematists,  since  Owen,  do  not  use  the  term, 
dividing  its  members  among  various  orders, 
according  to  the  hoofs  and  toes.  The  skeleton 
is  generally  massive,  indicating  great  strength 
but  inactive  habits;  the  thoracic  cavity  is 
enormous,  in  proportion  to  the  great  bulk  and 


PACIFIC  OCEAN 

weight  of  the  viscera ;  the  limbs  are  robust, 
though  adapted  for  running  in  the  smaller 
members  like  the  hog ;  there  are  no  clavicles ; 
the  peculiarities  of  the  skeleton  and  teeth  are 
given  in  the  articles  devoted  to  the  different 
animals.  The  stomach  is  generally  simple,  and 
the  intestines  very  long  and  voluminous,  in 
accordance  with  the  bulky  and  vegetable  char- 
acter of  their  food;  the  brain  is  well  devel- 
oped, and  the  complexity  of  the  convolutions 
ranks  them  with  the  subclass  gyrencepliala  of 
Owen,  but,  with  the  exception  of  the  hog,  be- 
low the  ruminants  and  carnivora ;  the  nasal 
apparatus  is  richly  endowed  with  nerves,  form- 
ing a  delicate  organ  of  touch,  and  in  some  of 
prehension.  They  occur  in  the  warmer  cli- 
mates of  all  parts  of  the  world  except  Austra- 
lia, in  the  present  epoch. 

PACIFIC,  the  S.  W.  county  of  Washington 
territory,  bordering  on  the  Pacific  ocean,  and 
bounded  S.  by  the  Columbia  river;  area,  1,140 
sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  738.  It  is  deeply  indent- 
ed by  Shoalwater  bay,  into  which  flows  the 
Willopah  river.  The  fisheries  are  a  source  of 
wealth,  oysters  being  abundant,  especially  in 
the  bay.  In  the  valley  of  the  Willopah  there  is 
considerable  productive  land,  and  a  short  dis- 
tance up  the  Columbia  cement  rock  and  sil- 
ver-bearing veins  are  found.  Cape  Hancock 
(formerly  Disappointment)  forms  the  S.  W.  ex- 
tremity of  the  county.  The  chief  productions 
in  1870  were  550  bushels  of  wheat,  1,270  of  oats, 
4,695  of  potatoes,  4,950  Ibs.  of  wool,  10,375 
of  butter,  and  386  tons  of  hay.  The  value  of 
live  stock  was  $42,425.  Capital,  Oysterville. 

PACIFIC  OCEAN,  the  largest  ocean  on  the 
globe,  bounded  E.  by  the  American  continent, 
N.  by  the  same  and  by  the  chain  of  the  Aleu- 
tian islands  (Behring  sea  not  being  properly 
oceanic  in  its  character),  and  W.  by  the  chain 
of  continental  islands  and  peninsulas  lying  off 
the  coast  of  Asia,  the  chain  of  the  Melanesian 
islands,  and  the  continent  of  Australia.  This 
whole  boundary,  starting  from  the  S.  part  of 
Chili,  following  up  the  line  of  the  Cordille- 
ras through  Central  and  North  America,  the 
Aleutian  islands,  and  the  islands  E.  of  Asia,  and 
continuing  it  from  Papua  through  the  New 
Hebrides  and  New  Caledonia  to  New  Zealand, 
is  remarkable  as  being,  with  some  interrup- 
tions, the  great  zone  of  volcanoes;  no  fewer 
than  400,  extinct  and  active,  being  known  on 
that  line.  The  southern  limit,  as  in  the  Atlan- 
tic and  Indian  oceans,  is  an  artificial  one,  the 
Antarctic  circle.  The  first  European  discov- 
erer of  the  Pacific  ocean  was  Vasco  Nunez  de 
Balboa,  who  on  Sept.  26,  1513,  saw  it  from 
one  of  the  mountains  near  the  isthmus  of  Da- 
rien.  It  was  first  traversed  by  Magalhaens, 
from  the  strait  bearing  his  name  to  the  Phi- 
lippine islands  (1520-'21).  From  him  it  re- 
ceived its  name  of  Pacific,  on  account  of  the 
constant  fair  weather  which  accompanied  him 
during  his  voyage.  It  is  also  called  the  Great 
ocean  with  more  propriety,  or  the  South  sea, 
a  title  now  nearly  obsolete.  The  E.  or  Ameri- 


PACIFIC  OCEAN 


781 


can  shore  is  remarkably  uniform  and  almost 
unbroken,  except  by  the  fiords  of  Patagonia, 
British  America,  and  Alaska,  and  by  the  gulf 
of  California.  The  1ST.  and  W.  shores  are  bro- 
ken into  innumerable  islands,  separating  its 
waters  from  a  chain  of  inland  seas,  such  as 
Behring  sea,  the  Okhotsk,  Japan,  and  Yellow 
seas,  the  E.  and  S.  China  seas,  and  the  Banda, 
Arafura,  and  Coral  seas.  This  configuration 
has  had  a  great  influence  on  the  migration 
of  the  populations,  and  on  the  comparatively 
high  and  early  civilization  of  some  of  them, 
such  as  the  Chinese  and  Japanese. — The  depth 
of  this  ocean  is  not  yet  known  in  much  de- 
tail. By  means  of  the  recorded  time  of  trans- 
mission to  California  of  the  waves  produced 
by  an  earthquake  in  Japan,  Prof.  Bache  calcu- 
lated the  depth  as  between  2,000  and  2,400 
fathoms.  Another  calculation  based  on  the 
movement  of  the  waves  of  the  great  South 
American  earthquake  of  1868,  by  Prof.  Hoch- 
stetter,  gave  somewhat  less  than  2,000  fath- 
oms. The  soundings  made  in  1874  by  Com. 
Belknap  in  the  United  States  steamer  Tuscaro- 
ra,  between  California,  the  Hawaiian  islands, 
and  Japan,  give  an  average  very  near  Prof. 
Bache's  results,  a  brilliant  confirmation  of 
Prof.  Airy's  formula  on  which  the  calculations 
were  based.  The  maximum  depth  is  about 
3,000  fathoms.  Similar  depths  were  found  by 
the  Challenger  expedition  (1874)  in  the  south 
Pacific,  and  in  the  Melanesian,  Celebes,  and 
Sooloo  seas ;  in  these  latter  the  decrease  of 
temperature  with  depth  ceased  at  a  point  of 
equal  depth  with  the  lowest  part  of  the  rim  of 
the  submarine  basin  enclosing  them,  and  be- 
low this  the  temperature  remained  constant ; 
a  phenomenon  similar  to  that  observed  in  the 
Mediterranean.  The  soundings  of  the  Chal- 
lenger in  the  Pacific  confirm  the  observations 
made  by  the  same  party  in  the  Atlantic,  viz., 
that  below  2,250  fathoms  on  an  average  the 
gloMgeriva  deposits  are  no  longer  found,  the 
bottom  consisting  of  red  clay. — The  currents 
resolve  themselves  into  two  systems,  as  in 
the  Atlantic.  The  southern  one  in  its  gene- 
ral features  forms  a  revolving  stream  turning 
from  right  to  left,  the  northern  one  revolving 
in  the  contrary  direction.  The  former  origi- 
nates in  the  southwest  and  south  by  the  combi- 
nation of  the  south  Australian  current,  coming 
from  the  Indian  ocean,  with  the  great  antarc- 
tic drift.  This  current  moves  E.,  crossing  the 
whole  breadth  of  the  ocean  toward  the  coast 
of  South  America;  before  reaching  it,  it  divides 
into  two  branches,  the  northern  or  current  of 
Mentor  trending  N.  E.  until  it  reaches  about 
Ion.  78°  W.,  when  it  turns  "W.  in  a  wide  sweep 
to  join  the  S.  equatorial  current.  The  south- 
ern branch  strikes  the  American  coast,  gives 
off  the  Cape  Horn  current,  passing  around 
that  cape  into  the  Atlantic,  then  runs  N.,  hug- 
ging the  coast  under  the  name  of  the  Humboldt 
or  Peruvian  current,  nearly  up  to  the  equator, 
where  it  turns  W.  and  crosses  the  whole  of  the 
ocean  as  the  S.  equatorial  current,  following 


nearly  the  parallel  of  10°  S.  The  Humboldt 
current,  receiving  much  of  its  water  from  the 
antarctic  regions,  is  cold,  and  reduces  the  tem- 
perature of  the  South  American  coast  much 
below  the  degree  due  to  the  latitude.  At  the 
Galapagos  islands  Qapt.  Fitzroy  found  the 
temperature  of  the  water  only  60°,  while  just 
outside  the  group  on  the  north  it  was  80°  in 
the  water  coming  from  the  direction  of  the  bay 
of  Panama.  The  S.  equatorial  current  divides 
into  several  branches  in  the  vicinity  of  the 
Tonga  islands,  one  of  them  running  into  Tor- 
res strait,  and  another  along  the  E.  coast  of 
Australia,  sweeping  round  toward  New  Zea- 
land. A  little  N.  of  the  equator,  a  counter 
current  is  found  running  E.  across  the  whole 
ocean  and  separating  the  N.  and  S.  equatorial 
currents;  this  is  the  belt  of  the  equatorial 
calms.  The  N.  equatorial  current  strikes  the 
coast  of  Asia  near  the  island  of  Formosa, 
and  is  deflected  N".  and  N.  E.,  forming  the  Ja- 
pan current  (Kuro-Siwo  or  Black  stream),  the 
counterpart  of  the  Gulf  stream  of  the  Atlantic. 
It  gives  off  the  Kamtchatka  current,  running 
up  toward  Behring  strait,  but  the  main  body 
crosses  over  toward  Alaska,  carrying  warmth 
and  moisture  to  that  country,  then  runs  S. 
as  the  coast  current  of  California,  and  off  the 
coast  of  Mexico  returns  into  the  equatorial 
circulation. — The  trade  winds  are  found  to 
blow  with  regularity  only  in  that  part  of  the 
ocean  most  free  of  islands.  Thus  the  S.  E. 
trades  can  be  depended  on  only  between  the 
meridians  of  the  Galapagos  and  Marquesas 
islands,  and  between  the  tropic  of  Capricorn, 
or  at  the  most  30°  S.,  and  the  equator  or  even 
a  little  N.  of  it.  The  K  E.  trades  are  chiefly 
confined  between  lat.  30°  and  10°  N.,  these 
limits  varying  somewhat  with  the  sun's  declina- 
tion. In  longitude  they  are  encountered  about 
200  leagues  off  the  coast  of  America,  and  as  far 
as  the  Ladrone  islands.  A  belt  of  calms  and 
variable  winds  is  encountered  a  few  degrees  N. 
of  the  equator.  Along  the  coast  of  America, 
and  among  the  islands  of  Polynesia,  including 
Melanesia  and  Micronesia,  there  are  areas  of 
periodical  winds,  in  some  parts  as  regular  as 
the  monsoons  of  the  Indian  ocean.  On  the 
coast  of  Chili  northerly  winds  prevail  from 
May  to  September,  and  southerly  from  Octo- 
ber to  May.  On  the  coast  of  California  it 
blows  from  N.  W.  during  the  summer  months, 
and  from  S.  E.  to  S.  W.  in  winter.  Among 
the  islands  of  Polynesia  situated  in  the  region 
of  the  S.  E.  trades,  this  wind  blows  regularly 
between  March  and  October,  while  westerly 
winds  prevail  the  rest  of  the  year,  with  occa- 
sionally violent  storms.  Between  the  Ladrone 
and  Philippine  islands  the  monsoon  is  more 
regular,  K  E.  from  May  to  April,  and  S.  W. 
during  the  other  months.  As  in  the  Indian 
ocean,  the  change  of  the  monsoons  is  accom- 
panied by  storms  ;  but  hurricanes  of  the  type 
of  those  of  the  West  Indies  or  Mauritius  are 
not  known  in  the  greater  part  of  the  Pacific, 
the  exception  being  the  region  W.  of  the  La- 


782 


PACIFIC  OCEAN 


drone  archipelago,  into  which  the  typhoons  of 
the  China  seas  sometimes  extend.  They  occur 
most  frequently  in  May  and  June,  October  and 
November. — The  tides  of  the  Pacific  exhibit 
in  a  much  larger  degree  than  those  of  the 
Atlantic  the  diurnal  inequality  (see  TIDES)  by 
which  one  of  the  tides  of  the  day  is  rendered 
much  higher  than  the  other.  In  some  places 
this  is  so  marked  that  to  ordinary  observation 
there  appears  to  be  but  one  tide  in  24  hours. 
At  Tahiti  the  solar  tide  exceeds  the  lunar, 
a  phenomenon  which  has  thus  far  not  been 
observed  in  other  parts  of  the  world,  though 
it  probably  prevails  throughout  that  part  of 
Polynesia. — The  Pacific  ocean  is  noted  for  the 
great  number  of  its  islands.  We  have  already 
mentioned  the  continental  islands  forming  its 
western  limits.  The  others,  called  oceanic  isl- 
ands, are  grouped  according  to  certain  prin- 
cipal directions,  like  the  summits  of  submerged 
chains  of  mountains.  As  in  these,  the  direc- 
tion is  not  perfectly  constant,  and  the  chains 
are  formed  by  several  parallel  courses.  Ac- 
cording to  Dana,  there  are  two  principal  trends 
in  these  islands,  a  northwesterly  and  a  north- 
easterly one,  crossing  each  other  at  right  an- 
gles. The  former  is  the  prevailing  one.  To 
it  belong  the  Hawaiian  chain,  in  the  prolon- 
gation of  which,  though  without  connection, 
are  found  the  Galapagos.  The  great  Polyne- 
sian chain  is  formed  of  a  number  of  links, 
parallel  or  overlapping,  beginning  in  the  west 
with  the  Pelews,  and  continuing  through  the 
Caroline,  Ralick,  Radack,  Kingsmill,  Samoa, 
Society,  and  Paumotou  islands ;  in  the  contin- 
uation are  found  Easter  island,  and  at  a  long 
distance  Mas  a  Fuera  and  Juan  Fernandez. 
The  Marquesas  and  Fanning  islands  form  a 
parallel  chain.  The  Australasian  or  Melane- 
sian  system  is  connected  with  the  continent  of 
Asia  through  Java  and  Sumatra ;  it  comprises 
Papua,  the  Admiralty,  Louisiade,  Solomon, 
New  Hebrides,  and  Loyalty  groups,  New  Cal- 
edonia, and  the  northern  part  of  New  Zealand. 
To  the  northeasterly  system  of  trend  belong 
the  main  part  of  New  Zealand  with  the  Auck- 
land and  Macquarie  islands,  and  as  a  parallel 
chain  Chatham,  Bounty,  Campbell,  and  Emer- 
|ild  islands.  The  Feejee  islands  lie  near  the 
intersection  of  several  chains,  and  are  difficult 
to  associate  with  either.  The  Ladrone  and 
Bonin  islands  belong  also  to  the  northeasterly 
system.  All  the  oceanic  islands  of  the  Pacific 
are  either  volcanic  or  formed  of  coral ;  in  fact 
they  may  all  be  referred  to  the  former  origin, 
those  formed  only  of  coral  marking  the  place 
of  a  volcanic  peak  in  an  area  of  subsidence. 
Dana  has  given,  in  his  "  Corals  and  Coral  Isl- 
ands," what  are  supposed  to  be  the  areas  of 
subsidence  and  elevation  in  the  Pacific.— The 
inhabitants  of  the  Pacific  islands  belong  to  two 
distinct  races,  the  Malaysian  and  the  Polyne- 
sian. (See  MALAYO-POLYNESIAN  RACES.)  Their 
distribution  is  one  of  the  most  interesting  chap- 
ters of  ethnology,  connected  as  it  must  be 
with  the  prevailing  course  of  winds  and  cur- 


rents. They  have  carried  with  them  almost 
everywhere  the  dog,  the  pig,  and  the  domestic 
fowl.  In  many  of  the  groups  of  islands  the 
natives  have  at  the  present  day  generally  em- 
braced Christianity,  but  at  the  same  time  have 
received  the  curses  apparently  inseparable  from 
the  introduction  of  civilization  among  savage 
nations,  under  the  influence  of  which  the  pop- 
ulation is  diminishing  with  fearful  rapidity. 
The  white  race  is  rapidly  encroaching,  and  dis- 
placing the  natives,  particularly  since  the  more 
progressive  Anglo-Saxon  branch  has  occupied 
the  shores  of  this  ocean,  and  established  new 
centres  of  civilization  in  Australia,  California, 
and  New  Zealand.  Lines  of  coasting  steam- 
ers are  established  along  the  whole  coast  of 
America,  from  Alaska  to  the  straits  of  Ma- 
gellan, and  the  coasts  of  Australia  and  New 
Zealand ;  and  transatlantic  lines  have  brought 
into  close  connection  California,  the  Hawai- 
ian islands,  Japan,  China,  and  Australia. — The 
marine  mammalia  of  the  Pacific  have  played 
an  important  part  in  the  commercial  history 
of  the  world,  but  they  are  being  rapidly  de- 
stroyed. The  fur  of  the  sea  otter,  formerly 
very  common  on  the  northern  shores  of  Amer- 
ica and  Asia,  was  at  the  beginning  of  this  cen- 
tury a  most  valuable  article  of  trade.  Ships 
used  to  be  fitted  out,  particularly  in  Boston, 
for  the  purpose  of  buying  these  furs  from 
the  natives,  carrying  them  to  China,  where  the 
highest  price  could  be  procured,  and  investing 
the  profits  in  silks  and  teas  for  the  return  voy- 
age. This  trade  has  entirely  ceased.  Eared 
seals,  to  which  division  of  the  family  the  sea 
lions  and  fur  seals  belong,  are  found  on  the 
coast  of  South  America  as  far  north  as  the 
Galapagos  islands,  the  cold  current  of  the 
coast  of  Peru  proving  thus  congenial  to  them 
as  far  as  the  equator.  The  huge  sea  elephant, 
which  formerly  abounded  on  the  S.  coast  of 
Chili  and  at  Juan  Fernandez,  has  been  so  much 
hunted  for  its  oil  that  it  has  almost  entirely 
disappeared  from  these  parts;  but  it  is  still 
found  in  the  islands  bordering  on  the  Antarctic 
circle.  The  northern  fur  seal  is  now  protected 
by  law.  The  dugong  is  found  on  the  N.  coast 
of  Australia;  an  allied  animal,  Steller's  sea 
cow,  formerly  inhabited  the  westernmost  Aleu- 
tian islands,  but  is  now  entirely  extinct.  The 
whale  fishery  is  still  extensively  pursued  in  the 
Pacific,  though  the  profits  are  diminishing  every 
year.  The  right  whale  of  the  north  is  not 
found  "on  the  American  coast  further  south 
than  Vancouver  island,  but  on  the  Asiatic  side 
it  reaches  the  south  of  Japan ;  the  sea  of 
Okhotsk  is  a  favorite  resort  of  the  whalers  in 
pursuit  of  it.  Another  species  is  found  S.  of 
the  tropic  of  Capricorn.  In  the  warmer  parts 
of  the  ocean  it  is  replaced  by  humpback  and 
other  whales  of  the  finner  family,  which  are 
taken  in  considerable  numbers  on  the  coast 
of  California.  Sperm  whales  formerly  abound- 
ed in  the  tropical  regions,  certain  parts  being 
more  frequented  than  others.  They  are  said 
by  Maury  to  cross  into  the  Atlantic  around 


PACINI 

Cape  Horn.  They  are  not  found  near  the 
American  shore  north  of  Panama,  nor  in  the 
Asiatic  seas  bordering  on  the  Pacific.  Fish 
are  abundant  everywhere,  and  constitute  an 
important  item  in  the  food  of  the  populations, 
but  do  not  yet  form  an  article  of  commerce 
comparable  to  the  cod  and  herring  of  the  At- 
lantic. Mollusks  and  Crustacea  present  a  great 
variety,  the  shells  being  particularly  noted  for 
their  beauty.  Among  the  echinoderms  the 
holothurice  or  sea  slugs  deserve  mention  as 
forming  an  article  of  trade  for  the  China  mar- 
ket under  the  name  of  tripang  or  biche  de  mer. 
The  corals  have  been  mentioned  as  forming 
a  large  part  of  the  Polynesian  islands ;  others 
they  surround  by  fringing  and  barrier  reefs. 
Their  geographical  distribution  is  dependent 
on  the  temperature  of  the  currents.  Thus  on 
the  American  coast  no  corals  are  found  S.  of 
the  equator,  on  account  of  the  cold  Peruvian 
current,  nor  on  the  North  American  coast  S. 
of  the  extremity  of  the  Californian  peninsula. 
But  in  the  western  part  of  the  ocean  coral 
reefs  are  found  in  abundance  in  a  range  of  lati- 
tude extending  from  24°  S.,  the  extremity  of 
the  great  Australian  reef,  and  25°  S.  among 
the  Paumotou  islands,  to  28°  30'  N.  among  the 
small  islands  N.  W.  of  the  Hawaiian  group. — 
The  North  Pacific  has  its  Sargasso  sea,  bearing 
the  same  relation  to  the  Japanese  and  North 
Pacific  currents  which  the  Atlantic  Sargasso 
sea  bears  to  the  Gulf  stream.  (See  ATLANTIC 
OCEAN.)  It  is  situated  N.  of  the  Hawaiian 
islands,  but  is  little  known  in  its  details.  Our 
knowledge  is  still  more  scanty  with  regard  to 
an  accumulation  of  seaweed  to  the  eastward 
of  New  Zealand. 

PACIM,  Giovanni,  an  Italian  composer,  born  in 
Catania,  Feb.  11,  1796,  died  near  Pescia,  Dec. 
6,  1867.  He  was  sent  to  Rome  to  be  educa- 
ted as  a  chapelmaster,  whence  he  is  known  in 
Italy  as  Pacini  di  Roma.  He  afterward  studied 
under  Mattel  in  Bologna.  After  composing 
several  masses,  at  the  age  of  18  he  produced 
a  comic  opera  entitled  Annetta  e  Lucinda, 
which  proved  successful.  From  that  period  till 
1830  he  was  a  prolific  composer  of  pieces  for 
the  stage,  which  in  style  resemble  the  produc- 
tions of  Rossini.  In  1830  his  opera  Criovanna 
d'Arco  failed  in  Milan,  and  the  composer  ceased 
thenceforth  to  write  for  the  stage.  In  1836 
he  became  director  of  the  conservatory  at  Via- 
reggio.  Among  his  best  known  operas  are 
Saffo,  L1  ultimo  giorno  di  Pompei,  and  Medea. 

PACKARD,  Alphens  Spring,  jr.,  an  American 
naturalist,  born  in  Brunswick,  Me.,  Feb.  19, 
1839.  He  graduated  at  Bowdoin  college  in  1861, 
passed  three  years  in  the  museum  of  compara- 
tive zoology  at  Cambridge,  Mass.,  part  of  the 
time  in  charge  of  the  department  of  entomolo- 
gy, and  in  1864  received  the  degree  of  M.  D. 
from  the  Maine  medical  college.  He  has  made 
several  scientific  expeditions;  is  lecturer  on 
entomology  at  Bowdoin  college ;  is  a  curator  of 
the  Peabody  academy  of  sciences  at  Salem, 
Mass.,  and  one  of  the  editors  of  the  "  American 
627  VOL.  xii.— 50 


PADILLA 


783 


Naturalist"  published  by  the  academy;  and 
editor  of  the  "Annual  Record  of  Entomology," 
begun  in  1868;  He  has  published  "Observa- 
tions on  the  Glacial  Phenomena  of  Labrador 
and  Maine,  with  a  View  of  the  Recent  In- 
vertebrate Fauna  of  Labrador"  (4to,  Boston, 
1867);  "A  Guide  to  the  Study  of  Insects" 
(1869);  "Our  Common  Insects"  (1873);  and 
"  Half  Hours  with  Insects  "  (1875). 

PACTOLIJS  (now  Sarabat),  a  small  river  of 
Lydia,  which  had  its  source  on  the  N.  side  of 
Mt.  Tmolus,  and,  after  a  northerly  course  past 
Sardis,  united  with  the  Hermus.  It  was  long 
famous  for  its  gold  washings,  but  at  the  begin- 
ning of  the  Christian  era  the  "  golden  sands  " 
were  not  worth  collecting.  (See  MIDAS.) 

PACKVIUS,  Marcos,  a  Roman  dramatic  poet, 
born  in  Brundusium  about  219  B.  0.,  died  there 
about  130.  He  passed  most  of  his  life  in  Rome, 
where  he  devoted  himself  with  considerable 
success  to  painting,  and  executed  some  works 
in  the  temple  of  Hercules  in  the  forum  Boarium. 
The  ancient  writers  agree  in  styling  him  one 
of  the  greatest  of  the  Latin  tragic  poets ;  and 
though  most  of  his  subjects  were  borrowed 
from  the  Greek  dramatists,  his  plays  were  not 
mere  translations.  He  composed  several  tra- 
gedies founded  on  Roman  history,  besides  a 
play  called  Dulorestes.  Only  fragments  of  his 
writings  are  now  extant.  They  were  collected 
by  Henry  Stephens  (Paris,  1564),  and  have 
been  printed  by  Bothe  in  his  "Fragments  of 
the  Latin  Scenic  Poets"  (Leipsic,  1834),  and 
in  several  editions  of  the  Corpus  Poetarum 
Latinorum. 

PADANG.    See  STJMATKA. 

PADERBORN,  a  town  of  Prussia,  in  Westpha- 
lia, on  the  river  Pader  and  on  the  railway  from 
Berlin  to  the  Rhine,  40  m.  S.  by  W.  of  Minden ; 
pop.  in  1871,  13,727.  It  contains  a  cathedral 
of  the  llth  century,  a  seminary  with  faculties 
of  theology  and  philosophy,  a  Catholic  gymna- 
sium, a  normal  school,  four  convents,  and  sev- 
eral asylums.  It  has  manufactures  of  brandy 
and  several  other  articles,  and  a  considerable 
trade  in  agricultural  produce.  Paderborn  was 
founded  by  Charlemagne,  who  assembled  here 
several  diets  of  Saxony,  and  made  the  town 
a  bishopric,  which  was  subsequently  erected 
into  a  principality  of  the  empire.  In  the  mid- 
dle ages  it  belonged  to  the  Hanseatic  league. 
Ceded  to  Prussia  in  1803,  it  was  incorporated 
with  the  kingdom  of  Westphalia  in  1807,  and 
restored  to  Prussia  by  the  treaty  of  Vienna. 

PADILLA,  Juan  Lopez  de,  a  Spanish  patriot, 
born  about  1490,  executed  at  ViUalar,  April 
24, 1521.  He  was  one  of  the  foremost  to  com- 
plain of  the  grievances  to  which  the  Castilians 
were  subjected' under  the  Flemish  officials  ap- 
pointed by  Charles  V. ;  and  when  the  cortes  in 
1520  voted  the  monarch  a  "  free  gift "  without 
obtaining  the  redress  of  any  of  their  wrongs, 
he  incited  the  people  of  Toledo  to  insurrection, 
was  appointed  their  leader,  and  organized  a 
popular  form  of  government.  Similar  risings 
took  place  at  Segovia,  Toro,  Salamanca,  Mur- 


784: 


PADUA 


cia,  and  Avila;  and  at  a  meeting  in  the  last 
named  city  a  solemn  league  was  formed,  and 
its  interests  were  committed  to  a  junta  de  las 
comunidades  composed  of  deputies  from  all 
the  towns.  In  a  short  time  the  rebellion  spread 
all  over  the  kingdom.  Padilla,  who  had  driven 
a  body  of  royalist  troops  from  before  the  gates 
of  Segovia,  marched  to  Tordesillas,  where  the 
queen  mother  Joanna  resided,  and  placed  her 
at  the  head  of  the  government.  The  junta  now 
removed  to  Tordesillas,  seized  the  members  of 
the  council  at  Valladolid,  took  possession  of 
the  public  archives,  seals,  and  treasury  books, 
deposed  the  regent  (Cardinal  Adrian  of  Utrecht, 
afterward  Pope  Adrian  VI.),  and  sent  a  re- 
monstrance to  Charles,  which  proposed  a  thor- 
ough reform  of  the  political  constitution  of  the 
state.  These  measures  alienated  the  nobility, 
who  succeeded  in  depriving  Padilla  of  the  mil- 
itary command  and 
conferring  it  upon 
Don  Pedro  de  Giron, 
whose  incapacity  led 
to  the  capture  of  Tor- 
desillas by  the  royal- 
ists, the  seizure  of  the 
queen's  person,  and 
the  recovery  of  the 
public  seal.  Padi- 
lla, again  taking  the 
command,  made  him- 
self master  of  several 
small  towns,  and  car- 
ried Torrelobaton  by 
storm  after  a  desper- 
ate siege.  The  jun- 
ta, however,  consent- 
ed to  a  truce,  du- 
ring which  the  un- 
disciplined popular 
army  rapidly  dwin- 
dled away,  while  the 
royalists  under  the 
conde  de  Haro  pre- 
pared for  battle,  and 
as  soon  as  the  truce 
expired  advanced  up- 
on Torrelobaton.  Padilla  was  overtaken  at 
Villalar,  April  23,  1521,  defeated,  and  made 
prisoner,  and  on  the  next  day  was  executed 
with  his  two  principal  officers  without  any 
form  of  trial.— His  wife,  MAKIA  PAOHECO,  be- 
longed to  one  of  the  most  illustrious  families 
of  Spain,  and  was  an  ardent  supporter  of  her 
husband.  When  he  was  in  great  strait  for 
money  after  the  defeat  of  Giron,  she  seized 
the  ornaments  in  the  cathedral  of  Toledo.  Af- 
ter her  husband's  death  she  placed  herself  at 
the  head  of  the  popular  party,  and  invited  the 
French,  who  had  just  invaded  Navarre,  to  ad- 
vance into  Castile.  The  French  were  defeat- 
ed, the  insurrection  was  subdued,  and  after 
the  fall  of  Toledo  she  escaped  into  Portugal 
where  she  passed  the  rest  of  her  life. 
e  PADUA  (It.  Padova).  I.  A  province  of  Italy, 
m  Venetia,  bordering  on  Vicenza,  Treviso, 


Venice,  Eovigo,  and  Verona;  area,  755  sq. 
m. ;  pop.  in  1872,  364,430.  The  surface  gen- 
erally is  level,  but  in  the  southwest  are  the 
volcanic  Euganean  hills,  near  which  are  nu- 
merous mineral  springs.  The  principal  rivers 
are  the  Adige,  which  forms  the  S.  boundary, 
the  Brenta,  the  Musone,  and  the  Bacchiglione. 
The  soil  is  fertile,  and  wheat,  maize,  rice,  hemp, 
flax,  grass,  and  the  grape  are  carefully  culti- 
vated. Cattle,  sheep,  and  poultry  are  reared ; 
oil,  silk,  and  wool  of  a  superior  quality  are 
produced.  The  province  is  traversed  by  a 
number  of  irrigating  and  navigable  canals.  It 
is  divided  into  the  districts  of  Padua,  Cam- 
posanpiero,  Piove,  Cittadella,  Monselice,  Este, 
Montagnana,  and  Conselve.  II.  A  city  (anc. 
Patavium),  capital  of  the  province,  on  the 
Bacchiglione,  20  m.  W.  of  Venice,  with  which 
it  is  connected  by  railway;  pop.  in  1872,  66,- 


Town  Hall,  Padua. 

107.  It  is  traversed  by  several  canals,  which 
give  it  communication  with  the  lagoons  and 
with  other  places.  It  is  sometimes  called  Pa- 
dova la  Forte,  and  in  ancient  times  it  deserved 
that  appellation,  but  its  defences  are  now  dilap- 
idated. The  old  wall  is  triangular,  about  6  m. 
in  circuit.  The  city  is  irregularly  built.  The 
narrow  streets  are  lined  by  arcades,  with  here 
and  there  irregular  open  spaces,  and  in  the 
outskirts  broad  squares.  The  houses  are  for 
the  most  part  well  built,  and  many  of  the  pub- 
lic edifices  are  fine  specimens  of  architecture. 
The  municipal  palace,  built  between  1172  and 
1219,  stands  entirely  upon  open  arches  sur- 
rounded by  a  loggia,  and  is  covered  by  a  vast 
roof  unsupported  by  pillars  and  rising  about 
half  as  high  again  as  the  walls.  The  great  hall 
is  about  240  ft.  long,  80  ft.  wide,  and  70  ft.  high. 
It  is  closely  covered  with  curious  allegorical 


PADUCAH 


PJEONY 


785 


paintings  in  319  compartments,  said  to  have 
been  designed  by  Giotto,  but  entirely  repainted 
after  having  been  several  times  damaged  by  fire 
and  water.  The  cathedral  is  said  to  have  been 
designed  by  Michel  Angelo,  but  it  was  not 
completed  till  1754.  It  has  some  good  paint- 
ings. The  baptistery,  a  Lombard  building  of 
the  12th  century,  contains  many  interesting 
frescoes.  The  bishop's  and  governor's  palaces 
are  also  worthy  of  notice,  the  latter  having  a 
remarkable  clock  tower.  The  church  of  Sant' 
Antonio,  the  adjoining  school,  and  the  church 
of  Santa  Giustina  are  rich  in  works  of  art.  In 
front  of  the  latter  is  the  Prato  della  Valle,  an 
oval  surrounded  by  a  small  canal  and  decorated 
with  about  80  statues,  two  of  which  are  by 
Canova.  In  the  midst  of  the  Arena,  the  ruins 
of  a  Roman  amphitheatre  afterward  converted 
into  a  fortress,  is  a  chapel  built  by  Giotto  and 
adorned  with  some  of  his  best  paintings.  The 
university  of  Padua,  founded  early  in  the  13th 
century,  was  a  famous  school  of  law  and  medi- 
cine, and  is  still  the  most  celebrated  seat  of  the 
latter  science  in  Italy.  It  has  also  faculties  of 
theology,  law,  and  humanities,  and  in  1873  had 
65  professors  and  1,121  students.  The  present 
edifice  was  begun  in  1493,  and  the  interior 
court,  by  Palladio,  has  great  beauty.  The  bo- 
tanic garden  of  Padua,  established  in  1543,  is 
the  oldest  in  Europe.  The  city  has  a  celebra- 
ted society  of  arts  and  sciences,  museums,  an 
observatory,  and  extensive  libraries,  that  of 
the  university  numbering  100,000  volumes.  It 
manufactures  silks,  ribbons,  leather,  and  wool- 
len cloth,  and  trades  in  wine,  oil,  cattle,  and 
garden  vegetables. — Padua  is  one  of  the  most 
ancient  cities  of  Italy,  and  according  to  tradi- 
tion was  founded  by  Antenor  after  the  fall  of 
Troy.  In  1274  a  skeleton  enclosed  in  a  marble 
sarcophagus  and  grasping  a  sword  was  dug  up 
in  Padua,  and  at  once  pronounced  to  be  that  of 
the  Trojan  founder.  The  sword  was  given  to 
Alberto  della  Scala  in  1334,  and  the  sarcopha- 
gus now  rests  under  a  fialdacchino  in  one  of 
the  streets.  The  ancient  Patavium  was  one  of 
the  most  important  cities  of  Venetia.  Even 
after  it  fell  under  the  power  of  the  Romans  it 
continued  for  some  time  to  be  one  of  the  first 
cities  of  upper  Italy.  Livy  was  a  native  of  it. 
Although  sacked  by  Attila  in  452  and  by  the 
Lombards  in  601,  it  became  in  the  10th  cen- 
tury once  more  an  important  place.  In  1239 
it  became  subject  to  Ezzelino,  but  after  his 
defeat  in  1259  was  long  independent.  In  the 
early  part  of  the  14th  century  it  passed  into  the 
hands  of  the  house  of  Carrara,  and  in  1405 
became  subject  to  Venice,  with  which  it  was 
transferred  to  Austria  by  the  treaty  of  Campo 
Formio  in  1797.  In  1866  it  became,  with  the 
rest  of  Venetia,  part  of  the  kingdom  of  Italy. 

PADUCAH,  a  city  and  the  capital  of  McCrack- 
en  co.,  Kentucky,  on  the  Ohio  river,  just  below 
the  mouth  of  the  Tennessee,  47  m.  above  the 
Mississippi  and  322  m.  below  Louisville,  and 
on  the  Louisville,  Paducah,  and  Southwestern, 
and  the  Paducah  and  Memphis  railroads,  215 


m.  W.  S.  W.  of  Frankfort;  pop.  in  1850, 
2,428;  in  1860,  4,590;  in  1870,  6,866,  of 
whom  2,001  were  colored;  in  1875,  about 
12,000.  Paducah  is  the  shipping  point  of  the 
surrounding  country,  the  chief  productions  of 
which  are  tobacco,  pork,  and  grain.  It  con- 
tains four  tobacco  warehouses,  two  tobacco 
stemmeries,  a  pork-packing  house,  two  large 
flouring  mills,  two  saw  mills,  two  planing  mills, 
a  rolling  mill,  four  shoe  factories,  two  iron 
founderies,  two  tobacco  factories,  &c.  There 
are  four  banks,  a  large  county  court  house,  a 
city  court  house,  a  female  seminary,  several 
public  and  private  schools,  two  daily  and  four 
weekly  newspapers,  and  15  churches,  viz. : 
Baptist  (2),  Christian  (2),  Episcopal,  Jewish, 
Lutheran,  Methodist  (3),  Presbyterian  (2),  Re- 
formed, Roman  Catholic,  and  Universalist. — 
Paducah  was  laid  out  in  1827,  incorporated  as 
a  town  in  1830,  and  as  a  city  in  1856. 

PADUS.    SeePo. 

PJEONIA.    See  MACEDONIA. 

PJilONY,  or  Peony  (also  written  piony,  and 
sometimes  in  popular  language  reduced  to  piny), 
the  common  name  for  plants  of  the  genus 
Pceonia,  which  is  said  to  have  been  so  called  in 
honor  of  Paeon  or  Paean,  the  Homeric  physician 
of  the  gods  of  Olympus.  The  genus  belongs 
to  the  ranunculacece,  or  crowfoot  family;  it 
consists  of  large  herbs  with  tuberous  roots,  or 
of  shrubs  with  roots  somewhat  fleshy,  but  not 
distinctly  tuberous.  The  large  leaves  are  com- 
pound or  decompound,  and  in  the  herbaceous 
species  nearly  all  radical.  The  very  large  regu- 
lar flowers  have  five  persistent  sepals,  and  five 
to  ten  broad,  conspicuous  petals ;  stamens  very 
numerous,  inserted  on  a  fleshy  disk  (a  distin- 
guishing character  in  the  genus),  which  sur- 
rounds the  base  of  the  two  to  five  pistils ;  these 
at  maturity  form  as  many  leathery  pods,  often 
recurved  when  ripe,  and  containing  several 
large  seeds.  A  great  many  species  are  enumera- 
ted in  the  books,  but  they  are  all  probably  redu- 
cible to  four  or  five ;  they  are  natives  of  south- 
ern Europe  and  the  temperate  parts  of  Asia, 
and  one  species  is  found  on  our  northwest  coast. 
Pasonies  were  introduced  into  English  gardens 
more  than  three  centuries  ago,  and  so  great  is 
the  tendency  of  the  species  to  vary  that  the 
named  sorts  form  a  very  long  list.  Of  the 
herbaceous  species,  some  produce  only  a  single 
flower  to  each  stem,  and  have  downy  pods. 
One  of  this  group  is  the  common  paeony  (P. 
officinalis),  the  best  known  of  all,  a  native 
of  southern  Europe;  it  is  very  smooth,  with 
coarsely  divided  green  leaves;  the  flowers  are 
red  in  the  wild  state,  when  they  are  of  course 
single,  a  condition  in  which  they  are  sometimes 
seen  in  gardens,  though  the  double-flowered  is 
more  common ;  this  has  produced  varieties  of 
various  shades  of  red  and  crimson,  pink,  and 
even  white.  Among  the  named  varieties  of 
this  species  are  the  anemoniflora,  a  double  red, 
Sdbini,  deep  crimson,  and  aureo-limbata,  in 
which  the  centre  is  filled  with  small  crimson 
petals  surrounded  by  a  row  of  large  outer 


786 


PJEONY 


petals  having  yellow  edges.  The  purple  psBony 
is  P.  peregrina  (also  called  P.  paradoxa),  from 
the  Levant ;  its  leaves  are  three-parted,  with 
the  divisions  cut  into  many  lobes,  glaucous 


Common  Pseony  (Pseonia  officinalis). 

ahove,  and  pale  and  more  or  less  downy  be- 
neath ;  the  flowers  are  smaller  than  in  the  com- 
mon species,  and  purplish  red,  with  the  petals 
cut  on  the  margins ;  it  has  produced  varieties 
of  other  colors,  and  some,  especially  fimbriata, 
in  which  the  petals  are  conspicuously  fringed. 
The  slender-leaved  psBony  (P.  tenuifolia\  also 


Slender-leaved  Pseony  (Pseonia  tenulfolia). 

called  the  fennel-leaved,  is,  as  its  name  indi- 
cates, very  different  from  the  others  in  foliage, 
the  leaves  being  much  divided  into  slender,  al- 
most thread-like  lobes.  This  is  a  native  of  Si- 


beria, and  a  very  beautiful  species ;  it  seldom 
grows  over  18  in.  high,  and  with  its  dark  crim- 
son flowers,  much  smaller  than  in  the  other 
species,  contrasted  with  the  delicately  cut  foli- 
age, it  appears  very  unlike  a  paeony ;  there  is 
a  variety  with  double  flowers.  The  Chinese 
pseony  (P.  albiflora),  also  called  white-flowered, 
fragrant,  and  edible  pseony,  is  a  native  of  Si- 
beria, and  has  long  been  in  cultivation ;  it  dif- 
fers from  all  of  the  preceding  in  having  several 
flowers  upon  each  stem,  and  smooth  pods ;  it 
grows  about  3  ft.  high,  and  has  bright  green 
foliage  and  flowers,  rather  smaller  than  those 
of  the  common  species.  The  wild  flowers  are 
white,  but  its  varieties  present  a  great  diversity 
in  color  from  white  and  rose  color  to  purple, 
and  some  have  yellowish  and  salmon-colored 
petals ;  some  are  sweet-scented,  and  many  are 
double.  This  species  has  produced  many  more, 
varieties  than  either  of  the  others,  some  of 
which,  having  originated  in  China,  have  been 
regarded  as  species ;  some  of  the  sorts  are  of 
great  beauty,  showing  a  blending  of  various 
shades  or  a  contrast  of  different  colors  in  the 


Tree  Paeony  (Pseonia  moutan). 

same  flower.  Of  the  older  varieties,  one  of  the 
most  remarkable  is  Humei,  with  very  large  pur- 
plish rose-colored  flowers,  so  thoroughly  dou- 
ble that  they  produce  no  seed  ;  Pottsii  has  the 
darkest  crimson  flowers ;  and  WMtleyi  and  f es- 
tiva are  white-flowered  and  fragrant. — The  tree 
poeony  (P.  moutan)  is  shrubby ;  on  this  account, 
and  as  the  disk  at  the  base  of  the  ovaries,  which 
in  the  herbaceous  species  is  a  mere  ring,  in  this 
is  developed  to  form  a  thin  fleshy  sac,  covering 
the  five  or  more  ovaries,  it  has  been  placed  in 
a  distinct  genus,  moutan;  but  the  best  author- 
ities retain  it  as  a  pceonia.  The  specific  name, 
moutan,  is  said  to  be  from  the  Chinese  meu- 
tang,  meaning  the  king  of  flowers.  In  our 
gardens  it  is  seldom  more  than  3  ft.  high,  but 
it  is  said  to  reach  10  ft.  in  China,  where  as 
well  as  in  Japan  it  is  a  favorite  plant.  It 
forms  by  branching  near  the  base  a  hemispher- 
ical bush,  which  when  covered  with  a  profu- 
sion of  large  flowers  presents  a  splendid  ap- 
pearance. The  ample  leaves  are  of  a  pale  glau- 
cous color;  the  flowers,  which  are  6  in.  or 
more  across,  are  single  or  double,  and  present 


PAER 


P^STUM 


the  same  varieties  in  color  as  the  herbaceous 
kinds,  and  some  of  them  are  fragrant.  There 
are  50  or  more  varieties  in  the  catalogues,  but 
many  of  these  are  not  very  distinct;  among 
the  most  striking  are  the  poppy-flowered  (var. 
papaveracea),  with  large  single  flowers,  some- 
times 10  in.  across,  with  white  petals  having 
a  deep  purple  spot  at  the  base  of  each ;  some 
of  the  poppy-flowered  kinds  are  blush  or  rose- 
colored,  with  purple  centres. — It  is  within  a 
comparatively  few  years  that  pseonies  have 
been  regarded  as  florists'  flowers ;  the  introduc- 
tion of  new  and  fine  varieties  has  caused  their 
merits  to  be  appreciated,  and  they  are  now 
much  used  for  decorative  planting.  From  their 
size  they  are  not  suitable  for  small  gardens  or 
borders,  but  if  set  where  they  can  be  seen  from 
a  little  distance,  against  a  background  of  ever- 
green or  other  dark  foliage,  they  are  very  ef- 
fective, and  their  foliage  is  pleasing  when  the 
plants  are  not  in  bloom.  The  herbaceous  spe- 
cies and  their  varieties  are  perfectly  hardy ;  the 
slender  or  fennel-leaved  blooms  early  in  May ; 
the  varieties  of  the  common  paeony  flower  from 
the  middle  to  the  end  of  May,  and  are  succeed- 
ed by  the  Chinese  sorts,  which  continue  through 
June  and  July.  New  varieties  are  obtained 
from  seed,  which  should  be  sown  as  soon  as 
ripe,  and  even  then  it  often  remains  dormant 
for  a  year.  The  established  sorts  are  multi- 
plied by  division ;  this  should  be  done  in  early 
autumn,  which  is  also  the  proper  time  for  trans- 
planting, as  the  plants  are  then  perfectly  dor- 
mant ;  if  disturbed  in  spring,  they  seldom  flower 
that  year.  The  plant,  being  carefully  taken 
up,  is  divided  into  as  many  pieces  as  there  are 
buds,  if  a  tuber  can  be  secured  with  each.  To 


obtain  the  best  results,  they  should  have  a  rich 
soil  and  be  left  undisturbed  for  several  years. 
The  varieties  of  the  tree  pseony  bloom  in  May 
and  later;  in  very  cold  localities  they  need 
a  slight  protection ;  they  are  propagated  from 
suckers  thrown  up  by  old  plants,  by  layering, 
by  cuttings,  and  by  grafting,  either  upon  roots 
of  the  same  kind  or  those  of  the  herbaceous 
species. — Our  native  species  is  Pceonia  Brownii 
(P.  Californica  is  the  same),  which  is  found 
from  the  mountains  of  Washington  territory 
to  those  of  California ;  it  is  a  low  herbaceous 
plant,  with  comparatively  small  reddish-pur- 
ple flowers,  which  do  not  fully  expand. 

PAER,  Ferdinando,  an  Italian  composer,  born 
in  Parma  in  1771,  died  in  Paris,  May  3,  1839. 
He  is  said  to  have  composed  an  opera  at  the 
age  of  10.  He  produced  several  operas  at 
Vienna,  acted  as  cliapelmaster  at  Dresden,  was 
appointed  imperial  composer  by  Napoleon  in 
1806,  and  between  1818  and  1825  was  direc- 
tor of  the  Italian  opera  in  Paris.  He  was  a 
prolific  composer  of  operas,  cantatas,  over- 
tures, &c.,  and  his  dramatic  pieces  abound  in 
striking  melodies  and  effective  accompani- 
ments. His  chief  operas  are  Camilla,  Sargino, 
Achille,  Leonora,  Dido,  Griselda,  and  Agnese. 

PJ2STFM  (originally  Posidpnia,  city  of  Po- 
seidon or  Neptune),  an  ancient  city  of  south- 
ern Italy,  situated  in  the  N.  "W.  extremity  of 
Lucania,  about  4  m.  S.  E.  of  the  mouth  of  the 
Silarus  (Selo),  and  on  a  bay  of  the  Tyrrhenian 
sea,  called  sinus  Pcestanus  (now  the  gulf  of  Sa- 
lerno). Its  site,  now  called  Pesto,  is  covered 
with  magnificent  ruins,  on  an  uninhabited 
plain  by  the  seashore.  The  principal  remains 
are  those  of  two  temples,  which,  with  the  ex- 


Euined  Temples  at  Paestum. 


ception  of  the  temple  of  Corinth,  are  the  most 
massive  examples  of  Doric  architecture  now 
extant.  The  finer  and  older  of  the  two,  known 
as  the  temple  of  Neptune,  is  open  to  the  sky, 
and  is  180  ft.  long  and  80  ft.  wide.  The  oth- 
er, variously  called  the  temple  of  Vesta  and  of 


Ceres,  is  107  ft.  long  by  48  wide.  The  walls 
are  built  of  large  polyhedric  masses  of  traver- 
tine, and  form  an  irregular  pentagon  3  m.  in 
circuit;  they  are  in  many  places  still  12  ft. 
high.  Remains  of  eight  towers  and  four  gate- 
ways are  traceable,  and  the  eastern  gateway 


788 


PAEZ 


with  an  arch  50  ft.  high  is  almost  perfect. 
Around  and  amid  the  whole  grow  profusely 
the  famous  Passtan  roses,  which  even  in  their 
wild  state  flower  twice  a  year,  and  are  remark- 
able for  their  fragrance.— A  colony  of  Greeks 
from  Sybaris  settled  here  in  524  B.  0.,  and 
the  city  flourished  and  grew  powerful.  Being 
taken  by  the  Lucanians  about  430,  it  gradu- 
ally lost  the  character  of  a  Greek  city,  and  its 
inhabitants  finally  ceased  to  speak  the  Greek 
language.  During  the  war  with  Pyrrhus  the 
Romans  founded  there  a  Latin  colony.  About 
the  llth  century,  after  the  devastation  of  the 
Saracens,  it  fell  into  complete  decay.  Its  ruin, 
generally  attributed  to  foreign  enemies,  is  by 
Strabo  assigned  to  its  unhealthy  atmosphere. 
Sulphurous  springs  in  the  neighborhood  still 
form  stagnant  pools,  and  a  stream  running 
under  the  walls  overflows  the  low  grounds  and 
forms  a  marsh  around  the  city. 

PAEZ,  Francisco,  a  Spanish  Jesuit  missionary, 
born  at  Olmedo,  near  Valladolid,  in  1564,  died 
in  Abyssinia  about  1620.  In  1588  he  was  sent 
from  Goa  with  Father  Antonio  Montserrat  to 
direct  a  mission  in  Abyssinia.  On  the  voyage 
thither  they  were  made  prisoners  by  an  Arab 
pirate  and  carried  to  Sana,  the  capital  of  Yemen, 
where  they  passed  seven  years.  Ransomed  at 
length  by  the  viceroy  of  India,  the  two  mis- 
sionaries returned  to  Goa  in  1596.  Paez,  after 
passing  a  few  years  at  Diu  and  Cambay,  again 
took  ship  for  Abyssinia,  and  in  1603  reached 
Massowa,  where  he  learned  the  native  lan- 
guage, translated  into  it  a  compendium  of  the 
Christian  doctrine,  and  instructed  the  chil- 
dren. The  king,  Za-Denghel,  ordered  him  to 
appear  at  court  with  two  of  his  pupils,  and 
was  so  much  impressed  that  he  wrote  to  the 
pope  and  to  Philip  III.  of  Spain  for  more  mis- 
sionaries. The  Abyssinian  priests  stirred  up 
an  insurrection  in  which  Za-Denghel  lost  his 
life  (1604) ;  but  the  next  king,  Susneius  or 
Melek  Seghed,  was  still  more  favorable  to  the 
Spaniard,  and  granted  him  a  piece  of  ground 
for  a  convent.  Father  Paez  accompanied  the 
king  on  his  military  expeditions,  and  on  one 
of  these  occasions  discovered  the  sources  of. 
the  Abai,  the1  eastern  upper  branch  of  the  Blue 
Nile,  which  he  was  the  first  European  to  visit. 
Nicolas  Antonio  attributes  to  Paez  a  general 
history  of  Ethiopia  (not  published),  a  treatise 
De  Abyssinorum  Erroribus,  and  several  letters 
printed  in  the  Literce  Annuce. 

PAEZ,  Jose  Antonio,  a  Venezuelan  soldier,  born 
near  Acarigua,  province  of  Barinas,  June  13, 
1790,  died  in  New  York,  May  6,  1873.  At  the 
age  of  18  he  became  overseer  of  a  cattle  estate. 
In  1810  he  joined  the  patriots,  collected  a  band 
of  daring  llaneros,  and  soon  became  the  ter- 
ror of  the  Spanish  commanders.  In  1815  he 
defeated  the  royal  troops  under  Lopez  at  Mata 
de  la  Miel,  and  in  1816  at  Montecal.  Soon 
afterward  he  was  made  commander  of  the 
revolutionary  forces,  with  the  rank  of  briga- 
dier general,  and  again  defeated  Lopez,  taking 
the  city  of  Achaguas,  recovering  the  province 


PAGANINI 

of  Apure  and  a  part  of  Barinas  in  Venezuela, 
and  Casanare  in  New  Granada.  In  1817  he 
defeated  the  royal  army  under  La  Torre,  and 
soon  afterward  he  acknowledged  the  author- 
ity of  Bolivar,  with  whom  thenceforth  he  act- 
ed in  concert.  In  1819  he  became  general  of 
division,  and  was  successful  in  several  encoun- 
ters with  the  Spanish  general  Morillo.  The 
victory  of  Paez  at  Oarabobo  in  1821  secured 
the  independence  of  Colombia,  and  his  capture 
of  Puerto  Cabello  in  1823  removed  the  last 
trace  of  Spanish  authority  there.  On  the  for- 
mation of  the  new  government  he  represented 
Venezuela  in  the  senate,  acting  with  the  feder- 
ative party.  In  1826,  in  the  execution  of  an 
order  requiring  the  enlistment  of  all  citizens 
between  the  ages  of  16  and  50,  Paez  gave  so 
much  offence  that  the  house  of  representatives 
resolved  to  impeach  him.  Refusing  to  obey 
the  summons,  he  put  himself  at  the  head  of  the 
military  and  of  the  party  opposed  to  the  con- 
stitution, and  a  revolt  followed,  which  contin- 
ued till  Bolivar  returned  and  recognized  Paez  as 
the  commander  in  Venezuela.  In  1829  Vene- 
zuela was  declared  independent,  and  in  1830 
Paez  was  elected  president.  Subsequently  he 
suppressed  two  insurrections  under  Monagas, 
was  presented  by  congress  with  a  golden  sword, 
and  was  honored  with  the  title  of  "illustrious 
citizen."  In  1839  he  was  again  elected  presi- 
dent, and  in  1846  was  succeeded  by  Monagas. 
In  1848,  when  Monagas  endeavored  to  usurp 
the  supreme  authority,  Paez  took  command  of 
the  revolutionary  army,  but  was  captured  and 
imprisoned.  Released  finally  by  congress,  but 
exiled,  he  went  in  May,  1850,  to  New  York, 
where  he  remained  till  December,  1858,  when, 
the  Monagas  party  having  been  overthrown,  he 
returned  by  special  invitation  to  Venezuela.  In 
1860  he  was  accredited  as  minister  to  the  Uni- 
ted States,  but  resigned  in  1861.  On  his  re- 
turn he  was  invested  with  supreme  authority 
to  quell  disturbances  in  Venezuela ;  but  failing 
in  his  efforts,  he  again  went  to  New  York  in 
1864.  He  afterward  lived  for  some  time  in 
the  Argentine  Republic  and  in  Peru,  receiving 
large  pensions  in  both  countries. — See  Autobi- 
ografie  del  General  Jose  Antonio  Paez  (vol. 
i.,  8vo,  New  York,  1867),  and  "  Public  Life  of 
J.  A.  Paez,"  by  his  son  Ramon  Paez  (New 
York,  1854).  The  latter  has  also  published 
"  Wild  Scenes  in  South  America"  (12mo,  1862), 
enlarged  as  "  Travels  and  Adventures  in  South 
and  Central  America"  (1868),  and  Ambas 
Americas:  Contrasted  (1872). 

PAGAMM,  Mcolo,  an  Italian  musician,  born 
in  Genoa,  Feb.  18,  1784,  died  in  Nice,  May  27, 
1840.  He  was  subjected  by  his  father  to  a 
very  severe  training.  At  six  years  of  age  he 
was  a  violinist,  and  began  to  practise  novel 
effects  upon  his  instrument,  and  to  perform 
feats  requiring  great  power  and  quickness  of 
execution ;  at  eight  he  had  composed  a  sonata, 
which  has  been  lost ;  and  at  nine  he  made  his 
first  public  appearance  in  the  largest  theatre  in 
Genoa,  rousing  the  audience  to  an  extraordi- 


PAGANINI 

nary  pitch  of  excitement  by  the  performance 
of  variations,  composed  by  himself,  on  the 
French  air  La  Carmagnole.  In  1797,  in  com- 
pany with  his  father,  he  made  his  first  musical 
tour  in  Italy,  and  soon  after  produced  music 
which  defied  the  attempts  of  other  violinists, 
and  greatly  taxed  his  own  powers.  The  severe 
discipline  to  which  his  father  subjected  him 
meanwhile  became  so  irksome,  that  before  at- 
taining his  15th  year  he  ran  away,  and  began 
a  course  of  concerts  at  Lucca,  Pisa,  and  other 
cities.  The  flatteries  lavished  upon  him,  to- 
gether with  the  possession  of  large  sums  of 
money,  induced  habits  of  dissipation.  For  sev- 
eral years  he  led  a  vagabond  life,  and  about 
the  age  of  18,  it  is  said,  formed  a  connection 
with  an  Italian  lady  of  rank,  with  whom  he 
retired  to  an  estate  of  hers  in  Tuscany.  Here 
he  renounced  the  violin  and  devoted  himself 
to  the  guitar ;  but  his  old  tastes  returning,  he 
went  in  1804  to  Genoa  and  studied  composi- 
tion with  renewed  vigor.  In  1805  he  began 
another  musical  tour  of  Italy,  and  between 
1806  and  1808  was  director  of  the  orchestra  in 
the  service  of  the  princess  Elisa  of  Lucca,  sister 
of  Napoleon.  At  this  period  he  first  perform- 
ed his  remarkable  feat  of  playing  the  military 
sonata  entitled  "  Napoleon  "  on  a  single  string. 
The  next  20  years  he  spent  in  the  chief  cities 
of  Italy,  where  his  fame  exceeded  that  of  any 
previous  or  contemporary  violinist.  In  1828 
he  made  his  first  appearance  in  Vienna,  and 
was  received  with  an  enthusiasm  bordering  on 
the  wildest  extravagance.  Poems  were  com- 
posed in  his  praise,  medals  struck  in  his  honor, 
articles  of  dress  were  named  after  him,  and 
the  emperor  appointed  him  violinist  of  his  pri- 
vate band.  After  a  triumphant  career  in  Ger- 
many he  arrived  in  Paris  in  March,  1831,  and 
during  the  next  two  months  produced  a  sen- 
sation almost  without  a  parallel  in  that  city. 
In  England,  whither  he  went  in  May  of  the 
same  year,  his  reception  was  not  less  enthu- 
siastic, notwithstanding  he  charged  the  most 
exorbitant  prices  for  admission  to  his  con- 
certs. Soon  afterward  he  retired  to  a  country 
seat  near  Parma,  but  the  latter  years  of  his 
life  were  rendered  unhappy  by  lawsuits  and 
ill  health.  He  left  a  fortune  of  several  million 
francs,  the  greater  part  of  which  was  be- 
queathed to  his  natural  son  Achillino,  whose 
mother  was  a  Jewess  of  Milan.  His  personal 
appearance,  studiously  eccentric,  his  facility  in 
making  his  instrument  produce  effects  at  once 
startling  and  unearthly,  and  a  certain  mystery 
connected  with  his  character  and  early  career 
gave  rise  to  numerous  stories  which  greatly  en- 
hanced his  notoriety.  He  was  of  a  gross  and 
sensual  disposition,  in  general  exceedingly  ava- 
ricious, and  vain  to  excess  of  popular  applause. 
As  an  artist  his  name  has  become  a  synonyme 
for  all  that  is  excellent  in  violin  playing,  not- 
withstanding that  he  degraded  his  art  by  feats 
little  better  than  sleight  of  hand.  His  com- 
positions are  full  of  invention  and  beauty. 
His  life  has  been  written  by  Schottky  under 


PAGE 


789 


the  title  of  PaganinVs  Leben  ,und  Treiben 
(Prague,  1830). 

PAGANISM,  a  general  term  applied  to  all 
forms  of  religious  worship  except  Christianity, 
Judaism,  and  Mohammedanism.  When  Con- 
stantine  forbade  the  worship  of  the  heathen 
deities,  the  followers  of  the  old  religion  retired 
to  the  country  villages  (pagi),  where  they  could 
practise  their  rites  in  secrecy,  and  were  hence 
called  by  the  Christians  pagani,  or  country 
people.  The  term  thus  came  in  time  to  denote 
heathens  generally,  irrespective  of  their  places 
of  abode.  In  the  middle  ages  it  was  also  ap- 
plied to  Mohammedans. 

PAGE.  I.  A  N.  E.  county  of  Virginia,  bor- 
dered E.  by  the  Blue  Eidge,  and  intersected  by 
the  Shenandoah  river;  area,  about  250  sq.  m. ; 
pop.  in  1870,  8,462,  of  whom  986  were  col- 
ored. The  soil  is  very  fertile.  The  chief  pro- 
ductions in  1870  were  128,543  bushels  of  wheat, 
18,583  of  rye,  93,765  of  Indian  corn,  24,249  of 
oats,  43,932  Ibs.  of  butter,  and  3,315  tons  of 
hay.  There  were  1,965  horses,  1,450  milch 
cows,  3,084  other  cattle,  2,532  sheep,  and 
5,254  swine;  1  bloomary,  2  blast  furnaces,  and 
13  distilleries.  Capital,  Luray.  II.  A  S.  W. 
county  of  Iowa,  bordering  on  Missouri,  drained 
by  the  Nodaway  and  several  branches  of  the 
Nishnabatona  and  Pakio  rivers ;  area,  576  sq. 
m. ;  pop.  in  1870,  9,975.  It  has  a  rolling  sur- 
face and  fertile  soil.  The  Brownsville  and 
Nodaway  railroad  ends  at  the  county  seat,  and 
a  branch  of  the  Burlington  and  Missouri  Kiver 
railroad  to  Nebraska  City  crosses  the  N.  "W. 
corner.  The  chief  productions  in  1870  were 
69,436  bushels  of  wheat,  1,001,054  of  Indian 
corn,  123,457  of  oats,  68,856  of  potatoes,  188,- 
699  Ibs.  of  butter,  22,213  of  wool,  and  16,352 
tons  of  hay.  There  were  4,645  horses,  3,899 
milch  cows,  5,589  other  cattle,  7,532  sheep,  and 
14,619  swine.  Capital,  Clarinda. 

PAGE,  William,  an  American  painter,  born  in 
Albany,  N.  Y.,  Jan.  23,  1811.  He  went  "to 
the  city  of  New  York  with  his  parents  in 
1819,  and  at  the  age  of  11  received  a  premium 
from  the  American  institute  for  a  drawing  in 
India  ink.  At  the  age  of  14  he  was  put  into 
the  law  office  of  Frederick  De  Peyster;  but 
his  passion  for  art  was  so  strong  that  he 
soon  left  it  and  engaged  himself  as  an  ap- 
prentice to  Herring,  a  portrait  painter,  with 
whom  he  remained  nearly  a  year.  He  after- 
ward became  a  pupil  of  S.  F.  B.  Morse,  was 
admitted  as  a  student  at  the  national  academy, 
and  received  a  large  silver  medal  for  his  draw- 
ings from  the  antique.  At  the  age  of  17  he 
became  a  member  of  a  Presbyterian  church, 
and  went  to  Andover,  Mass.,  and  afterward 
to  Amherst,  to  study  theology ;  but  at  the  end 
of  two  years  his  religious  ardor  cooled,  and  he 
returned  to  his  artistic  pursuits.  After  spend- 
ing a  year  in  Albany  painting  portraits,  and 
exciting  great  expectations  by  the  brilliancy  of 
his  color  and  the  accuracy  of  his  drawing,  he 
went  to  New  York,  and  was  admitted  a  mem- 
ber of  the  national  academy.  He  painted  the 


790 


PAGET 


portrait  of  Gov.  Marcy  for  the  New  York  city 
hall,  and  that  of  John  Quincy  Adams  for  Fa- 
neuil  hall  in  Boston.  Besides  portraits,  he  ex- 
ecuted several  historical  compositions,  among 
which  were  a  "Holy  Family,"  now  in  the 
Boston  Athenaeum,  "  The  Wife's  Last  Visit  to 
her  Condemned  Husband,"  and  "  The  Infancy 
of  Henri  IV."  About  1844  he  went  to  Boston 
to  reside,  and  painted  there  a  large  number  of 
portraits.  In  1847  he  returned  to  New  York, 
where  he  remained  two  years,  and  then  went 
to  Europe,  residing  11  years  in  Florence  and 
Rome,  and  returning  to  New  York  in  the  au- 
tumn of  1860.  For  four  or  five  years  subse- 
quently he  resided  at  Eagleswood,  near  Perth 
Amboy,  N.  J.,  and  then  built  a  house  at  the 
southern  end  of  Staten  island  for  his  family, 
while  he  passes  most  of  his  time  at  his  studio 
in  New  York.  During  his  residence  in  Italy 
he  painted  the  portraits  of  many  distinguish- 
ed Englishmen  and  Americans,  and  produced 
his  two  Venuses,  his  "Moses  and  Aaron  on 
Mount  Horeb,"  the  "Flight  into  Egypt,"  the 
"Infant  Bacchus,"  and  other  works.  His 
copies  of  Titian,  whose  method  of  painting  he 
professes  to  have  discovered,  were  so  remark- 
ably like  the  originals,  that  one  of  them  was 
stopped  by  the  authorities  at  Florence  under 
the  belief  that  it  was  the  original  painting. 
Since  his  return  to  America  he  has  delivered 
several  courses  of  lectures  on  art,  and  has  pub- 
lished a  "  New  Method  of  Measuring  the  Human 
Body,"  based  upon  the  models  of  the  antique. 
In  May,  1871,  he  was  elected  president  of  the 
academy  of  design,  which  office  he  held  for 
two  years.  For  several  years  he  has  been  oc- 
cupied with  producing  a  bust  of  Shakespeare 
from  photographs  of  a  supposed  mask  of  the 
poet  taken  after  his  death  and  now  preserved 
in  Germany.  In  1874  he  made  a  visit  to  Ger- 
many to  study  this  mask.  From  the  bust  he 
has  painted  several  portraits  of  Shakespeare. 
Among  other  portraits,  he  has  painted  those 
of  Henry  Ward  Beecher,  Charles  A.  Dana, 
Parke  Godwin,  Wendell  Phillips,  and  Admiral 
Farragut.  The  last,  a  full-length  represent- 
ing Farragut  at  the  battle  of  Mobile,  was  pur- 
chased by  a  committee  in  1871  and  presented 
to  the  emperor  of  Russia.  A  portrait  of  Christ 
painted  and  exhibited  in  1870  attracted  great 
attention,  and  excited  much  controversy. 

PAGET,  Sir  James,  an  English  surgeon,  born 
in  Great  Yarmouth  in  1814.  He  is  the  son  of 
a  merchant,  and  was  educated  at  the  medical 
school  connected  with  St.  Bartholomew's  hos- 
pital in  London.  He  began  practice  there  in 
1834,  and  became  sergeant  surgeon  extraor- 
dinary to  the  queen  and  surgeon  to  the  prince 
of  Wales.  He  received  the  degree  of  D.  C.  L. 
from  Oxford,  of  M.  D.  from  Bonn,  and  of  LL. 
D.  from  Edinburgh,  is  a  member  of  the  sen- 
ate of  the  university  of  London,  and  was  cre- 
ated a  baronet  in  1871.  Among  his  works  are 
"  Lectures  on  Surgical  Pathology  "  (1853-'68). 

PAGODA,  a  kind  of  temple  common  in  Chi- 
na and  Indo-China,  and  especially  in  Burmah. 


PAINE 

Chinese  pagodas  are  generally  towers  nine  sto- 
ries high.  The  most  celebrated  of  these  was 
the  porcelain  tower  at  Nanking,  called  the 
tower  of  gratitude  from  having  been  erected 
(1413-'32)  as  a  monument  of  gratitude  to  an 
empress  of  the  Ming  dynasty,  and  destroyed 
during  the  Taiping  rebellion.  (See  NANKING.) 
Almost  every  town  in  China  has  one  or  more 
of  these  structures,  all  alike  in  design,  but  dif- 
fering in  dimensions  and  in  the  richness  of  the 
materials  and  ornaments.  The  Burmese  pago- 
das are  square  edifices  of  great  extent,  the  base 
comprising  porticoes  and  central  chambers,  and 
terminating  upward  in  octagonal  or  polygonal 
straight-lined  pyramids  or  spires.  The  prin- 
cipal of  these  temples  is  called  Khomado,  and 
is  on  the  bank  of  the  Irrawaddy  nearly  oppo- 
site Ava.  It  is  160  ft.  high,  surmounted  by  a 
spire  22  ft.  high  and  15  ft.  in  diameter.  The 
circumference  of  its  base  is  944  ft.,  and  it  is 
surrounded  by  a  stockade  of  802  dwarf  pillars 
of  sandstone  about  5  ft.  high.  The  next  great 
pagoda  of  Burmah  is  the  Shoemadoo  at  Pegu, 
which  rises  to  the  height  of  361  ft.  with  a 
diameter  at  the  base  of  395  ft.  Throughout 
Burmah  these  edifices  abound. 

PAHLEJV,  Peter  Louis,  count,  a  Russian  con- 
spirator, born  about  1750,  died  in  1826.  He 
was  a  cavalry  officer,  and  in  1790  became  am- 
bassador at  Stockholm,  in  1793  governor  of 
Livonia,  and  in  1796  lieutenant  governor  of  the 
newly  acquired  province  of  Courland.  Under 
Paul  I.  he  was  made  count,  general  of  cavalry, 
and  military  governor  of  St.  Petersburg  (1801), 
and  succeeded  Rostoptchin  as  the  principal 
favorite.  Being  afraid  of  losing  the  empe- 
ror's good  will,  he  took  part  in  the  conspiracy 
which  resulted  in  Paul's  assassination  (March 
23,  1801),  and  spent  the  rest  of  his  life  in  dis- 
grace.— His  son  PETER  (1777-1864)  displayed 
ability  in  the  campaigns  against  Napoleon  and 
in  the  warfare  against  Turkey,  and  was  ambas- 
sador at  Paris  from  1835  to  1841,  and  general 
inspector  of  cavalry  from  1847  to  1862.  The 
latter's  brother  FREDERICK  (1780-1863)  was 
minister  at  Washington  and  Munich,  and  ne- 
gotiated together  with  Orloff  in  1829  the  trea- 
ty of  Adrianople. 

PAILLERON,  Edonard,  a  French  dramatist, 
born  in' Paris  in  1834.  He  began  life  as  clerk 
of  a  notary,  and  published  in  1860  a  volume 
of  satirical  poetry  and  a  play.  Among  his 
most  successful  subsequent  productions  are  : 
Le  dernier  quartier,  produced  at  the  Theatre 
Francais  in  1863 ;  Le  second  monument,  at  the 
Ode"on  in  1865 ;  Le  monde,  oil  Von  s'amme,  at 
the  Gymnase  in  1868 ;  and  Les  faux  menages, 
his  best  comedy,  1869. 

PAINE,  Martyn,  an  American  physician,  born 
in  Williamstown,  Vt.,  July  8,  1794.  He  grad- 
uated at  Harvard  college  in  1813,  studied  med- 
icine in  Boston,  and  practised  in  Montreal, 
Canada,  from  1816  to  1822,  when  he  removed 
to  New  York.  During  the  prevalence  of  the 
cholera  in  1832  he  published  a  series  of  letters 
upon  the  disease  to  Dr.  J.  C.  Warren  of  Bos- 


PAINE 


791 


ton,  which  were  collected  into  a  volume  enti- 
tled "The  Cholera  Asphyxia  of  New  York" 
(1832).  In  1841  he  united  with  five  other 
physicians  in  establishing  the  university  medi- 
cal college  (the  medical  department  of  the 
university  of  New  York),  in  which  he  held 
for  many  years  the  chair  of  the  institutes  of 
medicine  and  materia  medica,  and  afterward 
that  of  therapeutics  and  materia  medica.  In 
1854  he  was  prominent  in  securing  a  repeal  of 
the  law  against  dissections  of  the  human  body, 
which  was  till  then  a  state  prison  offence.  He 
is  a  member  of  many  of  the  principal  learned 
societies  in  Europe  and  America.  His  princi- 
pal works  are:  "Medical  and  Physiological 
Commentaries  "  (3  vols.  8vo,  1840-'44) ;  "  Ma- 
teria Medica  and  Therapeutics,"  on  an  origi- 
nal plan  (1842) ;  "  The  Institutes  of  Medicine  " 
(1847;  last  ed.,  1870);  "The  Soul  and  Instinct, 
physiologically  distinguished  from  Material- 
ism" (1848;  enlarged  ed.,  1872);  and  "A  Re- 
view of  Theoretical  Geology  "  (1856),  directed 
against  the  geological  interpretations  of  the 
Mosaic  narratives  of  the  creation  and  the  flood. 
In  1852  he  prepared  for  private  circulation  a 
memoir  and  the  literary  remains  of  his  son 
Robert  Troup  Paine,  who  graduated  at  Harvard 
college  in  1851,  and  died  the  same  year. 

PAINE.  I.  Robert  Treat,  an  American  states- 
man, born  in  Boston,  March  11, 1731,  died  there, 
May  11,  1814.  He  graduated  at  Harvard  col- 
lege in  1749,  studied  theology,  and  acted  in 
1755  as  chaplain  of  the  provincial  troops  on 
the  northern  frontier.  After  a  visit  to  Europe 
he  studied  law,  and  in  1759  settled  in  Taunton, 
where  he  resided  many  years.  He  was  a  dele- 
gate in  1768  to  the  convention  called  by  lead- 
ing men  in  Boston,  after  the  dissolution  of  the 
general  court  by  Gov.  Bernard  for  refusing  to 
rescind  the  circular  letter  to  the  other  colonies. 
In  1770  he  conducted,  in  the  absence  of  the 
attorney  general,  the  prosecution  against  Capt. 
Preston  and  his  men  for  firing  on  the  inhabi- 
tants of  the  city.  In  1773,  and  again  in  1774, 
he  was  chosen  to  the  general  assembly  of 
Massachusetts ;  and  he  was  a  delegate  to  the 
continental  congress  from  1774  to  1778,  and 
was  one  of  the  signers  of  the  Declaration  of 
Independence.  During  the  same  period  he  oc- 
cupied important  stations  in  the  government 
of  Massachusetts.  When,  in  October,  1780,  the 
state  constitution  was  adopted,  he  was  chosen 
attorney  general,  and  held  that  office  till  1790, 
when  he  became  a  judge  of  the  supreme  court. 
In  1804  he  resigned  on  account  of  deafness 
and  infirm  health.  The  same  year  he  was  a 
state  councillor,  but  shortly  afterward  retired 
from  public  life.  He  was  one  of  the  founders 
of  the  American  academy,  established  in  Massa- 
chusetts in  1780.  II.  Robert  Treat,  jr.,  an  Amer- 
ican author,  son  of  the  preceding,  born  in 
Taunton,  Mass.,  Dec.  9,  1773,  died  in  Bos- 
ton, Nov.  13,  1811.  His  name  was  originally 
Thomas  Paine,  but  in  1801  it  was  changed  by 
act  of  the  legislature  to  that  of  his  father, 
when  he  remarked  that  he  now  had  a  "  Chris- 


tian "  name,  in  allusion  to  Thomas  Paine  the 
infidel.  He  graduated  at  Harvard  college  in 
1792,  and  entered  mercantile  life ;  but  in  Oc- 
tober, 1794,  he  started  a  semi- weekly  newspa- 
per called  the  "Federal  Orrery."  In  Febru- 
ary, 1795,  he  married  Miss  Baker,  an  actress. 
On  taking  the  degree  of  A.  M.  in  that  year,  he 
delivered  a  poem  on  "The  Invention  of  Let- 
ters," which  brought  him  $1,500,  being  more 
than  $5  a  line.  In  1796  he  sold  his  newspaper, 
which  had  become  unprofitable;  and  a  poem 
entitled  "The  Ruling  Passion,"  delivered  be- 
fore the  Phi  Beta  Kappa  society  in  the  same 
year,  yielded  him  $1,200.  In  1798  he  wrote 
the  celebrated  song  of  "  Adams  and  Liberty x" 
for  which  he  received  $750,  or  more  than  $ll 
aline.  Resigning  the  office  of  "master  of 
ceremonies"  at  the  theatre,  which  had  been 
created  for  him,  he  studied  law,  was  admitted 
to  the  bar  in  1802,  and  commenced  practice 
in  Boston  with  great  success;  but  soon  re- 
suming his  old  acquaintance  with  the  players, 
and  his  former  unsettled  mode  of  life,  he 
passed  his  last  days  in  misery  and  destitution. 
.His  works  were  collected  and  published  by 
Charles  Prentiss  in  1812  (1  vol.  8vo,  Boston). 
PADfE,  Thomas,  an  American  political  writer, 
born  at  Thetford,  county  of  Norfolk,  England, 
Jan.  29, 1737,  died  in  New  York,  June  8, 1809. 
He  learned  under  his  father,  a  Quaker,  the 
trade  of  stay  making.  About  1755  he  shipped 
in  a  privateer,  and  in  1759  settled  at  Sandwich, 
where  he  worked  at  his  trade,  and  preached 
occasionally  as  a  dissenting  minister.  In  1760 
he  obtained  a  place  in  the  excise  at  Thetford, 
and  subsequently  at  Lewes  in  Sussex,  where 
he  also  carried  on  business  as  a  grocer  and 
tobacconist.  He  was  chosen  by  the  excisemen 
to  speak  for  them,  and  wrote  in  1772  "The 
Case  of  the  Officers'  of  the  Excise."  Being 
accused  of  smuggling  in  connection  with  his 
business  as  a  grocer,  he  was  dismissed  from 
the  excise.  Benjamin  Franklin  having  advised 
him  to  go  to  America,  he  arrived  in  Philadel- 
phia in  December,  1774,  and  was  employed  as 
editor  of  the  "Pennsylvania  Magazine."  In 
October,  1775,  he  published  in  the  "Pennsyl- 
vania Journal"  his  "Serious  Thoughts,"  in 
which  he  declared  his  hope  of  the  ultimate 
abolition  of  slavery,  and  his  belief  in  the  sep- 
aration of  America  from  Great  Britain.  His 
writings  attracted  the  attention  of  Dr.  Benja- 
min Rush,  at  whose  suggestion,  it  is  said,  he 
wrote  "Common  Sense,"  a  pamphlet  advo- 
cating an  independent  republic.  It  made  a 
profound  impression,  and  is  said  to  have  had 
a  wider  circulation  than  any  paper  published 
until  that  time  in  America.  It  was  strongly 
opposed  and  denounced,  but  struck  the  keynote 
of  popular  feeling,  and  contributed  much  to  the 
dissemination  of  republican  ideas.  The  legis- 
lature gave  him  £500,  and  the  university  of 
Pennsylvania  conferred  upon  him  the  honorary 
degree  of  M.  A.  The  work  was  first  published 
anonymously  and  without  copyright,  and  its 
great  circulation  did  not  reimburse  the  author. 


792 


PAINE 


After  independence  was  declared  Paine  volun- 
teered in  Gen.  Roberdeau's  division  of  the  flying 
camp,  and  afterward  was  aide-de-camp  to  Gen. 
Greene.  In  December,  1776,  he  published  his 
first  "  Crisis,"  which  began  with  the  phrase : 
"  These  are  the  times  that  try  men's  souls." 
This  was  read  by  order  at  the  head  of  every 
regiment,  and  did  much  to  rouse  the  drooping 
ardor  of  the  people.  A  second  number  of  the 
"  Crisis  "  appeared  after  the  battle  of  Trenton, 
and  other  numbers  at  irregular  intervals,  until 
the  18th  and  last  on  the  attainment  of  peace, 
April  19,  1783.  In  1777  he  was  elected  secre- 
tary to  the  committee  on  foreign  affairs,  but 
was  censured  by  congress  and  obliged  to  re- 
sign for  making  improper  use  of  official  se- 
crets in  his  letters  in  the  "Pennsylvania  Pack- 
et" against  Silas  Deane.  In  November,  1779, 
he  was  elected  clerk  to  the  general  assembly 
of  Pennsylvania.  In  the  following  June  a 
letter  was  received  by  the  assembly  of  Penn- 
sylvania from  Gen.  "Washington,  saying  that, 
notwithstanding  his  confidence  in  the  attach- 
ment of  the  army  to  the  cause  of  the  country, 
he  feared  their  distresses  would  soon  cause 
mutiny  in  the  ranks.  This  letter  was  read  by 
Paine  as  clerk.  A  despairing  silence  pervaded 
the  hall,  and  the  assembly  soon  adjourned. 
Paine  wrote  to  Blair  McClenaghan,  a  merchant 
of  Philadelphia,  explaining  the  urgency  of  af- 
fairs, and  enclosed  in  the  letter  $500,  the 
amount  of  salary  due  him  as  clerk,  as  his  con- 
tribution toward  a  relief  fund.  McClenaghan 
called  a  meeting  next  day  and  read  Paine's  let- 
ter ;  a  subscription  list  was  immediately  circu- 
lated, and  in  a  short  time  £300,000  Pennsylva- 
nia currency  was  collected.  With  this  as  a 
capital,  the  Pennsylvania  bank  (afterward  ex- 
panded into  the  bank  of  North  America)  was 
established  for  the  relief  6f  the  army.  In  1781 
Paine  was  sent  with  Col.  Laurens  to  France  to 
negotiate  a  loan,  and  secured  6,000,000  livres 
from  the  French  government,  and  its  guarantee 
for  10,000,000  advanced  by  Holland.  In  1782 
he  wrote  a  "Letter  to  the  Abbe  Raynal,"  cor- 
recting mistakes  in  the  account  by  the  latter  of 
the  American  revolution.  In  January,  1785, 
he  was  elected  a  member  of  the  American 
philosophical  society,  and  in  the  following  Oc- 
tober received  $3,000  from  congress  as  a  testi- 
monial for  his  services  during  the  revolution ; 
and  the  state  of  New  York  granted  him  a  house . 
and  farm  of  300  acres  in  New  Rochelle,  it  be- 
ing the  confiscated  estate  of  a  royalist.  On 
April  26,  1787,  he  sailed  for  France,  where  he 
was  cordially  received  by  many  eminent  men. 
He  submitted  the  model  of  an  iron  bridge 
which  he  had  invented  to  the  academy  of  sci- 
ences at  Paris,  whose  opinion  of  its  merits 
was  decidedly  favorable.  In  September  he 
visited  his  mother  in  England,  and  wrote 
the  "Prospects  of  the  Rubicon."  In  1788 
he  resided  at  Rotherham  in  Yorkshire,  super- 
intending the  erection  of  his  iron  bridge,  of 
which  Stephenson  says:  "If  we  are  to  con- 
sider Paine  as  its  author,  his  daring  in  engi- 


neering certainly  does  full  justice  to  the  fervor 
of  his  political  career;  for  successful  as  the 
result  has  undoubtedly  proved,  want  of  ex- 
perience and  consequent  ignorance  of  the  risk 
could  alone  have  induced  so  bold  an  experi- 
ment; and  we  are  rather  led  to  wonder  at 
than  admire  a  structure  which,  as  regards  its 
proportions,  and  the  quantity  of  material  em- 
ployed in  its  construction,  will  probably  re- 
main unrivalled."  This  bridge  was  put  up  for 
exhibition  in  an  open  field  at  Paddington,  and 
was  afterward  taken  down  and  the  materials 
used  in  the  one  which  now  spans  the  river 
Wear  at  Sunderland.  In  1791  appeared  the 
first  part  of  his  "  Rights  of  Man,"  written  as 
a  reply  to  Burke's  "  Reflections  on  the  French 
Revolution;"  the  second  part  was  issued  in 
1792.  This  work  had  an  immense  circulation, 
and  was  translated  into  French.  The  Ameri- 
can edition  was  prefaced  with  a  commendatory 
note  by  Thomas  Jefferson.  In  1792  he  gave 
the  revolutionary  society  of  England  an  order 
on  Jordan,  his  publisher,  for  £1,000,  to  be  ap- 
plied in  the  furtherance  of  their  objects.  In 
September  of  the  same  year  a  deputation  from 
France  announced  to  Paine  his  election  to  the 
French  national  convention  from  the  depart- 
ment of  Calais.  He  immediately  left  England 
to  take  his  seat,  and  met  with  a  triumphant  re- 
ception in  Paris.  The  revolutionary  doctrines 
of  the  "  Rights  of  Man"  caused  his  indictment 
in  London  for  sedition.  The  following  Decem- 
ber his  trial  took  place,  and,  not  appearing  to 
receive  his  sentence,  he  was  outlawed.  In  the 
national  convention  Paine  generally  voted  with 
the  Girondists.  He  was  associated  with  Brissot 
and  Condorcet  on  the  committee  that  framed 
the  constitution  of  1793.  As  a  member  of  the 
convention,  he  advocated  the  trial  of  Louis 
XVI. ;  but  when  the  sentence  of  that  unfortu- 
nate monarch  came  up  for  discussion,  he  op- 
posed his  death,  and  suggested  his  banishment 
to  America.  He  incurred  the  ill  will  of  the 
extreme  party,  and  was  imprisoned  by  Robes- 
pierre as  a  foreigner.  On  his  way  to  prison 
he  placed  the  manuscript  of  the  first  part  of 
his  "Age  of  Reason"  in  the  hands  of  Joel 
Barlow.  His  confinement  lasted  from  January 
to  November,  1794.  When  he  was  first  arrest- 
ed, the  Americans  in  Paris  went  in  a  body  to 
apply  for  the  release  of  "  the  apostle  of  liberty 
in  America,"  as  they  styled  him  ;  but  they  were 
unsuccessful.  A  few  months  after  the  death 
of  Robespierre,  James  Monroe,  the  American 
minister  in  France,  procured  his  liberation,  and 
tendered  him  a  home  in  his  own  family,  which 
Paine  enjoyed  for  about  18  months.  In  De- 
cember he  resumed  his  seat  in  the  national  con- 
vention, on  the  invitation  of  its  members.  In 
1795  the  second  part  of  the  "Age  of  Reason" 
appeared.  It  was  denounced  as  atheistical,  but 
unjustly.  It  assailed  Christianity  with  great 
boldness,  though  not  advancing  many  new  ar- 
guments, or  displaying  any  great  study  of  the 
subject.  Its  position  is  deistical,  declaring  a 
belief  in  God  and  a  future  life.  In  April,  1796, 


PAINESVILLE 

he  published  an  essay  "  On  the  English  System 
of  Finance,"  and  in  the  following  July  a  "  Let- 
ter to  General  Washington,"  in  which  he  ac- 
cuses him  of  ingratitude  in  not  attempting  to 
procure  his  liberation  from  his  French  prison. 
"Agrarian  Justice,"  and  a  "  Letter  to  the  Peo- 
ple and  Armies  of  France,"  appeared  in  1797. 
In  1802  Paine  resolved  to  return  to  the  United 
States,  and  at  his  request  President  Jefferson 
offered  him  a  passage  in  the  sloop  of  war  Mary- 
land, that  he  might  be  secure  from  British  cap- 
ture. He  arrived  at  Baltimore,  after  an  ab- 
sence  from  the  United  States  of  15  years,  on 
Oct.  30,  1802.  Jefferson  invited  him  to  Mon- 
ticello.  At  Washington  he  was  cordially  re- 
ceived ;  and  while  there  he  wrote  his  "  Letters 
to  the  People  of  the  United  States."  On  his 
way  to  New  York  he  was  grossly  insulted  by 
the  federalists  at  Trenton.  His  admirers  in 
New  York  and  Philadelphia  honored  him  with 
public  dinners;  his  enemies  thought  that  he 
and  Jefferson  "  should  dangle  from  the  same 
gallows."  He  finally  settled  in  New  York,  oc- 
casionally passing  a  few  months  on  his  farm 
at  New  Eochelle.  Just  before  his  death  he  re- 
quested to  be  interred  in  a  Quaker  burial 
ground;  but  the  Quakers  refusing  to  permit 
this,  his  remains  were  taken  to  New  Rochelle 
and  buried  on  his  farm.  In  1819  William  Cob- 
bett,  the  English  reformer,  took  his  bones  to 
England.  A  monument  was  erected  to  his 
memory  in  1839  within  a  few  feet  of  the  spot 
where  he  was  originally  buried.  A  memorial 
building  was  dedicated  in  Boston,  Jan.  29, 
1875,  having  over  the  entrance  the  inscription  : 
"  Paine  Memorial  Building  and  Home  of  the 
Boston  Investigator." — Among  the  biographers 
of  Paine  are  George  Chalmers,  under  the  pseu- 
donyme  of  Francis  Oldys  (London,  1791 ;  5th 
ed.,  1792),  William  Cobbett  (1796),  James 
Oheatham  (New  York,  1809),  T.  0.  Rickman 
(London,  1814),  W.  T.  Sherwin  (I819),  and 
Gilbert  Vale  (New  York,  1841).  The  most 
complete  edition  of  his  works  is  that  by  J.  P. 
Mendum  (Boston,  1856),  which  however  con- 
tains several  articles  not  by  Paine.  A  new 
edition  of  his  political  works,  with  a  report  of 
his  trial  in  1792,  and  also  of  his  theological 
works,  was  published  in  London  in  1861. 

PAINESVILLE,  a  village  and  the  capital  of 
Lake  co.,  Ohio,  on  the  W.  bank  of  Grand 
river  (crossed  near  here  by  a  stone  viaduct  of 
four  arches,  800  ft.  long  and  83  ft.  high),  3  m. 
from  the  best  natural  harbor  on  Lake  Erie, 
and  on  the  Lake  Shore  and  Michigan  Southern 
and  the  Painesville  and  Youngstown  railroads, 
29  m.  N.  E.  of  Cleveland;  pop.  in  1870,  3,728. 
It  is  beautifully  situated  about  100  ft.  above 
the  lake,  and  contains  a  handsome  public  park 
near  its  centre  and  many  tasteful  buildings. 
It  has  an  active  trade,  and  contains  the  works 
of  the  Geauga  furnace  company  and  several 
flouring  mills,  tanneries,  founderies,  machine 
shops,  &c.,  two  banks,  a  savings  institution, 
a  female  seminary,  graded  public  schools, 
three  weekly  newspapers,  and  six  churches. 


PAINTING 


793 


PAINTER'S  COLIC.    See  COLIO,  and  LEAD. 

PAINTING,  the  art  of  representing  objects 
by  means  of  light  and  shade  or  color  upon  a 
smooth  surface.  Whatever  importance  such 
objects  possess  for  the  purposes  of  science,  to 
the  painter  they  present  five  qualities  or  ele- 
ments, as  follows :  shape  (or  form),  size  (or 
quantity),  light  and  shadow  (or  gradation),  lo- 
cal color  (or  hue),  and  texture.  No  object  in 
nature  is  without  these  distinctive  characteris- 
tics, and  no  object  in  nature  has  other  than 
these  for  pictorial  treatment.  Hence  a  paint- 
ing is  meritorious  in  the  degree  that  it  exhib- 
its these  traits  with  accuracy.  Of  the  various 
theories  respecting  the  origin  of  the  art,  that 
seems  the  most  natural  which  makes  it  coeval 
with  the  invention  of  writing.  Goguet  in  his 
Origin*  des  loix  notices  the  fact  that  the  ear- 
liest people  made  their  first  essays  in  writing 
by  representing  to  the  eye  the  objects  they 
wished  to  impress  upon  the  mind ;  and  so  far 
as  observation  has  demonstrated,  this  remark 
holds  good  of  all  primitive  races.  No  date 
can  be  assigned  to  the  commencement  of  this 
practice,  and,  as  Haydon  has  remarked,  "in 
what  country  painting  first  originated  is  near- 
ly as  difficult  to  discover,  as  it  is  to  find  a  coun- 
try where  it  never  existed  at  all."  Dismissing 
for  want  of  authentic  materials  any  inquiry 
into  the  progress  of  the  art  among  the  Chi- 
nese, the  Hindoos,  the  Persians,  the  Assyri- 
ans, the  Phoenicians,  and  their  cognate  races, 
by  whom  it  was  probably  never  developed  be- 
yond the  rudest  stages,  we  may  begin  the  his- 
tory of  painting  with  Egypt,  where  it  can 
be  traced  to  a  very  remote  antiquity.  The 
earliest  remains  are  probably  not  less  than 
4,000  years  old,  and  exhibit  no  inconsiderable 
mastery  of  form  and  expression.  Egyptian 
paintings  are  comprised  in  three  classes,  those 
on  the  walls  of  tombs  and  temples,  those  on 
the  cases  and  cloths  of  mummies,  and  those  on 
papyrus  rolls.  The  first  are  the  most  numer- 
ous and  meritorious,  although  none  of  them 
can  be  properly  considered  works  of  art,  but 
rather  the  symbolic  writings  which  record  the 
social,  religious,  and  political  life  of  the  peo- 
ple. Sculpture  and  painting  were  originally 
practised  in  conjunction,  the  latter  being  the 
subordinate  art,  and  the  earliest  employment 
of  the  painter  was  to  color  statues,  bass  reliefs, 
and  intaglios  or  sunk  reliefs.  To  this  succeeded 
the  execution,  under  a  strict  code  of  conven- 
tional rules  prescribed  by  the  priesthood,  of 
those  elaborate  works  which  afford  such  vivid 
illustrations  of  the  manners  and  customs  of  the 
ancient  Egyptians.  According  to  Pliny,  paint- 
ers and  sculptors  were  forbidden  to  introduce 
any  change  or  innovation  into  the  practice  of 
their  respective  arts,  or  in  any  way  to  add  to 
them  ;  and  hence  the  monotonous  character  of 
Egyptian  art,  the  perpetual  recurrence  through 
thousands  of  years  of  similar  types  of  form, 
and  the  absence  of  any  progressive  develop- 
ment such  as  may  be  witnessed  in  the  produc- 
tions of  the  Greeks  and  other  races.  It  was 


794 


PAINTING 


doubtless  owing  to  this  dependence  upon  estab- 
lished canons  that  the  artists  were  enabled  to 
impart  to  their  works  that  character  of  stability 
and  unity  of  purpose  which  so  impresses  the 
modern  traveller  on  the  banks  of  the  Nile. 
Their  technical  merits  are  slight.  The  imita- 
tion of  nature  was  never  carried  beyond  an 
outlined  diagram  arbitrarily  colored ;  of  ideal 
beauty  they  are  utterly  destitute ;  and  perspec- 
tive, chiaroscuro,  and  the  science  of  composi- 
tion seem  to  have  been  unknown.  Men  and 
women  were  generally  painted  red,  animals 
brown,  birds  blue  and  yellow,  and  other  ob- 
jects according  to  similar  arbitrary  rules,  in 
utter  disregard  of  their  natural  appearance. 
Sometimes  a  varnish  of  glue  or  resin  was  ap- 
plied to  the  finished  picture,  which  may  account 
for  the  freshness  which  the  colors  still  retain. 
The  most  flourishing  period  of  Egyptian  art 
was  that  from  about  1400  B.  0.  to  the  Persian 
conquest  in  525,  after  which  a  slow  but  grad- 
ual decline  is  observable,  until  in  the  early  part 
of  the  Christian  era  the  art  of  the  Greeks 
becomes  predominant. — In  common  with  oth- 
er arts,  painting  appears  to  have  been  estab- 
lished in  Greece  mainly  through  communica- 
tion with  Egypt  and  Asia,  and  previous  to  the 
commencement  of  the  5th  century  B.  0.  it 
was  chiefly  ornamental  or  representative,  its 
application  being  limited  to  the  decoration  of 
temples,  the  coloring  or  imitation  of  bass  re- 
liefs, and  similar  purposes.  With  the  struggle 
against  the  Persians,  the  great  promoter  of  in- 
tellectual activity  among  the  Hellenic  races,  it 
began  to  assume  its  peculiar  Greek  character 
and  to  be  practised  as  an  independent  art ;  and 
from  that  era  until  after  the  death  of  Alexan- 
der it  received  its  most  perfect  development. 
The  whole  period  preceding  the  Persian  inva- 
sion may  be  said  to  constitute  the  mythic  age  of 
Greek  art,  during  which  a  slow  but  gradual  ap- 
proximation toward  excellence  was  observable, 
the  motive  for  which  must  be  traced  to  the 
character  of  the  people  and  of  their  religion. 
Love  of  beauty  was  with  the  Greeks  a  religious 
principle ;  their  deities  were  models  of  physi- 
cal excellence,  and  their  own  habits  tended  to 
bring  the  human  form  to  a  high  degree  of  per- 
fection. Hence,  when  painting  and  sculpture 
were  made  to  subserve  the  cause  of  religion  by 
representing  to  the  eye  the  material  forms  of 
Greek  mythology,  the  artist  strove  to  clothe 
these  with  the  attributes  of  majesty,  loveliness, 
or  grace;  and  this  effort,  continued  through 
successive  ages  among  a  people  of  remarkable 
acuteness  and  intelligence,  developed  art  from 
its  original  Egyptian  rudeness  and  arbitrary 
conventionalism  into  life,  motion,  and  liberty. 
The  Egyptian  artist  reproduced  for  ages  a 
fixed  archaic  type  of  the  human  figure,  while 
his  Greek  successor  aimed  at  an  ideal  perfec- 
tion, which  made  him  the  supreme  master  of 
expression  and  form.  With  the  arrival  of 
Polygnotus  of  Thasos  in  Athens,  about  463 
B.  0.,  begins  the  authentic  history  of  Greek 
art,  and  the  supremacy  of  Athens  as  the  capital 


of  the  arts,  although  few  of  the  great  painters 
of  Greece  were  natives  of  that  city.  Aristotle 
calls  him  jyfloypa^of,  the  painter  of  character, 
and  he  is  mentioned  by  other  Greek  writers 
as  one  of  the  most  distinguished  painters  of 
antiquity  in  the  essentials  of  form,  expression, 
and  color.  He  was  employed  to  decorate  vari- 
ous public  buildings  in  Athens,  and  also  exe- 
cuted three  famous  pictures  illustrating  Ho- 
meric episodes  for  the  Lesche,  a  public  hall 
near  the  temple  of  Apollo  at  Delphi,  which 
600  years  later  excited  the  wonder  and  admira- 
tion of  Pausanias.  These  works,  however,  can 
scarcely  be  called  historical  in  the  modern  ac- 
ceptation of  the  word,  as  the  events  and  objects 
were  indicated  rather  than  represented,  and  no 
attempt  was  made  at  dramatic  development  in 
composition  or  local  truth  and  circumstantial 
detail  of  execution.  Other  celebrated  painters 
of  the  Athenian  school,  of  which  Polygnotus 
is  considered  the  founder,  and  contemporary 
with  him,  were  Dionysius  of  Colophon,  an  ex- 
cellent portrait  painter,  of  whom  Aristotle  says 
"he  painted  men  as  they  are;"  Micon,  distin- 
guished for  his  horses;  Pansenus  of  Athens, 
and  Onatas  of  ^Egina.  Somewhat  later  flour- 
ished Apollodorus,  who  about  404  B.  0.  devel- 
oped the  principles  of  light  and  shade.  Ac- 
cording to  Pliny,  he  was  the  inventor  of  tone. 
Painting,  which  had  hitherto  been  sculptu- 
resque, now  took  a  more  dramatic  range,  and 
to  the  school  of  Athens  succeeded  that  called 
the  Asiatic  or  Ionic,  of  which  Zeuxis,  Par- 
rhasius,  and  Timanthes  were  the  chief  masters. 
It  constitutes  what  may  be  called  the  second 
period  of  Greek  painting,  the  school  of  Polyg- 
notus forming  the  first,  and  was  characterized 
by  greater  unity  of  sentiment  and  action,  and 
a  close  imitation  of  the  local  and  accidental 
appearances  of  objects.  Zeuxis  and  Parrhasius 
excelled  in  the  representation  of  sensuous 
beauty,  and,  if  inferior  in  simplicity  and  ex- 
pression to  Polygnotus,  greatly  surpassed  him 
in  technical  details.  The  "  Helen  "  of  Zeuxis 
was  one  of  the  wonders  of  ancient  art,  and  the 
numerous  pictures  by  Parrhasius  of  deities  and 
heroes  attained  a  high  importance.  Eupompus 
of  Sicyon,  the  last  very  distinguished  painter 
of  this  period,  founded  about  the  time  of  Philip 
of  Macedon  the  Sicyonian  school  of  painting, 
characterized  by  scientific  cultivation,  artistic 
knowledge,  and  great  ease  and  accuracy  in 
drawing,  which  constituted  the  third  and  last 
phase  of  Greek  painting,  or,  as  it  has  been 
called,  the  epoch  of  refinement.  The  form  now 
became  paramount  over  the  essence,  and  tech- 
nical excellence  reached  its  limit.  The  chief 
painters  of  this  time  were  Pamphilus,  chiefly 
distinguished  as  a  teacher  of  the  theory  of  his 
art;  his  pupils,  Apelles,  Melanthius,  and  Pau- 
sias,  the  first  preeminent  not  less  for  grace  or 
beauty  of  form  than  for  his  power  in  sublime 
subjects,  the  last  named  one  of  the  first  to  prac- 
tise encaustic  painting ;  Protogenes  of  Rhodes, 
a  rival  of  Apelles ;  Nicias,  who  excelled  in 
light  and  shade ;  Euphranor,  excellent  in  many 


departments ;  Nicomachus  and  Aristides  of 
Thebes,  the  former  remarkable  for  boldness  of 
execution,  and  the  latter,  according  to  Pliny, 
the  greatest  master  of  expression  in  all  Greece ; 
Theon  of  Samos,  and  Athenion  of  Maronea, 
besides  many  others,  extending  over  more  than 
a  century.  Of  these  the  most  famous  was 
Apelles,  whose  celebrated  contest  of  drawing 
with  Protogenes  (each  in  turn  dividing  the 
other's  line  longitudinally  by  a  thinner  line)  is 
frequently  cited  by  ancient  critics  as  an  illus- 
tration of  the  degree  of  technical  skill  acquired 
by  each  artist.  From  the  time  of  Alexander 
art  rapidly  deteriorated,  and  subsequent  to  the 
middle  of  the  3d  century  B.  C.  scarcely  anoth- 
er name  of  note  occurs.  In  the  place  of  my- 
thological or  epic  stories,  the  artists  painted 
caricatures,  low  or  domestic  subjects  of  the 
class  called  genre,  and  obscene  pictures,  or  con- 
tented themselves  with  reproducing  feeble 
copies  of  the  works  of  their  predecessors.  At 
the  period  of  the  Eoman  conquest  painting 
exhibited  little  vitality,  and  the  spoliation  of 
public  buildings  and  galleries  to  adorn  the  porti- 
coes and  temples  of  Rome  tended  to  crush  the 
art  everywhere  in  Greece.  Greek  paintings 
were  executed  in  distemper,  with  glue,  milk, 
or  white  of  egg,  and  in  encaustic,  upon  wood, 
clay,  plaster,  stone,  parchment,  and  during  the 
latest  period  upon  canvas.  Wooden  panels 
with  a  ground  of  plaster  were  most  commonly 
employed,  and  in  the  late  stages  of  the  art 
fresco  painting  attained  some  perfection.  Va- 
rious species  of  varnish  appear  to  have  been 
known,  and  Pliny  says  that  Apelles  was  in- 
debted for  his  brilliant  coloring  to  a  liquid 
which  he  calls  atramentum,  with  which  he 
covered  his  pictures ;  whence  Sir  Joshua  Rey- 
nolds has  concluded  that  he  was  a  master  of 
the  art  of  glazing.  Down  to  the  time  of 
Apelles  four  principal  colors  were  used,  white, 
red,  yellow,  and  black,  from  which  all  the  ne- 
cessary hues  and  tints  were  composed.  The 
"  Aldobrandini  Marriage,"  now  in  the  Vatican, 
supposed  to  resemble  a  picture  by  Echion  of 
the  Sicyonian  school,  the  "Achilles  discov- 
ered by  Ulysses"  and  "Achilles  surrendering 
Briseis,"  both  found  at  Pompeii,  and  a  few 
others,  although  probably  feeble  imitations  of 
older  works,  sufficiently  attest  the  high  charac- 
ter of  Greek  art  in  its  prime.  The  mosaic  of 
the  cam  del  Fauno  at  Pompeii,  representing 
the  "  Battle  of  Issus,"  now  in  the  museo  nazio- 
nale  (formerly  lorionico)  in  Naples,  is  the 
finest  ancient  picture  extant,  with  respect  to 
composition,  foreshortening,  and  perspective. — 
Of  Etruscan  painting,  as  exemplified  by  speci- 
mens found  in  sepulchral  chambers  at  Tarquinii, 
Csere,  and  elsewhere,  little  need  be  said.  It  is 
essentially  Greek  in  its  style  and  characteristics, 
and  to  a  limited  extent  shows  similar  stages  of 
development  and  decay. — The  Romans  received 
their  art  directly  from  Greece,  and,  though 
eager  and  intelligent  collectors  of  the  works  of 
the  early  masters  of  that  country,  had  no  inde- 
pendent school  of  painting.  There  does  not 


795 

seem  to  have  been  a  single  Roman  painter  of 
eminence ;  but  inferior  Greek  artists  abounded 
in  the  Italian  peninsula,  and  particularly  in  the 
capital,  and  the  best  Roman  paintings  were 
probably  executed  by  them  in  the  degenerate 
style  which  marked  the  decline  of  the  art  in 
Greece.  These  consisted  chiefly  of  portraits, 
ornamental  or  decorative  work  (under  which 
head  may  be  included  landscapes),  and  copies 
of  the  masterpieces  of  antiquity.  The  Romans 
were  the  first  to  cultivate  portrait  painting  as 
a  distinct  branch  of  the  art.  To  such  a  depth 
of  degradation  did  painting  finally  descend 
among  them,  that  it  was  practised  chiefly  by 
slaves,  and  the  painter  was  estimated  by  the 
quantity  of  work  he  could  do  in  a  day.  But 
the  treasures  of  art  accumulated  in  Rome  by 
successive  generals  and  emperors,  from  the 
time  of  Marcellus  downward,  made  the  city,  as 
Cassiodorus  has  expressed  it,  "  one  vast  won- 
der." Most  of  these  were  in  turn  transferred 
to  Constantinople  by  Constantine  and  his  suc- 
cessors, and  the  remainder  disappeared  in  con- 
flagrations or  in  the  disorders  which  marked 
the  period  of  the  exarchate.  Not  one  authen- 
ticated painting  by  any  of  the  great  masters  of 
antiquity  is  now  known  to  be  in  existence.  In 
one  respect  the  practice  of  painting  in  Italy 
differed  from  that  in  Greece.  In  the  latter 
country  the  art  was  essentially  religious,  and 
was  mainly  confined  to  temples  and  public 
buildings;  but  the  Romans  early  familiarized 
it  with  the  household,  and  no  dwelling,  wheth- 
er palatial  or  strictly  domestic,  was  considered 
complete  unless  every  apartment  or  portion 
had  its  painted  decorations  signifying  the  use 
for  which  it  was  designed. — "While  art  in  its 
ancient  seats  was  thus  passing  through  the 
last  phases  of  what  has  been  called  its  "  age  of 
decrepitude,"  Christianity  had  taken  root  in 
many  parts  of  the  world;  and  although  the 
new  religion,  unlike  the  old,  needed  no  direct 
alliance  with  art,  and  its  followers,  in  their  de- 
testation of  paganism,  denounced  the  carvers 
of  graven  images  as  servants  and  emissaries  of 
Satan,  the  influence  of  so  many  previous  ages 
of  refinement  could  not  be  at  once  effaced,  and 
the  early  Christians  before  the  time  of  Con- 
stantine attempted  the  visible  representation 
of  sacred  personages  and  actions,  by  means  of 
symbols  and  mystic  emblems.  Thus  the  lamb 
typified  Christ;  the  vine  and  its  branches, 
Christ  and  his  disciples ;  the  fish,  baptism ;  the 
ship,  the  church;  and  the  cross,  redemption. 
But  the  art  even  to  this  limited  extent  was 
practised  not  for  the  pleasure  it  would  excite, 
but  as  a  means  of  inculcating  religious  princi- 
ples; and  when,  as  Christianity  gained  con 
verts,  it  became  safe  to  venture  beyond  thi 
limits  of  mere  symbol,  and  to  depict  Christ  ad 
the  Good  Shepherd,  care  was  taken  to  eschew 
the  beauty  of  features  and  body  lavished  by 
pagan  artists  upon  the  representations  of  their 
deities.  Indeed,  while  Jewish  converts  pre- 
ponderated in  the  early  church,  the  Saviour 
was  represented,  on  the  authority  of  certain 


796 


PAINTING 


passages  in  the  Old  Testament,  as  devoid  of  all 
beauty,  "not  like  the  gods  of  the  Pantheon 
catching  the  eye  by  outward  attractions,  but 
conquering  the  heart  by  the  power  of   his 
word."    It  was  not  until  the  close  of  the  8th 
century  that  Adrian  I.  decreed,  in  a  papal  bull, 
that  Christ  should  be  represented  with  all  the 
attributes  of  divine  beauty  which  art  could  lend 
him.     Nearly  a  century  previous,  in  692,  the 
council  of  Constantinople  had  authorized  the 
direct  human  representation  of  the  Saviour  in 
place  of  the  symbolical.     The  most  interesting 
monuments  of  Christian  art  during  the  first 
three  centuries  are  to  be  found  on  the  walls 
or  ceilings  of  the  catacombs  of  Rome.     In  the 
catacomb  of  St.  Calixtus  were  discovered  many 
representations  of  Scriptural  stories,  parables, 
and  symbols,  intermingled  occasionally  with 
some  of  the  more  innocent  pagan  allegories, 
and  also  a  portrait  of  Christ  as  the  Good  Shep- 
herd, the  earliest  known  to  have  been  painted, 
and  which  probably  formed  the  type  for  others. 
Kugler  ascribes  to  these  works  "much  gran- 
deur of  arrangement"  and  "a  peculiar  solem- 
nity and  dignity  of  style."    As  distinguished 
from  pagan  work  of  the  same  or  an  earlier 
period,  they  may  be  said  to  exhibit  more  spir- 
ituality in  the  conception  of  the  human  form, 
holiness  of  expression  and  strength  of  character 
being  preferred  to  beauty  of  features  or  body, 
and  a  strong  predilection  for  natural  objects, 
as  animals,  leaves,  or  flowers.   When  the  estab- 
lishment of  Christianity  by  Constantine  enabled 
the  pious  decorators  of  the  early  church  to 
emerge  from  the  gloom  of  the  catacombs,  they 
transferred  their  labors  to  the  numerous  edi- 
fices dedicated  to  the  new  religion.   But  before 
Christian  art  had  time  to  attain  a  healthy  ex- 
pansion or  assume  a  distinctive  form,  civil  com- 
motions and  barbaric  invasions  checked  its  de- 
velopment in  Italy,  and  in  the  6th  century 
Constantinople  became  its  principal  seat.  Mural 
painting  in  fresco  or  distemper  now  gave  way 
to  mosaic  work,  and  for  four  or  five  centuries 
the  most  interesting  remains  of  pictorial  art  are 
the  mosaics  in  the  churches  and  the  miniature 
illuminations  of  Bibles  and  other  sacred  books. 
(See  MOSAIC,  and  MINIATURE  PAINTING.)    Du- 
ring the  8th  and  9th  centuries  the  iconoclasts 
of  the  eastern  church  pursued  a  systematic  de- 
struction of  works  of  art;  but  notwithstand- 
ing the  disfavor  into  which  Greek  artists  and 
their  works  thereby  fell,  Constantinople  re- 
mained from  the  7th  to  the  13th  century  the 
great  capital  of  the  arts,  and  during  that  period 
the  Byzantine  style  was  predominant  in  every 
branch  of  them.   Byzantine  painting  was  prac- 
tised almost  exclusively  for  religious  purposes, 
and  about  the  commencement  of  the  9th  centu- 
ry assumed  a  hierarchical  stiffness  of  type  which 
has  descended  unaltered  to  the  present  day, 
although  genuine  Byzantine  pictures  are  now 
produced  only  in  a  few  places  in  Russia  and 
Greece.    The  characteristics  of  the  school  are 
length  and  ineagreness  of  limbs,  stiffness  of 
figure,  features  almost  void  of  expression,  long 


and  narrow  eyes,  a  disagreeable  blackish  green 
coloring  of  the  flesh,  various  conventional  atti- 
tudes and  accessories  having  no  foundation  in 
nature,  and  a  profusion  of  gilding.   The  colors, 
though  bright,  were  raw  and  crude,  and  com- 
monly painted  on  a  gold  background.     The 
painters  were  monks  or  persons  connected  with 
monasteries,  who  formed  a  sort  of  perpetual 
craft  or  guild  for  the  manufacture  of  pictures ; 
and  the  subjects  were  almost  as  fixed  as  the 
style,  consisting  of  the  Madonna  and  child 
throned,  and  representations  of  sacred  history 
or  allegory. — The  capture  of  Constantinople  by 
the  Venetians  in  1204,  by  promoting  a  greater 
intercourse  between  the  Byzantines  and  Ital- 
ians, is  considered  to  have  given  the  first  im- 
pulse toward  the  revival  of  the  arts  in  Italy  and 
the  West.    Many  Byzantine  painters  passed  into 
Italy  and  Germany,  carrying  with  them  their 
technical  methods  and  their  types  of  form  and 
color,  which  were  followed  more  or  less  ser- 
vilely by  the  Italians  who  studied  under  them ; 
and  at  Venice,  Pisa,  and  Siena  were  planted 
early  in  the  13th  century  the  germs  of  what 
subsequently  became  the  leading  schools  of 
Italy.     But  while  in  the  eastern  empire  the 
influence  of  a  slowly  expiring  faith  was  still 
manifest  in  the  manners,  the  literature,  and  the 
art  of  the  people,  in  Italy,  after  centuries  of 
turmoil,  a  new  and  vigorous  civilization,  large- 
ly impregnated  with  the  Gothic  element,  but 
inspired  and  directed  by  Christianity  alone,  had 
appeared,  under  which  it  was  impossible  that 
art  should  not  show  a  new  development.    The 
artist,  sharing  in  the  religious  fervor  with  which 
every  occupation  was  pursued,  painted  for  the 
glory  of  Christianity  and  the  good  of  his  fellow 
men,  and,  finding  the  shrunken  and  withered 
forms  of  the  Byzantine  school  insufficient  for 
the  purposes  of  his  art,  was  led  to  a  closer  imi- 
tation of  nature.   One  by  one  the  familiar  con- 
ventionalisms, which  centuries  of  use  had  sanc- 
tified, were  thrown  off  by  bold  innovators,  un- 
til in  the  early  part  of  the  16th  century  the 
culminating  glory  of  the  art  was  reached.   The 
successive  steps  were  slow,  and  not  until  the 
commencement  of  the  14th  century  can  paint- 
ing be  said  to  have  freed  itself  in  any  con- 
siderable degree  from  its  Byzantine  trammels. 
Sculpture,  under  the  lead  of  Nicolo  Pisano,  the 
greatest  artist  of  the  13th  century,  considerably 
preceded  painting  in  the  order  of  development. 
The  painters  were  hampered  by  a  mode  of 
treatment  handed  down  to  them  for  centuries, 
from  which  it  was  difficult  at  once  to  emanci- 
pate themselves ;  while  the  sculptors,  ignorant 
as  yet  of  the  marbles  of  the  Greeks,  were 
obliged  to  employ  as  models  the  every-day  ob- 
jects which  surrounded  them.    Hence  of  neces- 
sity there  grew  up  among  the  latter  a  system 
of  observation  and  study  of  nature  which  soon 
?ave  an  original  character  to  their  works. — 
To  Giovanni  Cimabue  of  Florence,  who  died 
about  1302,  it  has  been  customary  to  ascribe 
the  revival  of  painting  in  Italy.     Giunta  da 
Pisa,  who  preceded  him,  was  a  painter  of  some 


PAINTING 


797 


note  in  his  day,  but  in  no  respect  a  regener- 
ator of  art ;  and  Guido  da  Siena,  an  artist 
evincing  some  independence  of  feeling,  and 
once  supposed  to  have  preceded  him,  is  now 
believed  to  have  been  his  contemporary  or  suc- 
cessor. Tuscany,  at  any  rate,  was  the  seat  of 
this  revival,  and  for  upward  of  two  centuries 
the  Tuscan  schools  maintained  their  ascendan- 
cy in  Italy.  Neither  Cimabue  nor  Guido  ad- 
vanced much  beyond  the  Byzantine  traditions, 
and  the  chief  merit  of  the  former  undoubtedly 
consists  in  the  fact  that  he  discovered  and  fos- 
tered the  genius  of  Giotto  di  Bondone,  the  first 
great  painter  of  modern  times,  and  the  true  re- 
generator of  the  art.  With  the  commencement 
of  the  14th  century,  the  date  of  this  master's 
first  works  of  importance,  the  history  of  Italian 
painting  properly  commences ;  and  in  tracing 
its  development  each  of  the  principal  schools 
will  be  noticed  in  succession.  The  subject  has 
already  been  treated  at  some  length  under  the 
head  of  FKESCO  PAINTING,  which  formed  the 
most  important  branch  of  the  art  in  the  14th 
and  15th  centuries;  and  for  the  characteristics 
and  chief  productions  of  individual  painters  the 
reader  is  referred  to  their  biographies  in  this 
work. — The  Tuscan  schools,  comprising  the 
Sienese,  Pisan,  and  Florentine,  were  in  the  15th 
century  merged  in  the  last  named,  of  which 
Giotto  was  the  founder.  Previous  to  his  time 
the  only  real  advance  in  painting  was  the  sub- 
stitution of  the  human  figure  for  its  mere  type 
or  symbol.  Giotto  made  the  second  great  step 
of  progress  by  rejecting  the  dark  coloring  which 
his  predecessors  had  retained  from  their  By- 
zantine models,  and  introducing  that  which 
was  paler  and  more  natural.  His  compositions 
also  exhibit  freer  conceptions  of  grouping,  and 
his  figures  more  action  and  variety  of  position, 
the  result  doubtless  of  the  new  ideas  of  form 
suggested  by  the  works  of  Nicolo  Pisano.  He 
painted  in  the  chief  cities  of  Italy  from  Naples 
to  Milan,  and  his  mature  works,  such  as  the 
frescoes  in  the  chapel  of  the  Arena  at  Padua 
and  in  the  Franciscan  church  at  Assisi,  retain 
no  traces  of  the  Byzantine  style.  His  followers 
and  imitators,  commonly  known  as  the  Qiottes- 
chi,  for  the  most  part  confined  themselves  to 
the  reproduction  of  the  models  left  by  their 
master,  but  some  pursued  the  path  he  had  open- 
ed to  them  with  results  beneficial  to  the  pro- 
gress of  art.  Of  the  latter  class  were  Tommaso 
di  Stefano,  called  Giottino,  Taddeo  Gaddi,  and 
Andrea  Orcagna,  the  last  of  whom  has  been 
considered  superior  in  dignity  and  grandeur 
to  Giotto  himself.  Contemporary  with  Giotto,, 
and  scarcely  less  famous,  were  Simone  Memmi 
of  the  Sienese  school,  the  characteristics  of 
which  seem  to  have  been  force  of  expression 
and  a  tendency  toward  idealism ;  Pietro  and 
Andrea  di  Lorenzo,  known  as  the  Lorenzetti, 
and  Buffalmacco,  of  humorous  memory,  whose 
exploits  as  related  by  Boccaccio  have  survived 
almost  every  relic  of  his  pencil.  Other  painters 
of  the  period  were  Angelo  Gaddi,  the  son  of 
Taddeo;  Spinello  Aretino;  Cennino  Cennini, 


author  of  the  oldest  Italian  treatise  on  paint- 
ing; and  Francesco  da  Volterra.  None  of  these 
advanced  much  beyond  the  point  reached  by 
Giotto,  and  at  the  close  of  the  14th  century  his 
influence  was  discernible  not  in  Tuscany  alone, 
but  throughout  Italy  and  even  beyond  the 
Alps.  But  painting  was  still  in  a  very  undevel- 
oped state.  Portraiture  was  rarely  practised, 
landscape  painting  as  a  branch  of  art  was  un- 
thought  of,  and  no  true  standard  of  form  had 
been  established.  The  purposes  to  which  the 
art  was  applied  were  almost  wholly  religious, 
and  when  subjects  from  pagan  mythology  or 
classic  history  were  introduced,  it  was  to 
illustrate  the  truth  of  Christian  revelation  or 
the  doctrines  of  moral  theology.  Believing 
that  they  shared  with  the  clergy  the  task  of 
instructing  the  people,  the  artists  aimed  at 
an  impressive  representation  of  their  subject 
rather  than  at  technical  skill;  and  on  this 
account  their  art,  imperfect  and  conventional 
as  it  was,  exhibits  an  earnestness  and  direct- 
ness of  purpose  to  which  the  works  produced 
during  the  splendid  era  of  Kaphael  can  lay  no 
claim.  In  the  15th  century  painting  advanced 
very  considerably,  and  toward  its  close  Flor- 
ence, under  the  munificent  sway  of  the  Medici, 
became  one  of  the  most  splendid  art  capitals 
of  any  age.  Pietro  della  Francesca  and  Paolo 
Uccello  developed  the  science  of  perspective, 
and  Masolino  da  Panicale  that  of  chiaroscuro. 
The  productions  of  Lorenzo  Ghiberti,  the 
sculptor  of  the  famous  gates  of  San  Giovanni 
in  Florence,  also  gave  new  vigor  to  the  imita- 
tive principles  established  by  Giotto ;  and  to 
his  influence  perhaps  the  peculiar  excellence 
of  Florentine  art  may  be  traced.  But  to  Ma- 
saccio,  who  discarded  the  conventional  types  of 
the  human  form  and  made  his  studies  directly 
from  life,  is  due  the  credit  of  establishing  the 
great  era  of  the  pictorial  art  of  this  centu- 
ry; and  until  near  the  time  of  Raphael  his 
conceptions  of  form  remained  the  standard. 
Contemporary  with  or  immediately  succeed- 
ing him  were  Fra  Angelico  da  Fiesole,  less  dis- 
tinguished for  any  external  quality  of  art  than 
for  the  deep  religious  sentiment  of  his  works ; 
The  profligate  Filippo  Lippi,  one  of  the  earli- 
est painters  of  the  naturalistic  as  distinguished 
from  the  mystical  school,  as  that  class  of  mas- 
ters has  been  called  who  made  religion  the 
end  and  object  of  their  art ;  Benozzo  Gozzoli ; 
Filippino  Lippi ;  Antonio  Pollajuolo,  the  first 
who  studied  the  dead  subject  for  the  purposes 
of  design  ;  Domenico  Ghirlandaio,  the  master 
of  Michel  Angelo;  Cosimo  Rosselli,  Sandro 
Botticelli,  Luca  Signorelli,  Andrea  Verocchio, 
and  Andrea  Castagno,  the  first  Florentine 
master  who  practised  oil  painting  after  the 
manner  of  the  Van  Eycks.  With  Leonardo  da 
Vinci,  a  master  accomplished  in  many  arts  be- 
sides painting,  begins  another  epoch,  in  which 
Masaccio's  conceptions  of  form  were  combined 
with  more  forcible  and  dramatic  composition 
and  clearer  notions  of  local  color  and  chia- 
roscuro, as  illustrated  in  the  famous  "Last 


798 


PAINTING 


Supper  "  in  the  convent  of  Santa  Maria  delle 
Grazie  at  Milan.  The  earnest,  simple  faith 
and  spiritual  treatment  of  the  early  painters 
now  gave  way  in  a  measure  to  the  realistic 
tendencies  of  the  age.  Less  was  left  to  the 
imagination  and  feelings,  and  in  place  of  sacred 
history  and  legends  of  the  church,  pagan  my- 
thology, which  the  recent  revival  of  classic 
literature  and  art  had  made  familiar  to  the 
public  mind,  began  to  afford  subjects  to  the 
painter.  As  in  the  corresponding  period  in 
the  history  of  Greek  art,  technical  excellence 
was  rapidly  approaching  its  highest  point,  and 
increasing  wealth  and  luxury  multiplied  the 
production  of  pictures  for  private  purposes. 
The  painter  was  no  longer  a  public  teacher 
of  religion  or  morals,  as  in  the  days  of  Giot- 
to or  Orcagna;  and  as  his  public  functions 
were  superseded  by  his  private  ones,  the  art 
began  to  decline.  Undoubtedly  the  very  per- 
fection attained  contributed  materially  to  this 
result.  Contemporary  Florentine  masters  of 
this  period  were  Fra  Bartolommeo  di  San 
Marco  and  Andrea  del  Sarto,  both  of  the  high- 
est excellence ;  Bernardino  Luini,  whose  works 
are  frequently  mistaken  for  those  of  Leonar- 
do; Bazzi  Vercelli,  known  as  II  Soddoma; 
Lorenzo  di  Oredi ;  and  Michel  Angelo  Buonar- 
roti, preeminent  as  painter,  sculptor,  and  ar- 
chitect. This  great  master  neglected  illusive 
effects,  despised  oil  painting,  and  aimed  at  the 
expression  of  life  and  power  through  action 
and  movement ;  and  the  almost  exclusive  at- 
tention which  he  gave  to  the  definition  of 
form,  the  result  doubtless  of  his  cultivation  of 
the  three  sister  arts,  made  the  development  of 
physical  qualities  thenceforth  the  chief  char- 
acteristic of  the  Florentine  school.  Of  the 
daring  heights  to  which  he  attained  in  his 
efforts  toward  grandeur  of  form  and  sublim- 
ity of  expression,  the  frescoes  of  the  Sistine 
chapel  afford  a  memorable  illustration;  al- 
though here,  side  by  side  with  his  prophets 
and  sibyls,  looking  "  like  beings  to  whom  God 
has  spoken  and  who  have  never  since  ceased 
meditating  on  the  awful  voice,"  are  groups  and 
single  figures  of  such  startling  novelty  of  ex- 
pression and  action  as  to  constitute  a  legacy 
of  questionable  value  to  the  student  of  form. 
His  influence  was  overwhelming  in  Florence, 
and  almost  every  artist  who  came  within  its 
reach  lost  his  individuality,  and  in  attempting 
to  follow  him  only  debased  art  and  proved  his 
own  mediocrity.  Yet  some  were  excellent 
painters,  including  Daniele  di  Yolterra,  cele- 
brated for  his  "Descent  from  the  Cross;" 
Vasari,  the  biographer  of  Italian  artists ;  Se- 
bastian del  Piombo,  the  Zuccari,  and  Angelo 
Bronzino.  During  the  first  quarter  of  the  16th 
century  the  grand  climax  of  art  was  reached, 
and  within  that  period  the  greatest  painters 
of  modern  times  flourished  together,  exercising 
in  some  sort  a  reciprocal  influence,  but  each 
working  out  his  own  peculiar  aims.  Before 
the  middle  of  the  century  a  steady  decline 
was  discernible,  not  in  Florence  alone,  but  all 


over  Italy,  Venice  perhaps  excepted ;  and  as 
the  great  masters  one  by  one  dropped  off,  they 
were  succeeded  by  crowds  of  servile  manner- 
ists, who  painted  rapidly  and  carelessly  to 
meet  the  increasing  and  not  very  discrimina- 
ting demand  for  pictures,  and  whose  works, 
even  when  devoted  to  sacred  subjects,  had  in 
them  "more  of  earth  than  of  heaven."  "  We 
paint  six  pictures  in  a  year,"  says  Vasari, 
"  while  the  earlier  masters  took  six  years  to  a 
picture;"  a  remark  which  his  own  practice 
strikingly  illustrated.  The  latter  part  of  the 
century,  however,  witnessed  a  fresh  develop- 
ment in  the  Florentine  school,  and  Ludovico 
Cardi,  called  Cigoli,  introduced  a  new  style, 
distinguished  by  careful  drawing  and  brilliant 
coloring ;  but  few  names  of  note  occur  among 
his  followers,  except  that  of  Carlo  Dolci,  a 
careful  painter  of  female  heads.  Pietro  da 
Cortona  about  the  middle  of  the  17th  century 
introduced  a  florid,  ornamental  style  of  fresco 

r'nting,  the  followers  of  which  were  called 
the  Italians  the  machinisti.  Little  can  be 
said  of  Florentine  painting  after  this. — Paint- 
ing seems  to  have  made  little  progress  in  Ven- 
ice previous  to  the  time  of  Giotto,  and  during 
the  14th  century  no  works  of  any  considerable 
importance  were  produced.  Indeed,  the  By- 
zantine style,  which  its  'painters  exclusively 
practised,  continued  in  favor  for  upward  of  a 
century  after  the  Florentines  had  renounced  it. 
The  little  island  of  Murano  may  be  considered 
the  nursery  of  Venetian  art,  and  Giovanni  and 
Antonio  da  Murano,  with  their  pupils  Barto- 
lommeo and  Luigi  Vivarini,  its  first  masters. 
Commercial  intercourse  had  familiarized  them 
with  the  works  of  German  and  Flemish  paint- 
ers, the  rich  and  vivid  coloring  of  which  was 
readily  adopted  by  contemporary  Venetian 
artists,  although  until  near  the  middle  of  the 
15th  century  they  designed  with  an  antique 
severity  borrowed  from  their  neighbors  the 
Paduans.  Gentile  and  Giovanni  Bellini,  sons 
of  Jacopo  Bellini,  were  the  first  great  artists 
of  the  school,  as  they  were  among  the  first 
in  Italy  to  substitute  oil  painting  for  distem- 
per. With  a  tendency  to  elaborate  finish,  and 
a  dry  though  correct  manner,  their  works  are 
distinguished  by  sweetness  and  purity  of  ex- 
pression, and  afford  a  foretaste  of  that  rich 
coloring  which  subsequently  became  the  chief 
characteristic  of  Venetian  art,  and  which  re- 
flected the  cheerful  and  festive  spirit  of  the 
people.  With  the  opening  of  the  16th  century 
commenced  a  new  epoch  in  the  history  of  the 
school,  and  the  genius  of  two  scholars  of  the 
Bellinis,  Giorgione  and  Titian,  created  a  style 
in  which  a  bold  and  decided  handling,  and  a 
"  golden  glow  "  of  color,  with  great  truthful- 
ness of  detail  in  landscape,  draperies,  and  other 
accessories,  were  marked  features.  The  former 
died  early,  but  Titian,  who  long  survived  his 
great  contemporaries  of  the  early  part  of  the 
century,  reached  the  summit  of  his  art  in  his- 
tory, landscape,  and  portraiture,  and  stamped 
the  school  of  Venice  as  incontestably  the  first 


PAINTING 


799 


in  color.  Aside  from  portraiture,  in  which 
he  had  no  rival,  he  was  perhaps  greatest  in 
his  representations  of  the  nude  female  form. 
Among  his  contemporaries  or  imitators  were 
Giovanni  Antonio  da  Pordenone,  who  is 
thought  to  have  rivalled  Titian  as  a  color- 
ist,  Palma  Vecchio,  Paride  Bordone,  Andrea 
Schiavone,  and  Alessandro  Bonvicino,  called 
II  Moretto  di  Brescia.  In  the  latter  half  of  the 
century  flourished  three  other  painters  scarce- 
ly less  illustrious  than  Titian,  viz.,  Jacopo  Ro- 
busti,  called  Tintoretto,  Paolo  Cagliari,  called 
Veronese,  and  Giacomo  da  Ponte,  called  Bas- 
sano ;  the  first  one  of  the  most  vigorous  and 
rapid  of  painters,  but  unequal  in  his  perform- 
ances; the  second  a  consummate  master  of 
color,  delighting  in  scenes  of  festive  pomp  and 
splendor,  with  rich  costumes  and  architecture ; 
and  the  third  thet  earliest  and  one  of  the  best 
of  the  Italian  painters  of  genre.  The  true  Ve- 
netian style  of  these  masters  deteriorated  in 
the  hands  of  their  successors,  and  the  subse- 
quent history  of  the  school  is  unmarked  by  a 
single  great  name,  though  artists  of  merit  were 
not  uncommon. — Intimately  connected  with  the 
history  of  the  early  Venetian  school  was  that 
of  Padua,  to  which  a  fresh  impulse  was  given 
in  the  first  half  of  the  15th  century  by  Fran- 
cesco Squarcione,  whose  collection  of  drawings 
and  casts  from  the  antique  greatly  promoted 
the  cultivation  of  form,  and  influenced  the  art 
throughout  northern  Italy.  Jacopo  Bellini  of 
Venice  acquired  there  his  peculiar  dry  man- 
ner, and  Andrea  Mantegna,  the  greatest  painter 
that  had  appeared  in  the  north  of  Italy  up  to 
the  middle  of  the  15th  century,  was  its  most 
eminent  pupil.  The  latter,  distinguished  for  his 
severely  classic  and  statuesque  design,  found- 
ed the  Mantuan  school,  which  produced  many 
of  the  most  famous  painters  of  Lombardy. — 
The  Roman  school  may  be  said  to  have  sprung 
directly  from  the  Umbrian,  so  called  from  the 
ancient  district  of  Umbria,  within  the  limits 
of  which  its  artists  practised  their  vocation. 
The  region  was  secluded  and  the  inhabitants 
remarkable  for  religious  enthusiasm;  whence 
perhaps  the  severe,  ascetic  style  of  its  early 
painters.  The  most  distinguished  among  these 
were  Pietro  Cavalliui,  Gentile  da  Fabriano 
(whose  style  Michel  Angelo  declared  was  like 
his  name,  gentile),  and  Piero  della  Francesca, 
after  whom  came  Pietro  Perugino,  by  far  the 
best  painter  of  his  school  up  to  his  time,  and 
whose  style,  though  wanting  in  vigor,  was  dis- 
tinguished by  naivete,  grace,  and  tenderness  of 
expression.  His  pupils  were  numerous,  inclu- 
ding Pinturicchio,  Andrea  Luigi,  called  L'ln- 
gegno,  and  above  all  Raphael  (Raffaelle  San- 
zio  d'Urbino),  whose  fame  has  overshadowed 
the  rest.  He  has  been  described  as  "  the  first 
of  painters,  for  moral  force  in  allegory  and 
history  unrivalled ;  for  fidelity  in  portrait  un- 
surpassed ;  who  has  never  been  approached 
in  propriety  of  invention,  composition,  or  ex- 
pression ;  who  is  almost  without  a  rival  in  de- 
sign ;  and  in  sublimity  and  grandeur  inferior 
028  VOL.  xii. — 51 


to  Michel  Angelo  alone."  In  separate  qualities 
he  may  have  been  equalled  by  some  contempo- 
rary painters,  and  in  color,  which  he  regarded 
as  a  means  and  not  an  end  in  painting,  he  was 
inferior  to  the  Venetians ;  but  his  frescoes  in 
the  Vatican,  his  Madonnas  and  holy  families, 
his  great  altarpieces,  and  his  cartoons  never- 
theless represent  the  highest  efforts  of  modern 
art,  and  have  made  his  style  not  that  of  Rome 
alone,  but  of  the  world.  Raphael  had  nu- 
merous pupils,  who  imitated  him,  and  some  of 
whom  assisted  him  in  the  execution  of  his  fres- 
.coes.  But  after  his  death  (1520)  most  of  those 
who  had  original  genius  deviated  into  exagger- 
ations and  insipidities,  and  soon  lost  all  traces 
of  the  noble  grace  and  power  of  their  master. 
The  sack  of  Rome  by  the  constable  de  Bour- 
bon in  1527  caused  the  dispersion  of  his  fol- 
lowers then  in  the  city,  who  carried  into  all 
parts  of  Italy  a  spurious  style,  miscalled  the 
"  Raphaelesque."  His  best  pupils  were  Giu- 
lio  Romano,  the  most  distinguished  of  all  for 
original  power,  but  of  a  far  lower  order  of 
mind  than  his  master ;  Gian  Francesco  Penni, 
called  II  Fattore ;  Perino  del  Vaga ;  Giovanni 
da  Udine ;  Polidoro  da  Caravaggio ;  Pellegrino 
da  Modena;  Bartolommeo  Ramenghi,  called 
Bagnacavallo ;  and  Benvenuto  Tisi,  called  II 
Garofalo.  Primaticcio,  Nicol6  dell'  Abbate, 
and  Tibaldi  also  acquired  the  Roman  style  of 
Raphael,  which  they  carried  into  France  and 
Spain.  The  execution  by  Michel  Angelo  of  the 
"  Last  Judgment "  in  the  Sistine  chapel  in  1541 
produced  a  crowd  of  feeble  imitators  of  his 
style ;  after  whom  came  Giuseppe  Cesari  d'Ar- 
pino  and  Michel  Angelo  Caravaggio,  the  for- 
mer representing  the  machinisti  and  the  lat- 
ter the  tenelrosi  or  naturalist^  whose  style, 
though  not  deficient  in  power,  was  founded  on 
mere  natural  imitation,  and  was  characterized 
by  coarseness  and  vulgarity.  These  were  suc- 
ceeded by  the  Carracci  and  their  followers, 
who  flourished  during  the  17th  century;  and 
in  the  18th  the  history  of  the  art  closes  with 
Andrea  Sacchi,  Carlo  Maratti,  and  Raphael 
Mengs,  the  first  a  painter  of  merit,  the  last 
two  academic  and  mannered. — The  Bolognese 
school,  though  claiming  to  share  with  those 
of  Tuscany,  Rome,  and  Venice  the  honor  of 
bringing  about  the  revival  of  painting,  pre- 
sents no  name  of  great  importance  until  the 
close  of  the  15th  century,  when  Francesco 
Francia,  a  painter  of  genuine  religious  senti- 
ment, and  the  friend  of  Raphael,  flourished. 
His  influence  was  only  temporary,  and  it  was 
not  until  about  1585  that  the  school  witnessed 
its  most  brilliant  epoch  in  the  establishment 
by  Ludovico,  Agostino,  and  Annibale  Carracci 
of  their  celebrated  academy,  called,  from  the 
principles  on  which  it  was  conducted,  the  ec- 
lectic school  of  Bologna,  and  the  fundamen- 
tal idea  of  which  was  to  combine  the  closest 
study  of  nature  with  the  imitation  of  the  best 
qualities  of  the  old  masters.  The  Carracci  and 
their  chief  pupils,  Domenichino,  Guido  Reni, 
Lanfranco,  Albani,  and  Guercino,  extended 


800 


PAINTING 


their  influence  throughout  Italy ;  but  their  ef- 
forts only  tended  to  substitute  academic  tame- 
ness  for  what  little  originality  survived  the 
decline  of  painting,  and  their  style,  though  fre- 
quently admirable  as  illustrated  by  themselves, 
did  not  long  survive  them.  Their  greatest  mer- 
it perhaps  consisted  in  the  attention  they  gave 
to  landscape. — Of  the  schools  of  northern  Italy, 
in  addition  to  those  mentioned,  the  most  noted 
was  that  of  Parma,  the  great  ornament  of  which 
was  Antonio  Allegri,  known  as  Correggio,  who 
in  the  early  part  of  the  16th  century  brought 
the  art  of  chiaroscuro  and  relief  to  perfection-. 
One  of  his  chief  characteristics  was  a  winning 
softness  and  grace,  tending  in  some  instances 
toward  affectation ;  and  the  evil  consequences 
of  this  tendency  are  visible  in  the  works  of 
Francesco  Mazzuola,  called  II  Parmigiano,  other- 
wise an  excellent  painter,  and  after  Correggio 
the  best  artist  of  the  school. — At  Milan  a  flour- 
ishing school  was  established  by  Leonardo  da 
Vinci,  who  executed  there  some  of  his  finest 
works.  Among  the  pupils  who  came  under  his 
influence  may  be  mentioned  Marco  d'Oggione, 
who  painted  the  copy  of  Leonardo's  "Last 
Supper,"  now  in  the  possession  of  the  British 
royal  academy.  About  the  commencement  of 
the  17th  century  the  Procaccinis  founded  an 
eclectic  school  in  Milan. — The  school  of  Naples 
claims  an  antiquity  equal  to  that  of  Florence, 
but  no  important  name  occurs  until  the  17th 
century,  when  Giuseppe  Ribera,  called  Lo  Spa- 
gnoletto,  and  Salvator  Rosa,  both  leading  paint- 
ers of  the  naturalist^  flourished.  The  latter 
was  one  of  the  earliest  and  most  vigorous  of 
landscape  painters,  but  even  in  this  class  of 
works  reflects  the  coarse  feeling  of  his  school. 
The  last  Neapolitan  painter  of  eminence  was 
Luca  Giordano,  called,  from  his  rapidity  of 
execution,  Fa  Presto. — Although  painting  in 
Germany  can  be  traced  back  to  the  Carlovin- 
gian  period,  little  is  known  of  the  productions 
of  its  artists,  the  missal  illuminators  excepted, 
previous  to  the  13th  century.  During  the  lat- 
ter half  of  the  14th,  under  Meister  Wilhelm,  or 
William  of  Cologne,  who,  according  to  a  con- 
temporary chronicler,  was  "  the  best  painter  in 
all  German  lands,  and  painted  all  sorts  of  men 
as  if  they  were  alive,"  the  school  of  Cologne 
acquired  considerable  repute.  The  pictures 
in  Cologne  attributed  to  this  master  and  to 
his  pupil,  Meister  Stephan,  notwithstanding  a 
Gothic  hardness  peculiar  to  all  mediaeval  Ger- 
man art,  are  remarkable  for  richness  of  color- 
ing, careful  finish,  and  deep  religious  sentiment. 
Contemporary  schools  flourished  in  Nuremberg 
and  Swabia.  The  16th  century  witnessed  the 
culmination  of  German  art  in  the  person  of 
Albrecht  Durer,  the  pupil  of  Michael  Wohl- 
gemuth  of  Nuremberg,  and  almost  equally  dis- 
tinguished as  painter,  sculptor,  and  engraver, 
though  now  chiefly  known  in  the  last  capacity. 
Another  painter  who  greatly  influenced  him 
was  Martin  Schon,  remarkable  for  the  fantas- 
tic spirit  often  noticeable  in  his  works.  Lucas 
Cranach  about  the  same  time  headed  the  con- 


temporary school  of  Saxony,  and  enjoyed  al- 
most as  great  a  reputation  as  Durer  himself. 
Other  painters  of  the  period  were  Albrecht 
Altdorfer,  a  pupil  of  Durer,  Matthias  Griine- 
wald,  Hans  Burgkmair,  and  particularly  Hans 
Holbein  the  younger,  in  whom  the  old  mediae- 
val ecclesiastical  spirit  is  relieved  by  freer  con- 
ceptions of  nature  and  a  purer  sense  of  physical 
beauty,  while  the  characteristic  German  style 
is  retained.  From  1527  his  history  belongs  to 
England.  Subsequently  the  Germans  became 
imitators  of  the  Netherlandish  and  Italian  eclec- 
tic schools,  and  previous  to  the  19th  century 
few  names  of  note  occur  among  them.  In  the 
first  decade  of  the  present  century  a  remark- 
able revival  was  commenced  by  a  number  of 
young  German  painters  assembled  in  Rome, 
the  leading  motive  of  whieh  was  a  protest 
against  the  effete  academic  .generalization  un- 
der which  art  languished.  The  result  was  the 
formation  of  a  mystical  school,  which,  under 
the  lead  of  Overbeck,  attempted  to  revive  the 
sentimental,  ascetic  art  of  the  14th  century; 
and  of  another  more  purely  Teutonic,  known 
as  the  Munich  school,  whose  leaders,  Cornelius, 
Schadow,  Veit,  Kaulbach,  Hess,  and  Schnorr, 
have  affected  monumental  works  and  idealized 
history  with  considerable  success.  By  pushing 
this  tendency  to  somewhat  unreasonable  limits 
they  incited  a  realistic  reaction  under  Lessing, 
Bendemann,  and  others,  who  formed  a  separate 
school,  the  chief  seat  of  which  is  Diisseldorf. 
It  has  produced  some  clever  genre  painters. 
Within  a  few  years  a  more  broadly  realistic 
school  has  been  established  in  Munich  under 
the  lead  of  Karl  Piloty,  a  coarse  but  vigorous 
painter.  Accounts  of  these  movements  and  of 
their  instigators  will  be  found  among  the  bio- 
graphical articles  of  this  work. — The  Flemish 
school  dates  from  the  commencement  of  the 
15th  century,  when  Hubert  and  Jan  van  Eyck 
established  themselves  at  Bruges,  and  drew 
around  them  pupils  from  all  parts  of  northern 
Europe.  Dignity  and  strength,  combined  with 
a  close  imitation  of  external  nature,  were  the 
characteristics  of  their  style,  as  illustrated  in 
the  celebrated  polyptych  painted  by  them  for 
the  church  of  St.  Bavon  in  Ghent.  This  work 
presents  also  some  of  the  first  successful  at- 
tempts at  landscape  painting.  To  Hubert  van 
Eyck  is  due  the  discovery,  not  of  oil  painting, 
which  was  practised  for  two  or  three  centuries 
before  his  time,  but  of  a  drying  varnish,  which 
was  at  the  same  time  more  suitable  for  mix- 
ing with  pigments  than  any  vehicle  previous- 
ly known.  The  new  method  was  adopted  by 
northern  artists  generally  in  the  first  half  of 
the  15th  century,  and  about  1450  was  carried 
into  Italy  by  Antonello  da  Messina,  Among 
the  pupils  and  successors  of  the  Van  Eycks 
were  Roger  van  der  Weyde'n,  also  called  Roger 
of  Bruges,  Hans  Memling  or  Hemling,  perhaps 
the  best  painter  of  the  school,  and  Jan  van 
Mabuse,  the  first  Flemish  painter  who  felt  the 
influence  of  the  Italian  renaissance.  A  con- 
temporary school  flourished  at  Antwerp,  which 


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801 


previous  to  the  middle  of  the  16th  century  pro- 
duced at  least  two  first  rate  artists,  Quentin 
Matsys  or  Messy  s  and  Lucas  van  Ley  den;  to 
these  succeeded  a  crowd  of  imitators  of  the 
Italians,  whose  efforts  in  design  were  worth- 
less, and  who  fell  far  short  of  the  solemn,  reli- 
gious feeling  of  their  Flemish  predecessors. 
With  the  IVth  century  commenced  the  most 
brilliant  epoch  of  the  Flemish  school,  during 
which  the  genius  of  Peter  Paul  Rubens,  whom 
Haydon  characterizes  as  "  a  giant  of  execution 
and  brute  violence  of  brush,  and  brilliant  color 
and  daring  composition,"  revived  the  old  glo- 
ries of  Florence  and  Venice.  Physical  energy 
and  life  were  his  characteristics,  and  these  were 
reflected  with  somewhat  exaggerated  coarse- 
ness in  the  works  of  Jordaens,  Gaspar  de  Cra- 
yer,  and  others  of  his  followers,  who  form  what 
is  known  as  the  school  of  Brabant.  Anthony 
Vandyke,  his  most  illustrious  pupil,  however, 
painted  with  more  elegance  than  his  master, 
and  brought  portraiture  to  the  highest  excel- 
lence. Painting  languished  in  Flanders  and 
Brabant  after  the  latter  part  of  the  17th  centu- 
ry, but,  as  in  other  parts  of  Europe,  has  within 
the  present  century  experienced  a  revival,  which 
will  be  productive  of  good  results.  The  art 
has  been  pursued  with  success  by  Baron  Leys, 
Wappers,  De  Kaiser,  Gallait,  Verboeckhoven, 
Alfred  and  Joseph  Stevens,  Willenis,  Alma  Ta- 
d6ma,  and  other  Belgian  artists.  Gallait  espe- 
cially ranks  among  the  first  of  living  histori- 
cal painters,  and  Alma  Tadema,  for  several 
years  a  resident  of  London,  excels  in  dramatic 
representations  of  ancient  history  and  manners. 
— The  Dutch  school  seems  to  have  been  iden- 
tical with  the  Flemish  until  the  early  part  of 
the  17th  century,  when  a  peculiar  reaction 
from  the  mannered  style  of  the  masters  of  the 
preceding  century  manifested  itself  in  Holland. 
This  movement  was  headed  by  Paul  Rembrandt 
van  Ryn,  a  man  of  singular  genius,  who  took 
up  a  hostile  position  against  the  study  of  the 
ideal,  and  deliberately  attempted  the  imitation 
of  vulgar  nature.  The  ugliness  of  his  models, 
selected  apparently  to  show  what  obstacles  he 
could  overcome,  is  more  than  redeemed  by  sur- 
passing effects  of  light  and  shade,  and  his  mean 
and  coarse  design  but  thinly  veils  the  indi- 
viduality of  a  gloomy  and  original  mind.  His 
style,  called  by  Kugler  the  "phantasmagoric," 
was  the  very  opposite  of  that  of  Rubens,  and  in 
landscape  and  history  completely  severed  the 
Dutch  school  from  that  of  Brabant.  Among 
his  eminent  pupils  were  N.  van  Bergen,  Eeck- 
hout,  P.  de  Koninck,  F.  Bol,  and  Nicholas 
Maas.  Contemporary  with  Rembrandt  was  a 
class  of  painters  of  remarkable  merit  as  color - 
ists,  and  well  versed  in  the  technics  of  their 
art,  who  cultivated  genre  (a  term  applied  to 
all  kinds  of  real  or  imaginary  scenes  from  com- 
mon life).  Their  pictures  are  generally  small 
and  exact  representations  of  familiar  and  often 
vulgar  subjects.  Among  the  most  eminent  of 
these  were  Peter  Breughel  and  his  sons  Hell 
Breughel,  so  called  from  the  diabolical  char- 


acter of  his  subjects,  and  Velvet  Breughel,  fa- 
mous for  his  soft  handling;  David  Teniers, 
the  elder  and  the  younger,  the  latter  a  distin- 
guished painter  of  low  life ;  Adrian  van  Ostade, 
Adrian  Brauwer,  Frans  Hals,  and  Jan  Steen, 
equally  celebrated  in  the  same  department; 
Gerard  Terburg,  Gerard  Douw,  Gabriel  Metzu, 
and  Franciscus  Mieris,  eminent  painters  of  gen- 
teel life.  Several  of  these,  as  for  example  Te- 
niers, father  and  son,  belong  properly  to  the 
Flemish  school ;  but  as  they  followed  the 
Dutch  style,  they  have  been  classed  among  the 
Dutch  painters.  About  the  same  time  landscape 
painting  became  developed  among  the  Dutch 
with  wonderful  rapidity,  and  generally  with  a 
purer  taste  than  genre.  Paul  Bril  caught  the 
Italian  spirit  from  painting  in  Italy,  and  Jan 
and  Andreas  Both,  Pynacker,  Albert  Cuyp, 
Nicholas  Berghem,  Jan  Miel,  Karel  Dujardin, 
and  Adrian  van  der  Velde  cultivated  an  ideal 
or  pastoral  style  with  eminent  success.  Jacob 
Ruysdael,  Minderhout,  Hobbema,  and  Antony 
Waterloo  excelled  in  vivid  and  natural  imita- 
tions of  native  scenery,  without  aiming  at  ideal 
beauty;  Willem  van  der  Velde  the  younger 
and  L.  Backhuysen  in  marine  views;  Philip 
Wouverman  in  hunting  parties;  and  Paul 
Potter  in  landscapes  with  cattle  and  figures. 
Snyders,  the  friend  of  Rubens,  and  a  famous 
animal  painter,  may  be  mentioned  here;  also 
Hondekoeter,  a  painter  of  poultry;  and  De 
Heem,  Rachel  Ruysch,  and  Van  Huysum,  cele- 
brated for  their  fruit  and  flower  pieces.  A 
few  of  these  lived  into  the  18th  century,  but 
before  that  time  the  art  had  lost  most  of  its 
vitality.  Of  late  years  it  has  been  practised 
with  success  by  Israels,  Van  Schendel,  and  the 
Koekkoek  family,  the  last  named  eminent  in 
landscape. — The  Spanish  school  stands  almost 
alone  in  the  history  of  European  art  in  the 
severely  religious  and  ascetic  character  of  its 
productions.  A  rigid  code  of  rules,  established 
by  ecclesiastical  authority,  prescribed  the  meth- 
od of  treatment  when  sacred  subjects  were 
selected,  and  the  strong  devotional  feeling  of 
the  artists  led  them  to  give  an  almost  exclusive 
attention  to  this  class  of  subjects.  Painting 
can  scarcely  be  said  to  have  had  an  existence 
in  the  Spanish  peninsula  previous  to  the  middle 
of  the  15th  century,  and  it  was  not  until  the  17th 
that  the  school  had  any  other  than  a  local  repu- 
tation. The  visit  of  some  Flemish  artists  in  the 
15th  century,  and  somewhat  later  of  Titian  and 
other  Italian  masters,  gave  the  native  painters 
their  first  practical  ideas  of  color  and  design. 
In  the  16th  century  schools  were  already  es- 
tablished in  Castile,  Valencia,  Seville,  and  else- 
where, that  of  Seville  being  perhaps  the  most 
distinguished.  Among  the  eminent  painters 
connected  with  them  were  Antonio  del  Rincon, 
Luis  de  Vargas,  Luis  de  Morales,  Vicente  Jua- 
nes,  sometimes  called  the  Spanish  Raphael, 
Pablo  de  Cespedes,  Francisco  Ribalta,  and  Juan 
de  las  Roelas,  most  of  whom  studied  in  Italy, 
and  flourished  in  the  16th  century;  Francisco 
Pacheco;  Alonso  Cano,  eminent  as  sculptor, 


802 


PAINTING 


painter,  and  architect;  Francisco  Zurbaran,  a 
distinguished  painter  of  the  naturalistic  school 
of  Oaravaggio ;  and  Diego  Rodriguez  de  Silva 
y  Velazquez  and  Bartolome  Esteban  Murillo, 
who  share  the  honor  of  making  Spanish  art 
known  and  admired  in  all  parts  of  the  civilized 
world.  The  characteristics  of  their  styles  are 
described  in  the  biographical  notices  of  them. 
Since  the  commencement  of  the  18th  century 
Spain  has  produced  few  painters  of  eminence. 
— Painting  was  practised  in  France  as  early  as 
the  time  of  Charlemagne,  and  during  the  14th 
and  15th  centuries  French  illuminators  did 
much  excellent  work ;  but  nothing  like  a  nation- 
al school  can  be  said  to  have  had  an  existence 
until  after  the  visit  of  Primaticcio  and  other 
Italian  artists,  at  the  invitation  of  Francis  I. 
The  only  painter  of  independent  or  national 
feeling  who  preceded  them  was  Jean  Cousin, 
noted  for  an  elaborate  representation  of  the 
last  judgment.  Simon  Youet,  who  flourished 
in  the  earlier  half  of  the  17th  century,  re- 
ceived an  Italian  education,  and  is  considered 
the  master  and  model  of  the  succeeding  gener- 
ation of  French  painters.  Contemporary  with 
him  were  Nicolas  Poussin,  eminent  for  the  clas- 
sic spirit  of  his  compositions  and  his  landscapes ; 
G-aspar  Poussin,  also  eminent  in  landscapes; 
Claude  Gelee,  known  as  Claude  Lorraine,  a 
master  of  aerial  perspective,  as  of  nearly  every 
other  branch  of  landscape  painting ;  and  Se- 
bastien  Bourdon.  All  of  these,  though  French 
by  birth,  practised  their  art  and  passed  most 
of  their  lives  in  Italy.  Eustache  Lesueur  and 
Charles  Le  Brun  were  the  most  eminent  of 
Vouet's  pupils;  the  latter,  an  artist  of  merit 
despite  his  affectation  of  manner  and  viola- 
tions of  taste,  being  the  painter  of  many  of  the 
immense  pictures  at  Versailles  which  testify 
to  the  vanity  and  extravagance  of  Louis  XIV. 
In  the  succeeding  reign  Antoine  Watteau  paint- 
ed fetes  galantes  with  grace  and  effect ;  Fran- 
cois Boucher,  an  artist  of  considerable  natural 
force  and  ability,  gained  an  unenviable  repu- 
tation by  producing  works  conceived  in  the 
worst  taste,  and  which  violated  all  notions  of 
truth  or  decency;  Joseph  Vernet  was  noted 
as  a  marine  painter;  and  somewhat  later  Jean 
Baptiste  Greuze  obtained  a  unique  reputation 
for  his  female  heads  and  charming  represen- 
tations of  domestic  life.  Painting  steadily  de- 
teriorated during  the  latter  half  of  the  18th 
century,  until  restored  to  a  temporary  vitality 
about  the  time  of  the  French  revolution  by 
Jacques  Louis  David,  whose  style,  known  as 
the  "classic,"  though  dry,  pedantic,  and  defi- 
cient in  true  expression,  showed  considerable 
mastery  of  form,  and  was  followed  by  Gue- 
rin,  Drouais,  and  a  numerous  band  of  pupils. 
Grps  first  broke  away  from  this  "morbid  imi- 
tation of  the  antique,"  as  it  has  been  called, 
and  with  Gericault  and  others  inaugurated  the 
system  of  painting  from  nature  whence  ori- 
ginated the  modern  French  realistic  school. 
Contemporary  with  Gericault  was  Eugene  De- 
lacroix, a  vigorous  colorist,  who  founded  a  ro- 


mantic school,  the  followers  of  which  seem 
to  have  drawn  their  inspiration  from  the  wri- 
tings of  Goethe,  Byron,  and  Scott.  Among 
the  painters  who  flourished  during  the  first 
quarter  of  the  present  century  were  Ingres,  a 
pupil  of  David,  and  a  refined  classicist ;  Isabey, 
noted  for  his  miniatures;  Prud'hon,  Robert 
Fleury,  and  Leopold  Robert.  Horace  Vernet, 
who  died  in  1863,  was  a  facile  painter,  of  fine 
invention  and  unrivalled  in  battle  pieces ;  his 
son-in-law,  Paul  Delaroche,.  became  one  of  the 
chief  masters  of  history  of  the  century;  and 
Ary  Scheffer  stood  almost  alone  as  an  idealist 
of  singular  purity  and  severity  of  conception. 
The  French  school  of  the  present  day,  if  less 
aspiring  than  that  of  David  and  less  broadly 
realistic  than  that  founded  by  Gros  and  Geri- 
cault, is  distinguished  by  correct  drawing  and 
composition,  and  generally  by  elaborate  finish, 
although  in  the  latter  particular  the  practice 
of  its  members  is  by  no  means  uniform.  The 
prevailing  style  is  genre,  and  subjects  are  often 
trivial,  but  dramatic  power  is  by  no  means 
wanting.  In  respect  to  the  technical  qualities 
of  the  art,  painting  is  now  practised  in  France 
with  more  success  than  ever  before,  and  in 
this  regard  the  French  school  is  perhaps  the 
best  extant.  Among  the  principal  masters  in 
genre  and  history  may  be  mentioned  Meisso- 
nier,  whose  pictures,  small  and  simple  in  detail, 
are  admirable  for  character  and  execution; 
Ger6me,  noted  for  dramatic  expression  and 
elaborate  finish;  Edouard  Frere;  Jules  Bre- 
ton ;  Couture ;  Zamacois  and  Millet,  both  late- 
ly deceased,  and  both  of  high  excellence ;  Ha- 
mon,  Oabanel,  Hippolyte  Flandrin,  Decamp, 
Bouguereau,  Hebert,  Bonnat,  Fromentin,  Pils, 
Yvon,  and  Fortuny,  a  Spaniard  by  birth,  whose 
recent  death  is  a  severe  loss  to  modern  art. 
Gustave  Dore  has  exhibited  considerable  tal- 
ent in  grotesque  or  fantastic  subjects,  but 
is  considered  to  have  failed  in  his  more  am- 
bitious undertakings,  such  as  the  illustration 
of  the  Bible  and  Dante.  Gustave  Courbet  is 
a  realist  of  singular  power,  and  Rosa  Bonheur 
occupies  an  important  position  as  an  animal' 
painter.  In  the  department  of  landscape  a 
high  place  must  be  assigned  to  Troyon.  Oth- 
er artists  famous  in  that  department  are  Rous- 
seau, Corot  (died  in  1875),  Daubigny,  Diaz, 
and  Lambinet. — Of  painting  in  England  little 
can  be  said  previous  to  the  18th  century.  Jan 
Mabuse,  Holbein,  Sir  Anthony  More,  Rubens, 
Vandyke,  Lely,  Kneller,  and  other  continental 
painters,  had  during  the  two  previous  centu- 
ries successively  practised  their  art  there,  prin- 
cipally in  the  department  of  portraiture ;  but 
their  influence  was  unavailing  to  form  a  na- 
tional school.  The  few  native  artists  of  note 
who  flourished  within  this  period,  including 
Billiard,  Isaac  and  Peter  Oliver,  miniature 
painters,  and  Dobson,  Nicholas  Stone,  and 
Jameson,  called  the  "  Scottish  Vandyke,"  were 
portrait  painters,  and  that  branch  of  painting 
alone  received  encouragement.  The  first  im- 
portant historical  works  by  an  English  ar- 


PAINTING- 


803 


list  were  the  frescoes  executed  by  Sir  James 
Thornhill  in  the  interior  of  the  dome  of  St. 
Paul's,  London ;  but  his  illustrious  son-in-law, 
William  Hogarth,  the  great  satirical  painter 
of  his  time,  and  one  of  the  most  original  ar- 
tists of  any  age,  is  the  first  name  of  note  in 
the  history  of  British  art.  He  had  however 
but  little  direct  influence  upon  the  painters  of 
his  time,  and  the  honor  of  founding  the  mod- 
ern English  school  belongs  to  Sir  Joshua  Rey- 
nolds, excellent  in  portraiture  and  history, 
and  preeminent  as  a  colorist.  His  contempo- 
rary and  rival,  Thomas  Gainsborough,  often 
equalled  him  in  portraits,  but  is  better  known 
as  the  first  of  the  line  of  landscape  painters 
whose  works  would  adorn  the  art  of  any 
epoch.  Among  other  painters  who  flourished 
during  the  latter  half  of  the  last  century  were 
Richard  Wilson,  eminent  in  landscape ;  Barry, 
Romney,  Mortimer,  Opie,  Northcote,  Fuseli, 
Angelica  Kauffmann,  Copley,  and  West,  his- 
torical and  portrait  painters,  the  last  two  be- 
ing natives  of  America.  William  Blake  occu- 
pies a  unique  position  as  a  mystical  painter 
of  remarkable  but  unequal  power.  The  in- 
fluence of  Reynolds  upon  the  succeeding  gen- 
eration of  painters  is  shown  in  the  strong  bias 
for  color  which  now  forms  one  of  the  chief 
characteristics  of  the  English  school.  In  the 
first  quarter  of  the  present  century  flourished 
Sir  Thomas  Lawrence,  Hoppner,  Raeburn,  and 
Jackson,  portrait  painters ;  WTilkie,  next  to  Ho- 
garth the  best  painter  of  low  life  England  has 
produced  ;  Haydon,  a  historical  painter  of  ge- 
nius, in  spite  of  his  mannerism  and  egotism ; 
Etty,  once  esteemed  as  a  colorist ;  Turner,  the 
most  original  and  imaginative,  perhaps,  of  land- 
scape painters;  Constable,  Callcott,  W.  Col- 
lins, Morland,  Nasmyth,  Bonington,  eminent  in 
the  same  department ;  and  John  Martin,  whose 
architectural  extravagances  and  exaggerated 
effects  of  light  and  shade  had  a  brief  popular- 
ity. During  the  same  period  history  and  genre 
were  cultivated  by  Bird,  Smirke,  Stothard,  and 
others ;  and  they  have  been  continued  to  the 
present  day  by  Newton,  Leslie,  Cooper,  Mul- 
ready,  Maclise,  Eastlake,  Redgrave,  E.  M.  Ward, 
Webster,  Hamilton,  Cope,  Dyce,  C.  Landseer, 
J.  R.  Herbert,  Horsley,  W.  J.  Muller,  Frith, 
Faed,  and  others,  many  of  whom  have  also 
painted  landscapes  and  portraits  with  success. 
Among  prominent  landscape  painters  of  the 

S*esent  period  have  been  Creswick,  Stanfield, 
.  Roberts,  James  Ward,  the  Linnels,  father 
and  sons,  and  F.  Lee ;  and  the  English  school 
of  landscape  still  occupies  a  high  place  in  con- 
temporary art.  Sir  Edwin  Landseer  (died  in 
1873)  held  a  peculiar  and  prominent  position 
as  a  painter  of  dogs  and  animals  of  the  chase. 
The  British  school  of  water-color  painting, 
founded  by  Paul  Sandby  in  the  middle  of  the 
last  century,  is  perhaps  the  best  in  the  world, 
and  in  the  department  of  landscape  has  pro- 
duced works  scarcely  inferior  to  those  of  the 
oil  painters.  Among  its  chief  artists  are  Tur- 
ner, Prout,  Copley  Fielding,  Roberts,  W.  Hunt, 


Lewis,  Cattermole,  Cox,  Absolon,  Corbould, 
Nash,  and  Stanfield.  At  the  beginning  of 
the  century  a  tendency  toward  imaginative 
painting  on  a  large  and  elaborate  scale,  oth- 
erwise known  as  "  high  art,"  was  a  marked 
characteristic  of  the  English  school.  Domes- 
tic genre  gradually  took  the  place  of  this,  and 
has  been  the  prevailing  style  to  the  present 
day.  So  exclusive  a  devotion  to  one  class  of 
subjects  has  imparted  a  monotonous  sameness 
and  overstrained  sentimentality  to  the  recent 
productions  of  the  school;  but  an  ideal  and 
more  imaginative  style  has  of  late  been  cul- 
tivated by  Leighton,  Holman  Hunt,  Millais, 
Watts,  Watson,  Calderon,  Walker,  Sant,  Whist- 
ler (the  last  named  an  American  by  birth, 
and  a  remarkable  colorist),  and  some  others. 
Within  the  past  25  years  has  arisen  a  peculiar 
school,  styling  itself  the  "  Pre-Raphaelite  Bro- 
therhood," and  represented  by  Holman  Hunt, 
Millais,  Dante  Gabriel  Rossetti,  and  some  oth- 
ers, who,  according  to  their  most  earnest  ad- 
vocate, Ruskin,  "oppose  themselves  to  the 
modern  system  of  teaching,  and  paint  nature 
as  it  is  around  them,  with  the  help  of  mod- 
ern science,  and  with  the  earnestness  of  the 
men  of  the  13th  and  14th  centuries." — Paint- 
ing made  little  progress  in  the  United  States 
previous  to  the  present  century.  Benjamin 
West,  a  native  of  Pennsylvania,  and  the  sec- 
ond president  of  the  British  royal  academy, 
gained  all  his  reputation  abroad  ;  and  Copley, 
though  he  left  many  admirable  portraits  in 
America,  settled  in  England  before  the  revolu- 
tion, and  produced  his  most  important  works 
in  history  and  portraiture  in  that  country. 
Charles  Wilson  Peale  and  John  Trumbull  were 
the  first  native  artists  of  note  who  practised 
their  art  to  any  considerable  extent  at  home; 
and  the  Trumbull  gallery  of  portraits  and  pic- 
tures illustrating  American  history,  at  New 
Haven,  comprises  a  valuable  contribution  to 
the  early  art  of  the  nation.  In  the  first  part 
of  the  present  century  Malbone,  Gilbert  Stuart, 
and  Allston  vindicated  the  claim  of  America 
to  the  possession  of  a  high  order  of  artistic 
ability  ;  the  first  an  excellent  miniature  painter, 
the  second  a  rival  of  Reynolds  in  portraiture, 
and  the  third  an  imaginative  painter  of  great 
excellence  in  all  walks  of  his  art.  About  the 
same  time  John  W.  Jarvis  and  Thomas  Sully 
occupied  a  respectable  position  as  portrait 
painters ;  Vanderlyn  painted  history  with  suc- 
cess ;  and  somewhat  later  Newton  and  Leslie, 
Americans  by  birth  or  parentage,  settled  in 
England  and  became  celebrated  in  the  modern 
English  school  of  genre.  About  1825  Thomas 
Cole  founded  what  may  be  called  the  American 
school  of  landscape  painting,  a  department 
which  has  since  been  cultivated  by  native 
artists  more  universally  than  any  other.  The 
works  of  Cole,  though  not  remarkable  as  lit- 
eral transcripts  of  individual  forms,  are  char- 
acterized by  a  thoughtful  morality  and  a  ten- 
dency to  allegory.  The  series  of  "  The  Course 
of  Empire"  and  "The  Voyage  of  Life"  are  his 


804 


PAINTING 


PAINTS 


most  elaborate  productions.  Contemporary 
with  Cole  or  immediately  succeeding  him  were 
Doughty,  Durand,  Inman,  and  Fisher,  the  two 
first  named  eminent  in  landscape,  and  the  third 
the  first  American  painter  who  attempted  genre 
with  success;  Rembrandt  Peale,  Weir,  Hunt- 
ington,  Rothermel,  and  Page,  painters  of  his- 
tory, portraits,  landscape,  and  genre,  and  the 
last  named  distinguished  as  a  colorist ;  Neagle, 
Morse,  Ingham,  Harding,  and  Fraser,  portrait 
painters.  Since  the  middle  of  the  century 
American  painters  have  devoted  most  atten- 
tion to  landscape  and  genre,  and  their  efforts 
have  in  a  measure  reflected  the  influence  of 
the  French  school.  French  paintings  pre- 
dominate in  the  private  collections  of  the 
country,  and  French  types  of  form,  color, 
and  design  have  been  reproduced  with  such 
modifications  as  national  tastes  and  habits  of 
thought  have  rendered  necessary.  The  in- 
fluence of  other  modern  schools  is  so  slight 
as  to  be  almost  inappreciable.  Landscape  has 
been  pursued,  as  a  rule,  from  a  purely  realistic 
point  of  view,  American  painters  in  this  de- 
partment seldom  aiming  to  give  more  than  a 
literal,  if  sometimes  an  exaggerated,  transcript 
of  nature.  Prominent  among  painters  of  this 
class  have  been  Church  and  Bierstadt,  both 
remarkable  for  the  production  of  grand  and 
elaborate  pictures  on  an  extensive  scale ;  Ken- 
sett,  whose  peculiar  mannerism  often  carried 
him  within  the  realm  of  the  ideal;  Inness,  a 
follower  of  the  French  landscapist  Rousseau ; 
James  M.  and  William  Hart,  Cropsey,  Casi- 
lear,  R.  S.  and  S.  R.  Gifford,  G.  L.  Brown, 
Bristol,  S.  Colman,  W.  T.  Richards,  Tilton, 
Tiffany,  McEntee,  Whittredge,  Cranch,  La 
Farge,  Griswold,  Smillie,  Sonntag,  Thomas 
Hill,  Mignot,  T.  Moran,  Gay,  Gignoux,  Wyant, 
Gerry,  Bellows,  Shattuck,  Bricher,  Hubbard, 
Fitch,  and  Yewell.  Among  marine  painters 
may  be  mentioned  E.  Moran,  De  Haas,  Dana, 
Haseltine,  Bradford,  and  Dix.  Portraiture 
has  been  pursued  with  success  by  Elliott,  W. 
M.  Hunt,  Baker,  Healy,  Le  Clear,  W.  O.  Stone, 
Hicks,  H.  P.  Gray,  Staigg,  Ames,  Flagg,  and 
others.  History  and  genre  are  represented 
by  Eastman  Johnson,  Winslow  Homer,  Leutze, 
J.  F.  Weir,  E.  White,  Mount,  May,  Powell, 
Darley,  Guy,  Lambdin,  Hennessey,  G.  H. 
Hall,  J.  G.  Brown,  Perry,  T.  W.  Wood,  Ved- 
der,  Terry,  0.  C.  Coleman,  and  Freeman ; 
and  J.  H.  and  W.  H.  Beard,  Butler,  P.  Mo- 
ran, Hays,  Tait,  and  Hinckley  are  noted  as 
painters  of  animals. — The  works  of  Yasari 
(Florence,  1550  et  seq. ;  translated  into  Eng- 
lish by  William  Aglionby,  4to,  London,  1719, 
and  by  Mrs.  Jonathan  Foster,  5  vols.  8vo, 
1850-'53),  Ridolfi  (Venice,  1648),  Lanzi  (Flor- 
ence, 1792),  and  other  Italian  writers  are  main- 
ly the  basis  of  modern  works  on  the  Italian 
painters  and  schools.  See  Bryan,  "  Biographi- 
cal and  Critical  Dictionary  of  Painters  and 
Engravers"  (2  vols.  4to,  London,  1816;  re- 
vised and  enlarged  by  Stanley,  1849),  and  Ott- 
ley's  supplement  (1866);  Kugler,  Handbuch 


der  GeschicJite  der  Malerei  von  Konstantin 
dem  Grossen  Ms  auf  die  neuere  Zeit  (2  vols., 
Berlin,  1837;  the  portions  relating  to  differ- 
ent schools  translated  into  English  by  East- 
lake,  Head,  and  Waagen)  ;  Ruskin's  "  Modern 
Painters"  (5  vols.,  London,  1843-'50);  Lind- 
say, "  Sketches  of  the  History  of  Christian 
Art"  (3  vols.,  1847);  Stirling,  "Annals  of  the 
Artists  of  Spain"  (3  vols.,  1848);  Charles 
Blanc,  Histoire  des  peintres  de  toutes  les  ecoles 
(1849-'69);  Burckhardt,  Der  Cicerone:  An- 
leitung  zum  Genuss  der  Kunstwerlce  Italiens 
(Basel,  1855  ;  revised  and  enlarged  by  A.  von 
Zahn  and  translated  into  English  by  Mrs. 
Clough,  1873);  Crowe  and  Cavalcaselle,  "No- 
tices of  Early  Flemish  Painters "  (London, 
1856),  "History  of  Painting  in  Italy"  (3  vols., 
1866),  and  "History  of  Painting  in  North  Ita- 
ly "  (2  vols.,  1871) ;  Mrs.  Jameson's  "  Memoirs 
of  the  Italian  Painters"  (revised  ed.,  1859); 
Lubke,  Grundriss  der  KunstgescJiicJite  (Stutt- 
gart, 1861) ;  Waagen,  ffandbuch  der  GescJiicJite 
der  Malerei  (1862  et  seq.}]  Wornum,  "Epochs 
of  Painting " (London,  1864);  Redgrave,  "Cen- 
tury of  Painters  of  the  English  School"  (2 
vols.,  1866),  and  "Dictionary  of  Artists  of  the 
English  School"  (1874);  Tuckerman,  "Book 
of  the  Artists"  (New  York,  1867);  Hamerton, 
"Contemporary  French  Painters"  (London, 
1867);  and  Meyer,  Allgemeines  Kunstler-Lexi- 
Icon  (Leipsic,  1872  et  seq.}. 

PAINTS,  coloring  substances  prepared  so  that 
they  may  be  spread  with  a  brush,  to  color  or 
preserve  surfaces.  The  term  is  usually  applied 
to  mixtures  of  pigments  with  oil,  but  may 
include  those  with  water  and  gum  or  other 
thickening  material.  The  pulverized  solid  pig- 
ments are  called  the  base,  and  the  liquid  is 
called  the  vehicle,  while  a  third  material  may 
be  added  to  give  color.  Paints  which  are  used 
by  artists  are  often  called  "colors,"  but  they 
only  differ  from  common  paints  in  that  their 
materials  are  selected  with  more  regard  to  per- 
manence of  color  and  fineness.  For  ordinary 
house  painting,  especially  for  exteriors,  white 
lead  is  generally  regarded  as  the  best  base, 
and  boiled  linseed  oil  as  the  best  vehicle. 
The  boiling  prepares  it,  especially  when  a 
small  portion  of  litharge  (protoxide  of  lead)  is 
added,  to  become  hardened  by  oxidation.  If 
white  lead  paint  is  exposed  to  exhalations  of 
gases  containing  sulphuretted  hydrogen,  the 
surface  will  become  converted  into  a  black 
sulphide,  which  would  cause  discoloration  in 
any  except  a  black  or  dark  brown  paint.  Zinc 
white,  or  oxide  of  zinc,  as  it  does  not  become 
tarnished  in  this  way,  is  often  used  as  a  sub- 
stitute in  white  paint,  especially  for  interior 
painting.  White  lead,  however,  makes  the 
strongest  paint,  forming  when  dry  a  homoge- 
neous solid,  because  it  combines  chemically 
with  the  oil,  while  the  zinc  white  is  only  held 
mechanically  by  it ;  and  lead  is  therefore  to  be 
preferred  for  outside  work.  It  should  be  se- 
lected with  care,  because  it  is  often  largely 
adulterated  with  ground  sulphate  of  baryta  or 


PAINTS 

heavy  spar,  which  destroys  its  opacity  and  also 
its  affinity  for  the  oil,  so  that  it  soon  washes 
away.  Sulphate  of  lime,  or  gypsum,  and  chalk 
are  also  sometimes  used  as  an  adulteration  for 
white  lead,  and  zinc  blende  is  sometimes  used 
as  a  substitute,  and  is  said  to  cover  well.  The 
finest  white  leads  are  made  at  Krems  in  Lower 
Austria,  and  their  preparation  is  attended  with 
great  labor.  Next  to  these  the  Dutch  and 
English  white  leads  are  regarded  with  the 
most  favor ;  the  former  have  the  greater  opa- 
city, but  are  said  to  be  rather  more  apt  to  be- 
come yellow  by  age  than  the  English.  The 
most  durable  paints  intended  for  covering  or- 
dinary objects  are  made  with  white  lead  as  a 
basis,  the  coloring  being  given  by  other  ma- 
terials, such  as  lampblack,  umber,  ochre,  red 
lead,  vermilion,  verdigris,  &c. ;  although  cheap 
paints  are  sometimes  made  by  mixing  oils, 
particularly  those  that  are  cheap,  such  as  fish 
oils  and  petroleum,  with  fuller's  earth,  ochre, 
or  lime.  It  has  been  asserted  that  the  use  of 
zinc  in  place  of  white  lead  relieves  the  work- 
man from  disease  ;•  but  the  effects  of  zinc  un- 
der similar  circumstances  have  not  perhaps 
been  sufficiently  observed  to  form  a  correct 
opinion. — The  following  are  some  of  the  finer 
paints,  called  artists'  colors.  Flake  white  is 
made  of  carbonate  of  lead  with  an  excess  of 
oxide,  mixed  with  boiled  linseed  oil,  to  which 
is  often  added  a  varnish.  By  the  Krems,  and 
also  by  the  Dutch  process  of  manufacture, 
white  lead  is  rendered  amorphous  and  very 
opaque,  in  consequence  of  the  oxide  of  lead 
being  in  excess,  a  portion  of  the  carbonic  acid 
being  replaced  by  water.  Silver  white  is  a 
term  applied  to  a  similar  kind  of  white  lead, 
and  some  whites  are  called  Koman  and  Vene- 
tian. The  whites  of  bismuth,  zinc,  tin,  and 
barytes  are  of  too  feeble  opacity.  Strontian 
yellow  is  a  color  in  which  the  base  is  chromate 
of  strontia,  of  a  pale  canary  color,  resisting  the 
action  of  foul  gases  and  light,  and  being  per- 
fectly durable.  Cadmium  yellow,  sulphuret 
of  cadmia,  is  a  rich  and  brilliant  orange,  and 
also  resists  the  action  of  foul  gases  and  light. 
There  are  other  yellows,  such  as  the  chromates 
of  lead;  Naples  yellow,  made  of  the  oxides 
of  lead,  antimony,  and  zinc ;  yellow  orpiment, 
sulphuret  of  antimony,  forming  the  base  of 
King's  yellow ;  the  zinc  yellows,  and  the  chro- 
mates of  cadmium,  mercury,  and  barytes. 
These  are  objectionable  on  account  of  want 
of  durability,  either  from  blacking  by  sulphu- 
retted hydrogen,  or  for  changing  color  from 
disintegration  and  other  causes.  The  native 
earths,  or  ochres,  such  as  yellow,  Oxford,  RoJ 
man,  stone,  brown,  and  Sienna,  consisting  of 
silica  and  alumina,  colored  by  oxide  of  iron,  are 
permanent  colors,  and  furnish  the  painter  with 
some  of  his  soundest  materials.  Indian  red, 
made  of  a  native  silicate  and  oxide  of  iron,  is 
also  a  durable  and  valuable  color.  Venetian  red 
is  an  inferior  kind  of  Indian  red.  Vermilion, 
cinnabar,  or  sulphide  of  mercury  (HgS,  for- 
merly called  bisulphide),  is  a  permanent  paint 


PAISIELLO 


805 


of  a  beautiful  red,  and  not  affected  by  acids  or  ** 
alkalies.  The  madder  lakes,  which  are  vegeta- 
ble dyes  mixed  with  earthy  bases,  are  rich  and 
beautiful  colors;  but  all  vegetable  compounds 
should  be  regarded  with  suspicion,  although 
madders  have  the  best  reputation.  Palladium 
red,  ammonio-chloride  of  palladium,  is  a  rich, 
deep,  beautiful  red,  and  a  valuable  pigment, 
but  not  much  used.  Ultramarine,  made  from 
native  lapis  lazuli,  or  artificially  by  heating  to- 
gether kaolin,  carbonate  of  soda,  and  sulphur, 
is  a  brilliant  purplish  blue,  not  destroyed  by 
foul  gases  or  light,  and,  although  affected  by 
acids,  is  durable  for  the  painter.  There  are 
many  processes  for  artificial  ultramarine,  and 
a  method  has  been  found  by  Prtickner  (see 
"  Colors  in  Painting,"  by  Eiffault,  Vergnaud, 
and  Toussaint,  Philadelphia,  1874)  to  determine 
their  durability  by  treatment  with  hydrogen. 
Silicate  of  cobalt  and  potassa  form  cobalt  blue, 
but  it  is  not  so  strong  a  pigment  as  ultra- 
marine. Prussian  blue  is  liable  to  change,  and 
indigo  fades  in  the  light.  Chromium  green, 
sesquioxide  of  chromium,  made  by  strongly 
igniting  chromate  of  mercury,  is  a  strong, 
opaque,  permanent  light  green  ;  it  is  the  color- 
ing matter  of  the  emerald.  Scheele's  green, 
arsenite  of  copper,  verdigris,  a  mixture  of  sub- 
acetates  of  copper,  and  other  mineral  greens, 
are  not  considered  as  durable  as  chromium 
green ;  many  of  them  form  black  sulphides  by 
continued  action  of  foul  air.  Terre  verte,  a 
native  silicate  of  protoxide  of  iron,  with  water, 
potash,  and  magnesia,  is  a  delicate  green,  re- 
sisting all  ordinary  destructive  agencies,  but  de- 
stroyed, like  ultramarine,  by  acids.  Vandyke, 
Eubens,  Cassel,  and  Cologne  browns  are  made 
of  decomposed  vegetable  and  bituminous  mat- 
ter, and  are  deep  and  rich,  with  a  certain  degree 
of  translucency,  for  which  they  are  valued. 
Ivory  black,  or  burnt  ivory,  is  a  pigment  much 
used  by  painters ;  also  lampblack,  and  the  blue 
blacks,  made  of  burnt  vine  twigs,  and  that 'of 
the  ancients  made  of  the  lees  of  wine.  Man- 
ganese black,  peroxide  of  manganese,  and  black 
ochres  or  earths  are  also  used. 

PAISIELLO,  Giovanni,  an  Italian  composer, 
born  in  Taranto,  May  9,  1741,  died  in  Naples, 
June  5,  1816.  He  was  educated  in  the  con- 
servatory of  St.  Onofrio  at  Naples  under  Du- 
rante,  and  at  the  age  of  20  was  a  prolific  com- 
poser of  masses,  psalms,  motets,  &c.  His  first 
opera  was  produced  in  1763  at  Bologna,  and 
during  the  next  13  years  he  is  said  to  have 
composed  upward  of  50  for  the  chief  cities  of 
Italy.  Most  of  these  speedily  sunk  into  ob- 
livion. The  most  celebrated  of  his  earlier 
operas  was  Dal  Jlnto  al  vero.  In  1776  he  ac- 
cepted an  invitation  from  Catharine  II.  to  es- 
tablish himself  in  St.  Petersburg,  where  he 
remained  nine  years,  producing  several  operas 
and  oratorios,  and  a  variety  of  miscellaneous 
pieces.  Some  of  his  best  works  belong  to  this 
period,  particularly  II  T)arT>iere  di  Seviglia. 
Going  to  Vienna,  he  composed  for  the  emperor 
Joseph  II.  12  symphonies,  and  the  opera  buffa 


806 


PAISLEY 


'*/Z  re  Teodoro,  which  affords  the  first  instance 
of  the  use  of  the  finale  in  this  class  of  composi- 
tions. On  his  return  to  Naples  in  1785  he  was 
appointed  royal  chapelmaster,  and  for  many 
years  remained  in  that  city,  writing  an  occa- 
sional opera  for  London  and  other  cities.  In 
1799  he  was  national  director  of  music  under 
the  republic,  for  which  he  remained  several 
years  in  disgrace  after  the  return  of  the  royal 
family.  In  1802  he  went  to  Paris,  to  be  chap- 
elmaster to  the  first  consul.  In  1804  he  was  re- 
stored to  his  office  of  royal  chapelmaster  at  Na- 
ples, in  which  he  was  retained  by  Joseph  Bona- 
parte and  Murat.  Paisiello's  works  comprise 
27  grand  and  51  buffo  operas,  8  interludes,  and 
a  vast  collection  of  cantatas,  oratorios,  masses, 
and  the  ordinary  forms  of  instrumental  music. 
Some  of  his  melodies,  as  "Hope  told  a  flatter- 
ing Tale,"  have  had  a  wide  popularity. 

PAISLEY,  a  manufacturing  town  of  Renfrew- 
shire, Scotland,  on  both  banks  of  the  White 
Cart,  about  3  m.  above  its  junction  with  the 
Clyde,  8  m.  W.  by  S.  of  Glasgow;  pop.  in 
1871,  48,257.  The  navigation  of  the  Cart  to 
Paisley  was  improved  in  1787,  and  vessels  of 
180  tons  burden  can  now  go  up  to  the  town. 
Its  celebrated  manufacture  of  the  finest  shawls 
was  introduced  about  the  beginning  of  the  19th 
century.  Silk  gauze,  muslins,  plaids,  chenille, 
handkerchiefs,  cotton,  thread,  carpets,  soap, 
leather,  and  malt  and  distilled  liquors,  are 
manufactured ;  and  there  are  brass  founderies, 
boat-building  yards,  &c.  The  town  owes  its 
existence  to  the  priory,  founded  about  1160,  on 
the  E.  bank  of  the  Cart,  by  Walter,  high  stew- 
ard of  Scotland.  In  1219  the  priory  was  raised 
to  an  abbacy  by  Pope  Honorius  III.  With 
the  growth  of  this  establishment  arose  Pais- 
ley, which  in  1488  was  erected  by  James  IV. 
into  a  free  burgh  of  barony. 

PAIXHANS,  Henri  Joseph,  a  French  inventor, 
born  in  Metz,  Jan.  22,  1783,  died  at  his  estate 
of  Jouy-aux- Arches,  near  Metz,  Aug.  19,  1854. 
He  was  educated  at  the  polytechnic  school,  en- 
tered the  artillery,  and  rose  to  the  rank  of 
general  of  division.  He  was  a  member  of  the 
chamber  of  deputies  from  1830  to  1848,  and 
was  successively  connected  with  the  ministry 
of  war,  the  committee  on  artillery,  and  several 
commissions  of  national  defence.  The  guns 
and  projectiles  which  bear  his  name  were  first 
employed  in  France  in  1824.  The  guns,  which 
were  originally  between  9  and  10  ft.  long  and 
weighed  75  cwt.,  were  especially  adapted  for 
the  projection  of  hollow  cylindro-conical  shot 
and  shells.  In  connection  with  his  inventions 
Gen.  Paixhans  made  numerous  useful  sugges- 
tions to  the  French  government  respecting  the 
armament  of  ships  of  war  or  fortresses  for  the 
defence  of  the  seacoast.  (See  ARTILLERY,  vol. 
i.,  p.  789.)  He  published  Considerations  sur 
Vartillerie  (Paris,  1815);  Nouvelle  force  mari- 
time (1822),  his  most  important  work;  and 
Force  etfaiblesse  de  la  France  (1830). 

PAJOU,  Angnstin,  a  French  sculptor,  born  in 
Paris,  Sept.  19,  1730,  died  there,  May  8,  1809. 


PALAEONTOLOGY 

He  passed  12  years  as  a  government  pensioner 
at  Rome,  and  returned  to  Paris  in  1760.  He 
executed  more  than  200  works  in  stone,  metal, 
and  wood,  and  for  many  years  was  professor 
of  sculpture  in  the  academy  of  fine  arts. 

PALACKY,  Frantisek,  a  Bohemian  historian, 
born  at  Hodslawitz,  Moravia,  June  14,  1798. 
He  was  educated  at  Presburg  and  Vienna,  and 
from  1827  to  1837  was  editor  of  the  (Jasopis 
ceskeho  Museum,  the  journal  of  the  national 
museum  at  Prague.  In  1829  he  was  appointed 
national  historiographer,  and  commenced  his 
"History  of  Bohemia"  (vols.  i.-v.,  1836-'67), 
during  the  progress  of  which  he  published  a 
"Theory  of  the  Beautiful,"  a  "History  of 
^Esthetics,"  "Literary  Journey  to  Italy  in 
1837,"  the  Archiv  lesky  (5  vols.,  1840-'66), 
"  Oldest  Memorials  of  the  Bohemian  Language," 
and  other  works.  In  1848  he  was  president  of 
the  Slavic  congress  at  Prague,  and  soon  after- 
ward was  sent  as  representative  to  the  Austrian 
parliament.  Both  in  the  Austrian  house  of 
lords,  of  which  in  1861  he  became  a  member 
for  life,  and  in  the  provincial  diet  of  Bohemia, 
he  was  for  years  the  leader  of  the  Czech  na- 
tional party.  Having  vainly  opposed  the  re- 
construction of  Austria  on  a  German-Hungarian 
basis  to  the  detriment  of  the  Czech  nationality, 
he  took  part  in  1867  in  the  Panslavic  gathering 
at  Moscow.  The  most  important  of  his  later 
works  is  a  collection  of  Documenta  illustrative 
of  the  life  and  doctrine  of  Huss  (1869). 

PAL.EOLOiilS,  the  name  of  a  Byzantine  fami- 
ly, first  mentioned  in  history  in  the  llth  cen- 
tury, and  which  occupied  the  throne  of  Con- 
stantinople from  1261  to  1453,  the  year  in 
which  that  city  was  taken  by  the  Turks.  The 
first  emperor  of  the  family  was  Michael  VIII. ; 
the  last,  Constantine  XIII.,  was  killed  while 
fighting  in  defence  of  his  capital.  A  member 
of  this  family,  Theodore,  a  son  of  Andronicus 
II.,  received  the  principality  of  Montferrat  in 
Italy  in  1305,  in  right  of  his  mother  Yolante, 
and  in  the  hands  of  this  branch  it  remained 
till  1533.  Another  branch  of  the  house  reigned 
in  the  Morea  from  1380  to  1460.  The  family 
is  supposed  to  have  become  extinct  with  Theo- 
dore Palseologus,  who  died  in  England  in  1693. 

PALAEONTOLOGY  (Gr.  ita'Aaioq,  ancient,  bvra, 
beings,  and  Adyof,  discourse ;  i.  e.,  the  study  of 
ancient  beings),  the  science  which  treats  of  the 
evidences  of  organic  life  upon  the  earth  during 
the  different  past  geological  periods  of  its  his- 
tory. These  evidences  consist  in  the  remains 
of  plants  and  animals  imbedded  or  otherwise 
preserved  in  the  rocky  strata  or  upon  their 
surfaces,  and  in  other  indications  of  animal 
existence,  such  as  trails,  footprints,  burrows, 
and  coprolitic  or  other  organic  material  found 
in  the  rocks.  From  very  remote  times  men 
had  observed  these  objects  in  the  rocky  strata, 
far  above  the  level  of  the  ocean.  Pythagoras, 
Plato,  Aristotle,  Strabo,  Seneca,  and  Pliny  al- 
lude to  the  existence  of  marine  shells  at  a  dis- 
tance from  the  sea;  and  by  all  the  ancients  their 
occurrence  was  connected  with  changes  of  the 


PALEONTOLOGY 


807 


earth's  surface,  and  was  considered  conclusive 
evidence  that  the  rocks  containing  them  had 
been  formerly  submerged  beneath  the  ocean. 
It  was  only  in  the  beginning  of  the  16th  cen- 
tury, when  Christian  nations  turned  their  at- 
tention to  geological  phenomena,  that  fanciful 
opinions  were  promulgated,  attributing  these 
forms  to  "sports  of  nature,"  lusus  natures, 
"  the  plastic  force  of  nature,"  which  effected 
these  resemblances ;  or  that,  dating  from  the 
first  creation,  they  were  produced  at  the  time 
of  the  formation  of  crystals  or  of  the  moun- 
tains themselves.  More  than  a  century  was 
required  to  disprove  this  dogma ;  and  an  addi- 
tional period  of  a  century  and  a  half  was  con- 
sumed in  exploding  the  hypothesis  that  organ- 
ized bodies  had  all  been  buried  in  the  solid 
strata  by  Noah's  flood.  During  this  time,  how- 
ever, there  were  not  wanting  those  who  main- 
tained more  rational  opinions.  In  the  early- 
part  of  the  16th  century  Leonardo  da  Vinci, 
having  planned  and  superintended  some  canals 
in  the  north  of  Italy,  opposed  these  views, 
asserting  that  the  mud  of  rivers  flowing  into 
the  sea  had  covered  and  penetrated  into  the 
interior  of  the  shells  when  they  were  still  be- 
neath the  water.  Soon  after  this  Fracastoro, 
on  occasion  of  some  excavations  made  about 
the  city  of  Yerona,  declared  his  opinion  that 
fossil  shells  had  all  belonged  to  living  animals, 
which  existed  and  multiplied  in  the  positions 
where  their  remains  are  now  found.  In  1552 
Cardan  maintained  that  the  former  presence 
of  the  sea  was  clearly  indicated  by  the  petri- 
fied shells.  In  1580  Palissy  maintained  the 
animal  origin  of  fossil  remains,  and,  as  is  said 
by  Fontenelle,  was  the  first  who  ventured  to 
assert,  in  Paris,  that  fossil  remains  of  testacea 
and  fishes  had  once  belonged  to  marine  ani- 
mals. In  1592  Fabio  Colonna  combated  many 
of  the  erroneous  theories  of  his  day,  and  was 
the  first  to  point  out  that  some  fossils  had  be- 
longed to  marine  and  some  to  terrestrial  tes- 
tacea. About  the  year  15 97  Cassalpinus  main- 
tained that  fossil  shells  were  those  which  had 
been  left  on  land  by  the  retiring  waters  of  the 
sea,  and  had  concreted  into  stone  daring  the 
consolidation  of  the  soil ;  and  Majole,  coinci- 
ding with  these  views,  suggested  that  these 
shells  with  the  materials  containing  them  had 
been  thrown  up  by  volcanic  action,  similar  to 
that  which  produced  the  Monte  Nuovo,  near 
Pozzuoli,  in  1538.  This  appears  to  have  been 
the  first  attempt  to  connect  the  occurrence 
of  fossil  shells  at  high  elevations  with  volcan- 
ic agencies.  These  views  were  subsequently 
more  fully  developed  by  Hooke,  Moro,  and 
Hutton,  the  last  two  centuries  after  Majole. 
During  these  discussions  in  the  16th  century 
large  collections  of  fossil  shells  and  other  re- 
mains had  been  accumulated  in  private  cabi- 
nets and  public  museums,  notably  in  that  of 
the  Vatican  in  Rome,  and  that  of  the  museo 
calceolario  at  Verona,  which  was  perhaps  the 
most  famous  of  its  time.  Still  the  progress  of 
scientific  truth  was  slow.  The  first  half  of  the 


17th  century  passed  away  without  any  real  ad- 
vance in  the  views  of  men  regarding  the  ori- 
gin of  fossils.  There  were  many  writers  on  the 
subject,  who  put  forth  the  most  absurd  and 
fantastic  hypotheses,  all  more  or  less  yielding 
to  the  established  prejudices  of  the  period  re- 
garding the  age  of  the  world  and  the  early 
conditions  of  things.  In  1669,  while  it  was 
still  a  prevailing  opinion  that  fossil  shells  and 
other  marine  objects  were  not  of  animal  origin, 
Steno,  a  Dane,  previously  a  professor  of  anato- 
my at  Padua,  published  his  remarkable  work 
De  Solido  intra  Solidum  naturaliter  contento. 
In  this  he  compared  the  shells  discovered  in 
Italian  strata  with  their  living  representatives, 
and  traced  the  gradations  from  shells  which 
had  only  lost  their  animal  gluten  to  those  in 
which  there  had  been  an  entire  substitution  of 
mineral  matter.  He  demonstrated  that  the 
teeth  and  bones  of  a  modern  shark  were  iden- 
tical in  general  character  with  remains  found 
in  Tuscany.  He  also  distinguished  between 
marine  and  fluviatile  deposits,  the  latter  con- 
taining remains  of  seeds,  grasses,  and  trunks 
and  leaves  of  trees.  In  1670  Scilla,  a  Sicilian 
painter,  published  a  treatise  on  the  fossils  of 
Calabria,  illustrated  by  good  engravings ;  but, 
like  many  eminent  men  of  his  time,  he  regard- 
ed all  fossil  shells  as  proofs  of  the  Mosaic  del- 
uge. At  the  same  period  the  theologians  of 
Italy,  Germany,  France,  and  England  main- 
tained that  it  was  an  imputation  upon  the  sa- 
cred writings  to  deny  that  fossil  organic  re- 
mains were  proofs  of  the  deluge.  It  will  be 
seen  that  from  the  first  the  Italians  have  been 
preeminently  investigators  in  geological  sci- 
ence ;  and  among  those  who  in  the  18th  cen- 
tury advanced  the  most  philosophical  views 
regarding  organic  remains,  and  their  origin  and 
importance,  may  be  named  Vallisnieri  in  1721, 
Spadain.1737,  Moro  in  1740,  Generelli  in  1749, 
and  Donati  in  1750.  In  1754  Torrubia  pub- 
lished a  treatise  on  "  The  Natural  History  of 
Spain,"  in  which  is  given  an  extensive  list  of 
localities  of  fossils  in  Great  Britain  and  the  con- 
tinent of  Europe,  Siberia,  China,  the  Molucca 
islands,  and  elsewhere.  In  1758  the  botanist 
Gesner  of  Zurich  published  a  treatise  "On  Pet- 
rifactions, and  the  Changes  in  the  Earth  which 
they  testify."  In  the  north  of  Europe  the 
names  of  Bromel  and  Linnseus  became  associa- 
ted with  the  study  of  fossil  organic  remains  in 
the  middle  of  the  18th  century.  In  1790  Wil- 
liam Smith,  civil  engineer,  published  a  "  Tabu- 
lar View  of  British  Strata,"  tracing  the  continu- 
ity of  the  secondary  formations  over  extensive 
areas,  and  recognizing  them  by  their  contained 
fossils.  The  value  of  the  subject  of  fossil  or- 
ganic remains  began  now  to  be  appreciated  in 
France  ;  and  the  names  of  Cuvier,  Brongniart, 
Lamarck,  and  De  .France  are  associated  with 
the  scientific  investigations  in  this  department 
of  knowledge  in  the  early  part  of  the  19th 
century.  The  studies  of  Cuvier  in  compara- 
tive osteology  of  the  living  and  fossil  verte- 
brates, of  Lamarck  and  others  in  the  mollusca, 


808 


PALAEONTOLOGY 


of  Alexandra  Brongniart  on  fossil  Crustacea, 
and  of  Adolphe  Brongniart  on  fossil  botany, 
accomplished  much  for  the  advancement  of 
palaeontology,  and  aided  greatly  in  giving  it 
rank  among  the  natural  sciences.  The  names 
of  Schlotheim,  Wallenberg,  and  others  are 
connected  with  the  investigations  of  organic 
remains  in  the  early  part  of  the  19th  century ; 
and  from  that  time  progress  in  the  science  has 
been  so  rapid,  and  authors  so  multiplied,  that 
even  the  names  cannot  be  enumerated  in  a 
sketch  like  this.  Thus  it  is  seen  that  only 
after  long  continued  series  of  observations, 
carried  on  amid  prejudices  which  blinded  the 
judgment,  men  came  finally  to  the  conclusion 
that  fossil  organic  bodies  are  representatives 
of  the  animals  which  inhabited  the  ocean  bed 
at  successive  and  remote  intervals;  and  that 
they  occur  in  the  rocky  strata  precisely  as  they 
were  imbedded  in  the  mud  or  sand  beneath  the 
waters,  or  as  they  lived  in  the  littoral  belt  along 
the  shore  line,  where  they  were  sometimes 
mingled  with  plants  or  animals  of  terrestrial 
origin. — It  was,  as  we  see  by  the  history  of 
scientific  progress,  a  long  and  tedious  process 
to  prevail  upon  the  human  mind  to  dismiss  the 
notion  of  the  sudden  creation  of  the  earth  and 
its  inhabitants,  and  to  recognize  the  creative 
energy  extending  through  myriads  of  ages ;  to 
admit  the  fact  that  the  dry  land  on  which  we 
stand  was  simply  formed  by  the  successive  de- 
positions of  mud,  sand,  and  gravel  made  upon 
the  bottom  or  borders  of  the  ocean,  and  that 
these  were  marked  by  the  remains  of  those  ani- 
mals which  lived  at  the  time,  as  similar  forms 
now  live,  in  the  oceanic  waters;  and  finally, 
that  these  layers  of  rock,  of  whatever  kind, 
mark  certain  eras,  and  contain  an  indelible 
record,  more  or  less  complete,  of  the  condi- 
tions then  existing,  and  of  the  changes  which 
have  brought  about  the  later  and  present  state 
of  things.  After  much  study  and  patient  in- 
vestigation the  conclusion  has  been  reached 
that,  with  very  small  exceptions,  the  dry  land 
has  resulted  from  the  gradual  uplifting  of  the 
ocean  bed,  carrying  with  it  organic  and  inor- 
ganic material,  in  undisturbed  or  partially  dis- 
turbed condition.  An  investigation  of  these 
materials,  constituting  the  earth's  crust,  proves 
that  organic  life  has  been  as  effective  in  the 
earth's  past  as  in  its  present  conditions.  It  is 
the  history,  influence,  and  relations  of  this  an- 
cient organic  world  which  constitute  the  sci- 
ence of  palaeontology  in  all  its  departments, 
and  when  fully  understood  will  give  us  a 
better  knowledge  of  the  early  conditions  of 
the  surface,  the  gradual  progress  through  va- 
rious phases,  and  the  clear  unbroken  line  from 
the  earliest  organisms  to  the  advent  of  man 
upon  our  planet.  The  beginning,  rise,  and 
progress  of  the  science  of  palaeontology  have 
been  coincident  with  those  of  geology,  since 
the  latter  was  separated  from  the  speculations 
of  cosmogony,  and  became  a  science  of  obser- 
vation and  of  legitimate  induction.  As  ge- 
ology was  long  regarded  as  a  subordinate  de- 


partment of  mineralogy,  and  sometimes  of 
physical  geography,  so  also  it  is  only  by  slow 
steps  that  palaeontology  has  assumed  sufficient 
importance  to  be  considered  apart  from  its 
kindred  science.  The  one  characteristic  fea- 
ture in  the  rapid  progress  of  geology  during  the 
present  century  has  been  the  growing  recog- 
nition of  the  importance  of  organic  remains, 
and  the  increased  attention  and  study  given  to 
this  department  of  natural  history.  In  all  in- 
vestigations among  the  stratified  unmetamor- 
phic  rocks,  this  subject  is  of  paramount  im- 
portance; and  even  among  the  metamorphic 
rocks  the  aid  of  palaeontology  is  sometimes  of 
great  advantage  in  our  determinations.  Zool- 
ogy and  botany  have  also  partaken  of  this  influ- 
ence. Constant  discoveries  have  created  new  de- 
mands upon  the  knowledge  and  acumen  of  the 
comparative  zoologist  and  botanist.  The  imper- 
fect, fragmentary,  or  obscure  condition  of  fossil 
remains  has  demanded  the  closest  scrutiny  of 
their  external  parts  and  of  their  most  intimate 
structure ;  and  it  is  to  the  reaction  of  this  study 
of  fossil  organisms  upon  the  methods  of  study 
in  the  living  fauna  and  flora  that  we  are  in- 
debted for  a  better  knowledge  of  structure,  and 
the  filling  up  of  gaps  in  our  series ;  thus  giving 
a  truer  arrangement  and  classification  of  exist- 
ing forms  by  intercalating  the  fossil  organisms 
in  their  proper  relations. — The  term  "fossil" 
may  be  defined,  according  to  M.  Deshayes,  as 
follows:  "An  organized  fossil  body  is  one 
which  has  been  imbedded  in  the  earth  at  an 
unknown  epoch,  which  has  been  there  pre- 
served, or  which  has  left  there  unequivocal 
traces  of  its  existence."  This  excludes  from 
the  term  the  modern  remains  of  plants  and 
animals  which  have  been  buried  and  lost  by 
the  floods,  land  slides,  or  accidental  causes  of 
our  times.  This  definition  being  adopted,  it  is 
easy  to  fix  the  limits  of  palaeontology.  In  the 
present  action  of  natural  causes,  we  see  analo- 
gies for  the  history  of  fossils  imbedded  in  the 
strata  of  the  globe.  Streams,  floods,  and  the 
action  of  waves  bear  along  gravel,  sand,  or  silt, 
and  deposit  them  in  quiet  waters,  the  heavier 
materials  first  and  underneath,  the  lighter  above 
and  more  widely  diffused,  forming  superim- 
posed beds,  all  differing  more  or  less  in  com- 
position. A  long  continuation  of  this  action 
may  produce  beds  of  great  thickness,  parallel 
in  stratification,  and  in  the  course  of  their  slow 
formation  shells  may  gather  and  plants  may 
grow,  and  gradually  become  buried  by  the  new 
accession  of  drifting  material.  The  first  con- 
dition of  these  deposits  is  horizontality ;  subse- 
quent disturbing  forces  may  lift,  or  break,  or 
disarrange  them,  and  the  gradual  rising  or  sink- 
ing of  certain  portions  of  coast  line  or  ocean 
bottom,  as  now  taking  place,  must  eventually 
produce  such  effects  as  here  indicated.  The 
study  of  the  rocky  strata  shows  that  the  same 
conditions,  the  same  characters,  the  same  acci- 
dents as  these  prevailed  during  their  forma- 
tion ;  and  far  from  the  necessity  of  supposing 
violent  cataclysmic  force,  it  is  only  necessary 


PALAEONTOLOGY 


809 


to  admit  the  carrying  on  of  the  same  process, 
the  operation  of  the  same  causes,  possibly  at 
some  times  more  intensified,  through  indefinite- 
ly long  periods,  to  produce  in  the  greater  num- 
ber of  instances  the  results  which  we  see.  The 
process  of  fossilization  gradually  supervening, 
with  the  induration  of  the  entire  enclosing 
mass  of  material,  we  have  the  beds  of  sand, 
clay,  and  calcareous  mud  converted  into  sand- 
stone, shale,  and  limestone,  still  enclosing  the 
same  organisms  as  when  they  formed  a  part  of 
the  ocean  bed ;  and  it  may  be  regarded  as  cer- 
tain that  these  deposits  were  originally  in  hori- 
zontal or  essentially  horizontal  position.  Many 
of  these  fossil  organisms  were  living  in  the  con- 
dition, association,  and  arrangement  in  which 
we  now  find  them.  Others  have  been  trans- 
ported, broken,  and  mingled  with  those  of  the 
undisturbed  beds.  In  some  instances  myri- 
ads of  individuals  of  various  forms  have  lived 
and  died  upon  the  sea  bed,  and  have  remained 
long  undisturbed  and  not  covered  by  sediments, 
since  we  find  them  sometimes  supporting  and 
enveloped  by  some  other  organism,  as  a  coral, 
a  bryozoan,  or  the  roots  of  crinoidea.  The 
physical  nature  and  condition  of  the  older  met- 
amorphic  strata,  in  which  we  have  no  remains 
of  animals  (either  they  not  then  existing,  or 
having  been  obliterated  by  physical  and  chem- 
ical changes),  prove  the  conditions  of  sea  and 
land  to  have  been  essentially  the  same  then 
as  at  present.  The  great  extent  of  ancient 
limestone  formations  renders  it  probable  that 
the  ocean  of  that  period  was  inhabited,  al- 
though of  the  inhabitants  there  is  no  trace. 
From  the  period  of  the  Potsdam  sandstone  in 
America  and  the  Cambrian  rocks  of  Europe, 
we  find  the  remains  of  numerous  forms  of 
animal  and  vegetable  life.  We  see  traces  of 
the  conditions  under  which  they  lived;  the 
sands  of  the  sea  beaches,  laid  bare  by  the  ebb- 
ing tide,  were  rippled  by  the  wind  and  trailed 
by  the  animals  of  that  primeval  ocean.  From 
that  period  at  least,  light  and  heat,  cloud  and 
sunshine,  rain  and  wind  refreshed  and  fertil- 
ized the  earth,  which  teemed  with  animal  and 
vegetable  existences.  The  testimony  of  living 
things  is  found  in  their  fossil  imprints,  the  ear- 
liest evidences  of  life  in  the  remains  of  plants 
and  animals  imbedded  in  the  ancient  sea  bot- 
toms or  stranded  upon  the  shores.  Through 
unnumbered  ages  life  has  presented  its  varied 
forms  without  cessation  from  its  first  appear- 
ance on  the  globe ;  each  successive  epoch,  each 
new  physical  condition,  whether  of  ocean  bed 
or  shore,  of  moist  or  of  dry  land,  presenting  its 
new  and  peculiar  fauna  or  flora.  In  the  course 
of  these  incalculable  periods  the  aspect  and  char- 
acter of  the  existences  have  changed,  and  there 
has  been,  if  not  a  regular  progression,  yet -in 
the  main  a  wonderful  advance  over  the  earlier 
organisms.  The  relations  of  these  fossiliferous 
beds  one  to  another  have  led  to  the  recognition 
of  geological  periods;  and  these  periods  are 
verified  over  wide  areas  of  country,  continuous- 
ly or  interruptedly,  even  to  the  extent  of  the 


two  hemispheres.  It  is  from  the  occurrence 
of  certain  peculiar  forms,  or  an  assemblage  of 
them,  in  these  strata,  that  the  period  or  geo- 
logical age  can  be  determined. — A  remarkable 
feature  which  strikes  the  observer  is  the  great 
number  of  types  that  have  appeared  in  a  limit- 
ed geological  period.  Trilobites,  for  example, 
lived  in  epochs  of  limited  range ;  also  the  great 
reptiles,  the  pterodactyls,  and  certain  forms  of 
fishes,  as  well  as  some  of  the  lower  organ- 
isms. Many  of  these  are  so  peculiar  that  their 
appearance  or  disappearance  is  at  once  noticed. 
They  are  wanting  in  the  most  ancient  epochs ; 
afterward  they  are  developed  in  abundance, 
and  more  or  less  gradually  disappear,  leaving 
no  trace  in  subsequent  periods.  This  is  equally 
true  of  all  the  other  forms ;  and  scarcely  any 
extend  over  more  than  a  small  number  of  geo- 
logical periods.  In  the  most  ancient  epochs 
the  greater  number  of  forms  have  not  exist- 
ed ;  there  we  would  search  in  vain  for  fishes, 
reptiles,  birds,  and  mammifers.  All  our  fossil 
fishes  belong  to  geological  formations  relative- 
ly recent.  In  the  mollusks,  the  articulates, 
and  the  radiates,  the  greater  number  of  species 
appear  after  the  ancient  epochs,  and  succes- 
sively in  each  of  the  subsequent  ones ;  while  a 
few  types,  beginning  in  the  earlier  geological 
periods,  have  been  continued  to  the  recent,  or 
even  to  present  times.  This  is  notably  true  of 
the  linguloid  type,  although  not  of  the  true 
lingula.  Other  species  have  had  a  brief  exis- 
tence. Created  early,  they  disappear  before  the 
recent  epochs,  and  in  the  fact  of  their  early 
appearance,  as  a  rule,  is  the  certainty  of  their 
prompt  disappearance.  Some  forms  which 
lived  in  the  intermediate  epochs  are  completely 
wanting  in  the  older  and  in  the  newer  forma- 
tions. In  regard  to  the  number  of  fossil  genera 
which  have  had  a  limited  duration,  M.  d'Orbi- 
gny  enumerated,  from  about  1,600  then  known, 
only  about  16  which  occur  in  all  the  periods; 
and  while  the  whole  number  of  genera  has 
been  since  that  time  greatly  augmented  by  new 
discoveries,  a  critical  study  will  probably  prove 
that  fewer  than  16  are  common  throughout 
the  whole.  It  sometimes  happens  that  one  or 
more  species  may  appear  at  an  earlier  epoch, 
rare  or  common,  but  usually  restricted  to  a 
limited  area,  and,  having  disappeared  for  an  in- 
terval of  one  or  two  epochs,  may  reappear  in 
greater  numbers  and  over  a  far  wider  extent, 
and  in  association  with  an  entirely  different 
fauna  from  the  first;  but  such  cases  are  ex- 
ceptions. M.  Barrande  has  designated  species 
in  this  mode  of  occurrence  as  colonies,  and 
has  shown  that  colonies  are  of  common  occur- 
rence in  the  palaeozoic  rocks  of  Bohemia.  As 
a  rule,  the  extinction  of  a  fauna  at  the  close 
of  any  geological  epoch  depends  upon  the  de- 
gree of  change  in  the  sediments.  Where  the 
change  is  abrupt,  the  fauna  is  more  likely  to 
be  entirely  cut  off ;  while  if  the  change  be  in 
less  degree,  some  of  the  species  may  survive. 
Again,  where  the  fauna  is  apparently  destroyed, 
from  a  change  in  the  character  of  the  sedi- 


810 


PALAEONTOLOGY 


ments,  continued  perhaps  for  a  considerable 
time,  yet  on  a  recurrence  of  the  former  phys- 
ical conditions  some  of  the  species  of  the  pre- 
ceding epoch  do  reappear.  So  dependent  upon 
and  connected  with  the  surrounding  physical 
influences  is  the  fauna,  that  sometimes,  after 
a  considerable  interval  of  change,  and  the  ex- 
istence of  an  entirely  different  fauna,  a  recur- 
rence of  former  conditions,  though  not  bring- 
ing back  the  same  species,  will  bring  a  group 
of  similar  forms  and  of  the  same  genera,  and 
sometimes  species  scarcely  distinguishable  from 
those  of  the  preexisting  fauna. — Since  all  ob- 
servation has  proved  that  no  species  contin- 
ues through  all  the  geological  eras,  and  few 
if  any  are  found  in  more  than  two  periods,  we 
are  warranted  in  inferring  a  law  of  limited 
duration  in  time  for  each  species.  The  effects 
of  this  law  may  appear,  in  the  general  results, 
in  two  ways :  either  that  each  species  is  alto- 
gether independent  of  others  in  its  appearance 
and  disappearance,  or  that  those  species  ap- 
pearing together  for  the  first  time  have  also 
disappeared  together.  In  the  first  case  there 
would  be  a  continued  series  of  modifications 
in  animal  populations,  and  consequently  an 
impossibility  of  finding  in  the  zoological  char- 
acters any  defined  limits  for  geological  peri- 
ods. In  the  second  case  there  would  be 
strong  lines  of  demarcation  between  the  dis- 
appearance of  species  and  the  appearance  of 
those  which  replace  them.  In  order  to  decide 
among  the  geological  faunas  whether  the  rule  is 
the  independence  of  the  species  or  the  combi- 
nation of  the  above  two  conditions,  and  taking 
into  consideration  only  those  faunas  living  in 
the  same  or  proximate  localities,  it  would  be  in- 
ferred that  the  phenomena  which  can  produce 
a  renewal  of  the  zoological  population  must 
extend  their  action  to  almost  the  totality  of 
species.  The  principal  proofs  of  this  con- 
clusion are  to  be  found  in  the  observation  of 
geological  facts.  Individual  species  neverthe- 
less do  die  out  without  geological  changes,  but 
of  themselves  in  the  midst  of  conditions  in 
which  they  lived  and  flourished.  If  in  fossil- 
iferous  deposits  we  observe  the  line  of  con- 
tact of  beds,  it  will  be  found  that  the  fossil 
forms  are  nearly  always  very  restricted.  Some- 
times a  formation  characterized  by  its  fossils 
succeeds  without  gradation  to  another  not  less 
distinct  in  its  fossil  characters.  Sometimes  a 
non-fossiliferous  bed  occurs  between  two  fos- 
silif erous  formations ;  but  rarely  do  we  find  a 
deposit  containing  in  their  normal  condition 
the  fossils  of  the  bed  below  it,  mingled  with 
those  of  the  bed  by  which  it  is  succeeded.  We 
shall  usually  find  that  where  there  is  a  min- 
gling of  the  species  of  two  formations,  this  sin- 
gle member  containing  them  is  the  representa- 
tive of  two  distinct  beds  in  some  other  part  of 
the  geological  field,  and  combines  in  some  de- 
gree the  physical  characters  of  both.  In  some 
cases  this  fact  may  perhaps  be  explained  by 
admitting  that  the  cause  of  extinction  has  op- 
erated generally  upon  the  fauna,  but  that  this 


action  has  been  locally  circumscribed,  while 
the  two  faunas  continued  their  existence  in 
distant  localities,  beyond  the  reach  of  this  in- 
fluence. The  question  of  the  duration  of  spe- 
cies has  divided  naturalists  into  two  par- 
ties. Those  who  maintain  their  limited  dura- 
tion hold  that  the  extinction  of  all  contem- 
poraneous faunas  took  place  simultaneously 
over  the  whole  extent  of  their  geographical 
distribution ;  that  the  species  of  each  geologi- 
cal period  have  lived  only  in  that  period ;  and 
that  no  one  species  can  be  found  in  forma- 
tions of  different  ages.  They  hold  that  spe- 
cies so  occurring  which  have  been  considered 
identical  must  be  in  reality  distinct.  The  so- 
lution of  this  question  is  of  very  great  pala> 
ontological  interest.  If  fossils  are  special  to 
the  formations,  they  characterize  them  with  a 
complete  certainty.  If  some  are  special  and 
some  are  common  to  several  formations,  a 
part  only  can  furnish  conclusions,  and  hence 
a  source  of  uncertainty  and  chances  of  error. 
The  united  experience  of  observers  goes  to 
prove  that  some  species  are  restricted  to  cer- 
tain formations,  and  are  therefore  character- 
istic of  those  formations,  while  others  have  a 
wider  geological  range,  and  cannot  be  wholly 
relied  on  for  the  determination  of  age  among 
the  strata ;  and  in  the  study  of  a  group  of  fos- 
sils, no  careful  naturalist  will  do  otherwise 
than  base  his  conclusions  accordingly.  It  is 
nevertheless  true  that  sometimes,  from  erro- 
neous determinations,  the  same  fossil  species 
have  been  catalogued  as  from  different  forma- 
tions ;  and  there  has  also  been  a  want  of  unity 
of  opinion  among  geologists  in  regard  to  the 
limits  of  formations,  while  in  disturbed  regions 
it  may  not  have  been  possible  to  define  the 
limits,  and  thus  the  collections  show  an  admix- 
ture of  fossils  which  are  elsewhere  known  to 
belong  to  different  formations.  Established 
facts  in  paleontology  prove  that  the  limited 
duration  of  species  is  the  general  rule;  but 
at  the  same  time  the  rule  has  exceptions.  1. 
Some  species,  being  more  robust,  more  prolific, 
or  living  under  more  favorable  circumstances, 
may  have  resisted  causes  of  destruction  which 
prevailed  over  their  associates.  2.  The  causes 
of  extinction  have  rarely  operated  uniformly 
or  with  the  same  force  over  the  entire  geo- 
graphical extent  of  the  fauna  of  any  period. 
Examples  might  be  cited  where  the  coming  in 
of  1,000  or  2,000  ft.  of  sediment  destroyed  the 
previous  fauna  over  many  hundreds  of  miles  in 
extent ;  and  yet  beyond  the  thinning  margin  of 
this  deposit  remains  of  the  preceding  fauna  are 
found  in  contact  with  the  overlying  formation, 
and  the  fossils  of  the  two  eras  are  mingled, 
although  apparently  not  having  lived  at  the 
same  time.  We  infer,  therefore,  that  upon  the 
extreme  limits  of  the  disturbed  areas  there  may 
have  been  basins  where  some  of  the  animals 
escaped,  and  thus  afterward  mingled  with  the 
new  population.  In  general  such  basins,  being 
beyond  the  geological  movement,  are  marked 
by  the  small  accumulation  of  sediments  and 


PALAEONTOLOGY 


811 


thinner  beds.  M.  d'Archiac  and  M.  de  Ver- 
neuil  have  observed  that  the  persistence  of 
species  is  connected  or  corresponds  with  the 
extent  of  their  geographical  distribution.  "  The 
species  which  are  found  at  the  same  time  in 
many  points  and  in  far  separated  countries  are 
almost  always  those  which  have  lived  during 
the  formation  of  several  successive  epochs. 
("  Transactions  of  the  Geological  Society,"  2d 
series,  vol.  vi.,  p.  335.)  This  may  be  regard- 
ed as  true  in  general,  and  for  the  same  rea- 
son they  may  have  continued  their  existence ; 
but  we  have  an  exception  worthy  of  note  in 
the  brachiopodous  genus  tropidoleptus,  which 
first  appears  in  the  Hamilton  group,  and  oc 
curs  in  this  group  from  near  the  Hudson  to 
beyond  the  Mississippi,  and  is  found  likewise 
in  Europe,  while  neither  the  genus  nor  any  form 
of  the  type  is  known  -in  any  later  formation. 
With  a  few  individual  exceptions,  the  differ- 
ences which  exist  between  the  lost  or  fossil 
faunas  and  the  existing  animals  are  the  great- 
er according  as  the  former  are  more  ancient. 
The  recent  forms  are  more  varied ;  the  diversi- 
ty of  animal  organization  has  augmented  in  the 
lapse  of  time.  But  this  does  not  warrant  the 
inference  that  because  the  most  ancient  fau- 
nas are  composed  of  animals  of  lower  organi- 
zation, the  degree  of  perfection,  as  a  rule,  in- 
creases as  we  approach  the  more  recent  epochs. 
We  find  the  more  and  the  less  perfect,  or  the 
lower  and  the  more  highly  organized,  living 
contemporaneously  in  the  later  geological  pe- 
riods, and  each  epoch  presenting  a  fauna  and  a 
flora  adapted  to  the  existing  physical  condi- 
tions. The  order  of  appearance  of  different 
types  has  been  shown  to  represent  the  phases 
of  embryonic  development.  The  comparison 
of  faunas  of  different  epochs  shows  that  the 
temperature  has  varied  upon  the  surface  of  the 
globe,  and  that  the  areas  of  varying  tempera- 
ture have  not  corresponded  with  the  present, 
but  have  resulted  from  physical  causes  existing 
at  the  time,  producing  wider  areas  of  uniform 
conditions ;  and  to  this  cause  may  be  attributed 
the  fact  that  the  species  of  the  ancient  forma- 
tions have  had  a  wider  geographical  distribu- 
tion than  those  of  the  present  time.  In  con- 
clusion we  find  that  fossil  animals  were  con- 
structed upon  the  same  plan  as  the  existing  ani- 
mals ;  and  that  the  same  zoological  principles 
are  applicable  in  their  study  and  classification. 

CLASSIFICATION  OF  THE  ANIMAL  KINGDOM. 
INVEBTEBEATA. 

Subkingdom  PEOTOZOA— Class  EHIZOPODA  (amorphoeoa): 

Order  SPONGID.E. 

Of  fossil  sponges,  palceospongia  and  acantJiospongia 
and  other  forms  occur  in  the  Cambrian ;  and  astyloapongia, 
astr&oKpongia,  palceomanon,  &c.,  in  the  Silurian.  Stro- 
matopora,  which  is  placed  in  this  class  by  some  natural- 
ists, occurs  abundantly  at  the  base  of  the  Trenton,  and  in 
the  Niagara  group ;  and  near  the  base  of  the  lower  Hel- 
derberg  it  forms  a  stratum  four  feet  thick  and  extending 
over  many  mi'es.  It  is  likewise  abundant  in  the  upper 
Helderberg  and  in  the  calcareous  portion  of  the  Chernung 
group.  It  is  abundant  in  the  Wenlock  limestone  of  Eng- 
land. Other  genera  of  sponges  occur  in  carboniferous, 
Permian,  triassic,  Jurassic,  cretaceous,  and  tertiary  strata. 


Order  FORAMINIFERA. 

Organisms  of  this  order  are  usually  minute  or  micro- 
scopic. Some  forms  are  known  in  the  Cambrian  and  Silu- 
rian rocks  of  Europe.  Ehrenberg  has  described  species 
of  textulama,  rotaha,  and  guttulina  from  the  greensands 
of  the. obolus  or  ungulite  grits  of  Russia,  which  probably 
hold  the  same  position  as  our  Potsdam  sandstone  In  the 
carboniferous  limestones  of  Ohio,  Indiana,  Illinois,  Iowa 
Missouri  and  Kansas,  rotalia,  fumlina,  &c.,  are Abun- 
dant, and  probably  other  genera.  The  last  named  fossil 
forms  layers  of  considerable  thickness,  known  as  fusulina 
limestone.  The  foraminifera  are  abundant  in  the  Jurassic 
period,  but  acquire  their  greatest  development  in  the  lat- 
ter part  of  the  cretaceous  and  eocene  tertiary,  in  the  num- 
muhtes,  orbitoides  orbitolina,  &c.  The  nummulitic 
limestones  are  found  in  France  and  southern  Europe, 
northern  Africa,  and  India,  in  the  United  States,  and  in 
the  island  of  Jamaica.  The  most  common  form  is  seen  in 
the  limestone  of  the  great  pyramids  of  Egypt.  Jfecepta- 
cuktes,  which  is  regarded  by  some  naturalists  as  a  gigan- 
tic foraminifer,  is  known  in  the  Trenton  group  and  is 
abundant  in  the  upper  member  of  the  formation,  one  spe- 
cies being  a  foot  in  diameter.  It  occurs  also  in  the  Niag- 
ara, lower  Helderberg,  and  upper  Helderberg  formations. 
Ihe  e OKoon  of  the  Laurentian  has  been 


order. 


n  referred  to  this 


Subkingdom  C<ELENTERATA  (radiates,  polypi). 
Class  HYDROZOA.    Graptolitidce. 

The  graptolites  are  characteristic  Cambrian  and  lower 
Silurian  fossils,  and  most  abundant  on  the  confines  of 
these  two  systems.  Species  of  the  several  graptol'tic 
genera  range  from  the  Potsdam  sandstone  to  the  Clinton 
group  inclusive.  Dictyonema,  a  graptolitic  genus,  is 
known  from  the  base  of  the  Trenton  to  the  Hamilton 
group,  or  middle  Devonian.  Oldhamia,  the  oldest 
known  fossil  of  the  European  Cambrian,  is  probably  a 
graptolitic  genus. 

Class  ACTINOZOA  (corals,  madrepores). 

Of  corals,  the  cyathophylloid  type  (order  zoaniharia 
rugosa)  begin  their  existence  in  the  Cambrian,  and  are 
known  from  the  base  of  the  Trenton  group,  through  all 
the  formations,  to  the  close  of  the  palaeozoic  era,  acqui- 
ring their  greatest  development  in  the  Devonian  (cornif- 
erous  and  Hamilton).  Corals  of  the  sf.me  form,  with  dif- 
ferent internal  structure,  known  as  the  order  soantharia 
aporosa,  characterize  the  formations  from  the  trias  to  the 
present  time.  The  latter  are  known  as  the  neozoic,  and 
the  former  as  the  palaeozoic  type.  Corals  of  the  madrepore 
tribe  (soantharia  tcbulata),  as  columnaria,  fari&tella, 
favosites,  &c.,  begin  their  existence  about  the  same  time 
as  those  of  the  cyathophylloid  type,  acquiring  their  great- 
est development  in  the  Devonian,  and  disappearing  at  the 
end  of  the  carboniferous  period. 

ClaSS  ECHINODERMATA. 

1.  Crinoidea  (encrinites,  stone  lilies). 

2.  Cystidea  (cystideans). 

3.  Elastoidea  (pentremites). 

4.  Asteriadce  (sea  stars,  star  fish). 

5.  Ophiuridce  (sand  stars,  serpent  stars). 

6.  EchinidcB  and  palechinidce  (sea  urchins). 

7.  HolothuridcB  (sea  cucumbers). 

The  encrinites  are  the  earliest  type  of  this  class,  and 
appear  in  the  Cambrian  system  of  Europe,  and  in  rocks 
of  the  same  age  in  America.    The  fossils  of  this  family 
first  become  numerous  in  the  Trenton  period,  and  are 
abundant  in  the  Niagara  and  lower  Helderberg.    They  are 
usually  not  abundant  in  the  Devonian,  though  the  Ham- 
ilton group  has  yielded  a  considerable  number  of  species  ; 
but  they  become  extremely  abundant  in  the  carbonifer- 
ous, with  the  most  extravagant  forms  in  the  lias,  and  from 
that  time  decline  to  the  present  epoch.    The  cystideans 
begin  their  existence  at   the  same  time  as  the  encri- 
nites, and  are  common  in  the  Trenton  and  Niagara  pe- 
riods, gradually  disappearing  with  the  close  of  the  Siluri- 
an age.    The  pentremites  proper  are  of  rare  occurrence 
in  the  Silurian  period,  but  become  common  in  the  Devo- 
nian, and  reach  their  greatest  development  in  the  carbon- 
iferous, where  they  disappear.    The  star  fishes  are  first 
known  in  the  Trenton  period,  and  continue  with  increas- 
ing numbers  through  the  Devonian  and  carboniferous 
epoch,  and  they  occur  in  varied  forms  through  the  Juras- 
sic, cretaceous,  and  tertiary,  to  the  present  time.    The 
ophiuroids  (sand  stars  or  serpent  stars)  begin  their  exis- 
tence in  the  lower  Silurian,  and  extend  through  the  Devo- 
nian and  carboniferous.   They  are  unknown  in  the  Permian 
and  triassic,  but  occur  in  the  Jurassic,  cretaceous,  and  terti- 
ary, and  are  more  numerous  in  the  modern  seas.    The  echi- 
noids,  of  the  type  of  palechinus  or  eocidaris,  commence 
in  the  Devonian  period  and  continue  through  the  carbon- 
iferous.   The  true  ecliinidce  and  cidaridce  begin  in  the 


812 


PALAEONTOLOGY 


lias  and  continue  to  the  present  time.  The  holothunans, 
which  are  soft,  cylindrical  bodies,  are  found  in  the  lias,  be- 
ing recognized  from  certain  minute  calcareous  parts  known 
to  belong  to  this  order  of  echinoderms. 

Subkingdom  MOLLUSCA. 

Class  LAMELLIBRANCHTATA  (conchifera,  bivalve  shells).  The 
fossils  of  this  class  of  shells  first  appear,  as  representatives 
of  the  families  nuculid<E  and  arcadce,  in  the  Cambrian 
period,  and  are  known  in  the  Quebec  group  and  Trenton 
limestone,  in  the  genera  tellinomya,  nuculites,  and  pala- 
arca ;  and  the  aviculidce  and  mytUidas  are  represented  in 
the  Trenton  period.  They  gradually  increase  in  numbers 
through  the  Silurian  strata,  until  in  the  Devonian  (the 
Hamilton  and  Chetnung  groups)  these  fossils,  in  the  gen- 
era aviculopecten,  pterinea,  nucula,  nuculites,  grain- 
mysia,  &c.,  are  sometimes  more  numerous  than  the  bra- 
chiopoda.  In  later  times  the  shells  of  this  class  acquire 
a  much  greater  importance,  and  largely  preponderate  over 
the  brachiopoda. 

Class  GASTEROPODA  (univalve  shells).  The  fossils  of  this 
class  began  their  existence  in  the  earliest  geological  peri- 
ods, and  we  recognize  them  in  the  Potsdam  sandstone  of 
America  and  the  Cambrian  of  Europe.  The  earlier  forms 
belong  to  the  families  turbinidas,  haliotidce,  calyptrceidas, 
bellerophontidae,  atlantidce,  &c.  Maelurea,  opMleta^ 
and  euomphalus  occur  in  the  calcifarous  sandstone. 

Class  PTEROPODA.  The  fossils  of  this  class  commence  in  the 
lowest  fossiliferous  strata.  The  genus  theca  occurs  in 
the  Potsdam  sandstone.  Pterotheea  and  conularia  are 
found  in  the  Trenton  limestone,  and  the  latter  continues 
through  the  Silurian,  Devonian,  and  carboniferous  periods. 

Class  CEPHALOPODA.  The  fossils  of  this  class  have  existed 
in  all  geological  ages,  and  appear  in  varied  and  conspicu- 
ous forms.  The  oldest  known  in  the  Cambrian  system 
are  ortkoceratites,  of  which  we  have  great  numbers  in 
the  Black  river  and  Trenton  limestones.  Associated  with 
these  are  lituites  and  cyrtoceras,  which  continue  to  the 
Devonian  period.  The  genus  goniatites  begins  in  the 
Devonian  and  continues  through  the  carboniferous.  In 
the  triassic  begin  the  genera  ceratites  and  ammonites; 
the  latter  appear  in  great  numbers  and  variety  of  form  in 
the  Jurassic  period,  and  still  continue,  together  with 
scaphites,  turrilites,  and  baculites,  in  the  cretaceous  sys- 
tem, beyond  which  these  forms  do  not  occur.  The  genus 
nautilus  appears  in  the  Silurian,  and  continues  through 
all  the  geological  periods  to  the  present  time. 

Subkingdom  MOLLUSCOIDEA. 

Class  POLYZOA  or  BRYOZOA.  These  are  bodies  consisting 
mainly  of  branching  or  reticulated  calcareous  fronds,  ri- 
sing from  a  root,  or  of  expansions  adhering  to  other  bodies, 
minutely  celluliferous.  The  most  common  palaeozoic  forms 
Arefenextetta,  retepora,  polypora,  &c.  In  America  these 
fossils  reach  their  maximum  development  in  the  carbonif- 
erous period,  where  the  spreading  fronds  are  sustained 
by  a  strong  central  axis,  upon  which  they  grow  in  a  spiral 
arrangement,  as  in  the  genus  Archimedes. 

Class  BRACHIOPODA.*  The  fossils  of  this  class  are  everywhere 
abundant,  and  are  the  best  guides  in  the  study  of  the  strata 
throughout  the  palaeozoic  period.  The  linguloid  type,  in 
the  genera  lingulella  and  lingulepis,  begins  in  the  lowest 
known  fossiliferous  formation,  and  continues  through  every 
geological  epoch  to  the  present  time.  The  genus  obolus 
characterizes  the  oldest  Cambrian  beds  of  Europe  and  the 
Potsdam  of  America.  The  ort/iidce,  in  the  genera  ortkis 
and  orthisina,  begin  in  the  Cambrian,  become  more  abun- 
dant in  the  Silurian,  and,  gradually  lessening,  die  out  at 
the  end  of  the  carboniferous  period.  The  same  is  true  of 
the  strophomenidce,  represented  in  the  genera  stropho- 
mena.  leptcena,  strophodonta,  and  streptorhynchus.  The 
rhynclionellidce  begin  in  the  Chazy  limestone,  and  continue 
throughout  all  the  geological  periods.  They  are  especially 
abundant  in  the  upper  Silurian,  Devonian,  and  carbonifer- 
ous periods.  The  spiriferidie,  in  zygotpira,  begin  in  the 
Trenton  formation,  and  characterize  the  Clinton  and  Niag- 
ara groups  in  the  genera  spirifera,  cyrtia,  cyrtcena,  and 
meristella.  The  genus  athyris  begins  in  the  Devonian, 
and  the  family  dies  out  in  the  genus  spiriferina  in  the 
Jurassic  period.  The  pentameroid  forms  begin  in  the 
Trenton  and  disappear  in  the  Devonian.  The  family 
productidce  appears  in  the  genus  ahonetes  at  the  period  of 
the  Clinton  group,  and  continues  through  the  carbonifer- 
ous. Produclus  (productelld)  begins  in  the  upper  Hel- 
derberg,  continues  through  the  carboniferous,  and  disap- 


MMOTVM  ui  me  BuuavtUM  a-iiu  vascular  impn 

but  it  may  be  premature  to  insist  on  theii 


unnu/osa. 


pears  in  the  Permian.  The  discinidce,  in  the  genera 
discina,  trematis,  &c.,  begin  their  existence  in  the  Tren- 
ton and  Hudson  river  periods,  and  are  represented  by 
discina,  orbiculoidea,  and  allied  forms,  through  the 
Devonian  and  carboniferous  periods,  and  to  the  end  of  the 
geological  series.  In  like  manner  the  cranladce  begin  as 
low  as  the  Trenton  and  extend  through  the  entire  series. 
The  terebratulidoe  are  first  represented  in  the  upper  Silu- 
rian of  the  lower  Helderberg,  and  are  thence  known  in  the 
genera  cryptonella,  centronella,  terebratula,  terebra- 
tella,  Waldheimia,  &c.,  to  the  end  of  the  series. 

Class  TUNICATA  (ascidea).  The  forms  of  this  class  have  no 
solid  shell,  the  soft  parts  being  protected  by  an  elastic 
gelatinous  covering  having  two  orifices.  The  soft  char- 
acter of  these  organisms  precludes  their  preservation  in 
the  rocky  strata. 

Subkingdom  ANNULOBA  (articulata). 

Class  ANNELIDA.  The  tracks  of  animals  of  this  class  (or 
perhaps  of  crustaceans)  are  found  in  the  Potsdam  sand- 
stone of  America,  and  in  the  Cambrian  rocks  of  Europe. 
The  order  tubicola  is  represented  in  the  lower  strata  by 
serpuloid  forms.  Arenicolites,  or  worm  burrows,  are 
common  in  the  oldest  fossiliferous  rocks ;  so  that  this  class 
of  organisms  has  existed  from  the  most  ancient  times. 

Class  CRUSTACEA.  The  entpmostraca  in  the  order  trilp- 
bita  is  represented  in  numerous  genera,  beginning  in 
the  lower  Cambrian  rocks,  extending  through  the  Silu- 
rian and  Devonian;  gradually  lessening  in  the  latter,  and 
dying  out  entirely  in  the  carboniferous  period.  The  order 
merostomata,  represented  in  the  genera  eurypterus, 
pterygotus,  slimonia^  dolichopterus,  stylvnema,  and 
arthropleura,  begin  their  existence  in  the  middle  Silu- 
rian, and  extend  in  some  variety  of  form  to  the  close  of 
the  coal  measures.  The  phyllopoda  commence  near 
the  base  of  the  Silurian  proper,  and  appear  in  the  palaeo- 
zoic rocks  in  the  genera  ceratiocaris,  dithyrocaris,  and 
others.  The  ostracoda  or  cyproidea,  in  the  form  of 
small  bivalved  crustaceans  of  the  genera  primitia,  leper- 
ditia,  cytherina,  Beyrichia,  bolbozoa,  aristozoa,  &c., 
occur  in  the  lowest  fossiliferous  rocks,  and  continue 
through  the  palaeozoic  age ;  these  are  followed  in  later  pe- 
riods by  cythera,  cypris,  cyprella,  cypridella,  &c.  The 
podophthalmia  or  decapoda,  including  the  crabs,  lob- 
sters, and  their  allies,  commence  then-  existence  after  the 
palaeozoic  era,  and  continue  through  all  the  formations  to 
the  present  time.  The  cirripedia  begin  as  low  as  the 
Trenton  limestone,  in  the  form  of  plumulites  or  turrile- 
pas;  continuing  but  sparsely  below  the  carboniferous, 
where  they  become  more  common,  and  increase  in  num- 
ber of  forms  through  the  succeeding  epochs  to  the  present. 

Class  ARACHNIDA.  Fossil  spiders  are  found  in  the  carbonif- 
erous strata,  in  the  Solenhofen  slates  of  the  Jurassic,  and 
in  the  tertiary. 

Class  MYRIAPODA.  Centipedes  and  millipedes  begin  their 
existence  in  the  carboniferous  period. 

Class  INSECTA.  Fossil  remains  of  insects  have  been  found 
in  the  lower  coal  measures  and  in  the  Devonian,  and  more 
abundantly  in  the  lias  limestone  of  Europe.  In  some  por- 
tions of  the  tertiary  formation  of  the  western  territories  their 
remains  are  abundant,  and  also  in  the  tertiary  of  Europe. 

YERTEBEATA. 

Class  PISCES  (fishes).  The  ganoids,  an  order  covered  with 
bony  plates,  like  the  garpike  and  sturgeon,  are  among  the 
earliest  known  forms  of  fishes.  The  genera  coccosteus, 
pterichthys,  onychodm,  macropetaliehthys,  &c.,  occur 
in  the  upper  Helderberg,  lower  Devonian,  and  subsequent 
formations.  The  genera  cephalaspis  and  fwloptychius  are 
known  in  the  old  red  sandstone  of  Europe,  and  the  remains 
of  the  latter  genus  abound  in  the  Catskill  formation  of 
New  York  and  Pennsylvania.  The  genera  ewrylepis, 
cfKlacanthus,  and  others  are  known  in  the  coal  measures 
of  Ohio.  Of  the  selachians,  or  fishes  with  cartilaginous 
skeletons,  the  cestraclonts  begin  their  existence  in  the  age 
of  the  upper  Helderberg,  and  continue  through  all  the 
formations  to  the  present  time.  The  hybodpnts  first  ap- 
pear in  the  lower  carboniferous,  and  continue  through 
succeeding  formations.  The  raiidoe  (rays)  begin  their  ex- 
istence in  the  carboniferous,  and  are  known  in  the  lias 
and  eocene  formations,  and  in  the  present  fauna.  The 
squalodonts,  or  true  sharks,  first  appear  in  the  cretaceous 
period,  and  continue  to  the  present  time.  The  teliostei,  or 
bony  fishes,  such  as  perch,  cod,  salmon,  &c.,  commenced 
in  the  trias.  Some  forms  occur  in  the  middle  and  upper 
Jurassic,  but  are  not  common  below  the  cretaceous  period. 
No  fossil  fishes  are  known  in  the  Silurian  of  America; 
and  it  may  be  considered  doubtful  if  the  European  species 
cited  as  Silurian  are  really  older  than  our  own. 

Class  AMPHIBIA  (batrachians).  The  order  labyrinthodonta 
is  represented  in  the  carboniferous  period  of  Europe  and 
America.  The  apateon  and  archegosaurm  are  European 


PALAEONTOLOGY 


813 


forms;  amphibamus,  raniceps,  dendrerpeton,  hylono- 
mus,  bap/ietes,  and  sauropus  are  found  in  the  coal  mea- 
sures of  Nova  Scotia  and  the  United  States.  Footprints 
of  labyrinthodonts  are  known  in  the  coal  measures  of  Penn- 
sylvania, Illinois,  Indiana,  and  Kansas.  The  genus  lepi- 
dotosaiirus  is  known  in  two  species  in  the  Permian  of 
Europe.  The  labyrinthodon  (c/ieirotherium),  anisopus, 
otozaum,  macropteria,  telerpeton,  and  other  amphibians 
occur  in  the  trias. 

Class  KEPTILIA.  The  order  lacertia  is  represented  in  the 
Permian  by  the  genera  protosaurus,  palceosaurus, 
deuterosaurus,  and  thecodontosa urus;  the  last  is  one  of 
the  most  highly  organized  forms  of  the  order.  The  genera 
rhynchosaurus,  clepsysaurus,  belodon,  phytosaurus, 
rhabdopeliaD,  and  others,  are  characteristic  of  the  trias  of 
Europe  and  America.  Other  genera  are  known  in  the 
Jurassic  and  cretaceous,  and  in  the  present  period.  The 
genus  mosasaurus,  beginning  in  the  cretaceous,  is  most 
conspicuous  among  the  saurians  of  that  period,  occurring 
in  numerous  localities  and  in  many  species.  Of  the  order 
crocodilia,  the  genera  teleosaurus,  hyposaurus,  thora- 
cosaurus,  holops,  and  mystriosaurus  are  examples.  The 
order  begins  in  the  trias,  and  continues  to  the  present 
time,  the  true  crocodiles  occurring  in  the  tertiary.  The 
order  pterosauria  (flying  saurians)  are  represented  by 
the  genera  pterodactylun,  rhamphorhynchus,  and  orni- 
thopterus,  beginning  in  the  lias  and  disappearing  with  the 
cretaceous.  The  order  dinosauria,  represented  by  the 
genera  iguanodon,  megalosaurus,  anomwpw,  bathygna- 
thus  (an  amphibian?),  hadrosaurus,  hylceosaurm,  and 
others,  begin  their  existence  in  the  trias,  and  continue  to 
the  base  of  the  cretaceous  period  in  Europe  and  America. 
The  order  dicynodonta  is  a  remarkable  group  of  saurians, 
represented  by  dicynodon,  ouedenodon,  and  others,  in 
supposed  triassic  rocks  of  south  Africa  and  Bengal.  The 
enaliosaurians  (sea  lizards),  including  plesiosaura  and 
ichthyosaura,  began  their  existence  in  the  trias,  disap- 
pearing with  the  cretaceous.  The  genera  notkosaurus, 
limosaurm,  and  sphenosaurus  are  among  the  triassic 
forms;  and  ichthyosaurus  and  plesiosaurus  are  charac- 
teristic liassic  forms,  occurring  also  in  cretaceous.  To  the 
same  order  belong  the  diseoaaurus  and  polycoteles  of  the 
American  cretaceous.  The  ophidia  (serpents)  make 
their  first  appearance  in  the  eocene  tertiary,  and  continue 
in  all  the  more  modern  epochs.  The  genus  palceophis  is 
characteristic  of  European  and  American  tertiary;  and 
lithophis,  HmnopMs,  and  dinophis  have  been  described 
from  American  tertiary.  The  chelonia  (turtles,  tortoises) 
begin  their  existence  in  the  middle  of  the  Jurassic  period, 
and  continue  to  the  present  time.  The  earliest  forms 
were  of  marine  habitat,  but  at  later  periods  we  find  fresh- 
water and  land  forms.  The  tretosternum  is  the  earliest 
well  establi  shed  genus.  A  monstrous  form,  atlantochelys, 
and  other  large  and  small  turtles,  occur  in  the  cretaceous 
of  Kansas.  The  genera  trionyas,  emys,  compremys,  colos- 
sochelys,  and  others  occur  in  the  tertiary. 

Class  AVES.  The  existence  of  birds  has  been  inferred  from 
the  occurrence  of  three-toed  tracks  in  the  sandstone  of  the 
Connecticut  valley  of  the  age  of  the  trias  (?).  A  remarka- 
ble genus  of  birds,  the  archceopteryx,  has  been  found  in 
the  Jurassic  slates  of  Solenhofen.  The  genera  termator- 
nis,  palceotringa,  laornis,  ichthyornis,  apatornis,  and 
others,  have  been  described  from  the  cretaceous.  Fossil 
birds  occur  in  the  Wealden  of  Europe,  and  numerous 
genera  and  species  in  the  tertiary  of  Europe  and  America. 
The  miocene  beds  of  France  afford  more  than  70  species. 

Class  MAMMALIA.  The  marsupiatta  were  the  first  in  geolo- 
gical order  among  the  mammalia,  the  genus  microlestes 
occurring  in  the  upper  trias  of  Germany  and  England. 
The  dromatherium  sylvestre  of  Emmons  is  a  small 
marsupial  animal  from  the  trias  of  North  Carolina.  The 
spalacotherium,  ampMtherium,  and  phascolotherium 
have  been  found  in  beds  of  the  Jurassic  age ;  while  other 
forms  are  known  in  the  tertiary.  The  cetacea  appear  in 
the  American  eocene  period  in  the  gigantic  genus  zeuglo- 
don.  Other  forms  occur  in  the  miocene  of  the  Atlantic 
coast ;  and  the  skeleton  of  a  small  whale,  beluga,  has  been 
found  in  the  post-pliocene  of  the  Champlain  valley.  Of 
the  order  unqulata.  the  palceotherium,  anaplotheriuni 
(xiphodori),  and  lophiodon  were  the  earliest  representa- 
tives in  the  eocene  of  Europe ;  and  in  the  same  formation 
in  America,  we  have  the  genera  hyraehyus  and  palceo- 
syops,  belonging  to  the  same  group  as  the  preceding ;  ,the 
uintatherium  and  dinoceras.  which  belong  to  the  rhino- 
cerata;  and  the  orohippus  of  the  equidat.  In  the  mio- 
cene we  have  the  genera  anchitherium,  hipparion, 
titanotherium.  rhinoceras,  oreodon,  brontotherium,  and 
others.  The  horse,  camel,  llama,  deer,  musk  ox.  hog, 
tapir,  hippopotamus,  and  other  forms  are  represented  in 
that  epoch,  and  are  continued  to  the  present  time.  The 
genus  bos  occurs  only  in  the  latest  tertiary  or  quaternary. 
Of  the  proboscidce,  we  have  the  dinotlierium,  mastodon, 


and  elephas  in  the  upper  miocene ;  but  the  elephant  and 
mastodon  are  more  characteristic  of  the  pliocene  and  later 
formations.  The  carnivora  begin  their  existence  in  the 
tertiary.  Among  the  earliest  forms  are  arctocyon  and 
palcKocyon  in  the  eocene;  the  genera  hyoenodon,  ma- 
cficerodus,  felis,  canis,  cynodon,  amphicyon,  iirsus, 
hy&na,  and  others,  occur  in  the  later  epochs  of  the  sys- 
tem. Of  the  rodentia,  the  genera  arctomys,  lepus,  mus, 
castor,  arvicola,  lagomys,  and  others,  occur  in  the  later 
tertiary.  The  cheiroptera,  or  bat-like  animals  begin 
their  existence  in  the  later  tertiary;  as  also  the  insec- 
tivora  proper,  none  of  them  appearing  before  the  later 
miocene. 

— The  following  synopsis  of  the  classification 
of  plants  will  serve  for  general  reference  in 
palaeontology : 

CRYPTOGAMOUS   OE   FLOWEELESS   PLANTS. 

Class  I.  ANOPHYTES,  and  II.  THALLOPHYTES  or  cellular  cryp- 
togams. 

Musci,  hepaticoe,  lichens,  fungi,  algce,  desmidiece. 
Class  III.  ACROGENS,  or  vascular  cryptogams. 

Equisetaceoe.,  filices,  lycopodiacece,  hydropteridce. 

PHENOGAMOITS    OE   FLOWERING   PLANTS. 
Class  IY.  ENDOGENS  or  MONOCOTYLEDONS. 

The  orders  of  this  class  include  the  cyperacece  (sedge), 
graminece  (grasses),  juncacece  (bulrushes),  liliacece  (lilies), 
typhaceae  (cattail),  palmacece  (palms),  and  many  others. 
Class  V.  EXOGENS  or  DICOTYLEDONS. 

Under  the  subclass  of  angiospermous  plants  (seeds  in  a 
pericarp)  are  included  more  than  100  orders,  which  em- 
brace all  the  ordinary  forest  trees  except  the  coniferce, 
besides  far  the  greater  proportion  of  flowering  plants. 


Under  the  subclass  of  gymnosperins 
included  all  the  coniferce. 


naked)  are 


Until  near  the  end  of  the  Silurian  period,  the 
only  remains  of  plants  are  of  marine  origin, 
such  as  algce  or  fucacecz;  while  some  of  the 
forms  classed  as  plants  may  be  really  sponges. 
The  earliest  evidence  of  dry-land  vegetation 
began  with  those  conditions  which  ushered  in 
the  Devonian  epoch ;  for  the  general  character 
of  the  flora  in  the  Devonian  of  America,  so 
far  as  known,  remains  essentially  the  same 
throughout  the  carboniferous  period.  Here 
we  have  land  plants  of  acrogenous  forms,  such 
as  ferns  in  great  abundance ;  the  equiseta- 
cem  in  the  calamites;  the  lycopodiacece  in  the 
lycopodites,  lepidodendron,  &c. ;  while  psaro- 
nius,  stigmaria,  sigillaria,  and  others  constitute 
orders  allied  to  those  mentioned.  During  this 
period  the  phenogamous  plants  are  compara- 
tively rare,  and  these  are  of  the  coniferce. 
The  condition  of  the  surface  favored  only  the 
development  of  the  lower  orders  of  vegetation ; 
and  we  know  that  the  low  land  of  this  period 
was  subject  to  the  influx  of  the  ocean,  probably 
from  oscillations  of  the  continental  land,  giv- 
ing alternate  strata  of  land  deposits  with  land 
plants,  and  marine  calcareous  strata  with  shells 
and  marine  remains  alone.  The  great  amount 
of  land  vegetation  at  this  period  does  not  in- 
dicate that  the  entire  surface  of  the  present 
continent  was  then  dry  land,  and  that  plants 
everywhere  abounded  at  the  same  time  and  are 
imbedded  in  strata  of  this  age.  On  the  con- 
trary, at  the  west  and  southwest,  land  plants 
are  extremely  rare,  or  altogether  wanting  in 
rocks  of  this  period ;  while  strata  of  marine 
origin  with  marine  animal  remains  hold  the 
same  position.  At  each  successive  geological 
period  the  flora  appears  to  have  approached 
more  nearly  that  of  the  present ;  not  however 


814 


PALAEONTOLOGY 


in  the  same  latitudes,  for  the  older  floras  of 
the  temperate  zones  exhibit  in  many  respects  a 
tropical  aspect.  In  the  cretaceous  and  tertiary 
periods,  the  flora  embraces  many  genera  of  the 
existing  flora  of  the  temperate  zones.  In  the 
successive  faunas  also,  even  of  the  ocean  bed, 
we  are  to  take  into  consideration  the  existing 
physical  conditions.  In  the  very  early  periods 
coarse  and  fine  sediments  are  found,  indicating, 
if  not  shore  lines,  at  least  shallow  and  dis- 
turbed water  on  one-  side,  and  deeper  seas  with 
quiet  water  and  finer  sediments  on  the  other. 
The  geographical  extension  of  species  does  not 
always  correspond  with  the  nature  of  the  sedi- 
ments; for  while  in  the  Trenton  period  we 
have  a  large  number  of  brachiopoda  extending 
over  wide  areas,  even  as  far  west  as  the  forma- 
tion is  known,  the  same  is  not  true  of  the  Ham- 


ilton group,  although  the  physical  characters 
of  the  two  formations  appear  to  have  been 
equally  uniform.  This  fact,  however,  does  not 
furnish  an  argument  in  favor  of  gradual  cli- 
matic or  other  permanent  changes;  for  again 
in  the  carboniferous  period  certain  forms  of 
brachiopoda  have  even  a  wider  range  than  in 
any  preceding  period. — The  causes  affecting 
the  distribution  of  the  faunas  and  floras  of  the 
several  geological  periods  cannot  be  discussed 
in  a  sketch  like  the  present;  but  that  these 
have  successively  appeared  and  disappeared  is 
ascertained  in  every  part  of  the  habitable  globe. 
Of  the  succession  or  coming  in  of  new  species 
we  have  everywhere  abundant  evidence;  and 
in  a  great  proportion  of  instances  they  could 
not  have  been  derived  from  sources  very  far 
from  where  we  find  their  imbedded  exuviae. 


TABULAE  AEEANGEMENT  OF  THE  GEOLOGICAL  FOEMATIONS,  'WITH  THE  NAMES  OF  SOME  OF 
THE  CHAEACTEEISTIC  OEGANIC  EEMAINS. 


MODEEN 
OB  QUA- 
TEENAEY. 

Post-tertiary. 
Eecent  and  post-pliocene. 

Alluvial  deposits,  peat,  calcareous  tufa,  glacial  and  modified  gravel,  with 
remains  of  man  ;  associated  plants  together  with  extinct  fossil  mammalia 
—elephas,  mastodon,  megatherium,  rnylodon,  glyptodon,  &c.:  with 
shells,  &c. 

^ 

Pliocene. 

Mostly  marine  shells,  bivalves  and  univalves  in  great  numbers,  and  largely 
of  living  forms.    The  fossil  flora  indicating  a  warmer  climate  than  the 
present 

« 
O 

O 

1 

TEBTIAEY. 

Miocene. 

The  upper  part  with  some  extinct  mammalian  remains,  elephas,  mastodon 
sivatherium,  hexaprotodon.  The  fossil  flora  contains  species  of  aoer 
platanus,  smilax,  &c.  The  marine  fauna  with  a  mixture  of  extinct  and 
existing  species  (India).  The  lower  miocene  has  a  greater  proportion  of 
extinct  forms,  and  is  remarkable  for  its  great  number  of  extinct  mamma- 
lian remains,  especially  in  the  western  part  of  this  continent,  among  which 
are  rlunoceros,  oreodon,  brontotherium,  titanotherium,  palaotherium. 
anchitherium,  archceotherium,  machcerodus,  &c. 

ft 
1 

Eocene. 

In  the  upper  part,  land  and  fresh-  water  shells,  with  mammalian  remains: 
marine  shells,  corals,  foraminifera.  Many  remains  of  sharks  of  enormous 
size.  Cetaceans  (whales,  eeuglodon,  &c.),  herbivores,  carnivores,  rumi- 
nants, pachyderms,  monkeys,  &c.,  first  appear. 

I 
§ 

Upper  cretaceous  (Maestricht 
chalk,  white  chalk,  and  chalk 
marl). 

Characterized  by  remarkable  forms  of  saurians  of  several  genera,  mosasau- 
rus,  &c.,  chambered  shells  (ammonites),  univalve  and  bivalve  shells, 
echinoderms,  and  corals;  brachiopoda,  mostly  rht/nchonellidce  and  tere- 
bratulidce;  and  the  remarkable  family  rudistes;  and  in  America  by 
a  fossil  flora  analogous  to  the  tertiary  and  recent  forms,  as  maple,  willow, 
beech,  poplar,  elm,  sassafras,  &c. 

h 

1 

Lower  cretaceous  or 
Neocomian 
(Wealden). 

Many  cephalopods,  including  ammonitoid  shells  in  a  great  variety  of  forms, 
with  many  peculiar  forms  of  bivalve  mollusca,  as  well  as  the  ordinary 
forms.  Fishes  allied  to  the  garpike.  A  remarkable  fresh-water  saurian 
tyguanodori).  The  flora  is  characterized  by  a  great  number  of  conifer^ 
cycadece,  and  ferns.  First  appearance  of  deciduous  trees.  Bony  fishes 
(teliosts)  become  common  ;  crocodiles  and  cetaceans  (whales). 

o 
3 

w 

02 
§ 

O 

d 

1 

t> 

Oolite, 
Upper. 
Middle. 
Lower. 

Marsupial  and  insectivorous  mammalia—  amphitherium,  phascolotherium. 
A  remarkable  form  of  bird,  archceopteryx.  Flying  reptiles  (pterodac- 
tyls). Large  numbers  of  fishes,  insects,  crustaceans  resembling  the 
common  crawfish,  chambered  shells  (ammonites,  belemnites,  &c.),  uni- 
valve and  bivalve  shells.  Brachiopoda,  echinideae,  crinoidea,  corals,  &c. 
Among  the  fossil  plants  the  cycudece  predominate  (zamia  being  the  pre- 
vailing genus),  with  coniferce  and  ferns. 

MESOZO 

Lias. 
Lias  (limestones  and  slates). 

The  lower  (liassic)  beds  are  characterized  by  remains  of  cigantic  saurians, 
ichthyosaurus,  pterosauriis,  &c.  ;  fishes  of  the  shark  family  and  others; 
insects,  with  mollusks  of  the  several  orders,  and  extravagant  forms  of 
crinoidea,  &c. 

o 
H 

Upper,  middle,  and  lower  trias. 
Bed  sandstones  of  Connecticut 
valley. 
Shales,  sandstones,  and   beds 
of  bituminous  coal. 

Mollusca  numerous;  the  cephalopods  chiefly  of  the  genera  ceratites, 
ammonites,  and  orthoceras,  the  latter  genus  becoming  extinct  in  this 
formation.  Last  appearance  of  the  brachiopodous  family  spiriferidce. 
One  form  of  encrinite  abundant.  Fish  teeth  and  saurian  reinains.  A 
remarkable  batrachian  form,  the  labyrinthodon.  First  appearance  of 
mammalian  remains  in  microlestes  and  dromatherium.  Tracks  of 
saurians  and  birds  (?)  both  in  Europe  and  America.  First  appearance  of 
crawfish-like  crustaceans.  A  remarkable  coal  field  near  Eichmond,  Va., 
with  an  abundant  fossil  flora.  All  classes  of  the  vertebrata,  viz.,  fishes  both 
of  the  cartilaginous  and  bony  forms,  reptiles,  amphibia,  birds,  and  mam- 
mals, are  represented  in  this'epoch. 

PALAEONTOLOGY 


815 


TABULAE  ARRANGEMENT  OF  THE  GEOLOGICAL  FORMATIONS  (continued). 


§ 

Permian. 
Upper  Permian. 
Middle  Permian,  or 
Magnesian  h'mestone. 
Lower  Permian. 

Sometimes  .regarded  as  a  group  of  passage  beds  from  the  coal  measures  to 
thetnassic.  MoUuscan  fauna  not  abundant.  Brachiopoda,  some  of  which 
are  common  to  the  carboniferous.  Last  appearance  of  the  genus  pro- 
duct™ Bryozoa  abundant.  Fossil  fishes  mostly  of  genera  Smmooto 
the  carboniferous.  The  flora  is  mainly  peculiar  to  tbl  group  buf^some 
species  are  common  to  this  and  the  coal  measures. 

Coal   measures  and  upper 
limestones. 
Upper    carboniferous     lime- 
stones and  shales. 
Upper  and  low'r  coal  measures 
Conglomerate. 
Bed  shales,  &c.,  at  base. 

Bryozoa  and  brachiopoda  abundant,  lamellibranchiata  common  ;  some 
corals,  echmideae  crinoidea,  cephalopoda.  First  appearance  of  batrachian 
reptiles  and  air-breathing  mollusca,  insects,  scorpions,  and  shrimp-like 
crustaceans  ;  and  last  appearance  of  trilobites.  Ganoid  fishes  numerous. 
Land  plants,  as  tree  ferns,  sigillaria,  stigmaria,  catamites,  &c. 

CABBONIFEKOt 

Lower   carboniferous    lime- 
stones. 
Chester   or   Kaskaskia    lime- 
stone. 
St.  Louis  h'mestone. 
Warsaw  h'mestone. 
Keokuk  limestone. 
Burlington  limestone. 

C°^o  °*  abu?dant-  *ry°zoa  abundant  in  the  upper  members.  Brachi- 
opoda abundant.  Mollusca  common  throughout.  Crinoidea  extremely 
abundant.  Echmoidea  and  blastoidea  very  abundant,  the  latter  more 
common  m  the  upper  members,  which  contain  fewer  crinoidea.  Cestra- 
ciont  fishes  abundant.  (Formation  calcareous.) 

Waverley  group. 
Conglomerates. 
Sandstones,  shales,  and  lime- 
stones in  thin  beds. 

Brachiopoda  and  lamellibranchiata,  bryozoa,  crinoidea.  Fish  remains. 
J?  ossil  ferns.  Marine  plants  of  the  genus  dicfyophyton.  Land  plants  of 
the  genera  sigillaria,  lepidodendron,  calamites,  &c. 

Catskill  group. 
Conglomerates. 
Sandstones. 
Ked,  green,  and   olive  shales 
and  sandstones. 

Remains  of  ganoid  fishes  (holoptycMus)  abundant,  with  fucoids  and  many 
land  plants,  as  ferns,  &c. 

Cfomung  group. 
Sandstones,   shales,  and   con- 
glomerate. 
Limestone  in  the  west. 

Fucoids  and  land  plants.  Lamellibranchiate  shells  and  brachiopods  abun- 
dant. Gasteropods,  cephalopods,  and  crustaceans  rare.  Crinoidea  and 
bryozoa  not  common.  Eemains  of  cestraeiont  fishes.  In  the  calcareous 
beds  of  the  western  extension  are  many  corals,  stromatopora,  brachio- 
pods, &c. 

1 

VONIAN. 

Portage  group. 
Shales  and  sandstones. 

Fucoids  and  land  plants  ;  crinoidea.  Lamellibranchiata  and  brachiopoda  rare. 
Cephalopoda  (goniatites)  common.  Fish  remains  of  remarkable  forms, 
belonging  to  the  genera  dinichtJvys,  aspidichthys,  ctenacanthus,  &c. 

a 

5 

Hamilton  group. 
Shales,  calcareous  shales,  lime- 
stones, &c. 

Fucoids  (epirophyton)  and  land  plants  abundant  in  certain  beds.  LameHi- 
branchiata  and  brachiopoda  abundant.  Gasteropoda  and  cephalopoda 
common.  Crustacea,  crinoidea,  and  corals  abundant. 

Upper  Helderberg  group. 
Corniferous    and    Onondaga 
limestones. 
Schoharie  grit. 

Corals,  bryozoa,  and  brachiopoda  abundant.  Gasteropoda  and  lamelli- 
branchiata common.  Among  the  cephalopoda  the  genus  goniatites  is 
first  noticed.  Crustacea  (trilobites  of  extravagant  forms)  common. 
Teeth,  body  plates,  and  spines  of  fishes,  mostly  cestracionts,  appear  for 
the  first  time,  some  of  them  of  very  ponderous  dimensions.  Macro- 
petalichthys,  onychodus,  &c.  Land  plants  make  their  first  appearance, 
with  the  exception  of  upper  Silurian  (?)  in  Nova  Scotia. 

Caudagalli  grit. 

Fossils  extremely  rare.    Some  marine  plants  (spirophyton). 

* 

Oriskany  sandstone. 

Brachiopoda  abundant  and  of  remarkable  forms.  Gasteropoda  abundant. 
Lamellibranchiata  and  crinoidea  few. 

8ILTTBIAN. 

Lower  Helderberg  group. 
Upper  pentamerus  h'mestone. 
Shaly  limestone. 
Pentamerus  limestone. 
Tentaculite  limestone. 

Corals  and  bryozoa.     Brachiopoda  and  gasteropoda  abundant.    Crinoidea, 
cystidea,  and  Crustacea  common.     Lamellibranchiata  and  cephalopoda 
few.    Petrospongia,  &c. 

M 

w 

Waterlune. 

Crustacea  of  the  genera  eurypterus,  pterygotus,  ceratiocarit,  &c. 

E 
p 

Onondaga  or  Salina  forma- 
tion. 
Magnesian    and    argillaceous 
limestones. 
Bed,  gray,  and  greenish  marls. 

The  formation  essentially  non-fossiliferous. 

1 

Niagara  group. 
Limestones. 
Shales. 

Sponges,  corals,  bryozoa,  crinoidea,  brachiopoda,  and  Crustacea  abundant. 
Cephalopoda  common.    Lamellibranchiata  and  gasteropoda  few. 

MIDDLE  SI 

Clinton  group. 
Shales,  sandstones. 
Limestones,  iron  ore. 

Medina  sandstone. 

Marine  plants  abundant.    Bryozoa,  graptolites,  brachiopoda,  a  few  lamelli- 
branchiata,  gasteropoda,  cephalopoda,  Crustacea,  and  crinoidea. 

6 

29 

Anticosti  group,  island  of  An- 
ticosti,  representing  the  Clin- 
ton and  Medina  groups. 

YOL.   XII.  —  52 

Highly  fossiliferous  in  brachiopoda  and  mollusca,  with  bryozoa,  corals,  and 
Crustacea. 

816 


PALJEOTHERIUM 


PALAFOX  Y  MELZI 


TABULAE  AEEANGEMENT  OF  THE  GEOLOGICAL  FOEMATIONS  (continued). 


PALAEOZOIC. 

TJPPEK  CAMBRIAN  (Sedg.), 

or 

LOWER  8ILUBIAN  (MllT.). 

Shawangunk  or  Oneida   con- 
glomerate. 

Non-fossiliferous  limit  between  Silurian  and  Cambrian  systems. 

Hudson  river  group. 
Sandstone  and  shales. 
Calcareous  shales. 
Do.  and  limestones. 
Utica  slate. 

Marine  plants,  graptolites,  crinoidea,  bryozoa,  and  brachiopoda  abundant. 
True  corals  few.  Lamellibranchiata  in  some  localities  abundant.  Gas- 
teropoda, cephalopoda,  and  Crustacea  common. 

Trenton  group. 
Trenton  and  Galena, 
Black  river,  and 
Birdseye  limestones. 

Marine  plants,  crinoidea,  cystidea,  bryozoa,  brachiopoda.  Cephalopoda 
(orthoceras)  and  Crustacea  abundant.  Lamellibranchiata  and  gasteropoda 
common.  Corals  few. 

MIDDLE 
CAMBRIAN. 

Taconic  system  of  Emmons. 
(Quebec  group  of  Logan.) 
Chazy  limestones. 
Levis  shales  and  sandstones. 
Crystalline  limest's  (marbles). 
Dolomitic  conglomerate. 
Calciferous  sandstone. 

Graptolites,  crinoidea,  and  cystidea.  Brachiopoda.  Some  mollusca  and 
many  trilobites. 

LOWEB 
CAMBRIAN. 

Potsdam  group. 

Graptolites.  Crustacea  (trilobites)  abundant.  Brachiopoda  in  linguloid 
and  oboloid  forms  abundant. 

Sandstones,  slates,  &c. 
Braintree,  Mass., 
St.  John,  N.  B.,  and 
Newfoundland. 

Crustacea.    Genus  paradoxides  and  other  primordial  forms. 

Crustacea  in  numerous  trilobites  of  the  genera  paradoxides,  conocorypke, 
agnostus,  and  others. 

0 

HURO- 
NIAN. 

Sandstones,        conglomerates, 
shales,  and  limestones. 
Specular  iron  ores. 

Crystalline  and  subcrystalline  ;  non-fossiliferous  so  far  as  known. 

•^  H 

ti 

Labradoritic  rock. 
Crystalline  limestones. 
Gneiss  in  great  variety,  with 
iron  ores. 

Highly  crystalline,  and  for  the  most  part  non-fossiliferous.  The  serpentine 
limestones  contain  the  fossil  called  eosoon,  the  organic  nature  of  which  is 
advocated  by  some  and  disputed  by  others. 

PALDOniERIOI  (Cuv. ;  Gr.  irafau6f,  ancient, 
and  Ofoiov,  animal),  the  type  of  a  tribe  of 
fossil  ungulates  belonging  to  the  family  of 
perissodactyla  (Owen),  or  those  having  an  un- 
even number  of  toes,  intermediate  between  the 
•tapir  and  the  rhinoceros.  The  form  was  like 
that  of  the  tapir;  the  raised  nasals  show  that 
it  had  a  small  flexible  proboscis ;  the  feet  were 


Palaeotherium  (restored). 


three-toed;  it  had  projecting  canines,  and  mo- 

iars  I ,  the  upper  like  those  of  the  rhinoceros, 

the  first  smallest  and  single  lobed,  and  the  low- 

<er  formed  by  two  successive  crescents  with 


their  conyexity  external,  the  first  single  and 
the  last  one  trilobed.  Several  species  are  de- 
scribed by  Cuvier  and  others,  of  which  the 
largest  and  best  known  is  the  P.  magnum  (Cuv.), 
of  the  size  of  a  horse,  but  of  a  stouter  form ; 
others  vary  in  size  from  that  of  a  hog  and 
sheep  to  that  of  a  hare.  They  belong  espe- 
cially to  the  gypsum  of  Europe  (eocene),  are 
abundant  in  the  plaster  quarries  of  Montmartre, 
near  Paris,  and  extend  even  into  the  lower 
miocene ;  the  species  differ  little,  except  in  size. 
PALAFOX  Y  MELZI,  Jose,  a  Spanish  patriot, 
born  in  Aragon  in  1780,  died  in  Paris,  Feb.  16, 
1847.  At  an  early  age  he  became  an  officer  of 
the  royal  body  guard,  and  as  such  accompanied 
Ferdinand  VII.  to  Bayonne  in  1808.  Ferdinand 
was  retained  a  prisoner,  but  Palaf  ox  escaped  to 
his  estate  near  Saragossa.  Shortly  after  that 
city  was  menaced  by  the  French  army  under 
Lefebvre-Desnouettes,  and  the  populace  pro- 
claimed Palaf  ox  captain  general  of  Aragon  (May 
25).  Soldiers  from  the  adjacent  country  were 
called  into  the  city,  barricades  were  erected  in 
every  street,  and  nearly  every  house  was  made 
a  point  of  defence.  After  a  siege  of  61  days 
the  French  retired ;  but  they  returned  in  great- 
er force  successively  under  Moncey,  Mortier, 
Junot,  and  Lannes,  and  the  city  capitulated  in 
February,  1809.  Palafox,  being  ill,  was  not  in 
active  command  at  the  time.  The  capitulation 
provided  that  he  should  depart  free,  and  that 
no  one  should  be  molested ;  but  the  city  was 
pillaged,  blood  was  profusely  shed,  and  Pala- 
fox was  sent  a  prisoner  to  Vincennes.  He  was 
only  released  on  the  restoration  of  Ferdinand 


PALAMEDES 

VII.  in  1814,  when  he  returned  to  Madrid  with 
the  king,  and  was  confirmed  in  his  post  of 
captain  general  of  Aragon.  In  1820  he  re- 
tired from  office  and  pronounced  in  favor  of 
the  constitution,  and  in  1823  signed  a  protest 
against  the  absolutism  of  Ferdinand  VII.  In 
1833  he  joined  the  party  of  Queen  Isabella, 
was  imprisoned  for  a  time  on  a  false  charge, 
and  in  1836  was  made  duke  of  Saragossa. 

PALAMEDES,  a  legendary  Greek  hero,  son  of 
Nauplius  and  Clymene.  He  served  in  the  ex- 
pedition against  Troy,  and  for  a  time  was  com- 
mander-in-chief  in  place  of  Agamemnon,  whose 
measures  he  opposed.  According  to  the  old 
Cyprian  epic,  he  was  drowned  while  fishing,  by 
Diomedes  and  Ulysses ;  but  a  later  tradition  is 
that  he  was  accused  of  treason  by  Ulysses,  who 
concealed  gold  or  a  forged  letter  from  Priam 
in  his  tent,  and  then  charged  him  with  having 
been  bribed  by  Priam.  When  Palamedes  was 
led  out  to  die,  he  exclaimed :  "  Truth,  I  lament 
thee,  for  thou  hast  died  even  before  me."  He 
is  not  mentioned  by  Homer,  but  was  made  the 
subject  of  tragedies  by  ^schylus,  Sophocles, 
and  Euripides,  and  by  some  represented  as  the 
inventor  of  lighthouses,  weights  and  measures, 
dice,  and  the  alphabet. 

PALATE,  the  bony  and  muscular  partition 
which  separates  the  mouth  in  vertebrate  ani- 
mals from  the  anterior  and  posterior  nasal  cavi- 
ties. The  bony  or  hard  palate  forms  the  roof 
of  the  mouth,  and  consists  of  the  horizontal 
portion  of  the  superior  maxillary  bones  in  front 
and  of  the  palate  bones  behind ;  these  form  a 
parabolic  arch,  bounded  in  front  and  on  the 
sides  by  the  upper  teeth  and  their  sockets,  cov- 
ered by  mucous  membrane,  and  giving  attach- 
ment posteriorly  to  the  velum  palati  or  soft 
palate.  The  width,  contractions,  elevations, 
extent,  and  perforation  by  larger  or  smaller  in- 
cisive or  other  openings,  are  valuable  charac- 
ters in  estimating  the  rank  of  the  various  sub- 
divisions of  vertebrates,  those  being  the  highest 
in  which  this  part  is  broadest,  uniform,  and 
least  pierced  by  foramina,  making  a  complete 
partition  as  in  man;  the  changes  in  the  pal- 
ate bones  are  connected  with  corresponding 
modifications  in  the  sphenoid,  and  consequent- 
ly with  the  whole  anatomy  of  the  skull.  The 
soft  palate  is  a  movable  muscular  partition, 
covered  by  mucous  membrane;  its  free  edge 
floats  above  the  base  of  the  tongue,  having 
in  its  centre  a  conical  appendage,  the  uvula, 
and  on  its  sides  the  so-called  "palatine  arch- 
es," of  which  there  are  two  on  each  side,  the 
anterior  and  the  posterior;  they  consist  of 
crescentic  folds  of  mucous  membrane  enclo- 
sing muscular  fibres.  The  triangular  space  be- 
tween the  two  arches  on  each  side  is  occupied 
by  the  tonsils.  The  irregularly  circular  orifice 
embraced  by  the  palatine  arches,  which  leads 
from  the  back  part  of  the  mouth  into  the 
pharynx,  is  the  "  isthmus  of  the  fauces."  The 
mucous  membrane  of  the  palate  is  studded  with 
mucous  follicles ;  its  arteries  are  derived  from 
the  external  carotid,  and  its  nerves  from  the 


PALATE 


sir 


trifacial,  the  glosso-pharyngeal,  and  Meckel's 
ganglion.  The  muscles  of  the  palatal  regions 
are  the  circumflexus  palati,  from  the  internal 
surface  of  the  pterygoid  process  to  the  velum, 
stretching  horizontally  the  soft  palate,  and  di- 


The  mouth  widely  open,  showing  the  tongue  below,  and  the 
hard  and  soft  palate  and  uvula  above,  with  the  isthmus 
of  the  fauces  in  the  centre.  On  the  left  are  shown  the 
fibres  of  the  glosso-pharyngeal  and  palatine  nerves,  dis- 
tributed to  the  mucous  membrane. 

lating  the  Eustachian  orifice ;  the  levator palati, 
from  the  petrous  portion  of  the  temporal  bone, 
raising  the  palate  and  carrying  it  backward; 
the  azygos  uvulce,  vertical,  forms  the  chief  part 
of  this  organ,  raising  it  with  the  palate ;  the 
palato-pJiaryngeus  forms  the  posterior  pill-ar 
of  the  palate,  depressing  the  velum  and  eleva- 
ting the  pharynx ;  the  constrictor  isthmi  fau- 
cium,  in  the  anterior  pillars,  extending  from 
the  base  of  the  tongue  to  the  velum,  depresses 
the  latter  and  elevates  the  former.  The  soft 
palate  is  endowed  with  acute  sensibility,  and 
in  the  neighborhood  of  the  uvula  and  its  arch- 
es, and  to  a  less  degree  on  its  anterior  portion, 
ministers  to  the  specific  sense  of  taste.  The 
mucous  membrane  of  the  palate  is.  subject  to 
inflammations,  and  the  bones  are  attacked  in 
syphilis  and  other  cachectic  diseases ;  these  parts 
are  also  liable  to  arrests  of  development,  in 
which  the  mouth  and  nasal  cavities  communi- 
cate through  a  fissure,  with  or  without  hare- 
lip. In  this  deformity  deglutition  is  difficult, 
sucking  impossible,  and  the  voice  indistinct 
and  nasal ;  surgery  is  necessary  for  its  relief, 
and  by  the  operation  of  staphyloraphy,  which 
consists  in  placing  and  keeping  in  apposition 
the  incised  edges  of  the  fissure,  a  partial  or 
complete  closure  may  be  effected ;  where  this 
is  impracticable,  relief  may  be  obtained  from 
gutta  percha  or  metallic  plates. 


818 


PALATINATE 


PALATINATE,  The  Upper  and  Lower,  two  separate 
states  of  the  old  German  empire,  not  contigu- 
ous, though  under  one  ruler.  Their  territory  is 
now  comprised  in  that  of  Bavaria,  Baden,  Hesse- 
Darmstadt,  and  Prussia.  The  word  palatine  is 
related  to  palace,  and  as  a  title  dates  from  the 
time  of  the  Merovingian  kings  of  France,  con- 
nected with  whose  court  was  a  high  judicial 
officer  called  the  comes  palatii,  or  master  of  the 
royal  household,  who  had  supreme  authority 
in  all  causes  that  came  by  fiction  to  the  king. 
When  the  sovereign  chose  to  confer  a  peculiar 
mark  of  distinction  upon  the  holder  of  any 
particular  fief  under  him,  he  granted  the  right 
to  exercise  the  same  power  within  his  province 
as  the  comes  palatii  exercised  in  the  royal  pal- 
ace. With  the  function  went  the  title  of  comes 
palatinus,  or  count  palatine;  and  from  the 
ruler  the  district  under  him  became  finally 
known  as  a  palatinate. — The  Upper  Palatinate 
was  bounded  by  Baireuth,  Bohemia,  Neuburg, 
Bavaria,  and  the  territory  of  Nuremberg,  and 
now  forms  in  the  kingdom  of  Bavaria  a  part 
of  the  districts  of  the  Upper  Palatinate  and  Up- 
per Franconia.  Its  area  was  about  2,760  sq.  m. 
The  chief  town  was  Amberg.  The  Lower 
Palatinate  was  situated  on  both  sides  of  the 
Rhine,  and  was  bounded  by  Katzenellenbogen, 
Mentz,  Wurtemberg,  Baden,  Alsace,  Lorraine, 
and  Treves.  The  chief  cities  were  Mannheim 
and  Heidelberg.  Its  area  was  about  3,150  sq. 
m.,  and  it  comprehended  the  principalities  of 
Simmern,  Zweibriicken,  Veldenz,  Lautern,  and 
the  county  Palatine  properly  so  called.  The 
hereditary  sovereignty  of  the  counts  palatine 
over  these  districts  dated  from  the  llth  cen- 
tury. In  the  13th  century  they  assumed  the 
dignity  of  electors.  Eupert  III.  was  elected 
emperor  (1400).  On  his  death  the  country 
was  divided  by  his  four  sons.  Frederick  III. 
(1559-'76),  of  the  Simmern  line,  under  which 
it  became  reunited,  introduced  Calvinism. 
Frederick  V.  was  elected  king  of  Bohemia  on 
the  outbreak  of  the  thirty  years'  war,  but  lost 
both  his  royal  and  electoral  crowns  by  the  de- 
feat at  Prague  (1620),  Maximilian  of  Bavaria 
receiving  the  electoral  dignity.  Frederick's  son 
Charles  Louis  regained  the  Lower  Palatinate, 
as  eighth  elector,  by  the  peace  of  Westphalia 
(1648).  The  Simmern  line,  ending  with  his  son 
Charles,  was  succeeded  by  that  of  Neuburg 
(1685).  During  this  period  the  Rhenish  Pa- 
latinate was  repeatedly  desolated  by  the  armies 
of  Louis  XIV.  In  1777  the  elector  Charles 
Theodore  inherited  Bavaria,  and  the  two  states 
were  united.  During  the  wars  of  the  French 
revolution,  France  took  possession  of  that  part 
of  the  Palatinate  that  lay  on  the  left  bank  of 
the  Rhine,  other  parts  being  ceded  to  Baden, 
Nassau,  and  Hesse-Darmstadt;  but  after  the 
fall  of  Napoleon  the  main  portion  was  returned 
to  Bavaria.  At  present  the  Bavarian  district 
of  the  Upper  Palatinate  and  Ratisbon  has  an 
area  of  3,731  sq.  m.;  pop.  in  1871,  497,960. 
Ihe  district  of  the  Rhenish  (Lower)  Palatinate 
has  an  area  of  2,293  sq.  m.;  pop.  615,104. 


PALENCIA 

PALATINE  (Hung,  nddor),  under  the  old  Hun- 
garian constitution,  the  title  of  the  royal  lieu- 
tenant, in  later  periods  olficiating  as  mediator 
between  the  nation  and  king,  and  as  president 
of  the  upper  house  of  the  diet.  The  archduke 
Joseph,  brother  of  the  emperor  Francis,  and 
his  son  Stephen,  were  the  last  palatines,  the 
latter  officiating  at  the  beginning  of  the  Hun- 
garian revolution  of  1848. — The  term  was  also 
used  as  a  title  (Pol.  wojewoda)  of  the  gover- 
nors of  the  larger  divisions  or  provinces  (woje- 
wddztwa,  palatinates)  of  independent  Poland. 
— For  COUNT  PALATINE,  see  PALATINATE. 

PALEMBANG.  I.  A  Dutch  province  in  the  S.  E. 
part  of  the  island  of  Sumatra,  between  the  strait 
of  Banca  and  the  province  of  Bencoolen ;  area, 
61,911  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1872,  573,697.  It  is  for 
the  most  part  a  marshy  plain,  watered  by  several 
large  rivers,  and  covered  by  extensive  forests. 
The  W.  part  is  mountainous.  The  soil  is  fer- 
tile, and  the  climate  hot  and  moist,  but  not  un- 
healthy. The  cultivated  crops  are  rice,  sugar 
cane,  tobacco,  gambir,  indigo,  coffee,  and  pep- 
per. All  the  animals  of  the  forests  and  other 
parts  of  Sumatra  are  found  in  Palembang ;  and 
the  chief  domesticated  ones  are  buffaloes,  goats, 
sheep,  hogs,  and  poultry.  The  inhabitants  con- 
sist of  the  descendants  of  Javanese,  of  Malays, 
of  an  aboriginal  people  called  Kumring,  and  of 
a  wild  race  known  as  Kubu,  with  a  few  Arabs 
and  Chinese.  The  former  kingdom  of  Palem- 
bang, about  one  fourth  the  size  of  the  present 
province,  was  ruled  by  a  sultan,  with  whom  the 
Dutch  had  a  treaty.  In  1811,  when  Java  and 
its  dependencies  were  occupied  by  the  British, 
the  Dutch  officials  at  Banca  fell  into  the  hands 
of  the  sultan,  who  put  all  of  them  to  death,  to 
ingratiate  himself  with  the  new  rulers.  The 
English  sent  an  expedition  which  dethroned 
him,  annexed  part  of  his  dominions,  and  placed 
his  younger  brother  in  authority.  When  Java 
was  restored  to  the  Dutch,  he  resumed  his 
rule,  and  kept  them  at  defiance  till  1821,  when 
Palembang  was  finally  subdued.  II.  A  town, 
capital  of  the  province,  on  the  Musi  or  Sung- 
sang,  the  most  important  river  of  Sumatra, 
about  50  m.  from  the  strait,  lat.  2°  45'  S.,  Ion. 
105°  E.;  pop.  about  40,000.  It  lies  on  both 
banks  of  the  river,  which  is  here  400  yards 
broad  with  a  depth  of  from  8  to  9  fathoms, 
and  sufficient  water  all  the  way  from  the  sea 
for  large  vessels.  The  only  buildings  of  stone 
are  the  mosque  and  the  tombs  of  the  sultans. 
Trade  is  carried  on  with  Java,  Banca,  Siam, 
China,  and  the  Straits  Settlements. 

PALENCIA.  I.  A  N.  province  of  Spain,  in 
Old  Castile,  bordering  on  Santander,  Burgos, 
Valladolid,  and  Leon;  area,  3,125  sq.  m. ;  pop. 
in  1870,  184,668.  It  is  watered  by  the  Car- 
rion, Cueza,  Pisuerga,  and  several  other  rivers, 
and  the  canal  of  Castile  passes  through  it.  A 
portion  of  the  N.  part  is  mountainous ;  the  re- 
mainder is  level  and  almost  totally  devoid  of 
trees.  Coal,  chalk,  gypsum,  saltpetre,  and  cop- 
per ore  are  found.  The  climate  is  cold  but 
healthy,  and  the  soil  is  fertile;  wine.,  grain, 


PALENQUE 

vegetables,  and  fruits  are  produced.  Blankets 
and  other  woollen  goods  are  manufactured. 
Among  the  principal  towns  are  Cervera,  Sal- 
dafia,  and  Carrion.  II.  A  city  (anc.  Pallan- 
tia),  capital  of  the  province,  on  the  left  bank 
of  the  river  Carrion,  117  m.  N.  N.  W.  of  Ma- 
drid; pop.  about  13,000.  The  river  is  crossed 
by  several  fine  bridges,  and  the  town  is  pro- 
tected by  a  strong  wall.  It  contains  a  cathe- 
dral, begun  in  the  14th  century  and  finished  in 
the  17th,  several  churches  and  convents,  an 
episcopal  palace,  a  former  royal  palace,  sev- 
eral charitable  institutions,  including  a  found- 
ling hospital,  an  academy  and  numerous  schools, 
a  picture  gallery,  and  a  library.  About  one 
third  of  the  population  are  employed  in  wool- 
len manufactures.  The  town  was  a  place  of 
importance  in  the  time  of  the  Romans.  In 
honor  of  the  bravery  displayed  by  the  women 
of  Palencia,  in  their  successful  defence  of  the 
city  when  besieged  by  the  Black  Prince,  they 
were  permitted  by  John  I.  to  wear  a  golden 
band  upon  their  heads.  It  was  occupied  by  the 
French  in  1808,  and  by  the  English  in  1812. 

PALENQUE,  Ruins  of,  remarkable  aboriginal 
remains  on  the  Rio  Chacamas  in  the  state  of 
Chiapas,  Mexico,  8  m.  S.  E.  of  Santo  Domingo 
de  Palenque.  They  consist  of  artificial  ter- 
races, or  terraced,  truncated  pyramids,  of  cut 
stone,  surmounted  by  edifices  of  elaborate 
plan,  covered  with  figures  and  hieroglyphics 
in  relief  or  in  stucco,  and  showing  evidences 
of  having  once  been  painted  in  brilliant  colors. 
The  principal  structure,  known  as  the  palace, 
stands  on  a  truncated  terraced  pyramid,  faced 
with  cut  stone,  310  ft.  long  and  260  ft.  broad  at 
the  base,  and  40  ft.  high.  It  is  228  ft.  long, 
180  ft.  deep,  and  25  ft.  high,  with  a  broad,  pro- 
jecting cornice  of  stone.  It  is  constructed  of 
cut  stones  cemented  with  a  mortar  of  lime  and 
sand,  and  the  entire  face  was  once  covered 
with  stucco  and  painted.  The  piers  are  orna- 
mented with  bass  reliefs  in  stucco,  with  bor- 
ders of  hieroglyphics,  which  show  a  better 
knowledge  of  the  anatomy  of  the  human  figure 
than  has  been  found  among  the  other  works  of 
the  aboriginal  nations  of  America.  In  one  of 
the  courts  are  a  number  of  stucco  tablets,  and 
one  of  stone  which  represents  a  figure  seated 
cross-legged,  after  the  manner  of  Buddha  in 
some  of  the  Hindoo  sculptures  and  paintings, 
on  a  seat  carved  with  the  figures  of  jaguars, 
before  which  kneels  another  figure,  richly 
dressed,  in  the  act  of  presenting  some  object 
highly  ornamented.  There  are  several  hiero- 
glyphical  figures  on  the  tablet,  below  which 
are  traces  of  a  table  of  stone,  perhaps  an  altar. 
Another  building  is  75  ft.  long  and  25  ft.  deep, 
with  solid  walls  on  all  sides  except  the  north, 
which  has  five  doorways  and  six  piers.  The 
whole  front  is  richly  ornamented  in  stucco, 
and  the  two  corner  piers  are  covered  with 
hieroglyphics,  96  squares  to  each  pier.  The 
four  piers  dividing  the  doorways  are  orna- 
mented with  female  figures,  well  executed,  sur- 
rounded with  borders  of  hieroglyphics.  There 


PALERMO 


819 


are  three  inner  rooms,  with  a  corresponding 
number  of  doorways,  between  which  are  mas- 
sive stone  tablets  set  in  the  wall,  13  ft.  long 
and  8  ft.  high,  covered  with  hieroglyphics,  240 
squares  or  combined  figures  in  each.  In  an- 
other structure  a  tablet  exhibits  a  group  of 
human  figures,  apparently  in  the  act  of  making 
a  solemn  sacrifice.  There  are  other  similar 
structures  with  tablets  covered  with  human 
figures  in  relief  and  hieroglyphics,  some  of 
which  seem  to  have  been  dedicated  to  re- 
ligious purposes,  while  most  of  them  probably 
were  dwellings,  each  inhabited  by  a  number 
of  families.  The  pavements  are  skilfully  con- 
structed of  large  blocks  of  stone. — The  ruins 
were  discovered  by  the  Spaniards  in  1750,  ex- 
plored by  Bernasconi  in  1784,  by  Del  Rio  in 
1787,  and  by  Du  Paix  in  1807,  whose  account 
was  published  in  1834.  In  1822  M.  Frederic 
de  Waldeck  started  for  the  exploration  of  the 
ruins,  and  during  a  stay  of  several  years  made 
many  elaborate  drawings  and  plans.  In  1840 
they  were  explored  by  J.  L.  Stephens  and  F. 
Catherwood,  and  their  account,  illustrated  with 
drawings  and  plans,  was  soon  after  published. 
(See  Stephens's  "  Incidents  of  Travel  in  Cen- 
tral America,  Chiapas,  and  Yucatan,"  and 
Catherwood's  "Views  of  Ancient  Monuments 
in  Central  America,  Chiapas,  and  Yucatan.") 
They  were  visited  in  1846  by  Arthur  Morelet, 
who  published  Voyage  dans  VAmerique  Gen- 
trale  (Paris,  1857;  translated  into  English, 
"Itza,  or  the  Unexplored  Region  of  Central 
America,"  New  York,  1860). 

PALERMO.  I.  A  N.  W.  province  of  Sicily, 
bordering  on  the  Mediterranean  and  the  prov- 
inces of  Messina,  Catania,  Caltanisetta,  Gir- 
genti,  and  Trapani;  area,  1,964  sq.  m. ;  pop. 
in  1872,  617,678.  It  is  the  largest  and  most 
populous  of  the  Sicilian  provinces.  The  coast 
is  irregular  and  the  surface  is  hilly,  but  there 
are  many  very  fertile  valleys.  The  country 
has  a  general  slope  N.  toward  the  Mediter- 
ranean. Its  streams  are  numerous  but  small. 
It  produces  grain,  oil,  fruits,  almonds,  manna, 
sumach,  liquorice,  and  silk.  II.  A  city  (anc. 
Panormus),  capital  of  the  province  and  of  the 
island  of  Sicily,  in  lat.  38°  6'  N.,  Ion.  13°  20' 
E.,  120  m.  W.  by  S.  of  Messina;  pop.  in  1872, 
219,398.  It  is  on  the  K  side  of  the  island,  on 
a  deep  bay  between  Capes  Gallo  and  Zaffara- 
na,  and  in  a  rich  plain  which  is  surrounded  on 
the  land  side  by  two  distinct  mountain  ridges. 
This  enclosure  between  the  hills  and  the  sea 
has  been  called  from  its  form  and  beauty  the 
Conca  d'Oro,  or  golden  shell.  The  situation 
is  extremely  picturesque,  and  the  numerous 
spires,  domes,  and  towers  present  a  striking 
appearance.  The  climate  is  delightful,  espe- 
cially in  winter,  when  many  invalids  and  other 
strangers  reside  here.  The  harbor,  formed  by 
a  mole  about  1,300  ft.  long,  is  spacious.  The 
city  proper  is  nearly  rectangular,  and  forms  an 
oblong  parallelogram,  about  4  m.  in  circum- 
ference. It  is  surrounded  by  decayed  walls, 
entered  by  four  main  and  many  minor  gates, 


820 


PALERMO 


and  defended  by  bastions.  The  harbor  is  pro- 
tected by  a  strong  citadel  and  Forts  Galita  and 
Sant'  Erasmo,  and  the  lighthouse  battery.  Pa- 
lermo is  divided  into  four  nearly  equal  parts 
by  the  corso  Vittorio  Emmanuele  (previous 
to  1860  the  Oassaro  or  via  Toledo)  and  the 
corso  Garibaldi  (formerly  via  Macqueda  or 
strada  Nuovo),  which  intersect  each  other  at 
right  angles  in  the  centre  of  the  city.  The 
longer  of  these  runs  from  the  sea  to  the  royal 
palace,  which  is  at  the  inland  extremity  of 
the  city.  At  their  intersection  is  the  large 
piazza  Yigliena  or  Quattro  Cantoni,  which  is 
octagonal,  having  upon  four  sides  the  vista  of 
these  streets,  and  upon  each  of  the  others  a 
handsome  building  in  the  Grecian  style.  There 
is  a  larger  square  before  the  palace,  in  which 
is  a  bronze  statue  of  Philip  IY.  of  Spain. 
Numerous  smaller  streets  without  any  regular 
plan  run  into  these  two,  but  are  all  narrower 


and  dirty.  The  whole  city  is  well  paved  with 
large  blocks  of  lava.  The  Marina,  a  terrace  80 
yards'  wide,  extending  for  about  a  mile  along 
the  seaside,  is  the  finest  and  most  popular  place 
of  public  resort.  The  corso  Garibaldi  con- 
tains more  churches  and  palaces  and  the  cor- 
so Vittorio  Emmanuele  more  shops,  and  both 
are  alike  remarkable  for  animation.  Every 
house  is  abundantly  supplied  with  pure  water 
from  the  numerous  reservoirs  (giarre),  which 
were  originally  established  by  the  Saracens, 
generally  at  the  corners  of  the  streets.  The 
houses  generally  are  built  in  the  same  style  as 
those  of  Naples,  with  flat  roofs,  terraces,  and 
Venetian  blinds ;  they  are  divided  into  flats, 
each  flat  forming  a  distinct  dwelling. — The 
principal  public  edifice  is  the  royal  palace,  at 
the  S.  W.  extremity  of  the  town.  The  cathe- 
dral is  a  Gothic  structure  of  the  12th  century, 
to  which  a  modern  dome  has  been  added ;  the 


Cathedral  of  Palermo. 


interior  is  supported  by  80  pillars  of  oriental 
granite,  and  divided  into  chapels.  This  ca- 
thedral contains  many  mausolea  in  red  por- 
phyry, among  them  those  of  Roger,  the  Nor- 
man founder  of  the  Sicilian  monarchy,  and 
the  emperor  Frederick  II.  The  south  porch 
is  the  most  highly  ornamented,  and  has  a 
celebrated  marble  doorway  exquisitely  carved. 
The  ^  crypt,  E.  of  the  choir,  popularly  called 
Tutti  i  Santi,  and  occasionally  the  catacombs, 
measures  about  100  ft.  from  N.  to  S.  and  30 
ft.  from  E.  to  W.  exclusive  of  the  apses,  and 
contains  more  than  20  sarcophagi  with  the 
remains  of  local  archbishops.  The  chapel  of 
Santa  Maria,  the  place  of  coronation  of  the 
Sicilian  kings,  was  destroyed  by  the  bombard- 
ment of  1860.  The  richest  of  all  chapels  is 
that  of  Santa  Rosalia,  constructed  in  1631, 
some  time  after  the  discovery  of  a  chest  of 
solid  silver  of  the  weight  of  nearly  1  300 


Ibs.,  containing  the  remains  of  that  patron  saint 
of  Palermo.  (See  Die  Cathedrale  zu  Palermo, 
by  Becker  and  Forster,  folio,  Vienna,  1866.) 
Palermo  is  distinguished  for  the  number  and 
magnificence  of  its  churches.  One  of  the  most 
gorgeous  is  that  of  Santa  Oaterina,  finished 
in  1596.  It  is  a  large  edifice  of  Corinthian 
architecture  in  the  shape  of  a  cross,  with  a 
single  aisle  and  a  dome.  Within  the  choir  the 
pavement  consists  of  marbles  in  Florentine 
mosaic.  The  most  celebrated  among  the  nu- 
merous paintings  is  a  Madonna,  variously  attrib- 
uted to  Rubens  and  to  Vandyke.  The  Oasa 
Professa,  consecrated  in  1636,  and  formerly 
belonging  to  the  Jesuits,  is  remarkable  for  its 
size  and  adornments,  and  contains  some  of  the 
finest  of  Novelli's  pictures.  Red,  white,  and 
black  marbles  are  conspicuous  in  many  parts  of 
this  church.  Among  other  churches  noted  for 
magnificence  is  that  of  San  Domenico,  founded 


PALERMO 


PALES 


821 


in  1640  by  the  Dominicans,  and  built  in  the 
Eoman  Doric  style,  divided  into  three  aisles  by 
16  large  columns  of  gray  marble,  and  accom- 
modating nearly  12,000  persons.  The  church 
serves  also  as  a  Pantheon  (Santa  Croce),  and 
has  many  monuments  of  distinguished  Sicil- 
ians. The  church  of  Mortorana  or  Santa  Ma- 
ria dell'  Amiraglio,  popularly  called  San  Si- 
mone,  is  one  of  the  earliest  Norman  edifices 
in  Sicily,  of  the  12th  century.  The  exterior 
has  been  modernized,  but  the  interior  retains 
some  of  the  original  mosaics.  The  church  of 
San  Giuseppe  de'  Tiatini,  begun  in  1612  and 
completed  in  1645,  is  of  composite  architecture 
and  supported  by  26  massive  columns  in  the 
nave  and  aisle.  Santa  Maria  della  Catena,  or 
Parrochia  della  Kalsa,  dates  from  the  14th  cen- 
tury, excepting  the  \Y.  front,  remarkable  for 
a  strikingly  picturesque  portico,  which  was  re- 
built about  200  years  later.  It  contains  many 
chapels  and  many  sepulchral  monuments.  The 
private  chapel  of  the  royal  palace,  built  by 
Roger,  first  king  of  Sicily,  in  the  form  of  a 
basilica,  although  small,  has  all  the  character- 
istics of  a  large  church.  Almost  the  whole 
of  the  walls  and  dome  is  covered  with  mosaic 
pictures  on  a  gold  ground.  Palermo  is  the  see 
of  an  archbishop.  It  was  formerly  noted  for 
the  number  of  its  monasteries  and  nunneries, 
but  these  were  suppressed  in  1867.  Among 
them  were  La  Gancia  (S.  Maria  degli  Angioli), 
formerly  the  most  extensive  and  renowned, 
and  the  Capuchin  monastery  outside  the  city, 
with  celebrated  subterranean  vaults,  where  the 
standing  bodies  of  the  dead  present  a  ghastly 
spectacle.  An  ancient  subterranean  cemetery 
(Le  catacombe)  was  discovered  in  1785  outside 
the  gate  of  Ossuna.  The  teatro  Belloni,  re- 
built in  1803,  is  the  largest  and  most  fashion- 
able theatre,  and  there  are  five  others.  The 
festival  of  Santa  Rosalia  is  celebrated  July  1 1- 
15  by  fireworks,  the  procession  of  the  saint's 
car,  and  illuminations  in  La  Flora,  the  princi- 
pal public  park  and  a  familiar  lounge,  at  the 
S.  end  of  the  Marina.  The  university  of  Pa- 
lermo, founded  in  1447,  has  a  valuable  collec- 
tion of  antiquities  and  a  library  of  40,000  vol- 
umes. In  1873  there  were  56  professors  and 
306  students.  There  are  also  an  academy  of 
sciences,  a  nautical  school,  a  museum  with 
large  art  collections,  a  conservatory  of  music, 
a  botanic  garden,  and  many  other  institutions 
for  the  promotion  of  learning,  including  an  ob- 
servatory about  250  ft.  high  (in  the  royal  pal- 
ace), celebrated  through  the  discoveries  of  Pi- 
azzi  and  other  astronomers,  and  possessing  re- 
nowned astronomical  instruments.  The  pub- 
lic charities  embrace  several  hospitals,  a  found- 
ling institution,  and  a  lunatic  asylum. — The 
city  has  a  supreme  court  of  justice,  a  court  of 


appeal,  and  a  commercial  tribunal.  The  chief 
manufacture  is  silk;  cotton,  oil  cloth,  gold  and 
silver  articles,  and  hardware  are  also  produced. 
The  total  value  of  exports  for  the  year  ending 
Sept.  30,  1873,  was  $9,078,090,  of  which  $4,- 
125,250  were  for  oranges,  lemons,  and  other 
fruits ;  of  the  exports,  $2,327,492  were  to  the 
United  States.  The  value  of  the  imports  was 
$4,254,260.  The  tunny  fishery  carried  on  from 
the  town  is  very  productive.— N.  W.  of  the  city 
is  the  Monte  Pellegrino,  an  abrupt  rocky  mass, 
famed  for  a  cave  or  grotto  to  which  St.  Rosalia, 
a  Norman  princess,  retired  to  lead  a  contempla- 
tive life ;  it  is  now  a  sanctuary,  and  an  annual 
pilgrimage  is  made  to  it  from  Palermo  in  sol- 
emn procession  on  July  15. — Palermo  was  the 
earliest  settlement  of  the  Phoenicians  in  Sicily, 
and  became  the  chief  seat  of  their  power  there. 
It  was  by  the  Greeks  called  Panormus,  a  name 
derived  from  the  excellence  of  the  anchorage 
near  it.  In  480  B.  C.  the  city  was  taken  by 
the  Carthaginians,  who  kept  possession  of  it 
till  276,  when  it  was  captured  by  Pyrrhus,  king 
of  Epirus ;  but  it  was  soon  retaken  by  the  Car- 
thaginians. It  was  taken  by  the  Romans  in 
the  first  Punic  war,  254  B.  C.,  and  was  a  col- 
ony throughout  the  continuance  of  the  empire. 
It  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  Goths,  was  wrested 
from  them  by  the  Byzantine  general  Belisarius, 
and  in  A.  D.  835  was  taken  by  the  Saracens ; 
it  was  by  them  made  the  capital  of  the  island, 
and  retained  the  same  dignity  under  the  Nor- 
man kings,  who  in  the  llth  century  drove  out 
the  infidels,  and  in  the  12th  founded  the  king- 
dom of  Sicily.  The  court  resided  at  Palermo 
until  Sicily  was  united  to  the  kingdom  of  Na- 
ples. The  city  has  suffered  much  from  earth- 
quakes. During  the  insurrection  of  1848  it 
was  bombarded  by  the  royal  troops.  Garibal- 
di, having  landed  in  Sicily  May  13,  1860,  en- 
tered Palermo  on  the  26th,  conquering  it  after 
a  protracted  fight  in  the  streets ;  and  by  con- 
vention the  Neapolitan  army  evacuated  the  city 
on  June  6,  when  it  became  the  seat  of  the  pro- 
visional government.  An  insurrection  against 
the  abolition  of  the  monastic  orders  broke  out 
in  September,  1866,  but  was  suppressed  by  the 
royal  troops  after  much  bloodshed. 

PALES,  in  Roman  mythology,  the  tutelary  de- 
ity of  flocks  and  shepherds,  holding  nearly  the 
same  place  in  the  religious  worship  of  Rome 
that  Pan  held  among  the  Greeks,  and  repre- 
sented by  some  writers  as  a  male  and  by  oth- 
ers as  a  female.  The  festival  of  Pales,  called 
Palilia,,  was  celebrated  on  April  21,  the  anni- 
versary of  the  foundation  of  Rome  by  Romulus. 
The  principal  rites  were  the  purification  of  the 
stables,  flocks,  and  herds  by  fire  and  smoke, 
and  the  offering  of  cakes,  millet,  and  milk,  fol- 
lowed by  prolonged  jollity  and  feasting. 


END   OF   VOLUME   TWELFTH. 


APPENDIX. 


THE  following  tables  are  compiled  from  ad- 
vance sheets  of  vol.  iii.  of  the  Canadian  cen- 
sus of  1871,  now  (May,  1875)  passing  through 


the  press,  which  were  received  too  late  for 
use  in  the  articles  NEW  BBUNSWICK,  NOVA 
SCOTIA,  and  ONTAEIO  : 


FARM  PEODTJOTS,    &0. 


New  Brunswick. 

Nova  Scotia. 

Ontario. 

Quebec. 

Total. 

1,171,151 

1,627,091 

8,838,626 

5,703,944 

17,835,818 

7784<t 

790,155 

6,537,488 

8,714,304 

11,820,858 

885,105 

828,322 

2,089,177 

1,943,182 

5,240,786 

Wheat  bush                

204,911 

227,497 

14,233,889 

2,058,076 

16,728,873 

Barley  bush    .        

70,547 

269,050 

9,461,233 

1,668,208 

11,496,088 

8,044,134 

2,190,099 

22,188,958 

15,116,262 

42,489,453 

Bye  bush       

23,792 

83,987 

547,609 

458,970 

1,064,858 

26,850 

19,740 

7,658,545 

2,205,585 

9,905,720 

18,206 

15,463 

107,925 

79,050 

220,644 

Buckwheat,  bush      .            

1,231,091 

234,157 

585,158 

1,676,078 

8,726,484 

27,658 

23,849 

8,148,467 

608,356 

8,802,880 

6,562,355 

5,560,975 

17,138,584 

18,068,323 

47,330,187 

603,721 

468,139 

22,455,543 

812,078 

24,339,476 

98,358 

150,839 

2,706,903 

597,160 

3,553,260 

844793 

443,782 

1,804,476 

1,225  640 

8,818,641 

8233 

8,121 

189  716 

142585 

348,605 

Butter  Ibs                             

5,115,947 

7,161,867 

87,628,648 

24,289,127 

74,190,584 

154758 

884,853 

8,432,797 

512435 

4,984,843 

87845 

111  588 

116511T 

1  270  215 

2584,765 

126  395 

842,518 

5,486,504 

409,903 

6,365,815 

Grapes  Iba               .            

1,705 

8,167 

1,028  481 

88099 

1,126,402 

Other  fruits  bush.                            

2471 

12786 

242878 

100  878 

858,963 

880004 

151  190 

6,247442 

10  497  418 

17276054 

454 

268 

399'  870 

l'l95'345 

1  595,932 

Hops  Ibs              

10901 

12880 

1  188,940 

499  568 

1  711  789 

74,241 

111  987 

25502 

1  559  410 

1  771  140 

1  050  828 

1  476'003 

1  775'820 

8'339'766 

7  641  917 

86  322 

'  41  '925 

863585 

196  839 

'643171 

Colts  and  fillies  number.  

8464 

7654 

120  416 

57038 

198  572 

Working  oxen,  number 

11  182 

82214 

47  941 

48848 

189685 

83220 

122'6S8 

gjaoVsQ 

406  542 

1  251*209 

69'835 

1191065 

716474 

828  572 

l'233'446 

Sheep  number.               ...            

234418 

398'877 

1  514^914 

1  007'  800 

8155509 

Swine  number. 

65805 

54  162 

'874  664 

371  452 

l'366'o88 

Wool,lbs  

796'l68 

1  182  703 

6  41l'805 

2763804 

11  108  480 

Honey,  Ibs  

90,004 

'  ai',874 

1^239^612 

'6481310 

1,999,800 

FOEEST   PBODTJOT8. 


New  Brunswick. 

Nova  Scotia. 

Ontario. 

Quebec. 

Total. 

Square  pine  : 
White,  cubic  feet  

830920 

238638 

14,791  208 

8  876  060 

24  286  821 

Red,  cubic  feet  

60139 

22  020 

1  524  698 

847  515 

1  954.372 

Square  oak,  cubic  feet  

7'860 

96494 

8'l44'554 

5SG35 

8  802  043 

Tamarack,  cubic  feet  

860825 

116  816 

1  223  Hi 

8  994  878 

5695'968 

Birch  and  maple,  cubic  feet.  .  . 

827345 

518  727 

92  290 

500  905 

1  939  357 

Elm,  cubic  feet  

1  250 

200 

1  777'905 

53  299 

1  832  654 

All  other  timber,  cubic  feet 

2  192  728 

0  (\Q(\  KAQ 

1  A  AQoVru. 

26  708  661 

Pine  logs,*  number  

l'214485 

477  187 

6  718  204 

5  Oil  532 

12  416408 

Other  logs,*  number  

8533152 

897  595 

1  255  090 

8'g2s'720 

9  314  557 

Masts,  spars,  &c.,  number  

'  ll'856 

10681 

'    4^876 

'  94'  822 

'l21  '685 

Staves,  thousands  

747 

11  811 

20'964 

1  184 

84'  706 

Lath  wood,  cords  

2490 

'984 

15  095 

7  148 

25?657 

Tan  bark,  cords  

28'228 

12  388 

80  S54 

91  051 

162  521 

Fire  wood,  cords  

545,679 

526',472 

4,519,320 

8,121,'612 

8,713,083 

PEODUCTS   OF    FTJB-BEABINQ  ANIMALS. 


New  Brunswick. 

Nova  Scotia. 

Ontario. 

Quebec. 

Total. 

Beaver  skins,  number  .     . 

752 

676 

10  575 

Of!  140 

48,151 

Bear  skins,  number  

813 

onq 

850 

1    1ft1 

o  550 

Otter  skins,  number  

844 

2  083 

0  AQQ 

6  182 

Marten  skins,  number  

1  063 

4.'  '421 

1  7'*W2 

Mink  skins,  number.  .  .  . 

I   Q7(\ 

AQ  7QQ 

Fox  skins,  number.  .  .  . 

1  172 

coo 

19  Rfil 

Muskrat  skins,  number.  

18,972 

20  449 

268  981 

1  R4  ft^ft 

488  182 

Other  skins,  number 

1,420 

15^859 

83,659 

61,840 

1121778 

*  The  standard  log  of  the  census  contains  100  feet  of  lumber  in  board  measure. 


APPENDIX 


PRODUCTS   OF   FISHERIES. 


823 


New  Bruniwick. 

Nova  Scotia. 

Ontario. 

Quebec. 

Total. 

Vessels  employed,  number 

189 

722 

M 

8003 

7  940 

Men  employed,  number  

6'039 

18  206 

o  qart 

10  873 

Cod,  quintals  '     

87581 

880  308 

Haddock  hake  and  pollock,  quintals. 

IT  290 

101  042 

k.  .  ...  /  

181  792 

135  206 

Gaspereaux  (alewives),  barrels  ....         

18'534 

10  358 

OOK 

OQ  117 

Mackerel,  barrels  

2421 

69647 

Sardines,  barrels  

10 

25 



6  457 

6  492 

Halibut  barrels 

138 

2  536 

..... 

*ftQ1 

Salmon,  barrels  

6340 

4  218 

K  04.0 

15  Q07 

Shad,  barrels  .. 

8532 

7'l83 



Whiteflsh,  barrels  

'  57 

14 

21  115 

1  501 

23  017 

Trout,  barrels  

280 

372 

17  353 

1  724 

19  729 

Other  fish  barrels. 

9558 

2629 

1  2  fifiS 

AQ'QOPW 

Co'cMK 

Oysters,  barrels  

13243 

1  257 

14501 

Medicinal  cod  liver  oil,  gallons  

217 

1405 

..... 

869 

2  490 

Other  fish  oil,  gallons.     .       .  . 

75826 

287'925 

8  622 

809  030 

676  403 

The  principal  mineral  productions  returned  in 
the  census  are  as  follows :  New  Brunswick, 
3,070  tons  of  iron  ore,  13,502  of  coal,  and  13,- 
659  of  lump  gypsum ;  Nova  Scotia,  19,331  oz. 
of  gold,  3,566  tons  of  iron  ore,  657,506  of  coal, 
and  96,544  of  lump  gypsum;  Ontario,  199  oz. 


of  gold,  69,197  of  silver,  1,934  tons  of  copper 
ore,  30,726  of  iron  ore,  and  12,969,435  gallons 
of  crude  petroleum ;  Quebec,  3,411  oz.  of  gold, 
11,326  tons  of  copper  ore,  92,001  of  iron  ore, 
and  2,300  of  pyrites.  The  copper  and  iron  ores 
contain  25  per  cent,  of  metal. 


MANUFACTURES. 


PROVINCES. 

Capital  invested. 

Number  of 
hands  employed. 

Amount  of  yearly 

wages. 

Value  of  raw 
material. 

Total  value  of 
products. 

New  Brunswick 

$5,976,176 

18,352 

$3,869,360 

$9,431,760 

$17,867,681 

Nova  Scotia  

6,041,966 

15,595 

8,176,266 

5,806,257 

12,388,105 

Ontario. 

37,874,010 

87,281 

21,415,710 

65,114,804 

114,706,799 

Quebec  

28,071,868 

66,714 

12,889,673 

44,555,025 

77,205,182 

Total  ... 

$77,964,020 

187,942 

$40,851,009 

$124,907,846 

$221,617,778 

The  principal  branches  of  manufacture  for  the  I  number  of  hands  employed,  and  value  of  pro- 
different'  provinces,  with  the  capital  invested,  |  ducts,  are  shown  in  the  two  following  tables : 


INDUSTRIES. 

NEW  BBCTN8WICK. 

NOVA  SCOTIA. 

Capital  in- 
vested. 

Hands 
employed. 

Value  of 
products. 

Capital  in- 
vested. 

Hands 
employed. 

Value  of 
products. 

Bakeries  of  all  sorts      .     .  .        

$20,305 
114,090 
163,420 
48,686 
68,096 
27,888 
87,602 
4,241 
125,000 
7,738 
82,600 
828,258 
314,200 
250,345 

181 

866 
1,187 
174 
142 
211 
472 
261 
127 
268 
82 
811 
650 
85 

$279,191 
512,930 
976,457 
162.951 
232,183 
181,910 
808,684 
88,707 
160,600 
195,896 
119,000 
1,049,855 
602,095 
66,020 

$74,900 
156,276 
247,729 
283,580 
77,610 
115,126 
87,665 
27,830 

184 
1,226 
1,813 
815 

198 
516 
428 
548 

$895,915 
592,718 
1,057,589 
252,460 
274,889 
278,108 
204,028 
131,099 

Blacksmithing 

Boots  and  shoes  

Cabinet  and  furniture     .  .          .            

Carding  and  fulling  mills 

Carpenters  and  joiners  

Carriage  making 

Dress  making  and  millinery                              

9,635 
34,000 
842,064 
807,050 
869,000 
300,000 
8,875 
85,500 
85,700 
177,950 
427,200 

217 
59 
416 
455 
41 
220 
81 
22 
231 
252 
803 

156,882 
55,250 
1,073,054 
484,122 
116,514 
100,000 
82,241 
88,500 
110,869 
824,400 
212,998 

Fittings  and  foundery  working  in  brass,  iron,  lead,  &c. 
Flour  and  grist  mills  

Founderies  and  machine  working 

Meat  curing.               

15,419 
72,500 
41,866 
99,600 

61 
118 
279 
220 

144,473 
844,000 
139,852 
190,690 

Nail  and  tack  factories 

Quartz  crushing  mills  

Boiling  mills  

70,000 
20,900 
41,795 
45,768 
2,848,108 
81,090 
169,210 
10,100 
70,386 
238,930 
80,968 
2,750 
52,100 

75 

68 
155 
167 
7,134 
117 
1,364 
25 
1,072 
341 
148 
64 
97 

100,000 
79,700 
148,001 
106,944 
6,575,759 
540,791 
1,086,714 
107,000 
826,831 
596,722 
118,418 
26,800 
126,700 

80,000 
48,950 
68,780 
955,220 
123,283 
299,425 
17,575 
181.276 
847,344 
41,820 
53,000 
71,800 

75 
143 

99 
2,858 
146 
2,058 
24 
579 
547 
138 
261 
104 

120,000 
104,414 
179,850 
1,897,987 
180,455 
1,634,920 
103,710 
427,881 
769,998 
127,565 
288,500 
99,752 

Saddle  and  harness  making  

Sash  door  and  blind  factories  

Saw  mills  

Ship  material  making  

Tailors  and  clothiers 

Tanneries                     

Tin  and  sheet-iron  working  

Tobacco  working  

"Wool  cloth  making  

824: 


APPENDIX 


ONTARIO 

QUEBEC. 

INDUSTRIES. 

Capital  in- 
vested. 

Hands 
employed 

Value  of 
products. 

Capital  in- 
vested. 

Hands 
employed 

Value  of 
products. 

$821,242 

2,143 

$2,291,989 

$278,660 

878 

$382  582 

466  462 

1,239 

2,983,740 

492,864 

1,160 

3,288  628 

812,070 

4,810 

2,729,760 

688,202 

8,311 

1,529,058 

34,300 

179 

274,150 

12,000 

40 

37,000 

Bookbindin0'                        

78,820 

365 

353,953 

98,655 

197 

131,438 

1.016,067 

6,354 

5,025,455 

1,839417 

9,865 

9  074  187 

849,640 

536 

1,198,919 

636500 

342 

816  980 

212  918 

1,939 

577,904 

178  832 

791 

293288 

Broom  and  brush  making           

60,284 

335 

813,829 

74.763 

136 

151  Oil 

1,203,801 

2,769 

2,306,076 

564108 

1108 

859  491 

Carding  and  fullincp  mills                               

280,650 

338 

539,857 

826606 

546 

1  206  915 

265  093 

1,792 

1,284  047 

871  565 

2889 

2  032  285 

Carriage  making  

1,162,327 

4,780 

8,078,841 

522,015 

2118 

1  '257  '786 

Chemical  establishments                     

129,900 

55 

207,100 

886000 

137 

608150 

355,279 

909 

1  454,702 

40425 

77 

123  961 

Cooperage  

272,779 

1,837 

1,281,868 

145664 

796 

820*989 

Cordial  and  sirup  manufactories  

28,724 

86 

65,128 

101  895 

71 

498880 

Cotton  factories                            

457  000 

495 

492  200 

50000 

128 

129000 

Distilleries 

657  200 

421 

8  875  757 

80000 

45 

210  000 

Dress  making  and  millinery  

276,777 

2,126 

1,850,483 

210'723 

1266 

882*918 

Edge  tool  manufactories  

83925 

223 

204,405 

57175 

101 

157  870 

Engine  building 

417  000 

508 

671  000 

247  900 

457 

883  525 

Fittings  and  foundery  working  in  brass,  iron,  lead,  &c. 
Flour  and  grist  mills  

86,932 
5,797,853 

191 
2,759 

191,056 
27,115,796 

803,880 
8  461  723 

659 
1506 

528*062 
9  897  714 

Founderies  and  machine  working.  . 

2  403  480 

4686 

4631  850 

785  775 

1  862 

1  607464 

Furriers  and  hatters,  &c  .  . 

145  875 

550 

518  189 

993  403 

1  255 

2  302  971 

Gas  works  

965,900 

113 

263206 

895  400 

*110 

'804*460 

Glass  works  

22000 

98 

112330 

114120 

220 

180800 

India-rubber  factories  

600 

2 

7000 

454000 

492 

495  610 

Iron  smelting  furnaces  and  steel  making  

192  000 

404 

198*000 

Jewellers  and  watch  makers  

73405 

235 

210188 

123  772 

184 

175864 

Lime  kilns  

64197 

1  099 

265  883 

88695 

758 

166346 

Match  factories  

4565 

41 

14660 

97825 

1  052 

202  897 

Meat  curing  

337,525 

661 

3  193*122 

57506  , 

'  88 

429*716 

Musical  instrument  making  

147  100 

887 

496  012 

25400 

60 

77650 

Nail  and  tack  factories  

8000 

16 

22000 

266050 

484 

747  880 

Oil  refineries  

524,940 

433 

2  845'669 

100  000 

61 

249*000 

Pail  and  tub  factories  . 

78580 

114 

172764 

Paint  and  varnish  works  

9700 

g 

12700 

48450 

25 

198200 

Painters,  glaziers,  &c  

27571 

279 

208804 

28  548 

111 

80*166 

Paper  manufactories  

857  900 

844 

487500 

225  500 

884 

537*876 

Pot  and  pearl  asheries  

116  946 

598 

891  655 

88*470 

847 

128  685 

Potteries  

63772 

207 

186  405 

81.896 

108 

99814 

Printing  offices  

981060 

1  784 

1  907  067 

900  050 

1  241 

998*045 

Eailway  car  factories  

36000 

60 

204000 

60000 

'  80   ' 

264000 

Boiling  mills  

170  000 

425 

1  180  000 

200000 

262 

400  1)  00 

Eope  and  twine  making  

40  160 

138 

185  740 

69  ('00 

169 

434*400 

Saddle  and  harness  making  

884486 

1  773 

1  645  898 

161,635 

596 

672  508 

Salt  works  

203  100 

175 

'l!9'999 

Sash,  door,  and  blind  factories  

553*505 

1548 

1  546  898 

299  241 

705 

1,174949 

Saw  mills  

7  382  654 

13  851 

12  738  741 

4  859  607 

11  £48 

9  548  810 

Scutching  mills  

93300 

'480 

'259*653 

'  14*482 

'  79 

10165 

Sewing  machine  factories  

174  200 

711 

790  560 

172  200 

255 

882904 

Shingle  making  

845  153 

1  541 

662  608 

68  877 

674 

105*599 

Ship  material  making  

16000 

40 

49*745 

62000 

69 

111  280 

Ship  yards  

4K1  7QO 

2  164 

1  351  416 

Soap  and  candle  making  

95450 

154 

524  720 

156  696 

'  93 

'588*428 

Starch  factories  

114'oOO 

63 

91  fi  184 

7*000 

Q 

6*500 

Stone  and  marble  establishments 

99'  610 

577 

459  891 

76*519 

466 

490788 

Straw  works  

60805 

374 

154  250 

205  000 

234 

884,000 

Sugar  refineries  

400,000 

849 

4,068,750 

Tailors  and  clothiers  
Tanneries  

998,313 
1  01  S  74  *> 

6,248 

5,425,464 

521,928 
1  O'Sfi  147 

8,193 
1  785 

2,665,699 
4397  999 

Tin  and  sheet-iron  working 

456  142 

1  251 

1  827  276 

260  286 

*819 

*824*879 

Tobacco  working  

124*%5 

*7ft7 

'fiQO^OCf 

g()2  490 

1  184 

1  426'  656 

Trunk  and  box  making 

89  750 

ifift 

52  553 

*2S8 

282  800 

Wool  cloth  making  

2,254,706 

8,696 

4,589,119 

898*208 

656 

691,978 

CONTENTS    OF  VOLUME  XII. 


PAGE 

Mott,  Lucretia  (Coffin) 5 

Mott,  Valentine 5 

Motte  Cadillac.    See  Cadillac. 

Motteville,  Francoise  Bertaut  de . . . .  6 

Mottez,  Victor  Louis 6 

Moufflon.    See  Sheep. 

Mould,  Jacob  Wrey 6 

Moulins 6 

Moulmein.    See  Maulmain. 

Moulton,  Louise  Chandler 6 

Moultrie  co 6 

Moultrie,  Fort 6 

Moultrie,  William 7 

Mound  Bird.    See  Brush  Turkey. 
Mounds.    See  American  Antiquities. 

Moundsville 7 

Mount,  William  Sidney 7 

Mountain 8 

Mountain,  Jacob » 10 

Mountain,  George  Jehosaphat 10 

Mountains  of  the  Moon 10 

Mount    Auburn.      See   Cambridge, 


Mount  Desert 10 

Mount  Everest.  See  Himalaya  Moun- 
tains, vol.  viii.,  p.  732. 

Mountford,  William 11 

Mount  Pleasant 11 

Mountraille  co 11 

Mount  Saint  Elias.    See  Alaska. 

Mount  Vernon 11 

Mount  Vernon,  Ohio 12 

Mount  Vernon,  Ind 12 

Mourning 12 

Mouse 14 

Mouton,  Georges.    See  Lobau. 

Movers,  Franz  Karl 15 

Mowatt  (Ritchie),  Anna  Cora 15 

Mower  co , . . .  16 

Mowing  and  Eeaping  Machines 16 

Moxa 18 

Moxos 18 

Mozambique 18 

Mozambique  Channel 19 

Mozart,  Johann  Georg  Leopold 19 

Mozart,      Johannes      Chrysostomus 

Wolfgang  Amadeus 19 

Mozier,  Joseph 24 

Mozley.  James  Bowling 25 

Mtzensk 25 

Mucius  Scaevola.    See  Scaevola. 

Miicke,  Heinrich  Karl  Anton 25 

Mucous  Membrane.    See  Membrane. 

Mucus 25 

Mud  Eel.    See  Siren. 

Mud  Fish 25 

Mud  Hen.    See  Coot. 

Mudie,  Eobert 26 

Muezzin 26 

Mufti 26 

Miigge,  Theodor 26 

Muggleton,  Ludowick 26 

Muhlbach,  Luise.    See  Mundt,  Klara. 

Miihlberg 27 

Muhldorf,  Battle  of.    See  Ampflng. 

Muhlenberg,  Peter  John  Gabriel 27 

Muhlenberg,  Gotthilf  Henry  Ernst..  27 


PAGE 

Muhlenberg,  William  Augustus 27 

Muhlenburg  co 27 

Miihlhausen,  Alsace 27 

Muhlhausen,  Prussia 28 

Muhlheim-on-the-Ehine 28 

Muhlheim-on-the-Ruhr. 28 

Muir,  John . .  28 


Muir,  Sir  William 

Mulatto.    See  Negro. 

Mulberry 

Mulder,  Gerardus  Johannes 

Mule.    See  Ass. 

Mule  Deer.    See  Deer. 

Mulgrave,  Constantino  John  Phipps, 
Lord 

Mulgrave,  Henry  Phipps,  Earl  of. ... 

Mulgrave,  John  Sheffield.  Earl  of. 
See  Buckingham,  or  Buckingham- 
shire, Duke  of. 

Mulgrave  Islands 

Mulhouse.    See  Muhlhausen. 

Mull. . . . 

Mullein 

Mullenhoff,  Karl  Victor 

Muller,  Charles  Louis 

Muller,  Friedrich  (two) 

Muller,  Friedrich  Max 

Muller,  George 

Muller,  Gerhard  Friedrich 

Muller,  Johann.  See  Regiomontanus. 

Muller,  Johann  Gotthard  von 

Muller,  Johann  Friedrich  Wilhelm.. 

Muller,  Johann  Heinrich  Jakob 

Muller,  Johannes 

Muller,  Johannes  von 

Muller,  Karl  Otfried 

Muller,  Julius 

Muller,  Eduard 

Muller,  Otto 

Mulltr,  Otto  Frederik 

Muller,  Peder  Erasmus 

Muller,  Sophie 

Muller,  Wilhelm 

Muller,  William  John 

Muller  von  Konigswinter,  Wolfgang, 

Mullet 1 

Mullner,  Amadeus  Gottfried  Adolf. . 

Mulock,  Dinah  Maria.    See  Craik. 

Mulready,  William 

Mulso,  Hester.    See  Chapone. 

Multnomah  co 

Mummius,  Lucius 

Mummy , 

Mumps 

Munch,  Ernst  Hermann  Joseph  von 

Munch,  Friedrich 

Munch,  Peter  Andreas 

Munch,  Andreas : 

Munch-Bellinghausen,  Eligius  Franz 
Joseph  von,  Baron 

Munchhausen,  Hieronymus  Karl 
Friedrich  von,  Baron 

Mundt,  Theodor 

Mundt,  Klara  (Luise  Muhlbach) 

Munich 

Munjeet 

Munk,  Salomon 


23 


37 


PAGE 

Munkacs 45 

Munnich,  Burkhard  Christoph,  Count  45 

Muftoz,  Fernando 45 

Munro,  Alexander 45 

Munsees 45 

MunselL  Joel 45 

Munster,  Ireland 46 

Munster,  Germany.. 46 

Miinter,  Balthasar 46 

Munter,  Friedrich 46 

Muntjac 47 

Munzer,  Thomas 47 

Munzinger,  Werner 48 

Murad.    See  Amurath. 
Muraena.    See  Eel,  vol.  vi.,  p.  447. 

Murat,  Joachim 48 

Muratori.  Ludovico  Antonio 50 

Muravieff,  family  of 50 

Muravieif,  Mikhail  (two) 50 

Muravieff,  Nikolai  (three) 50 

Muravieff,  Alexander 50 

Muravieff- Apostol,  Ivan 51 

Muravieff- Apostol,  Sergei 51 

Murchison,  Sir  Roderick  Impey 51 

Murcia 51 

Murder 52 

Murdoch,  James  Edward 53 

Murdock,  James 54 

Mure,  William 54 

Muret,  Theodore  Cesar 54 

Murex 54 

Murfreesboro 54 

Murger,  Henry. 65 

Muriatic   Acid.     See    Hydrochloric 

Acid. 

Murillo,  Bartolom6  Esteban 55 

Murner,  Thomas 56 

Murphy,  Arthur 57 

Murrain 57 

Murray  co.,  Ga 61 

Murray  co.,  Minn 61 

Murray,  a  river 61 

Murray,  Alexander 61 

Murray,  Alexander 62 

Murray,  James  Stuart,  Earl  of 62 

Murray,  John 62 

Murray,  John  (two) 63 

Murray,  Lindley 64 

Murray,  Nicholas 64 

Murray,  Patrick 64 

Murray,  Sir  Robert 64 

Murray,  William.    See  Mansfield. 
Murray,  William  Henry  Harrison. ..  64 

Murviedro 65 

Musaeus  (two) 65 

Musaus,  Johann  Karl  August 65 

Muscardine 65 

Muscat 65 

Muscat    or    Muscatel   Wine.      See 

France,  Wines  of,  and  Germany, 

Wines  of. 

Muscatine  co 66 

Muscatine 66 

Muscle 67 

Muscle  Shoals.  See  Tennessee  River. 

Muscogee  co 69 

Muscogees.    See  Creeks. 


11 


CONTENTS 


PAGE 

Muscovy.    See  Eussia. 
Muscovy  Duck.    See  Duck,  vol.  vi., 
p.  289. 

Muses 69 

Museum TO 

Mushroom 70 

Music 78 

Musical  Box 94 

Musimon.    See  Sheep. 

Musk 94 

Musk  Deer 95 

Muskegon  co 96 

Muskegon 96 

Musket 96 

Muskingum 101 

Muskingum  co 101 

Muskoka 101 

Muskokees.    See  Creeks. 

MuskOx 101 

Muskrat 102 

Musk  Turtle.    See  Tortoise. 

Musonius,  Caius  Eufus 102 

Muspratt,  James  Sheridan 103 

Musquash.    See  Muskrat. 

Musschenbroek,  Pieter  van 108 

Mussel 103 

Musset,  Louis  Charles  Alfred  de.. ..  104 

Musset,  Victor  Donatien  de 104 

Musset,  Paul  Edme  de 104 

Mussey,  Eeuben  Dimond 104 

Mustard 105 

Mutina.    See  Modena. 

Mutiny 106 

Muttra 107 

Muttra,  Arabia.    See  Muscat. 

Muyscas 107 

Muziano,  Girolamo 108 

Muzzey,  Artemas  Bowers 108 

Mycale 108 

Myceme 108 

Myconi 108 

Myer,  Albert  J 109 

Myers,  Peter  Hamilton 109 

Mygale.    See  Spider. 

Mylitta 109 

Mylodon 109 

Myriapod.    See  Centipede. 

Myrmecobius 110 

Myrmeleon.    See  Ant  Lion. 

Myrmidones Ill 

Myron Ill 

Myrrh Ill 

Er    "Je 112 
a 118 
.    >re 118 

Mysteries 114 

Mysteries.    See  Miracles  and  Moral- 
ities. 

Mythology 115 

Mytilene 120 

Myxinoids 121 

Myzonts.    See  Myxinoids. 


N 


Nabatheans.    See  Edom. 

Nabis 

Nablus 

Nabob 

Nachtigal,  Gustav 

Nacogdocb.es  co 

Nadir  Shah 

Naevius.  Cneius 

Nagasaki 

Nagoya 

Nagpore 

Nahant 


Nahum 

Naiads 

Nail 

Nain 

Nairne,  Baroness. 

Carolina. 
Nairnshire  ................. 

Na.ja.    See  Cobra  de  Capello." 

Nakhitchevan 

Namaqua  .............. 

Names 
-cfamur 


See    Oliphant, 


122 
122 


128 

124 
124 
124 
125 
125 
125 
125 
125 
125 
126 


126 

126 
127 
127 
128 


PAGE 

Nana  Sahib 129 

Nancy 130 

Nandou.    See  Ostrich. 

Nanking 130 

Nansemond  co 131 

Nantasket 181 

Nanterre 131 

Nantes 131 

Nanteuil,  Celestin 132 

Nantucket 182 

Napa  co 182 

Naphtali 133 

Naphtha...  188 

Naphthaline 133 

Napier,  Sir  Charles 134 

Napier,  Sir  Charles  James 135 

Napier,  Henry  Edward 136 

Napier,  John 186 

Napier,  Macvey 186 

Napier,  Eobert 136 

Napier,  Sir  William  Francis  Patrick  136 
Napier  of  Magdala,  Eobert  Corne- 
lius, Baron 187 

Napierville  co 137 

Naples,  Kingdom  of.     See  Sicilies, 
the  Two. 

Naples,  a  province 137 

Naples,  a  city 187 

Napo,  a  river.    See  Ecuador,  vol.  vi., 

p.  394. 

Napoleon  Bonaparte.     See  Bona- 
parte. 

Napoleon -Vendee 148 

Napoli  di  Bomania.    See  Nauplia. 

Naquet,  Alfred  Joseph 143 

Narbonne 143 

Narbonne-Lara,  Louis,  Count  de. . .  143 

Narcissus,  in  mythology 148 

Narcissus  (two) 144 

Narcissus,  a  plant 144 

Narcotics 145 

Narcotina.    See  Opium. 
Nard.    See  Spikenard. 

Nares,  James 146 

Nares,  Eobert 146 

Nares,  Edward 146 

Naro 146 

Narragansett  Bay 146 

Narragansetts. . .' 146 

Narses 146 

Naruszewicz,  Adam  Stanislaw 147 

Narva 147 

Narvaez,  Pamfilo  de 147 

Narvaez,  Eamon  Maria 147 

Narwhal 148 

Nascapees 148 

Naseby 149 

Nash  co 149 

Nash,  Joseph 149 

Nash,  Eichard 149 

Nash,  Thomas 150 

Nashua 150 

Nashville 150 

Nasmyth,  James 153 

Naso 153 

Nasr-ed-Din,  Shah. 153 

Nassau,  Germany 153 

Nassau  co 158 

Nassau,  an  island 153 

Nassau,  N.  P 153 

Nassau  Hall.    See  Princeton. 

Nassau  Islands 154 

Nassick 154 

Nast,  Thomas 154 

Nasturtium 154 

Natal 155 

Natchez,  Indians 157 

Natchez,  a  city 158 

Natchitoches,  Indians 159 

Natchitoches  parish 159 

Natick. 159 

Nations,  Law  of.    See  Law  of  Na- 
tions. 

Natron.    See  Soda. 
Natural  Bridge.    See  Bridge,  Natu- 
ral. 

Natural  History. 159 

Naturalization 160 

Natural  Philosophy 174 

Nauheim 174 

Naumann,  Johann  Friedrich 174 

Naumann,  Johann  Gottlieb 174 


PAGE 

Naumann,  Karl  Friedrich 174 

Naumann,  Moritz  Ernst  Adolf. 174 

Naumann,  Emil 174 

Naumburg 174 

Naupactus.    See  Lepanto. 

Nauplia 175 

Nausea 175 

Nausets.     See  Massachusetts  In- 
dians. 
Naushon.    See  Elizabeth  Islands. 

Nautilus 175 

Nauvoo '.'.  177 

Navajos 178 

Navarino 178 

Navarre 178 

Navarrete,  Domingo  Ferdinandez..  179 

Navarrete,  Juan  Fernandez 179 

Navarrete,  Martino  Fernandez 179 

Navarro  co 180 

Navez,  Francois  Joseph 180 

Navigation 180 

Navigation  Laws 182 

Navigators'  Islands.     See  Samoan 
Islands. 

Navy 182 

Naxos 190 

Naylor,  James 190 

Nazareans.     See  Christians  of  St. 
John. 

Nazarene 191 

Nazareth,  Pa 191 

Nazareth,  Palestine 191 

Nazarite 191 

Neal,  Daniel 191 

Neal,  Alice  Bradley.    See  Haven. 

Neal,  John 192 

Neal,  Joseph  Clay 192 

Neale,  John  Mason 192 

Neander,  Johann  August  Wilhelm.  192 
Neapolis.    See  Naples. 
Neapolis,  Palestine.     See  Nablus, 
and  Shechem. 

Nearchus 198 

Neath 193 

Nebraska. .' 193 

Nebraska  City 198 

Nebuchadnezzar 198 

Nebula 199 

Nebular  Hypothesis 201 

Necho...... 203 

Neckar 208 

Necker,  Jacques 203 

Necker,  Susanne  Curchod  de  Nasse.  204 

Necromancy 204 

Necrosis 205 

Nectar 206 

Nectarine 206 

Nectary 206 

Nedjed 206 

Needle 208 

Needles,  The 209 

Neef,  Pieter 209 

Neele,  Henry 209 

Nees  von  Esenbeck,  Christian  Gott- 
fried Daniel 209 

Ne  Exeat 210 

Neff,  Felix 210 

Negaunee 210 

Negligence 210 

Negotiable  Paper 212 

Negrelli,  Aloys  von 215 

Negritos 215 

Negro 215 

Negro  Eio.    See  Eio  Negro. 
Negropont.    See  Eubcea. 

Nehemiah 217 

Neher,  Bernhard  von 21T 

Nehlig,  Victor 217 

Neilgherry  Hills 218 

Neisse 218 

Nelaton,  Auguste 218 

Nelson  co.,  Va 218 

Nelson  co.,  Ky 218 

Nelson 219 

Nelson,  David 219 

Nelson,  Horatio,  Viscount 219 

Nelson,  Samuel 222 

Nelson,  Thomas 222 

Nelson  Eiver 223 

Nelumbium.    See  Water  Lily. 

Nehama  co.,  Neb 223 

Nehama  co.,  Kansas 228 


CONTENTS 


in 


PAGE 

Nemean  Games 223 

Nemesianus,      Marcus      Aurelius 

Olympiua 223 

Nemesis 224 

Nemesius 224 

Nemi 224 

Nemours,  Louis  Charles    Philippe 

Raphael  d'Orleans,  Duke  de 224 

Nena  Sahib.    See  Nana  Sahib. 

Nennius 224 

Neograd.    See  Nograd. 

Neo-Platonism 224 

Neoptolemus  (two) 225 

Neosho  co 225 

Nepaul 225 

Nepenthe 22T 

Nepenthes.    See  Pitcher  Plants. 
Nephrite.    See  Jade. 

Nepomucen.  John 22T 

Nepos,  Cornelius 227 

Neptune 22T 

Neptune,a  planet 228 

Nerac 229 

Nerbudda 229 

Nereids,  in  mythology.   See  Nereus. 

Nereids 229 

Nereus 229 

Neri,  Filippo  de' 230 

Nerium.    See  Oleander. 

Nero,  Emperor 230 

Nero,  Claudius.  See  Claudius  Nero. 
Nero,  Claudius  Drusus.  See  Drusus. 
Nero,  Claudius  Tiberius.  See 

Claudius  Nero,  Tiberius. 
Nero  Germanicus,  Tiberius  Claudius 

Drusus.    See  Claudius  I. 
Neroli.    See  Orange. 

Nertchinsk 231 

Nerva,  Marcus  Cocceius,  Emperor.  231 
Nerval,  Gerard  de.    See  Gerard  de 

Nerval. 

Nerve 232 

Nerve  Cell 233 

Nervii 233 

Nervous  System 233 

Neshobaco 239 

Ness  co 239 

Nesselrode,  Karl  Robert  von,  Count  239 

Nestor  (two) 240 

Nestorians 240 

Nestorius 241 

Netherlands 242 

Netherlands,  Language  and  Litera- 
ture of  the 249 

Netscher,  Gaspar 253 

Netscher,  Theodore 253 

Netscher,  Constantine 253 

Nettement,  Alfred  Francois 254 

Nettle 254 

Nettle  Eash 255 

Nettleton,  Asahel 255 

Nettle  Tree.    See  Hackberry. 

Neu-Brandenburg 255 

Neu-Breisach.    See  Breisach. 

Neufchatel 256 

Neuhof,  Theodor  von,  Baron 256 

Neuilly 25T 

Neukomm,  Sigismund,  Chevalier..  257 

Neumann,  Karl  Friedrich 257 

Neuralgia 257 

Neureuther  Eugen 25S 

Neuroptera 258 

Neusatz 258 

Neuse 258 

Neusiedler  Lake 259 

Neuss 259 

Neu-Strelitz 259 

Neustria 259 

Neuters 259 

Neutra 259 

Neutrality 259 

Neuville,  Hyde  de.     See  Hyde  de 

Neuville. 

Neuwied 262 

Neuwied,  Hermann,  Prince  of 262 

Neuwied,  William,  Prince  of 262 

Neuwied,  Maximilian,  Prince  of. ...  262 

Neva 262 

Nevada 262 

Nevada  co.,  Ark 269 

Nevada  co.,  Cal 269 

Nevers  ..  ..270 


PAGE 

Neviansk 270 

Nevin,  John  Williamson 270 

Nevis 270 

New  Albany 270 

Newark,  N.  J 271 

Newark,  Ohio 273 

Newark,  Eng 273 

Newaygo  co 273 

New  Bedford 273 

New  Berne 274 

Newberry  co 274 

Newberry,  John  Strong 275 

New  Brighton,  N.  Y.    See  Staten 
Island. 

New  Brighton,  Pa 275 

New  Britain,  islands 275 

New  Britain,  Conn 275 

New  Brunswick,  Canada 275 

New  Brunswick,  N.  J 278 

Newburgh 279 

Newburyport 280 

New  Calabar.    See  Calabar. 

New  Caledonia 281 

New  Castle  co 282 

New  Castle 282 

Newcastle,     William      Cavendish, 

Duke  of 282 

Newcastle,    Margaret     Cavendish, 

Duchess  of 282 

Newcastle,  Thomas  Holies  Pelham, 

Duke  of 283 

Newcastle,  Henry  Pelham  Fiennes 

Pelham  Clinton,  Duke  of 283 

Newcastle-under-Lyme 283 

Newcastle-upon-Tyne 284 

Newcomb,  Harvey 285 

Newcomb,  Simon 285 

Newcome,  William 285 

Newell  Robert  Henry 285 

Newell,  Samuel 285 

Newell,  Harriet  Atwood 285 

New  England 286 

Newfoundland 286 

Newfoundland  Dog.    See  Dog,  vol. 

vi.,  p.  180. 

New  Granada.    See  Colombia. 
New  Guinea.    See  Papua. 

New  Hampshire 291 

New  Hanover  co 299 

New  Harmony 299 

New  Haven  co 299 

New  Haven 300 

New  Hebrides 301 

New  Holland.    See  Australia. 

New  Ireland 301 

New  Jersey 802 

New  Jersey,  College  of.    See  Prince- 
ton. 

New  Jersey  Tea 312 

New  Jerusalem 812 

Nevt  Kent  co 312 

New  Lanark.    See  Lanark. 

New  Lebanon 812 

New  Leon.    See  Nuevo  Leon. 

New  London  co 813 

New  London 313 

New  Madrid  co 814 

Newman,  Edward 314 

Newman,  John  Henry 315 

Newman,  Francis  William 815 

Newmarket 81 6 

New  Mexico 81 6 

New  Milford 821 

New  Orleans 321 

New  Philippines.    See  Caroline  Isl- 
ands. 

Newport  co 329 

Newport,  R.  1 329 

Newport,  Ky 330 

Newport,  Eng.  (two) 330 

Newport,  Christopher 831 

New  Providence 331 

New  Ross. .......'. 331 

Newry 831 

New  South  Wales 331 

Newspapers 834 

Newstead  Abbey 344 

Newt.    See  Triton. 

New  Testament.    See  Bible. 

Newton  co.,  Ga 844 

Newton  co.,  Miss 844 

Newton  co.,  Texas 844 


PAGE 

Newton  co,,  Ark 844 

Newton  co.,  Ind 845 

Newton  co.,  Mo 345 

Newton 845 

Newton,  Charles  Thomas 345 

Newton,  Gilbert  Stuart 845 

Newton,  Sir  Isaac 346 

Newton,  John 350 

Newton,  Robert 351 

Newton,  Thomas 351 

New  Westminster 351 

New  Year's  Day 351 

New  York,  state 352 

New  York,  city 873 

New  Zealand 405 

Ney,  Michel 412 

Ney,  Joseph  Napoleon 413 

Nez  Perce  co 416 

Nez  Perces 416 

Ngami 416 

Niagara,  a  river 416 

Niagara  co 419 

Niagara,  a  town 419 

Niassa.    See  Nyassa. 

Nibelungenlied 419 

Nicsea.    See  Nice  in  Bithynia. 

Nicander 420 

Nicaragua,  a  republic 420 

Nicaragua,  Lake 425 

Nicaragua  Wood.    See  Brazil  Wood. 

Niccolini,  Giovanni  Battista 426 

Nice,  Europe 426 

Nice,  Asia 427 

Nice,  Councils  of. 428 

Niceron,  Jean  Pierre 428 

Nichol,  John  Pringle 428 

Nicholas  co.,  Va 429 

Nicholas  co.,  Ky 429 

Nicholas,  Popes 429 

Nicholas  I.,  Emperor 430 

Nicholas,  Saint 431 

Nichols,  Ichabod 431 

Nichols,  John 481 

Nicias 431 

Nickel 431 

Nicobar  Islands 483 

Nicodemus 484 

Nicol,  Erekine 434 

Nicolai,  Christoph  Friedrich 484 

Nicolai,  Karl  Otto  Ehrenfried 434 

Nicolaitans 434 

Nicolas,  Sir  Nicholas  Harris 435 

Nicole,  Pierre 435 

Nicolet  co.,  Canada 435 

Nicollet  co.,  Minn 485 

Nicollet,  Jean  Nicolas 435 

Nicolo  da  Pisa.    See  Pisano. 

Nicomachus,  a  painter ,  435 

Nicomachus,  a  philosopher 436 

NicomedesI 486 

Nicomedes  II 436 

Nicomedes  III 436 

Nicomedia 436 

Nicopoli 436 

Nicopolis 436 

Nicosia,  Asia 436 

Nicosia,  Europe 436 

Nicot,  Jean 487 

Nicotia 43T 

Nicoya,  Gulf  of 437 

Niebuhr,  Barthold  Georg 437 

Niebuhr,  Karstens 438 

Niedermeyer,  Louis 439 

Niel,  Adolphe 439 

Niemann,  Albert 439 

Niembsch    von    Strehlenau.      See 

Lenau,  Nikolaus. 

Niemcewicz,  Julian  Ursin 439 

Niemen 440 

Niemeyer,  August  Hermann 440 

Niepce,  Joseph  Nicephore 440 

Niepce    de    Saint- Victor,    Claude 

Marie  Francois 440 

Nieshin 440 

Nieuwentyt,  Bernardus 440 

Nieuwerkerke,  Alfred  £milien  de, 

Count 441 

Nievre 441 

Niger 441 

Night  Hawk 442 

Night  Heron 443 

Nightingale 443 


IV 


CONTENTS 


Nightingale,  Florence 444 

Nightmare 444 

Nightshade 445 

Nigritia.    See  Soodan. 

Niigata 445 

Nijni  Novgorod.    See  Nizhni  Nov- 
gorod. 

Nikko 445 

Nikolayev 446 

Nikolsburg 446 

Nile 446 

Niles 453 

Niles,  Hezekiah 453 

Niles,  Nathaniel 453 

Nilghau.    See  Antelope. 

Nilsson,  Christine 453 

Nilsson,  Swen 454 

Nimeguen 454 

Nimes 454 

Nimrod 455 

Nimrud.    See  Nineveh. 

Nimrud,   Birs.      See    Babel,    and 

Babylon. 
Nimwegen.    See  Nimeguen. 

Nineveh 456 

Ningpo 459 

Ninon  de  1'Enclos.    See  L'Enclos. 

Niobe 459 

Niobium.    See  Columbium. 

Niort 459 

Niphon.    See  Nippon. 

Nipigon 460 

Nipissing 460 

Nipissings 460 

Nippon 460 

Nisard,  Jean  Marie  Napoleon  Desire  460 
Nisard,  Marie  Edouard  Charles. . . .  461 

Nisibis 461 

Nisi  Prius 461 

Nissa 461 

Nitrates 461 

Nitre.    See  Nitrates. 

Nitric  Acid 464 

Nitrites 466 

Nitrogen 466 

Nitro-Glycerine.    See  Explosives. 

Nitro-Muriatic  Acid 468 

Nitrous  Acid.    See  Nitrogen. 

Nitrous  Oxide 468 

Nitzsch,  Friedrich  August  Berthold  468 

Nitzsch.  Karl  Ludwig 468 

Nitzsch.  Karl  Immanuel 468 

Nitzsch,  Gregor  Wilhelm 469 

Nitzsch,  Karl  Wilhelm 469 

Nivelles 469 

Nivernais 469 

Nizam,    and   Nizam's    Dominions. 
See  Hyderabad. 

Nizhni  Novgorod 469 

Noah 470 

Noah,  Mordecai  Manuel 470 

Noailles,  Antoine  de 470 

Noailles,  Anne  Jules,  Duke  de 470 

Noailles,  Adrien  Maurice,  Duke  de.  471 
Noailles,  Louis  Marie,  Viscount  de.  471 

Noailles,  Paul,  Duke  de 471 

Noailles,     Emmanuel     Victurnien 

Henri,  Marquis  de 471 

Noble  co.,  Ohio 471 

Noble  co.,  Ind 471 

Noble,  Louis  Legrand 471 

Noble,Mark 471 

Noble,  Samuel 471 

Nobles  co 472 

Nobunaga 472 

Nodaway  co 472 

Noddy 472 

Nodier,  Charles 473 

Noe,  Amadee.    See  Cham. 

Noel,  Baptist  Wriothesley 473 

Noetians 473 

Noggerath,  Jakob 473 

Nograd  co 473 

Noir,  Victor 473 

Nola 473 

Noldeke,  Theodor 473 

Nollekens,  John 478 

Nolle  Prosequi 474 

Nomenclature,  Chemical 474 

Nominalism.    See  Philosophy. 

Nonconformists 479 

Nonsuit 479 


PAGE 

Nootka  Sound 480 

Nootkas 480 

Nord,  Le 480 

Nordenskiold,  Adolf  Erik 480 

Nordhausen 480 

Nordhoff,  Charles 481 

Nordlingen 481 

Nore.    See  Thames. 

Norfolk  co.,  Mass 481 

Norfolk  co.,  Va 481 

Norfolk  co.,  Canada 481 

Norfolk,  Eng 4S2 

Norfolk,  Va 482 

Norfolk,  Duke  of.      See  Howard, 

Thomas. 

Norfolk  Island 483 

Noricum 483 

Normal  Schools 483 

Normanby,     Constantino      Henry 

Phipps,  Marquis  of. 484 

Normandy 484 

Normans.    See  Northmen. 

Norris,  John 484 

Norrbotten 485 

Norristown 485 

Norrkoping 485 

Norrland,    Wester.       See    Wester 

Norrland. 

Norse  Languages 485 

North,  Christopher.      See  Wilson, 

John. 

North,  Francis 485 

North,  Frederick 486 

North  Adams.    See  Adams,  Mass. 
North  America.    See  America. 

Northampton  co.,  Pa 486 

Northampton  co.,  Va 486 

Northampton  co.,  N.  C 487 

Northampton,  Mass 487 

Northampton,  Eng 487 

Northamptonshire 4ST 

North  Bridgewater.     See  Bridge- 
water. 

Northbrook,  Barons.    See  Baring. 
North  Cape.    See  Cape  North. 

North  Carolina 48T 

Northcote,  James 497 

Northcote,  Sir  Stafford  Henry 497 

Northern  Lights.   See  Aurora  Bore- 

alis. 

Northmen 498 

North  Eiver.    See  Hudson  Kiver. 

North  Sea 499 

Northumberland  co.,  Pa 499 

Northumberland  co.,  Va 499 

Northumberland  co.,  Ont 499 

Northumberland  co.,  N.  B 500 

Northumberland 500 

Northumberland,  Dukes  of.      See 

Dudley,  and  Percy. 

Northwestern  University >.  500 

Northwest   Passage.      See    Arctic 

Discovery,  and  Polar  Seas. 

Northwest  Provinces 500 

Northwest  Territories 501 

Norton  co 505 

Norton,  Andrews 505 

Norton,  Charles  Eliot 505 

Norton,  Caroline  Elizabeth  Sarah  . .  505 

Norton,  John 505 

Norwalk,  Conn 506 

Norwalk,  Ohio 506 

Norway 506 

Norway,  Language  and  Literature  of  512 

Norwich,  Conn 514 

Norwich,  N.  Y 515 

Norwich,  Eng 515 

Nose 515 

Nostradamus,  Michel  de 517 

Notary  Public 517 

Noto 518 

Notornis 518 

Nott,  Eliphalet 519 

Nott,  Josiah  Clark 519 

Nottingham 519 

Nottingham,  Earl  of.    See  Howard, 

Charles. 

Nottinghamshire 520 

Nottoway  co 520 

Nottoways 520 

Noureddin  (Malek  al-Adel  Nur  ed- 

Din  Mahmoud) 520 


PAGE 

Nourrisson,  Jean  Felix 520 

Noyalis.     See  Hardenberg,  Fried- 
rich  von.    ' 

Novara 520 

Nova  Scotia 521 

Novatians 525 

Novation  525 

Nova  Zembla 526 

Novello,  Vincent 526 

Novello,  Clara  Anastasia 526 

Novels.    See  Civil  Law,  vol.  iv.,  p. 
622. 

November 526 

Novgorod 526 

Novi 527 

Novibazar 527 

Novice 527 

Novikoff,  Nikolai  Ivanovitch 528 

Novogeorgievsk 528 

Nowell,  Alexander 528 

Nox 528 

Noxubee  co 528 

Noyes,  George  Kapall 528 

Noyes,  John  Humphrey 528 

Noyon 529 

Nubia 529 

Suble 530 

Nuckolls  co 530 

Nucleobranchiates 530 

Nudibranchiates.    See  Mollusca. 

Nueces  co 531 

Nueva  Guatemala.   See  Guatemala. 

Nueva  Sparta 531 

Nuevo  Leon 531 

Nuisance 531 

Nuitter 538 

Nukahiva.    See  Marquesas  Islands. 

Nukha 538 

Nullification 538 

Numantia 534 

Numa  Pompilius 534 

Numbers  584 

Numidia 534 

Numismatics 535 

Numitor.    See  Eomulus. 

Nummulite 53T 

Nuncio 538 

Nunez,  Alvar 538 

Nunez,  Fernan 538 

Nuphar.    See  Water  Lily. 
Nureddin.    See  Noureddin. 

Nuremberg 538 

Nutation 540 

Nutcracker  540 

Nutgall.    See  Galls. 

Nuthatch 540 

Nutmeg 541 

Nutria.    See  Coypu. 

Nutrition 548 

Nuttall,  Thomas 545 

Nux  Vomica 545 

Nyack 546 

Nyam-Nyam 547 

N'yanza 547 

N'yanza,  Victoria 547 

N'yanza,  Albert 548 

Nyassa 548 

Nyborg 549 

Nyctalopia 549 

Nyeco... 549 

Nyerup,  Nasmus 549 

Nykoping 549 

Nymph.    See  Chrysalis. 
Nymphsea.    See  Cos. 

Nymphs 549 

Nyssa.    See  Tupelo. 


O 


O 550 

Oajaca,  state 550 

Oajaca,  city 551 

Oak  551 

Oak  Apple 558 

Oakelev,  Frederick 559 

Oakland  co 559 

Oakland 560 

Oasis 560 

Oat 560 

Gates,  Titus 562 

Oath 562 


CONTENTS 


Oaxaca.    See  Oajaca, 

Obadiah 563 

Ober-Ammergau 564 

Oberlin 564 

Oberlin,  Jean  Frederic 564 

Obi    ..! 564 

Obion  co 564 

Obiter  Dictum 564 

Oblates  of  St.  Charles 565 

Oblates  of  Mary  Immaculate 565 

Oblates  Sisters  of  Providence 565 

Obligation.    See  Bond,  Charter,  and 

Contract. 
Oboe.    See  Hautboy. 

Obolus 565 

Obrenovitch.    See  Servia. 

O'Brien  co 565 

O'Brien,  William  Smith 565 

Observants.    See  Franciscans. 

Observatory 566 

Obsidian  and  Pumice 567 

Obstetrics 568 

O'Callaghan,  Edmund  Bailey 571 

Occam,  William  of 571 

Occom,  Samson 571 

Ocean 571 

Ocean  co 572 

Oceana  co 573 

Oceania 573 

Oceanus 573 

Ocellus  Lucanus 573 

Ocelot 573 

Ochra.    See  Okra. 

Ochre 574 

Ockley,  Simon 574 

Ocmulgee 574 

Oconee  co 574 

Oconee 574 

O'Connell,  Daniel 574 

O'Connor,  Arthur 575 

O'Connor,  Feargus  Edward 575 

O'Connor,  William  Douglas 576 

O'Conor,  Charles 576 

Oconto  co 576 

Ocosingo 576 

Octavia 576 

Octavius.    See  Augustus. 

October 576 

Octopus 576 

O'Curry,  Eugene 578 

Od.    See  Reichenbach,  Karl. 

Odd  Fellows,  Independent  Order  of.  578 

Odense 579 

Odenwald 579 

Odeon 579 

Oder 579 

Odescalchi,  Marc'  Antonio 579 

Odescalchi,  Tommaso 579 

Odescalchi,  Carlo 580 

Odescalchi,  Baltassare  (two) 5SO 

Odessa.... 580 

Odevaere,  Josephus  Dionysius 581 

Odilon  Barrot.    See  Barrot. 

Odin 581 

Odoacer 581 

Odometer 581 

O'DonneH,  Leopold 581 

O'Donovan.  John 582 

Odyssey.    See  Homer. 

(Ecolampadius,  Johannes 582 

Oecumenical  Council.    See  Council. 

(Edema 582 

Oedenburg  co 583 

Oedenburg 583 

Oedipus 583 

Oehlcnschlager,  Adam  Gottlob 584 

Oels 584 

CEnothera 584 

Oersted,  Anders  Sandoe 585 

Oersted,  Hans  Christian 585 

Oertel,  Philipp  Friedrich  Wilhelm..  586 

Oesel 586 

Oesterley,  Karl 586 

Oetinger,  Friedrich  Christoph 686 

Oettinger 587 

Oettinger,  Eduard  Maria 587 

Ofen.    See  Buda. 

Offa 587 

Offenbach 587 

Offenbach,  Jacques 587 

Offenburg 587 

Ofterdingen,  Heinrich  von 588 


PAGE 

Og 588 

Ogdensburg 588 

Ogemaw  co 588 

Oggione,  Marco  da 588 

Ogilby,  John 588 

Ogilvie,  John 588 

Ogle  co. 588 

Oglethorpe  co 589 

Oglethorpe,  James  Edward 589 

Oglio 589 

Ogobay 589 

Ogyges 589 

Ohio 589 

Ohio  co  ,  Va 602 

Ohio  co.,  Ky 603 

Ohio  co.,  Ind 603 

Ohio  Eiver 603 

Ohm,  Georg  Simon 604 

Ohm,  Martin 604 

Ohmacht,  Landolin 604 

Oils  and  Fats 604 

Oise,  a  river 605 

Oise,  a  department 605 


606 

Okanagans 606 

O'Keefe,  John 606 

Okeghem,  Jan 607 

Oken,  Lorenz 607 

Okhotsk 607 

Okhotsk,  Sea  of. 607 

Okra 607 

Oktibbeha  co 608 

Olaf,  Saint 608 

Oland 608 

Olbers,  Heinrich  Wilhelm  Matthaus  608 

Oldcastle,  Sir  John 609 

Old  Catholics 609 

Oldenbarneveldt.    See  Barne  veldt. 

Oldenburg,  a  grand  duchy 612 

Oldenburg,  a  city 612 

Oldham  co 612 

Oldham 613 

Oldham,  John 613 

Old  Man  of  the  Mountain.     See  As- 


622 


024 


Oldmixon,  John 

Oldtown 

Oleander 

Ole  Bull.    See  Bull,  Ole  Bornemann. 

Olefiant  Gas.  See  Carburetted  Hy- 
drogen. 

OleicAcid 

Oleo-Margarine 

O16ron : 

Oleron,  Laws  of.  See  Law  Mer- 
chant. 

Olga.. 

Olibanum.    See  Frankincense. 

Olier  de  Verneuil,  Jean  Jacques . . . 

Olin,  Stephen 

Oliphant,  Carolina 

Oliphant,  Laurence 

Oliphant,  Margaret  (Wilson) 

Oliva,  Alexander  Joseph 

Olivarez,  Gasparo  de  Guzman, 
Count 

Olive 

Oliver,  Andrew 

Oliver,  Peter 

Olives,  Mount  of 

Olivier,  Guillaume  Antoine 

Olivier,  Juste  Daniel 

Olivier,  Theodore 

Olla  Podrida 

Ollivier,  Emile 

Olmsted  co 

Olmsted,  Denison 

Olmsted,  Frederick  Law 

Olmiitz 

Olonetz 

Olshausen,  Hermann 

Olympia,  Washington  territory 

Olympia,  Greece 

Olympiad.  See  Chronology,  vol. 
iv.,  p.  557. 

Olympias 

Olympic  Games 

Olympus,  Mount 

Olynthus 

Omaha 

Omahas •  • 


PAGB 

Oman 624 

Omar  I 626 

Omar  II 626 

O'Meara,  Barry  Edward 626 

Omen 626 

Omentum 627 

Omer  Pasha 627 

Omish.    See  Mennonites. 

Ommiyades 628 

Omphale 628 

Omri.     See  Hebrews,  vol.  viii.,  p. 
587. 

Omsk -628 

On.    See  Heliopolis. 

Oncken,  Johann  Gerhard 628 

Onderdonk,  Henry  Ustick 628 

Onderdonk,  Benjamin  Tredwell  ...  628 

O'NeaU,  John  Belton 629 

Onega 629 

Oneida  co.,  N.  Y 629 

Qneida  co.,  Idaho 629 

Oneida 629 

Oneida  Community.     See  Noyes, 
John  Humphrey. 

Oneidas 629 

O'Neill,  Eliza 630 

Oneiza 630 

Ongaro.    See  Dall'  Ongaro,   Fran- 
cesco. 

Onion 630 

Onlaf.    See  Aulaf. 

Onondaga  co 631 

Onondagas 632 

Onslow  co 632 

Onslow,  George 632 

Ontario  co.,  N.  Y 632 

Ontario 633 

Ontario  co.,  Canada 640 

Ontario,  Lake 640 

Ontology.    See  Philosophy. 

Ontonagon  co 641 

Onyx 641 

Oolite 641 

Oort,  Adam  van 641 

Opal 642 

Opatas 642 

Opelousas 642 

Opera 642 

Ophicleide 643 

Ophidians.    See  Serpent. 

Ophir 643 

Ophites.    See  Gnostics. 

Ophiurans 643 

Ophthalmia 644 

Opie,  John 646 

Opie,  Amelia 646 

Opitz,  Martin 646 

Opium 647 

Opodeldoc 650 

Oporto '.  650 

Opossum 651 

Oppeln 652 

Oppenheim 653 

Oppert,  Jules 653 

Oppian 653 

Optics 653 

Opuntia.    See  Cactus. 

Opzoomer,  Carolus  Wilhelmus 660 

Oracle 660 

Oran 661 

Orange  661 

Orange  co.,  Vt 665 

Orange  co.,  N.  Y 665 

Orange  co.,  Va 665 

Orange  co.,  N.  C 665 

Orange  co.,  Fla 665 

Orange  co.,  Texas 665 

Orange  co.,  Ind 665 

Orange,  N.  J 666 

Orange,  France 666 

Orange,  Principality  of 666 

Orangeburg  co 666 

Orangemen 666 

Orange  River.    See  Cape  Colony. 
Orange  River  Republic.    See  Boers. 

Orang-Outang 667 

Oranienbaum 669 

Oratorians 669 

Oratorio 669 

Oratory 670 

Orbigny,  Alcide  Dessalines  d' 670 

Orbigny,  Charles  Dessalines  d' 670 


VI 


CONTENTS 


PAGE 

Orca.    See  Grampus. 

Orcagna  (Andrea  di  Cione) 670 

Orchella.    See  Litmus. 

Orchestra 670 

Orchids 671 

Orchomenus 674 

Ordeal 674 

Ordericus  Vitalis 675 

Orders.    See  Ordination. 
Orders,  Religious.     See  Eeligious 
Orders,  and  Monachism. 

Orders  in  Council 675 

Ordinary 675 

Ordination 676 

Orebro 676 

Oregon 676 

Oregon  co 685 

Oregon  River.  See  Columbia  River. 

O'Reilly,  Alexander,  Count 685 

Orel 686 

Orellana,  Francisco 686 

Orelli,  Johann  Kaspar 686 

Ore  Mountains.    See  Erzgebirge. 

Orenburg 686 

Orense 637 

Orense,  Jose  Maria  d'Albaida,  Mar- 
quis   687 

Oreodaphne.    See  Laurel. 

Orestes 687 

Oreus.    See  Histisea. 

..  687 


Orf.. 

Orfa.    See  Urfa,  and  Edessa. 
Orfila,  Mateo  Jose  Bonaventura. . . . 
Orford,  Earls  of.    See  Walpole. 

Organ 

Organ  Mountains.    See  Brazil,  vol. 

iii.,  p.  218. 

Oriflamme 

Origen 

Orihuela 

Orinoco 

Oriole 

Orion 

Orissa 

Orizaba 

Orkney  Islands 

Orleanais 

Orleans  co.,  Vt 

Orleans  co.,  N.  T 

Orleans  parish,  La 

Orleans,  Canada 

Orleans,  France 

Orleans,  Duchy  and  Families  of. ... 

Orleans,  Louis,  Duke  of 

Orleans,  Charles,  Duke  of 

Orleans,  Jean  Baptiste  Gaston,  Duke 

of 

Orleans,  Philippe  II.,  Duke  of. 

Orleans,    Louis    Philip 


GS7 


6114 


(Philippe  ^galite),  Duke  of 

Orleans,  Ferdinand  Philippe  Louis 
Charles  Henri  Joseph,  Duke  of.. . 

Orleans,  Helene  Louise  Elisabeth, 
Duchess  of 

Orleans,  Family  of.  See  Aumale, 
Chartres  (Duke  de),  Joinville, 
Louis  Philippe,  Montpensier,  Ne- 
mours, and  Paris  (Count  de). 

Orleans,  Maid  of.    See  Joan  of  Arc. 

Orloff,  Ivan 

Orloff,  Grigori  Grigorievitch 

Orloff,  Alexei  (two).. . . 

Orloff,  Fedor.... 

Orloff,  Nikolai 

Orme,  Robert 

Ormond,  James  Butler,  Duke  of. . . 

Ormsby  co 

Ormuz . 

Ormuzd 

Orne 

Ornithichnites.  Bee  Fossil  Foot- 
prints. 

Ornithology 

Ornithorhynchus 

Ornithosaurians 

Oronsay.    See  Colonsay. 

Orontes  

Orosius,  Paulus 

Orphat.    See  Araphat. 

Orpheus  

Orpine.    See  Sedum. 

Orr,  James  Lawrence 


704 
709 
710 

710 
710 

710 
711 


PAGE 
"711 

Orris  Root.    See  Iris. 

Orsay,  Alfred  Guillaume  Gabriel  d', 

Count 711 

Orsini,  family  of. 712 

Orsini,  Felice 712 

Orthoceras 712 

Orthoptera 712 

Ortolan 712 

Orton,  James 713 

Ortygia.  See  Delos,  and  Syracuse. 

Oruro 718 

Orvet.    S.ee  Blindworm. 

Orvieto 713 

Oryx.    See  Antelope. 

Osage  co.,  Mo 714 

Osage  co.,  Kansas 714 

Osage  Orange 714 

Osage  River.      See  Missouri,  vol. 

xi.,  p.  664. 

Osages 715 

Osaka.    See  Ozaka. 

Osborn,  Sherard 715 

Osborne  co 716 

Osborne,  Lord  Sydney  Godolphin ..  716 
Oscans.    See  Italic  Races  and  Lan- 


Oscar  1 716 

Oscar  II 716 

Osceola  co.,  Mich 716 

Osceola  co.,  Iowa 716 

Osceola 716 

Oscoda  co 717 

Osel.     See  OeseL 

Osgood,  David 717 

Osgood,  Frances  Sargent 717 

Osgood,  Samuel 717 

Oshima 717 

Oshkosh 717 

Oshmooneyn.  See  Hermopolis  Mag- 
na. 

Osiander,  Andreas 718 

Osier " 718 

Osiris 719 

Oskaloosa 720 

Osman.    See  Othman. 

Osmium 720 

Osmunda 720 

Osnabriick 721 

Osnaburg.    See  Osnabruck. 

Osorio,  Hieronymo 721 

Osprey.    See  Fish  Hawk. 

Ossian 721 

Ossoli,  Margaret  Fuller,  Marchion- 
ess   -. 722 

Ossory,  Thomas  Butler,  Earl  of. ...  723 
Ossuna.    See  Osuna. 

Ostade,  Adrian  van 723 

Ostade,  Isaac  van 728 

Ostend 723 

Osteolepis.    See  Ganoids. 
Osteology.  See  Anatomy,  and  Bone. 

Osteo-myelitis 724 

Osterwald,  Jean  Frederic 724 

Ostia 724 

Ostiaks.     See  Finns,  vol.  vii.,  p.  207. 
Ostracion.    See  Trunk  Fish. 

Ostracism 724 

Ostrich 724 

Ostrich  Fern 726 

Ostrogoths.    See  Goths. 

Ostrolenka 726 

Osuna 726 

Oswald,  Saint 726 

Oswego  co 726 

Oswego 727 

Otaheite.    See  Society  Islands. 

Otfried 728 

Othman 728 

Othman  ibn  Affan 728 

Otho,  Marcus  Salvius,  Emperor.. . .  729 

Otho  I.,  Germany 729 

Otho  II.,  Germany 729 

Otho  III.,  Germany 730 

Otho  IV.,  Germany 730 

Otho  I.,  Greece 730 

Otis,  Harrison  Gray 780 

Otis,  James 731 

Otoe  co 731 

Otoes : 732 

Otomis  732 

Otranto 782 


PA.GB 

Otranto,  Duke  of.    See  Fouche. 
Otsegoco.,  N.  Y  ..................  732 

Otsego  co.,  Mich  ..................  732 

Ottawa  co.,  Ohio  ..................  732 

Ottawa  co.,  Mich  .................  732 

Ottawa  co.,  Kansas  ................  733 

Ottawa  co.,  Canada  ...........  733 

Ottawa,  111  ...................          733 

Ottawa,  Canada  ...................  733 

Ottawa,  a  river  ....................  734 

Ottawas  .........................  734 

Ottendorfer,  Oswald  ............  ".  !  785 

Otter  ...........................      735 

Otterbein,  Philip  William  .........  786 

Otter  Tail  co  ......................  737 

Otto,  Friedrich  Julius  .............  737 

Ottocar  II  ........................  737 

Ottoman  Empire.    See  Turkey. 
Otto  of  Roses.    See  Attar  of  Roses. 
Ottumwa  .........................  737 

Otway,  Thomas  ...................  737 

Ouachita  parish,  La  ...............  738 

Ouachita  co.,  Ark  .................  738 

Oude  ............................  738 

Oudenarde  ..............  •.  .......    741 

Oudinot,  Nicolas  Charles  ..........  741 

Oudinot,  Nicolas  Charles  Victor  ____  741 

Ouessant,    See  Ushant. 
Ouistiti.    See  Marmoset. 
Ounce  ...........................  741 

Ouro  Preto  .......................  742 

Ouseley,  Gideon  ..................  742 

Ouseley,  Sir  William  ..............  742 

Ouseley,  Sir  "William  Gore  .........  742 

Outagamie  co  .....................  742 

Outagamies.    See  Foxes. 

Outlawry  ........................  742 

Outrain,  Sir  James  ................  743 

Ouvrard,  Gabriel  Julien  ...........  743 

Ouzel  ............................  744 

Oven  Bird  ........................  745 

Overbeck,  Friedrich  ...............  745 

Overbeck,  Johannes  Adolf.  ........  746 

Overbury,  Sir  Thomas  .............  746 

Overskou,  Thomas  ................  746 

Overton  co  .......................  746 

Overture  .........................  746 

Overweg,  Adolf.  ..................  746 

Overyssel  .......................  747 

Ovid.  ............................  747 

Oviedo  ...........................  748 

Oviedo  y  Valdes,  Gonzalo  Fernan- 

dez de  .........................  748 

Owego  ..........................  .  748 

Owen  co.,  Ky  .....................  748 

Owen  co.,Ind  ....................  748 

Owen,  John  ......................  749 

Owen,  Richard  ...................  749 

Owen,  Robert  ....................  750 

Owen,  Robert  Dale  ...............  751 

Owen,  David  Dale  ................  751 

Owen,  William  ...................  751 

Owen  Sound  .....................  751 

Owl  .............................  751 

Owl  Parrot  .......................  756 

Owosso  ..........................  756 

Owsley  co  ........................  757 

Owyhee  co  .......................  757 

Ox  .  .............................  757 

Oxalic  acid  .......................  757 

Oxalis  ...........................  758 

Oxenden,  Ashton  .................  759 

Oxenford,  John  ...................  759 

Oxenstiern,  Axel,  Count  ...........  759 

Oxeye  .....  .  ......................  760 

Oxford  co.,  Me  ...................  760 

Oxford  co.,  Canada.  .  ..............  760 

Oxford  ...........................  760 

Oxford,  Earl  of.    See  Harley,  Rob- 

ert. 
Oxford,  University  of  .............  760 

Oxfordshire  ......................  767 

Ox  Gall  ..........................  767 

Oxides  ...........................  767 

Oxlee,  John  ......................  768 

Oxlip.    See  Primrose. 

Oxpecker  .........................  768 

Oxus  ............................  768 

Oxydendrum.    See  Tree  Sorrel. 

' 


Oyer  and  Terminer  ...............  771 


CONTENTS 


vn 


PAGE 

Oyster 771 

Oyster  Catcher 773 

Oyster  Green 774 

Oyster  Plant 774 

Ozaka 774 

Ozanam,  Antoine  Frederic 775 

Ozark  co 775 

Ozark  Mountains 775 

Ozaukee  co 775 

Ozolian  Locrians.    See  Locris. 
Ozone... 776 


p 778 

Paalzow,  Henriette  von 778 

Paca.... 778 

Paca,  William 779 

Paccard,  Alexis 779 

Pacchioni,  Antonio 779 

Pacha.    See  Pasha. 

Pachacamac,  Kuins  of. 779 

Pacheco,  Francisco 779 

Pachomius,  Saint 779 

Pachydermata 780 

Pacific  co 780 

Pacific  Ocean 780 


PAGE 

Pacini,  Giovanni 783 

Packard,  Alpheus  Spring,  ir 783 

Pactolus 783 

Pacuvius,  Marcus 783 

Padang.    See  Sumatra. 

Paderborn 783 

Padilla,  Juan  Lopez  de 783 

Padua ' 784 

Paducah 785 

Padus.    See  Po. 
Pseonia.    See  Macedonia. 

Pseony 785 

Paer,  Ferdinando 787 

Paestum 787 

Paez,  Francisco 788 

Paez,  Jos6  Antonio 788 

Paganini,  Nicolo 788 

Paganism 789 

Page  co.,  Va 789 

Page  co.,  Iowa 789 

Page,  William 789 

Paget,  Sir  James 790 

Pagoda 790 

Pahlen,  Peter  Louis,  Count 790 

Pahlen,  Peter 790 

Pahlen,  Frederick 790 

Pailleron,  Edouard 790 


PAGE 

Paine,  Martyn 790 

Paine,  Eobert  Treat  (two) 791 

Paine,  Thomas 791 

Painesville 793 

Painter's   Colic.      See    Colic,    and 
Lead. 

Painting 793 

Paints 804 

Paisiello,  Giovanni 805 

Paisley 806 

Paixhans,  Henri  Joseph 806 

Pajou,  Augustin 806 

Palacky,  Frantisek 806 

Palseologus S06 

Palaeontology 806 

Palaeotherium 816 

Palafox  y  MeM,  Jose 81 6 

Palamedes 817 

Palate 817 

Palatinate,  the  Upper  and  Lower . .  818 

Palatine 813 

Palatine,  Count.    See  Palatinate. 

Palembang 818 

Palencia 818 

Palenque,  Euins  of. 819 

Palermo 819 

Pales ..  821 


APPENDIX. 


630 


VOL.  xii. — 53 


t 


0 


act* 


AE 
5 


A5 

1879 

v.12 


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